The Scottish Reformation was the process by
which Scotland broke with the Papacy and developed
a predominantly Calvinist national Kirk (church),
which was strongly Presbyterian in outlook.
It was part of the wider European Protestant
Reformation that took place from the sixteenth
century.
From the late fifteenth century the ideas
of Renaissance humanism, critical of aspects
of the established Catholic Church, began
to reach Scotland, particularly through the
contacts between Scottish and continental
scholars. In the earlier part of the sixteenth
century, the teachings of Martin Luther began
to influence Scotland. Particularly important
was the work of the Lutheran Scot Patrick
Hamilton, who was executed in 1528. Unlike
his uncle Henry VIII in England, James V avoided
major structural and theological changes to
the church and used it as a source of income
and for appointments for his illegitimate
children and favourites. His death in 1542
left the infant Mary, Queen of Scots as his
heir, allowing a series of English invasions
later known as the Rough Wooing. The English
supplied books and distributed Bibles and
Protestant literature in the Lowlands when
they invaded in 1547. The execution of the
Zwingli-influenced George Wishart in 1546,
who was burnt at the stake on the orders of
Cardinal David Beaton, stimulated the growth
of these ideas in reaction. Wishart's supporters,
who included a number of Fife lairds, assassinated
Beaton soon after and seized St. Andrews Castle,
which they held for a year before they were
defeated with the help of French forces. The
survivors, including chaplain John Knox, were
condemned to serve as galley slaves. Their
martyrdom stirred resentment of the French
and inspired additional martyrs for the Protestant
cause. In 1549, the defeat of the English
with French support led to the marriage of
Mary to the French dauphin and a regency over
Scotland for the queen's mother, Mary of Guise.
Limited toleration and the influence of exiled
Scots and Protestants in other countries,
led to the expansion of Protestantism, with
a group of lairds declaring themselves Lords
of the Congregation in 1557 and representing
Protestant interests politically. The collapse
of the French alliance and the death of the
regent, followed by English intervention in
1560, meant that a relatively small but highly
influential group of Protestants had the power
to impose reform on the Scottish church. The
Scottish Reformation Parliament of 1560 approved
a Protestant confession of faith, rejecting
papal jurisdiction and the mass. Knox, having
escaped the galleys and having spent time
in Geneva, where he became a follower of Calvin,
emerged as the most significant figure. The
Calvinism of the reformers led by Knox resulted
in a settlement that adopted a Presbyterian
system and rejected most of the elaborate
trappings of the Medieval church. When her
husband Francis II died in 1560, the Catholic
Mary returned to Scotland to take up the government.
Her six-year personal reign was marred by
a series of crises, largely caused by the
intrigues and rivalries of the leading nobles.
Opposition to her third husband Bothwell led
to the formation of a coalition of nobles,
who captured Mary and forced her abdicate
in favour of her son, who came to the throne
as James VI in 1567. James was brought up
a Protestant, but resisted Presbyterianism
and the independence of the Kirk.
The Reformation resulted in major changes
in Scottish society. These included a desire
to plant a school in every parish and major
reforms of the university system. The Kirk
discouraged many forms of plays, as well as
poetry that was not devotional in nature;
however, significant playwrights and poets
did nevertheless emerge, such as George Buchanan
and the Castalian Band of James VI's reign.
Scotland's ecclesiastical art paid a heavy
toll as a result of Reformation iconoclasm.
Native craftsmen and artists turned to secular
patrons, resulting in the flourishing of Scottish
Renaissance painted ceilings and walls. The
Reformation revolutionised church architecture,
with new churches built and existing churches
adapted for reformed services, particularly
by placing the pulpit centrally in the church,
as preaching was at the centre of worship.
The Reformation also had a severe impact on
church music, with song schools closed down,
choirs disbanded, music books and manuscripts
destroyed, and organs removed from churches.
These were replaced by the congregational
singing of psalms, despite attempts of James
VI to refound the song schools and choral
singing. Women gained new educational possibilities
and religion played a major part in the lives
of many women, but women were treated as criminals
through prosecutions for scolding, prostitution,
and witchcraft. Scottish Protestantism was
focused on the Bible, and starting in the
later seventeenth century there would be efforts
to stamp out popular activities viewed as
superstitous or frivolous. The Kirk became
the subject of national pride and many Scots
saw their country as a new Israel.
== Pre-Reformation Scotland ==
=== 
Pre-Reformation Church ===
==== 
Structure ====
Christianity spread in Scotland from the sixth
century, with evangelisation by Irish-Scots
missionaries and, to a lesser extent, those
from Rome and England. The church in Scotland
attained clear independence from England after
the Papal Bull of Celestine III (Cum universi,
1192), by which all Scottish bishoprics except
Galloway became formally independent of York
and Canterbury. The whole Ecclesia Scoticana,
with individual Scottish bishoprics (except
Whithorn/Galloway), became the "special daughter
of the see of Rome". It was run by special
councils made up of all the Scottish bishops,
with the bishop of St Andrews emerging as
the most important figure. The administration
of parishes was often given over to local
monastic institutions in a process known as
appropriation. By the time of the Reformation
in the mid-sixteenth century 80 per cent of
Scottish parishes were appropriated, leaving
few resources for the parish clergy.In 1472
St Andrews became the first archbishopric
in the Scottish church, to be followed by
Glasgow in 1492. The collapse of papal authority
in the Papal Schism (1378–1418) allowed
the Scottish Crown to gain effective control
of major ecclesiastical appointments within
the kingdom. This de facto authority over
appointments was formally recognised by the
Papacy in 1487. The Crown placed clients and
relatives of the king in key positions, including
James IV's (r. 1488–1513) illegitimate son
Alexander Stewart, who was nominated as Archbishop
of St. Andrews at the age of 11. This practice
strengthened royal influence but it also made
the Church vulnerable to criticisms of venality
and nepotism. Relationships between the Scottish
Crown and the Papacy were generally good,
with James IV receiving tokens of papal favour.
==== Medieval popular religion ====
Traditional Protestant historiography tended
to stress the corruption and unpopularity
of the late Medieval Scottish church. Since
the late twentieth century, research has indicated
the ways in which it met the spiritual needs
of different social groups. Historians have
discerned a decline of monastic life in this
period, with many religious houses maintaining
smaller numbers of monks. Those remaining
often abandoned communal living for a more
individual and secular lifestyle. The rate
of new monastic endowments from the nobility
also declined in the fifteenth century. In
contrast, the burghs saw the flourishing of
mendicant orders of friars in the later fifteenth
century, who, unlike the older monastic orders,
placed an emphasis on preaching and ministering
to the population. The order of Observant
Friars were organised as a Scottish province
from 1467, and the older Franciscans and the
Dominicans were recognised as separate provinces
in the 1480s.
In most Scottish burghs there was usually
only one parish church, in contrast to English
towns where churches and parishes tended to
proliferate. As the doctrine of Purgatory
gained importance in the late Middle Ages,
the number of chapelries, priests, and masses
for the dead prayed within them, designed
to speed the passage of souls to Heaven, grew
rapidly. The number of altars dedicated to
saints, who could intercede in this process,
also increased dramatically. St. Mary's in
Dundee had perhaps 48 such altars and St Giles'
in Edinburgh more than 50. The number of saints
celebrated in Scotland also proliferated,
with about 90 being added to the missal used
in St Nicholas church in Aberdeen. New cults
of devotion related to Jesus and the Virgin
Mary began to reach Scotland in the fifteenth
century, including the Five Wounds, the Holy
Blood, and the Holy Name of Jesus. New religious
feasts arose, including celebrations of the
Presentation, the Visitation, and Mary of
the Snows.In the early fourteenth century,
the Papacy managed to minimise the problem
of clerical pluralism, by which clerics held
two or more livings, which elsewhere resulted
in parish churches being without priests,
or served by poorly trained and paid vicars
and clerks. However, the number of poor clerical
livings and a general shortage of clergy in
Scotland, particularly after the Black Death,
meant that in the fifteenth century the problem
intensified. As a result, parish clergy were
largely drawn from the lower ranks of the
profession, leading to frequent complaints
about their standards of education or abilities.
Although there is little clear evidence that
standards were declining, this was expressed
as one of the major grievances of the Reformation.
Heresy, in the form of Lollardry, began to
reach Scotland from England and Bohemia in
the early fifteenth century. Lollards were
followers of John Wycliffe (c. 1330 –84)
and later Jan Hus (c. 1369 –1415), who called
for reform of the Church and rejected its
doctrine on the Eucharist. Despite evidence
of the burning of heretics and some popular
support for its anti-sacramental elements,
it probably remained a small movement.
== Pressure to reform ==
=== 
Humanism ===
From the fifteenth century, Renaissance humanism
encouraged critical theological reflection
and calls for ecclesiastical renewal in Scotland.
As early as 1495 some Scots were in contact
with Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536), the
Netherlands-born leading figure in the northern
humanist movement. They were also in contact
with Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples (c. 1455
– 1536), a French humanist and scholar who
like Erasmus argued strongly for reform of
the Catholic Church by the elimination of
corruption and abuses. Scottish scholars often
studied on the Continent and at English universities.
Humanist scholars trained on the Continent
were recruited to the new Scottish universities
founded at St Andrews, Glasgow, and Aberdeen.
These international contacts helped integrate
Scotland into a wider European scholarly world
and were one of the most important ways in
which the new ideas of humanism entered Scottish
intellectual life. By 1497 the humanist and
historian Hector Boece, who was born in Dundee
and studied at Paris, returned to become the
first principal at the new university of Aberdeen.The
continued movement of scholars to other universities
resulted in a school of Scottish nominalists
at Paris by the early sixteenth century, the
most important of whom was John Mair, generally
described as a scholastic. His Latin History
of Greater Britain (1521) was sympathetic
to the humanist social agenda. In 1518 he
returned to become Principal of the University
of Glasgow. Another major figure was Archibald
Whitelaw, who taught at St. Andrews and Cologne,
becoming a tutor to the young James III and
royal secretary in 1462–93. Robert Reid,
Abbot of Kinloss and later Bishop of Orkney,
was responsible in the 1520s and 1530s for
bringing the Italian humanist Giovanni Ferrario
to teach at Kinloss Abbey. Ferrario established
an impressive library and wrote works of Scottish
history and biography. Reid was to leave sufficient
endowment in his will, for the foundation
of Edinburgh University. James McGoldrick
suggests that there was a circle of "Erasmian-type
scholar-reformers" at the royal court in the
first decade of the sixteenth century.
=== Lutheranism ===
From the 1520s the ideas of Martin Luther
began to have influence in Scotland, with
Lutheran literature circulating in the east-coast
burghs. In 1525 Parliament banned their importation.
In 1527, the English ambassador at Antwerp
noted that Scottish merchants were taking
William Tyndale's New Testament to Edinburgh
and St. Andrews. In 1528 the nobleman Patrick
Hamilton, who had been influenced by Lutheran
theology while at the universities of Wittenberg
and Marburg, became the first Protestant martyr
in Scotland; he was burned at the stake for
heresy outside St Salvator's College at Saint
Andrews. Hamilton's execution inspired more
interest in the new ideas. The Archbishop
of St Andrews was warned against any further
such public executions as "the reek [smoke]
of Maister Patrik Hammyltoun has infected
as many as it blew upon".
== Political background (1528–59) ==
=== James V ===
After entering his personal reign in 1528,
James V avoided pursuing the major structural
and theological changes to the church undertaken
by his contemporary Henry VIII in England.
In exchange for his loyalty to Rome, he was
able to appoint his many illegitimate children
and favourites to office in the Church, particularly
David Beaton, who became Archbishop of Saint
Andrews and a Cardinal. James increased crown
revenues by heavily taxing the church, taking
£72,000 in four years. The results of such
appointments and taxation undermined both
the status and finances of the Church. The
Church was also divided by jurisdictional
disputes between Gavin Dunbar, Archbishop
of Glasgow and James Beaton, Archbishop of
St. Andrews. As a result, in 1536 the first
provincial church council called since 1470
failed to achieve major reforms or a united
front against heresy. After the execution
of Hamilton, the Crown prosecuted some men
and a small number of executions followed
in the 1530s and 1540s, but there was no systematic
persecution, as the king was not interested
in wide-scale bloodletting. An increasing
number of lairds and nobles began to favour
reform, particularly in Angus, the Mearns,
Fife and within St. Andrews University. Leading
figures included Alexander Cunningham, 5th
Earl of Glencairn and John Erskine of Dun.
In 1541 Parliament passed legislation to protect
the honour of the Mass, prayer to the Virgin
Mary, images of the saints, and the authority
of the pope.
=== Rough Wooing ===
James V died in 1542, leaving the infant Mary,
Queen of Scots as his heir, with the prospect
of a long minority. At the beginning of the
Mary's reign, the Scottish political nation
was divided between a pro-French faction,
led by Cardinal Beaton and by the Queen's
mother, Mary of Guise; and a pro-English faction,
headed by Mary's prospective heir James Hamilton,
Earl of Arran. Initially Arran became Regent,
backed by the small "evangelical party" at
court, who favoured religious reform. The
Parliamentary Act of 1543 removed the prohibition
against reading the Bible in the vernacular.
A planned marriage between Mary and Edward,
the son of Henry VIII of England, which had
been agreed under the Treaty of Greenwich
(1543), led to a backlash in Scotland and
a coup led by Cardinal Beaton. He repudiated
the reforming policies, and all consideration
of an English marriage for the Queen, angering
the English. They invaded in order to enforce
the match, an action later known as the "rough
wooing", which devastated south-east Scotland.In
1546, George Wishart, a preacher who had come
under the influence of Swiss reformer Huldrych
Zwingli, was arrested and burnt at the stake
in St. Andrews on the orders of Cardinal Beaton.
Wishart's supporters, who included a number
of Fife lairds, assassinated Beaton soon after
and seized St. Andrews Castle, which they
held for a year while under siege, before
they were defeated with the help of French
forces. The survivors, including chaplain
John Knox, were condemned to be galley slaves,
helping to create resentment of the French
and martyrs for the Protestant cause.In 1547,
the English under Edward Seymour, 1st Duke
of Somerset renewed their invasion and defeated
the Scots at Pinkie, occupied south-east Scotland
with forts at Lauder, Haddington and an outpost
at Dundee. This occupation (1547–49) encouraged
the reforming cause; the English supplied
books and distributed Bibles and Protestant
literature in the Lowlands. Several earls
pledged themselves 'to cause the word of God
to be taught and preached'. To counter the
English, the Scots secured French help, the
price of which was the betrothal of the infant
Queen to the French dauphin, the future Francis
II; she departed to France in 1548, where
she was to be raised and educated. At this
point, "the policy of Henry VIII had failed
completely". French ascendancy was made absolute
over the next decade. In 1554, Arran was given
the title Duke du Châtellerault and removed
from the regency in favour of Mary of Guise
(the Queen Mother).
=== Regency of Mary of Guise ===
During her regency (1554–60), the Queen's
mother ensured the predominance of France
in Scottish affairs. She put Frenchmen in
charge of the treasury and the Great Seal,
and the French ambassador Henri Cleutin sometimes
attended the Privy Council. At first Mary
of Guise cultivated a policy of limited toleration
of Protestants, hoping to gain their support
for her pro-French policies and against England,
which from 1553 was under the rule of the
Catholic Mary Tudor. Hopes for reform of the
existing church helped keep the political
nation unified. But the marriage of Mary Queen
of Scots to the dauphin in 1558 heightened
fears that Scotland would become a French
province. Reformers were given hope by the
accession, in England, of the Protestant Queen
Elizabeth in 1558, which created a confessional
frontier in Great Britain.
=== Reforming Councils ===
The Church responded to some of the criticisms
being made against it. John Hamilton, Archbishop
of St Andrews, instigated a series of provincial
councils (in 1549, 1552, probably in 1556,
and in 1559), modelled on the contemporaneous
Council of Trent. These blamed the advance
of the Protestant heresies on "the corruption
of morals and the profane lewdness of life
in churchmen of all ranks, together with crass
ignorance of literature and of the liberal
arts". In 1548, attempts were made to eliminate
concubinage, clerical pluralism, clerical
trading, and non-residence, and to prohibit
unqualified persons from holding church offices.
Further, the clergy were enjoined to scriptural
reflection, and bishops and parsons instructed
to preach at least four times a year. Monks
were to be sent to university, and theologians
appointed for each monastery, college, and
cathedral. But in 1552, it was acknowledged
that little had been accomplished. Attendance
at Mass was still sparse and "the inferior
clergy of this realm and the prelates have
not, for the most part, attained such proficiency
in the knowledge of the Holy Scriptures as
to be able by their own efforts rightly to
instruct the people in the Catholic faith
and other things necessary to salvation or
to convert the erring."
=== 
Expansion of Protestantism ===
Protestantism continued to expand in this
period and became more distinct from those
who wanted reform within the existing church.
Originally organised as conventicles that
consisted of members of a laird's family,
or kin group and social networks, who continued
to attend the Catholic Church, Protestants
began to develop a series of privy kirks (secret
churches), whose members increasingly turned
away from existing church structures. Their
organisation was sufficient in 1555 for Knox
to return to Scotland. He administered a Protestant
communion and carried out a preaching tour
of the privy kirks. He urged the members to
reject Nicodemism, by which they held Protestant
convictions, but attended Catholic services.
Despite being offered protection by the Earl
of Argyll, he returned to Geneva in 1556.
In the absence of a leading clerical figure,
the leadership of the movement was taken by
the few nobles who had embraced Protestantism
and a new generation that included Argyll's
son Lord Lorne, the illegitimate son of the
late King James V, Lord James Stewart (later
the Earl of Moray), and Lord John Erskine.
In 1557 a "first bond" was signed by Argyll,
Glencairn, Morton, Lorne, and Erskine, for
mutual support against "Sathan and all wicked
power that does intend tyranny and truble
against the foresaid congregation." This group,
which eventually became known as 'the Lords
of the Congregation', was a direct challenge
to the existing regime.
== Reformation crisis (1559–60) ==
On 1 January 1559 the anonymous Beggars' Summons
was posted on the doors of friaries, threatening
friars with eviction on the grounds that their
property belonged to the genuine poor. This
was calculated to appeal to the passions of
the populace of towns who appeared to have
particular complaints against friars. Knox
returned to Scotland and preached at the church
of St. John the Baptist's at Perth on 11 May
on Christ cleansing the temple. The congregation
responded by stripping the shrines, images
and altars of the church and then sacked the
local friaries and Carthusian house. The regent
responded by sending troops to restore order
and Glencairn led a force to defend the town's
new Protestant status. A royal delegation,
including Argyll and James Stuart persuaded
the burgh to open its gates, but the heavy
handed treatment by the regent's forces led
to a breakdown in negotiations. Argyll and
Stuart changed sides and the Lords of the
Congregation now began raising their followers
for an armed conflict.
A series of local reformations followed, with
Protestant minorities gaining control of various
regions and burghs, often with the support
of local lairds and using intimidation, while
avoiding the creation of Catholic martyrs,
to carry out a "cleansing" of friaries and
churches, followed by the appointment of Protestant
preachers. Such reformations occurred in conservative
Aberdeen and the ecclesiastical capital of
St. Andrews together with other eastern ports.
In June, Mary of Guise responded by dispatching
a French army to St. Andrews to restore control,
but it was halted by superior numbers at Cupar
Muir and forced to retreat. Edinburgh fell
to the Lords in July, and Mary moved her base
to Dunbar. However, the arrival of French
reinforcements of 1,800 men forced the Lords
onto the defensive and they abandoned the
capital.The Lords appealed for help from England
and Mary from France. English agents managed
the safe return of Earl of Arran, the eldest
son and heir of Chatelherault, allowing him
to accept the leadership of the Lords. In
October the regent was declared "suspended"
and replaced by a "great council of the realm".
However, Mary of Guise's forces continued
to advance, once again threatening St. Andrews.
The situation was transformed by the arrival
of the English fleet in the Firth of Forth
in January 1560, and the French retreated
to the stronghold of Leith near Edinburgh.
The English and the Lords agreed further support
by the Treaty of Berwick in February 1560
and an English army crossed the border to
lay siege to the French in Leith. Mary of
Guise fell ill and died in June. With no sign
of reinforcements, the French opened negotiations.
Under the Treaty of Edinburgh (5 July 1560)
both the French and English removed their
troops from Scotland, leaving the Protestant
Lords in control of the country. The Lords
accepted Mary Queen of Scots and her husband,
now Francis II of France, as monarchs and
were given permission to hold a parliament,
although it was not to touch the issue of
religion.
== Reformation Parliament ==
The Scottish Parliament met in Edinburgh 1
August 1560. Fourteen earls, six bishops,
nineteen lords, twenty-one abbots, twenty-two
burgh commissioners, and over a hundred lairds,
claimed the right to sit. Ignoring the provisions
of the Treaty of Edinburgh, on 17 August,
Parliament approved a Reformed Confession
of Faith (the Scots Confession), and on 24
August it passed three Acts that abolished
the old faith in Scotland. Under these, all
previous acts not in conformity with the Reformed
Confession were annulled; the sacraments were
reduced to two (Baptism and Communion) to
be performed by reformed preachers alone;
the celebration of the Mass was made punishable
by a series of penalties (ultimately death)
and Papal jurisdiction in Scotland was repudiated.
The Queen declined to endorse the acts that
Parliament had passed and the new kirk existed
in a state of legal uncertainty.
== First Book of Discipline ==
The Lords had intended for the parliament
to consider a Book of Reformation, that they
had commissioned and which was largely the
work of Knox. However, they were unhappy with
the document and established a committee of
"six Johns", including Knox, to produce a
revised version. The result of the delay was
that the document, known as the First Book
of Discipline was not considered by the full
parliament, but a thinly attended convention
of nobles and about 30 lairds, in January
1561 and then only approved individually and
not collectively. The book contained a programme
of parish based reformation that would use
the resources of the old church to pay a network
of ministers, a parish based school system,
university education, and arrangements for
poor relief. However, the proposal for the
use of church wealth were rejected and under
an Act of Council, which kept two-thirds in
the hands of its existing owners and even
the remaining third had to be shared with
the Crown. The result was an abandonment of
the educational programme, ministers remained
poorly paid and the church was underfunded.
== Post-Reformation church ==
=== 
Confession of faith ===
The Scots Confession was produced by Knox
and five colleagues in four days. Its structure
parallels that of the Apostle's Creed, with
25 chapters based around themes of the Father,
Son, Church and Consummation. It remained
the standard of the Kirk until it was replaced
by the Westminster Confession, negotiated
with English Parliamentary allies during the
English Civil War and adopted by the Kirk
in 1647. The Confession was strongly Calvinist
in tone. It emphasised the "inscrutable providence"
of God, who had determined all things. It
stressed the extreme depravity of mankind,
who deserved eternal damnation and the mercy
of God in selecting a portion of humanity
for salvation through grace alone. It denied
transubstantiation, but retained the real
presence in the Eucharist. It largely avoided
negative emotive condemnations of Catholicism,
focusing on setting out the new faith in simple
language. It saw the Kirk as a "catholik"
community of, "the elect of all nations, realms,
nations, tongues, Jews and Gentiles". In 1581,
as part of a reaction to the perceived threat
of Catholicism, the court signed a King's,
or Negative Confession, probably commissioned
by James VI, that much more harshly denounced
Catholicism.
=== Liturgy and worship ===
The Reformation saw a complete transformation
of religious observance. In the place of the
many holy days and festivals of the Catholic
Church and the occasional observance of the
Mass, the single surviving holy day was Sunday
and regular attendance and participation was
required of the laity. Latin was abandoned
in favour of the vernacular. Congregational
psalm singing replaced the elaborate polyphony
of trained choirs. An emphasis was put on
the Bible and the sermon, which was often
longer than an hour, although many parishes,
which had no minister, would have had only
a "readers service", of psalms, prayers and
Bible readings. The Geneva Bible was widely
adopted. Protestant preachers fleeing Marian
persecutions in England had brought with them
Edward VI's second Book of Common Prayer (of
1552), which was commended by the Lords of
the Congregation. Knox too initially supported
it, however, before leaving Geneva, and with
the encouragement of Calvin, he had written
his own Book of Common Order and it was this
that was printed and approved by the General
Assembly of 1562. Enlarged, it was reprinted
with the Confession and the Psalms in metre
in 1564, and it remained the standard until
replaced with the Westminster Directory in
1643. A Gaelic translation of the Book of
Common Order was produced in 1563, the first
book printed in Gaelic, but there would be
no Gaelic Bible until the eighteenth century.
=== Church polity ===
The First Book of Discipline envisaged the
establishment of reformed ministers in each
of approximately 1,080 parishes. By the end
of 1561, 240 of these places had been filled.
By 1567 there were about 850 clergy and by
1574 there were just over 1,000. These were
mainly concentrated in the south and east.
In the Highlands there were shortages and
very few spoke the Gaelic of the local population.
The universities were unable supply sufficient
trained ministers over a generation and many,
over three quarters in 1574, were holders
of the junior post of readers, rather than
qualified ministers. The bulk of these were
former Catholic clergy. The untidy system
of thirteen medieval dioceses was to be replaced
by ten more rational districts, each to be
overseen by a superintendent. This plan was
complicated by the conversion of three bishops
to Protestantism, who were allowed to remain
in their posts. Few superintendents were appointed
and temporary commissioners were nominated
to fill the gaps. In 1576, when the General
Assembly considered the structure of the Kirk,
it recognised five offices: archbishops, bishops,
superintendents, commissioners, and visitors.Beside
these posts was a system of church courts
of kirk sessions and presbyteries, which dealt
with discipline and administration. Some local
sessions had existed before 1560, moderators
emerged in 1563, but the presbytery not until
1580. By the 1590s Scotland was organized
into about fifty presbyteries with about twenty
ministers in each. Above them stood a dozen
or so synods and at the apex the general assembly.
The system of kirk sessions gave considerable
power within the new kirk to local lairds,
who were able to take on the dignity and authority
of an elder.
=== Continued reformation ===
In the 1560s the majority of the population
was probably still Catholic in persuasion
and the Kirk would find it difficult to penetrate
the Highlands and Islands, but began a gradual
process of conversion and consolidation that,
compared with reformations elsewhere, was
conducted with little persecution. The monasteries
were not dissolved, but allowed to die out
with their monks and before 1573 no holders
of benefices were turned out, even for refusing
to conform. The focus on the parish church
as the centre of worship meant the abandonment
of much of the complex religious provision
of chapelries, monasteries, and cathedrals,
many of which were allowed to decay or, like
the Cathedral at St. Andrews, were mined for
dressed stone to be used in local houses.
== Second Reformation crisis (1567) ==
When her husband Francis II died in 1560,
Mary, now 19, elected to return to Scotland
to take up the government. She gained an agreement
that she would be the only person to partake
legally in Catholic services and did not attempt
to re-impose Catholicism on her subjects,
thus angering the chief Catholic nobles. Her
six-year personal reign was marred by a series
of crises, largely caused by the intrigues
and rivalries of the leading nobles. The murder
of her secretary, David Riccio, was followed
by that of her unpopular second husband Lord
Darnley, father of her infant son, and her
abduction by, and marriage to, the Earl of
Bothwell, who was implicated in Darnley's
murder. Opposition to Bothwell led to the
formation of a coalition of nobles, who styled
themselves as the Confederate Lords. Michael
Lynch describes the events of 1567 as "second
Reformation crisis". Mary and Bothwell confronted
the Lords at Carberry Hill on 15 June 1567,
but their forces melted away. He fled and
she was imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle. Ten
days after the confrontation at Carbury Hill,
the General Assembly met in Edinburgh with
the aim of rooting out "superstition and idolatry".
The Reformation settlement of 1567 was much
more firmly Calvinist than that of 1560. The
Assembly set out a programme of reform that
included the ratification of the legislation
of 1560, better provision of the ministry,
new resources and manpower for the parishes,
a purge of the teachers in the universities
and schools, and a closer relationship with
parliament. A parliament was called in December,
which allowed the acts passed by the Reformation
Parliament to be ratified. The subsequent
religious settlement would be worked out over
the 1570s against a background of civil war
and unstable regencies.
== Reign of James VI (1567–1625) ==
In July 1567, Mary was forced to abdicate
in favour of her 13-month-old son James VI.
James was to be brought up a Protestant and
the government was to be run by a series of
regents, beginning with Moray, until James
began to assert his independence in 1581.
Mary eventually escaped and attempted to regain
the throne by force. After her defeat at the
Battle of Langside in May 1568, by forces
loyal to the King's Party, led by Moray, she
took refuge in England, leaving her son in
their hands. In Scotland the King's Party
fought a civil war on behalf of the regency
against Mary's supporters. This ended, after
English intervention, with the surrender of
Edinburgh Castle in May 1573. In 1578 a Second
Book of Discipline was adopted, which was
much more clearly Presbyterian in outlook.In
England, Mary became a focal point for Catholic
conspirators and was eventually executed for
treason in 1587 on the orders of her kinswoman
Elizabeth I. James was Calvinist in doctrine,
but strongly supported episcopacy and resisted
the independence, or even right to interfere
in government, of the Kirk, which became associated
with the followers of Andrew Melville, known
as the Melvillians. He used his powers to
call the General Assembly where he wished,
limiting the ability of more radical clergy
to attend. He paid for moderate clergy to
be present, negotiated with members, and manipulated
its business in order to limit the independence
of the Kirk. By 1600 he had appointed three
parliamentary bishops. By the end of his reign
there were 11 bishops and diocesan episcopacy
had been restored, although there was still
strong support for Presbyterianism within
the Kirk.
== Catholic survival ==
Although officially illegal, ‘Roman’ Catholicism
survived in parts of Scotland. The hierarchy
of the Church played a relatively small role
and the initiative was left to lay leaders.
Where nobles or local lairds offered protection
it continued to thrive, as with Clanranald
on South Uist, or in the north-east where
the Earl of Huntly was the most important
figure. In these areas Catholic sacraments
and practices were maintained with relative
openness. Members of the nobility were probably
reluctant to pursue each other over matters
of religion because of strong personal and
social ties. An English report in 1600 suggested
that a third of nobles and gentry were still
Catholic in inclination. In most of Scotland,
Catholicism became an underground faith in
private households, connected by ties of kinship.
This reliance on the household meant that
women often became important as the upholders
and transmitters of the faith, such as in
the case of Lady Fernihurst in the Borders.
They transformed their households into centres
of religious activity and offered places of
safety for priests.Because the Reformation
took over the existing structures and assets
of the Church, any attempted recovery by the
Catholic hierarchy was extremely difficult.
After the collapse of Mary's cause in the
civil wars in the 1570s, and any hope of a
national restoration of the old faith, the
hierarchy began to treat Scotland as a mission
area. The leading order of the Counter-reformation,
the newly founded Jesuits, initially took
relatively little interest in Scotland as
a target of missionary work. Their effectiveness
was limited by rivalries between different
orders at Rome. The initiative was taken by
a small group of Scots connected with the
Crichton family, who had supplied the bishops
of Dunkeld. They joined the Jesuit order and
returned to attempt conversions. Their focus
was mainly on the court, which led them into
involvement in a series of complex political
plots and entanglements. The majority of surviving
Scottish lay followers were largely ignored.
== Impact ==
=== 
Education ===
The humanist concern with widening education
was shared by the Protestant reformers, with
a desire for a godly people replacing the
aim of having educated citizens. The First
Book of Discipline set out a plan for a school
in every parish, but this proved financially
impossible. In the burghs the old schools
were maintained, with the song schools and
a number of new foundations becoming reformed
grammar schools or ordinary parish schools.
Schools were supported by a combination of
kirk funds, contributions from local heritors
or burgh councils and parents that could pay.
They were inspected by kirk sessions, who
checked for the quality of teaching and doctrinal
purity. There were also large number of unregulated
"adventure schools", which sometimes fulfilled
a local need and sometimes took pupils away
from the official schools. Outside of the
established burgh schools, masters often combined
their positions with other employment, particularly
minor posts within the Kirk, such as clerk.
At their best, the curriculum included catechism,
Latin, French, Classical literature and sports.Scotland's
universities underwent a series of reforms
associated with Andrew Melville, who returned
from Geneva to become principal of the University
of Glasgow in 1574. A distinguished linguist,
philosopher and poet, he had trained in Paris
and studied law at Poitiers, before moving
to Geneva and developing an interest in Protestant
theology. Influenced by the anti-Aristotelian
Petrus Ramus, he placed an emphasis on simplified
logic and elevated languages and sciences
to the same status as philosophy, allowing
accepted ideas in all areas to be challenged.
He introduced new specialist teaching staff,
replacing the system of "regenting", where
one tutor took the students through the entire
arts curriculum. Metaphysics were abandoned
and Greek became compulsory in the first year,
followed by Aramaic, Syriac and Hebrew, launching
a new fashion for ancient and biblical languages.
Glasgow had probably been declining as a university
before his arrival, but students now began
to arrive in large numbers. He assisted in
the reconstruction of Marischal College, Aberdeen,
and in order to do for St Andrews what he
had done for Glasgow, he was appointed Principal
of St Mary's College, St Andrews, in 1580.
The University of Edinburgh developed out
of public lectures that were established in
the town in the 1540s on law, Greek, Latin
and philosophy, under the patronage of Mary
of Guise. The "Tounis College" become the
University of Edinburgh in 1582. The results
of these changes were a revitalisation of
all Scottish universities, which were now
producing a quality of education the equal
of that offered anywhere in Europe.
=== Literature ===
Medieval Scotland probably had its own Mystery
plays, often performed by craft guilds, like
one described as ludi de ly haliblude and
staged at Aberdeen in 1440 and 1445 and which
was probably connected with the feast of Corpus
Christi, but no texts are extant. Legislation
was enacted against folk plays in 1555, and
against liturgical plays ("clerk-plays or
comedies based on the canonical scriptures")
in 1575 by the General Assembly of the Church
of Scotland. However, attempts to ban folk
plays were more leniently applied and less
successful that once assumed. They continued
into the seventeenth century, with parishioners
in Aberdeen reproved for parading and dancing
in the street with bells at weddings and Yule
in 1605, Robin Hood and May plays at Kelso
in 1611 and Yuletide guising at Perth in 1634.
The Kirk also allowed some plays, particularly
in schools, when they served their own ends
for education, as in the comedy about the
Prodigal Son permitted at St. Andrews in 1574.More
formal plays included those of James Wedderburn,
who wrote anti-Catholic tragedies and comedies
in Scots around 1540, before he was forced
to flee into exile. These included the Beheading
of Johne the Baptist and the Historie of Dyonisius
the Tyraonne, which were performed at Dundee.
David Lyndsay (c. 1486 –1555), diplomat
and the head of the Lyon Court, was a prolific
poet and dramatist. He produced an interlude
at Linlithgow Palace for the king and queen
thought to be a version of his play The Thrie
Estaitis in 1540, which satirised the corruption
of church and state, and which is the only
complete play to survive from before the Reformation.
George Buchanan (1506–82) was major influence
on Continental theatre with plays such as
Jepheths and Baptistes, which influenced Pierre
Corneille and Jean Racine and through them
the neo-classical tradition in French drama,
but his impact in Scotland was limited by
his choice of Latin as a medium. The anonymous
The Maner of the Cyring of ane Play (before
1568) and Philotus (published in London in
1603), are isolated examples of surviving
plays. The later is a vernacular Scots comedy
of errors, probably designed for court performance
for Mary, Queen of Scots or James VI. The
same system of professional companies of players
and theatres that developed in England in
this period was absent in Scotland, but James
VI signalled his interest in drama by arranging
for a company of English players to erect
a playhouse and perform in 1599.The Kirk also
discouraged poetry that was not devotional
in nature. Nevertheless, poets from this period
included Richard Maitland of Lethington (1496–1586),
who produced meditative and satirical verses;
John Rolland (fl. 1530–75), who wrote allegorical
satires and courtier and minister Alexander
Hume (c. 1556 –1609), whose corpus of work
includes nature poetry and epistolary verse.
Alexander Scott's (?1520–82/3) use of short
verse designed to be sung to music, opened
the way for the Castalian poets of James VI's
adult reign.
=== Art ===
Scotland's ecclesiastical art paid a heavy
toll as a result of Reformation iconoclasm,
with the almost total loss of medieval stained
glass and religious sculpture and paintings.
The only significant surviving pre-Reformation
stained glass in Scotland is a window of four
roundels in the St. Magdalen Chapel of Cowgate,
Edinburgh, completed in 1544. Wood carving
can be seen at King's College, Aberdeen and
Dunblane Cathedral. In the West Highlands,
where there had been a hereditary caste of
monumental sculptors, the uncertainty and
loss of patronage caused by the rejection
of monuments in the Reformation meant that
they moved into another branches of the Gaelic
learned orders or took up other occupations.
The lack of transfer of carving skills is
noticeable in the decline in quality when
gravestones were next commissioned from the
start of the seventeenth century.According
to N. Prior, the nature of the Scottish Reformation
may have had wider effects, limiting the creation
of a culture of public display and meaning
that art was channelled into more austere
forms of expression with an emphasis on private
and domestic restraint. The loss of ecclesiastical
patronage that resulted from the Reformation,
meant that native craftsmen and artists turned
to secular patrons. One result of this was
the flourishing of Scottish Renaissance painted
ceilings and walls, with large numbers of
private houses of burgesses, lairds and lords
gaining often highly detailed and coloured
patterns and scenes, of which over a hundred
examples survive. These were undertaken by
unnamed Scottish artists using continental
pattern books that often led to the incorporation
of humanist moral and philosophical symbolism,
with elements that call on heraldry, piety,
classical myths and allegory. The earliest
surviving example is at the Hamilton palace
of Kinneil, West Lothian, decorated in the
1550s for the then regent the James Hamilton,
Earl of Arran. Other examples include the
ceiling at Prestongrange House, undertaken
in 1581 for Mark Kerr, Commendator of Newbattle,
and the long gallery at Pinkie House, painted
for Alexander Seaton, Earl of Dunfermline
in 1621.
=== Architecture ===
The Reformation revolutionised church architecture
in Scotland. Calvinists rejected ornamentation
in places of worship, seeing no need for elaborate
buildings divided up for the purpose of ritual.
This resulted in the widespread destruction
of Medieval church furnishings, ornaments
and decoration. New churches were built and
existing churches adapted for reformed services,
particularly by placing the pulpit centrally
in the church, as preaching was at the centre
of worship. Many of the earliest buildings
were simple gabled rectangles, a style that
continued into the seventeenth century, as
at Dunnottar Castle in the 1580s, Greenock's
Old West Kirk (1591) and Durness (1619). These
churches often have windows on the south wall
(and none on the north), which became a characteristic
of Reformation kirks. There were continuities
with pre-Reformation materials, with some
churches using rubble for walls, as at Kemback
in Fife (1582). Others employed dressed stone
and a few added wooden steeples, as at Burntisland
(1592). The church of Greyfriars, Edinburgh,
built between 1602 and 1620, used a rectangular
layout with a largely Gothic form, but that
at Dirleton (1612), had a more sophisticated
classical style. A variation of the rectangular
church developed in post-Reformation Scotland,
and often used when adapting existing churches,
was the "T"-shaped plan, which allowed the
maximum number of parishioners to be near
the pulpit. Examples can be seen at Kemback
and Prestonpans after 1595. This plan continued
to be used into the seventeenth century as
at Weem (1600), Anstruther Easter, Fife (1634–44)
and New Cumnock, Ayreshire (1657). In the
seventeenth century a Greek cross plan was
used for churches such as Cawdor (1619) and
Fenwick (1643). In most of these cases one
arm of the cross would have been closed off
as a laird's aisle, meaning that they were
in effect "T"-plan churches.
=== Music ===
The Reformation had a severe impact on church
music. The song schools of the abbeys, cathedrals
and collegiate churches were closed down,
choirs disbanded, music books and manuscripts
destroyed and organs removed from churches.
The Lutheranism that influenced the early
Scottish Reformation attempted to accommodate
Catholic musical traditions into worship,
drawing on Latin hymns and vernacular songs.
The most important product of this tradition
in Scotland was The Gude and Godlie Ballatis
(1567), which were spiritual satires on popular
ballads composed by the brothers James, John
and Robert Wedderburn. Never adopted by the
Kirk, they nevertheless remained popular and
were reprinted from the 1540s to the 1620s.Later
the Calvinism that came to dominate the Scottish
Reformation was much more hostile to Catholic
musical tradition and popular music, placing
an emphasis on what was biblical, which meant
the Psalms. The Scottish Psalter of 1564 was
commissioned by the Assembly of the Church.
It drew on the work of French musician Clément
Marot, Calvin's contributions to the Strasbourg
Psalter of 1539 and English writers, particularly
the 1561 edition of the Psalter produced by
William Whittingham for the English congregation
in Geneva. The intention was to produce individual
tunes for each psalm, but of 150 psalms, 105
had proper tunes and in the seventeenth century,
common tunes, which could be used for psalms
with the same metre, became more frequent.
Because whole congregations would now all
sing these psalms, unlike the trained choirs
who had sung the many parts of polyphonic
hymns, there was a need for simplicity and
most church compositions were confined to
homophonic settings.During his personal reign
James VI attempted to revive the song schools,
with an act of parliament passed in 1579,
demanding that councils of the largest burghs
set up "ane sang scuill with ane maister sufficient
and able for insturctioun of the yowth in
the said science of musik". Five new schools
were opened within four years of the act coming
into force, and by 1633 there were at least
twenty-five. Most of those burghs without
song schools made provision within their grammar
schools. Polyphony was incorporated into editions
of the Psalter from 1625, but usually with
the congregation singing the melody and trained
singers the contra-tenor, treble and bass
parts. However, the triumph of the Presbyterians
in the National Covenant of 1638 led to an
end of polyphony, and a new psalter in common
metre, without tunes, was published in 1650.
In 1666 The Twelve Tunes for the Church of
Scotland, composed in Four Parts (which actually
contained 14 tunes), designed for use with
the 1650 Psalter, was first published in Aberdeen.
It would go through five editions by 1720.
By the late seventeenth century these two
works had become the basic corpus of the psalmody
sung in the Kirk.
=== Women ===
Early modern Scotland was a patriarchal society,
in which men had total authority over women.
From the 1560s the post-Reformation marriage
service underlined this by stating that a
wife "is in subjection and under governance
of her husband, so long as they both continue
alive". In politics the theory of patriarchy
was complicated by regencies led by Margaret
Tudor and Mary of Guise and by the advent
of a regnant queen in Mary, Queen of Scots
from 1561. Concerns over this threat to male
authority were exemplified by John Knox's
The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the
Monstruous Regiment of Women (1558), which
advocated the deposition of all reigning queens.
Most of the political nation took a pragmatic
view of the situation, accepting Mary as queen,
but the strains that this paradox created
may have played a part in the later difficulties
of the reign.Before the Reformation, the extensive
marriage bars for kinship meant that most
noble marriages necessitated a papal dispensation,
which could later be used as grounds for annulment
if the marriage proved politically or personally
inconvenient, although there was no divorce
as such. Separation from bed and board was
allowed in exceptional circumstances, usually
adultery. Under the reformed Kirk, divorce
was allowed on grounds of adultery, or of
desertion. Scotland was one of the first countries
to allow desertion as legal grounds for divorce
and, unlike England, divorce cases were initiated
relatively far down the social scale.After
the Reformation the contest between the widespread
belief in the limited intellectual and moral
capacity of women and the desire for women
to take personal moral responsibility, particularly
as wives and mothers, intensified. In Protestantism
this necessitated an ability to learn and
understand the catechism and even to be able
to independently read the Bible, but most
commentators, even those that tended to encourage
the education of girls, thought they should
not receive the same academic education as
boys. In the lower ranks of society, women
benefited from the expansion of the parish
schools system that took place after the Reformation,
but were usually outnumbered by boys, often
taught separately, for a shorter time and
to a lower level. They were frequently taught
reading, sewing and knitting, but not writing.
Female illiteracy rates based on signatures
among female servants were around 90 per cent
from the late seventeenth to the early eighteenth
centuries, and perhaps 85 per cent for women
of all ranks by 1750, compared with 35 per
cent for men. Among the nobility there were
many educated and cultured women, of which
Queen Mary is the most obvious example.Church
going played an important part in the lives
of many women. Women were largely excluded
from the administration of the Kirk, but when
heads of households voted on the appointment
of a new minister some parishes allowed women
in that position to participate. In the post-Reformation
period there was a criminalisation of women.
Women were disciplined in kirk sessions and
civil courts for stereotypical offences including
scolding and prostitution, which were seen
as deviant, rather than criminal. These changing
attitudes may partly explain the witch hunts
that occurred after the Reformation and in
which women were the largest group of victims.
=== Popular religion ===
Scottish Protestantism was focused on the
Bible, which was seen as infallible and the
major source of moral authority. Many Bibles
were large, illustrated and highly valuable
objects. The Genevan translation was commonly
used until in 1611 the Kirk adopted the Authorised
King James Version and the first Scots version
was printed in Scotland in 1633, but the Geneva
Bible continued to be employed into the seventeenth
century. Bibles often became the subject of
superstitions, being used in divination. Kirk
discipline was fundamental to Reformed Protestantism
and it probably reached a high-water mark
in the seventeenth century. Kirk sessions
were able to apply religious sanctions, such
as excommunication and denial of baptism,
to enforce godly behaviour and obedience.
In more difficult cases of immoral behaviour
they could work with the local magistrate,
in a system modelled on that employed in Geneva.
Public occasions were treated with mistrust
and from the later seventeenth century there
were efforts by kirk sessions to stamp out
activities such as well-dressing, bonfires,
guising, penny weddings, and dancing.In the
late Middle Ages there were a handful of prosecutions
for harm done through witchcraft, but the
passing of the Witchcraft Act 1563 made witchcraft,
or consulting with witches, capital crimes.
The first major series of trials under the
new act were the North Berwick witch trials,
beginning in 1589, in which James VI played
a major part as "victim" and investigator.
He became interested in witchcraft and published
a defence of witch-hunting in the Daemonologie
in 1597, but he appears to have become increasingly
sceptical and eventually took steps to limit
prosecutions. An estimated 4,000 to 6,000
people, mostly from the Scottish Lowlands,
were tried for witchcraft in this period;
a much higher rate than for neighbouring England.
There were major series of trials in 1590–91,
1597, 1628–31, 1649–50 and 1661–62.
Seventy-five per cent of the accused were
women and modern estimates indicate that over
1,500 persons were executed.
=== National identity ===
The Kirk that developed after 1560 claimed
to represent all of Scotland. It became the
subject of national pride, and was often compared
with the less clearly reformed church in neighbouring
England. Jane Dawson suggests that the loss
of national standing in the contest for dominance
of Britain between England and France suffered
by the Scots, may have led them to stress
their religious achievements. A theology developed
that saw the kingdom as in a covenant relationship
with God. Many Scots saw their country as
a new Israel and themselves as a holy people
engaged in a struggle between the forces of
Christ and Antichrist, the latter being identified
with the resurgent papacy and the Roman Catholic
Church. This view was reinforced by events
elsewhere that demonstrated that Reformed
religion was under threat, such as the 1572
Massacre of St Bartholomew in France and the
Spanish Armada in 1588. These views were popularised
through the first Protestant histories, such
as Knox's History of the Reformation and George
Buchanan's Rerum Scoticarum Historia. This
period also saw a growth of a patriotic literature
facilitated by the rise of popular printing.
Published editions of medieval poetry by John
Barbour and Robert Henryson and the plays
of David Lyndsay all gained a new audience.
== See also ==
English Reformation
History of Christianity in Scotland
History of Scotland
== Notes ==
== 
References and further reading ==
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online; short scholarly biographies of all
the major people
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to Medieval Scottish Poetry (Woodbridge: Brewer,
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Baxter, J. R., "Music, ecclesiastical", in
M. Lynch, ed., The Oxford Companion to Scottish
History (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2001), ISBN 0-19-211696-7.
Brown, I., Scottish Theatre: Diversity, Language,
Continuity (Rodopi, 2013), ISBN 94-012-0994-4.
Brown, I., "Introduction: a lively tradition
and collective amnesia", in I. Brown, ed.,
The Edinburgh Companion to Scottish Drama
(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2011),
ISBN 0-7486-4107-6.
Brown, I., Clancy, T., Manning, S. and Pittock,
M., eds, The Edinburgh History of Scottish
Literature: Enlightenment, Britain and Empire
(1707–1918) (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
Press, 2007), ISBN 0-7486-2481-3.
Brown, K. M., "In Search of the Godly Magistrate
in Reformation Scotland", Journal of Ecclesiastical
History 40 (1), (1989), pp. 553–81.
Brown, K. M., Noble Society in Scotland: Wealth,
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the Revolutions (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
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Brown, K. M., and MacDonald, A. R., eds, Parliament
in Context, 1235–1707 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh
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Brown, S. J., "Religion and society to c.
1900", in T. M. Devine and J. Wormald, eds,
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Burleigh, J. H. S., A Church History of Scotland
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Carpenter, S., "Scottish drama until 1650",
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Cross, F. L. and Livingstone, E. A., eds,
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Davidson, C., Festivals and Plays in Late
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Dennison, E. P., "Women: 1 to 1700", in M.
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Edwards, K. A., "Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart
Scotland", in K. Cartwright, ed., A Companion
to Tudor Literature Blackwell Companions to
Literature and Culture (Oxford: John Wiley
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Erskine, C., "John Knox, George Buccanan and
Scots prose" in A. Hadfield, ed., The Oxford
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Ewen, E., "The early modern family" in T.
M. Devine and J. Wormald, eds, The Oxford
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Fletcher, R. A., The Barbarian Conversion:
From Paganism to Christianity (University
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Glover, K., Elite Women and Polite Society
in Eighteenth-Century Scotland (Woodbridge:
Boydell Press, 2011), ISBN 1-84383-681-5.
Graham, M. F., "Scotland", in A. Pettegree,
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2000), ISBN 0-415-16357-9.
Grant, A., and Stringer, K. J., Uniting the
Kingdom?: the Making of British History (Psychology
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Hartnoll, P., ed., The Oxford Companion to
the Theatre (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
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Van Heijnsbergen, T., "Culture: 9 Renaissance
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Henderson, G. D., Religious Life in Seventeenth-Century
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Houston, R. A., Scottish Literacy and the
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in Scotland and Northern England, 1600–1800
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Houston, R. A. and Whyte, I. D., "Introduction"
in R. A. Houston and I. D. Whyte, eds, Scottish
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Kellar, C., Scotland, England & the Reformation:
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Kilday, A.-M., Women and Violent Crime in
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== External links ==
BBC Scottish History
