During the Asuka Period, Buddhism was introduced
to Japan through Korean statesmen, who brought
along with them Chinese practices. This was
encouraged by devout leaders, and led to major
reforms in government, ethics, and education.
The new religion spurred the creation of a
number of very important Buddhist temples.
Among them is Nara’s Todaiji temple.
Let’s take a closer look.
Picking up from the last video, after the
clans fought amongst themselves, the Yamato
clan gained dominance.
An imperial court was set up, with the royal
family at the center. Their rule was legitimized
by the belief that they were descendants of
the sun goddess Amaterasu, who is a supreme
deity in the Shinto religion.
The warrior clans who assisted the Yamato
clan during the wars were given hereditary
positions at court. Land outside of Yamato
was divided into provinces, and they were
overseen by these aristocratic clans. They
ruled more or less autonomously, and kept
a large portion of the revenues for themselves;
so although the imperial house was technically
the focus of government, they were relatively
poor and powerless.
The imperial court needed some restructuring
if they were to centralize power.
This period is defined by an accelerated adoption
of Chinese culture, and they looked to the
Chinese imperial government as a model for
their new government structure.
In 618, the Tang dynasty was established in
China, beginning an almost 300 year reign
that is often considered to be the greatest
period of flowering. The capital, Chang’an,
was the hub of Asia, often compared to Rome’s
role in the mediterranean. With the access
to the silk road, and influence over neighboring
countries, people of many different cultures
gathered at the capital, making it a cultural
hub not found anywhere else in the late first
millennium ce.
Japan was certainly not the only ones who
highly regarded Tang China, and were highly
interested in Chinese administration, bureaucracy,
medicine, geomancy (like feng shui), Confucianism,
and writing. Active exchanges with China prompted
major political, educational, and ethical
reforms. This included Japan’s first constitution,
based on Confucian principles.
With new techniques and technologies in building
and casting metals, there was a greater knowledge
for more sophisticated architecture and sculpture.
New techniques and ideas in media and writing
led to more developed painting, decorative
arts, music, literature, calligraphy and poetry.
The Chinese imperial system was was a bureaucracy
of officials, with the emperor at the center.
Provinces were administered by Governors and
officials appointed from this bureaucracy,
but they could be made and recalled according
to their decisions. So the power remained
at the capital, and the revenue gathered in
the provinces would go back into the imperial coffers.
It took almost a century for Japan’s first
major steps towards this massive restructuring.
Two of the key reformers were Soga no Umako
and Umayado no Oji - more commonly known as
Shōtoku, a prince of the imperial house.
The Soga clan were said to have descended
from a noble of Korean Paekche of the 5th c.
They were ambitious, gaining favor of the
imperial family, but were unable to hold any
of the hereditary court positions. Therefore,
they had a lot to gain with the abolishment
of the old government structure, replacing
it with an appointed bureaucracy.
In 587, Shōtoku, the imperial guard, and
the Soga clan engaged in open battle against
those who opposed the restructuring. However,
it wasn’t until 645 with the Taika (or great
Change) Reforms, that formal restructuring
of both the imperial and provincial government
was laid out.
In the Japanese adaptation of the Chinese
template, the aristocratic clans were required
to live in close proximity to the imperial
seat of power. They had to serve the emperor
at court, rather than staying in their provincial
strongholds.
The Reform furthered the centralization of
imperial power and lands were nationalized.
Thus, new taxes began to flow through the
central government.
The officials who served this bureaucracy
were drawn from the aristocratic clans and
trained at a university near the imperial
court, called Daifakurō. There, they were
taught Chinese Confucian classics in the Chinese
language.
However, the transformation of the way that
Japan would be governed would not be complete
until 794, the beginning of the Heian period.
Speaking of keeping them near the imperial
court, let’s talk about where exactly that
was! The capital moved twice during the Asuka
and Nara period.
They wanted a new, permanent imperial capital
that would be modeled on the - yup, you guessed it -
the Chinese Chang’an capital.
The first attempt, made in 694 with Fujiwara-kyo
was in the Asuka Valley. Neatly laid out in
a grid plan, the palace grounds at the heart
of the city was surrounded by an earthen wall.
The southern gate opened to a great courtyard,
with the great audience hall at the other
end. North of that was the imperial residence.
The city also encompassed several Buddhist
temples that had be founded before the city
was constructed, including Asukadera, the
first great Buddhist foundation completed
in 588.
The capital was not used for very long, and
was abandoned in only 16 years. Some suggest
a move was encouraged by increased population,
and an almost identical plan was built 13
miles to the north, called Heijo-kyo.
This period is known by Heijoo’s present
name, Nara.
The streets that divided up the city were
larger and more spaced apart than they were
in Fujiwara, and the palace enclosure was
at the center of the northern perimeter, as
the imperial palace is in Chang’an.
The Shinto and Buddhist temples were reestablished
in the new capital, and an Outer Capitol was
built in the foothills in the east to accommodate
the rebuilt Asukadera.
This capital lasted longer than Fujiwarakyo,
serving as the capital for 84 years. One of
the reasons often cited for the next move
is that the government wanted to place some
distance between the imperial seat and the
principal temples that had quite a lot of influence.
Buddhism originated in India and spread to
China though the Silk Road as early as the
1st or 2nd century CE. According to Chinese
historical records, Buddhism was introduced
to Japan in 467, during the Kofun period.
However, the "official" introduction of Buddhism
to Japan is dated to 552 in the Nihon Shoki.
By the 5th c., Buddhism had long been established
in China, and was officially adopted by some
Korean Kingdoms. While Korean embassies were
unsuccessful at introducing Buddhism to the
Japanese imperial court, they did attract
the interest of both Soga no Umako and Prince
Shōtoku. Remember the guys who fought to
change the government structure? Yeah, those
guys. When they gained control of the government,
Buddhism gained a crucial foothold.
Even with a slow start, Buddhism became more
prominent as it became officially endorsed
as an instrument of the state by rulers. Accordingly,
more money was spent to construct large and
elaborate buddhist temples over the next century.
Shotoku himself, sponsored the building of
many temples in the Asuka area, including
Horyu-ji.
With the support of the imperial court, there
was a great deal of money invested into building
Buddhist complexes, leading to a rich tradition
in Buddhist architecture, sculpture and painting.
Skilled artists and craftsman from China and
Korea came to Japan to build temples and sculptures,
as well as to teach their techniques and aesthetics
to local craftsmen.
Horyuji in Nara is one of the earliest examples
in the 7th century that still exists today.
The complex, arranged in a prescribed manner,
includes the main worship hall, or Kondō
(meaning Golden Hall), and the Five-story
Pagoda. In the Kondo, are a number of important
sculptures and art treasures that are preserved
in these halls.
Sculptor Tori Busshi, who followed the North
Wei style, established the Tori school of
sculpture. Two surviving works attributed
to Tori Busshi are the Asukadera Buddha, made
in the early seventh century, and the Shaka
Triad which are the main icons of the Golden
Hall of Horyuji. Although the works have been
restored over time, they retain many of the
original features.
The Asukadera Shaka sits erect, with his legs
crossed and his right hand raised in the semui-in
(skt. abhayamudra) mudra, or hand gesture,
which symbolizes Buddha’s power to grant
tranquility and freedom from fear. The left
hand is lowered with the palm facing upwards,
a gesture of wish-granting and the promise
that the Buddha’s teachings are the true
path to release from suffering. The drapery
of his clothing is sharply defined in regular folds.
The head of the Asukadera Buddha is the least
restored, with a long, cylindrical face. His
face is strongly geometric and linear, with
the sharply defined nose and eyes.
This hair are depicted as a mass of snail-shell
curls - one of the physical symbols that distinguishes
the Buddha as the perfected being. These symbols
are called shōgō. The other two shōgō
seen here are the raised circle above his
nose, and the cranial protuberance. Yup, that
not your average man bun, that's a protuberance.
Both are symbols of his greater wisdom and
understanding.
Other works in this Tori style includes the
the kannon Bodhisattva of Yumedono Hall.
In the following Hakuho period, some of the
important Buddhist sculptures show a predominant
Tang China influence, as seen in sculptures
preserved in the Yakushiji kondō.
Tang arts were characterized by Indian and
Central Asian influences from the Silk Road,
such as three-dimensionality and realism achieved
though modeled forms.
The sculptures in Asuka during this time have
a more soft, supple pose and full body, that
contrasts with the more rigid Tori style.
The skirts and scarves cling to his body like
wet cloth, that shows his body underneath.
This long robe flows over the rectangular
throne, falling in irregular folds. His left
arm is extended, holding a medicine jar that
is now lost, and his right hand is raised
in the ani-in gesture, indicating explication of a teaching.
During the Nara period, Buddhist sculpture
becomes increasingly realistic. A massive
project that took place during this period
was the construction of the Todaiji Temple.
The most important commission was the colossal
image of the Daibutsu. The one in Todaiji
today is a reconstruction from 1192.
The Fukukenjaku Kannon is an impressive depiction
from the Nara period. The dry lacquer sculpture
covered in gold leaf was constructed under
the direction of Kuninaka Kimimaro. The sculpture’s
name meaning “Kannon of the never-empty
lasso”, refers to the ability and strength
of this figure to lasso being ensarned in
delusion and bring them to the safety of Enlightenment.
A very popular bodhisattva, Kannon is often
depicted as a female figure in later periods,
but is depicted as male in earlier works.
The deity has an extra eye in the center of
the forehead and eight arms: Two in front
of the chest in prayer, and the other six
radiating outward, holding symbols of this
manifestation: the lotus blossom of Buddhist
wisdom, a pilgrim’s staff, and the lasso.
The 8 arms are an image related to esoteric
or tantric teachings in Japanese Buddhism,
which will become more prominent over the
next century.
Behind the Kannon is a halo of metal openwork.
The lines represent the golden light that
radiates from Kannon’s body. On his head
is a silver crown with a standing Amida Buddha,
of whom he is a manifestation.
The Shuukongoojin is a great example of the
more naturalistic style of the second quarter
of the 8th century. Standing 6 feet tall,
the fierce figure made of painted clay is
a guardian, warding off evil spirits with
his exaggerated face. He is clad in a colorful
Chinese-style armour, and clutches a diamond
thunderbolt. Despite having both feet planted
to the ground, there is a great sense of movement
from his posture and the floating scarves.
Even his armour seems to sway gracefully.
The popping eyes and large veins in his neck
and arms leaves no mystery about his strength.
In the late Nara Period, we see a shift from
the elegant realism to a more sober, stylized
aesthetic. The Birushana Buddha at Toshodaiji
is a large, 10 feet tall sculpture made with
the hollow dry-lacquer technique and covered
in gold leaf.
Although fully modeled, The figure is more
stylized with a full body. His face is almost
spherical, curving up and outwards, and has
thin, elongated eyes and eyebrows that almost
touch the hairline. His neck is short and
thick. In contrast the drapery of his robe
is thin, and delicately falls in irregular
folds across the torso and lap. Behind him
is a wooden halo covered with hundreds of
tiny seated Buddhas and their attendant bodhisattvas,
emphasizing his position as the Universal
Buddha.
The Nara period drew to an end when the Imperial
capital moved to Heian. Although the new capital
was built along the same Chinese Imperial
plan as Fujiwara and Heijō, it was unlike
them in that it served as the imperial capital
for more than a thousand years until the emperor’s
removal to Tokyo in 1968.
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