Sigmund Freud ( FROYD; German: [ˈziːkmʊnt
ˈfʁɔʏt]; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud;
6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian
neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis,
a clinical method for treating psychopathology
through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst.Freud
was born to Galician Jewish parents in the
Moravian town of Freiberg, in the Austrian
Empire. He qualified as a doctor of medicine
in 1881 at the University of Vienna. Upon
completing his habilitation in 1885, he was
appointed a docent in neuropathology and became
an affiliated professor in 1902. Freud lived
and worked in Vienna, having set up his clinical
practice there in 1886. In 1938 Freud left
Austria to escape the Nazis. He died in exile
in the United Kingdom in 1939.
In creating psychoanalysis, Freud developed
therapeutic techniques such as the use of
free association and discovered transference,
establishing its central role in the analytic
process. Freud's redefinition of sexuality
to include its infantile forms led him to
formulate the Oedipus complex as the central
tenet of psychoanalytical theory. His analysis
of dreams as wish-fulfillments provided him
with models for the clinical analysis of symptom
formation and the underlying mechanisms of
repression. On this basis Freud elaborated
his theory of the unconscious and went on
to develop a model of psychic structure comprising
id, ego and super-ego. Freud postulated the
existence of libido, a sexualised energy with
which mental processes and structures are
invested and which generates erotic attachments,
and a death drive, the source of compulsive
repetition, hate, aggression and neurotic
guilt. In his later works, Freud developed
a wide-ranging interpretation and critique
of religion and culture.
Though in overall decline as a diagnostic
and clinical practice, psychoanalysis remains
influential within psychology, psychiatry,
and psychotherapy, and across the humanities.
It thus continues to generate extensive and
highly contested debate with regard to its
therapeutic efficacy, its scientific status,
and whether it advances or is detrimental
to the feminist cause. Nonetheless, Freud's
work has suffused contemporary Western thought
and popular culture. In the words of W. H.
Auden's 1940 poetic tribute, by the time of
Freud's death, he had become "a whole climate
of opinion / under whom we conduct our different
lives."
== 
Biography ==
=== 
Early life and education ===
Freud was born to Jewish parents in the Moravian
town of Freiberg, in the Austrian Empire (later
Příbor, Czech Republic), the first of eight
children. Both of his parents were from Galicia,
in modern-day Ukraine. His father, Jakob Freud
(1815–1896), a wool merchant, had two sons,
Emanuel (1833–1914) and Philipp (1836–1911),
by his first marriage. Jakob's family were
Hasidic Jews, and although Jakob himself had
moved away from the tradition, he came to
be known for his Torah study. He and Freud's
mother, Amalia Nathansohn, who was 20 years
younger and his third wife, were married by
Rabbi Isaac Noah Mannheimer on 29 July 1855.
They were struggling financially and living
in a rented room, in a locksmith's house at
Schlossergasse 117 when their son Sigmund
was born. He was born with a caul, which his
mother saw as a positive omen for the boy's
future.In 1859, the Freud family left Freiberg.
Freud's half brothers emigrated to Manchester,
England, parting him from the "inseparable"
playmate of his early childhood, Emanuel's
son, John. Jakob Freud took his wife and two
children (Freud's sister, Anna, was born in
1858; a brother, Julius born in 1857, had
died in infancy) firstly to Leipzig and then
in 1860 to Vienna where four sisters and a
brother were born: Rosa (b. 1860), Marie (b.
1861), Adolfine (b. 1862), Paula (b. 1864),
Alexander (b. 1866). In 1865, the nine-year-old
Freud entered the Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium,
a prominent high school. He proved to be an
outstanding pupil and graduated from the Matura
in 1873 with honors. He loved literature and
was proficient in German, French, Italian,
Spanish, English, Hebrew, Latin and Greek.Freud
entered the University of Vienna at age 17.
He had planned to study law, but joined the
medical faculty at the university, where his
studies included philosophy under Franz Brentano,
physiology under Ernst Brücke, and zoology
under Darwinist professor Carl Claus. In 1876,
Freud spent four weeks at Claus's zoological
research station in Trieste, dissecting hundreds
of eels in an inconclusive search for their
male reproductive organs. In 1877 Freud moved
to Ernst Brücke's physiology laboratory where
he spent six years comparing the brains of
humans and other vertebrates with those of
invertebrates such as frogs, crayfish and
lampreys. His research work on the biology
of nervous tissue proved seminal for the subsequent
discovery of the neuron in the 1890s. Freud's
research work was interrupted in 1879 by the
obligation to undertake a year's compulsory
military service. The lengthy downtimes enabled
him to complete a commission to translate
four essays from John Stuart Mill's collected
works. He graduated with an MD in March 1881.
=== Early career and marriage ===
In 1882, Freud began his medical career at
the Vienna General Hospital. His research
work in cerebral anatomy led to the publication
of an influential paper on the palliative
effects of cocaine in 1884 and his work on
aphasia would form the basis of his first
book On the Aphasias: a Critical Study, published
in 1891. Over a three-year period, Freud worked
in various departments of the hospital. His
time spent in Theodor Meynert's psychiatric
clinic and as a locum in a local asylum led
to an increased interest in clinical work.
His substantial body of published research
led to his appointment as a university lecturer
or docent in neuropathology in 1885, a non-salaried
post but one which entitled him to give lectures
at the University of Vienna.In 1886, Freud
resigned his hospital post and entered private
practice specializing in "nervous disorders".
The same year he married Martha Bernays, the
granddaughter of Isaac Bernays, a chief rabbi
in Hamburg. They had six children: Mathilde
(b. 1887), Jean-Martin (b. 1889), Oliver (b.
1891), Ernst (b. 1892), Sophie (b. 1893),
and Anna (b. 1895). From 1891 until they left
Vienna in 1938, Freud and his family lived
in an apartment at Berggasse 19, near Innere
Stadt, a historical district of Vienna.
In 1896, Minna Bernays, Martha Freud's sister,
became a permanent member of the Freud household
after the death of her fiancé. The close
relationship she formed with Freud led to
rumours, started by Carl Jung, of an affair.
The discovery of a Swiss hotel log of 13 August
1898, signed by Freud whilst travelling with
his sister-in-law, has been presented as evidence
of the affair.Freud began smoking tobacco
at age 24; initially a cigarette smoker, he
became a cigar smoker. He believed that smoking
enhanced his capacity to work and that he
could exercise self-control in moderating
it. Despite health warnings from colleague
Wilhelm Fliess, he remained a smoker, eventually
suffering a buccal cancer. Freud suggested
to Fliess in 1897 that addictions, including
that to tobacco, were substitutes for masturbation,
"the one great habit."Freud had greatly admired
his philosophy tutor, Brentano, who was known
for his theories of perception and introspection.
Brentano discussed the possible existence
of the unconscious mind in his Psychology
from an Empirical Standpoint (1874). Although
Brentano denied its existence, his discussion
of the unconscious probably helped introduce
Freud to the concept. Freud owned and made
use of Charles Darwin's major evolutionary
writings, and was also influenced by Eduard
von Hartmann's The Philosophy of the Unconscious
(1869). Other texts of importance to Freud
were by Fechner and Herbart with the latter’s
Psychology as Science arguably considered
to be of underrated significance in this respect.
Freud also drew on the work of Theodor Lipps
who was one of the main contemporary theorists
of the concepts of the unconscious and empathy.Though
Freud was reluctant to associate his psychoanalytic
insights with prior philosophical theories,
attention has been drawn to analogies between
his work and that of both Schopenhauer and
Nietzsche, both of whom he claimed not to
have read until late in life. One historian
concluded, based on Freud's correspondence
with his adolescent friend Eduard Silberstein,
that Freud read Nietzsche's The Birth of Tragedy
and the first two of the Untimely Meditations
when he was seventeen. In 1900, the year of
Nietzsche's death, Freud bought his collected
works; he told his friend, Fliess, that he
hoped to find in Nietzsche's works "the words
for much that remains mute in me." Later,
he said he had not yet opened them. Freud
came to treat Nietzsche's writings "as texts
to be resisted far more than to be studied."
His interest in philosophy declined after
he had decided on a career in neurology.Freud
read William Shakespeare in English throughout
his life, and it has been suggested that his
understanding of human psychology may have
been partially derived from Shakespeare's
plays.Freud's Jewish origins and his allegiance
to his secular Jewish identity were of significant
influence in the formation of his intellectual
and moral outlook, especially with respect
to his intellectual non-conformism, as he
was the first to point out in his Autobiographical
Study. They would also have a substantial
effect on the content of psychoanalytic ideas,
particularly in respect of their common concerns
with depth interpretation and “the bounding
of desire by law”.
=== Development of psychoanalysis ===
In October 1885, Freud went to Paris on a
fellowship to study with Jean-Martin Charcot,
a renowned neurologist who was conducting
scientific research into hypnosis. He was
later to recall the experience of this stay
as catalytic in turning him toward the practice
of medical psychopathology and away from a
less financially promising career in neurology
research. Charcot specialized in the study
of hysteria and susceptibility to hypnosis,
which he frequently demonstrated with patients
on stage in front of an audience.
Once he had set up in private practice in
1886, Freud began using hypnosis in his clinical
work. He adopted the approach of his friend
and collaborator, Josef Breuer, in a use of
hypnosis which was different from the French
methods he had studied in that it did not
use suggestion. The treatment of one particular
patient of Breuer's proved to be transformative
for Freud's clinical practice. Described as
Anna O., she was invited to talk about her
symptoms while under hypnosis (she would coin
the phrase "talking cure" for her treatment).
In the course of talking in this way these
symptoms became reduced in severity as she
retrieved memories of traumatic incidents
associated with their onset.
The uneven results of Freud's early clinical
work eventually led him to abandon hypnosis,
having reached the conclusion that more consistent
and effective symptom relief could be achieved
by encouraging patients to talk freely, without
censorship or inhibition, about whatever ideas
or memories occurred to them. In conjunction
with this procedure, which he called "free
association", Freud found that patients' dreams
could be fruitfully analyzed to reveal the
complex structuring of unconscious material
and to demonstrate the psychic action of repression
which, he had concluded, underlay symptom
formation. By 1896 he was using the term "psychoanalysis"
to refer to his new clinical method and the
theories on which it was based.
Freud's development of these new theories
took place during a period in which he experienced
heart irregularities, disturbing dreams and
periods of depression, a "neurasthenia" which
he linked to the death of his father in 1896
and which prompted a "self-analysis" of his
own dreams and memories of childhood. His
explorations of his feelings of hostility
to his father and rivalrous jealousy over
his mother's affections led him to fundamentally
revise his theory of the origin of the neuroses.
On the basis of his early clinical work, Freud
had postulated that unconscious memories of
sexual molestation in early childhood were
a necessary precondition for the psychoneuroses
(hysteria and obsessional neurosis), a formulation
now known as Freud's seduction theory. In
the light of his self-analysis, Freud abandoned
the theory that every neurosis can be traced
back to the effects of infantile sexual abuse,
now arguing that infantile sexual scenarios
still had a causative function, but it did
not matter whether they were real or imagined
and that in either case they became pathogenic
only when acting as repressed memories.This
transition from the theory of infantile sexual
trauma as a general explanation of how all
neuroses originate to one that presupposes
an autonomous infantile sexuality provided
the basis for Freud's subsequent formulation
of the theory of the Oedipus complex.Freud
described the evolution of his clinical method
and set out his theory of the psychogenetic
origins of hysteria, demonstrated in a number
of case histories, in Studies on Hysteria
published in 1895 (co-authored with Josef
Breuer). In 1899 he published The Interpretation
of Dreams in which, following a critical review
of existing theory, Freud gives detailed interpretations
of his own and his patients' dreams in terms
of wish-fulfillments made subject to the repression
and censorship of the "dream work". He then
sets out the theoretical model of mental structure
(the unconscious, pre-conscious and conscious)
on which this account is based. An abridged
version, On Dreams, was published in 1901.
In works which would win him a more general
readership, Freud applied his theories outside
the clinical setting in The Psychopathology
of Everyday Life (1901) and Jokes and their
Relation to the Unconscious (1905). In Three
Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, published
in 1905, Freud elaborates his theory of infantile
sexuality, describing its "polymorphous perverse"
forms and the functioning of the "drives",
to which it gives rise, in the formation of
sexual identity. The same year he published
‘Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria
(Dora)' which became one of his more famous
and controversial case studies.
=== Relationship with Fliess ===
During this formative period of his work,
Freud valued and came to rely on the intellectual
and emotional support of his friend Wilhelm
Fliess, a Berlin based ear, nose and throat
specialist whom he had first met 1887. Both
men saw themselves as isolated from the prevailing
clinical and theoretical mainstream because
of their ambitions to develop radical new
theories of sexuality. Fliess developed highly
eccentric theories of human biorhythms and
a nasogenital connection which are today considered
pseudoscientific. He shared Freud's views
on the importance of certain aspects of sexuality
— masturbation, coitus interruptus, and
the use of condoms — in the etiology of
what were then called the "actual neuroses,"
primarily neurasthenia and certain physically
manifested anxiety symptoms. They maintained
an extensive correspondence from which Freud
drew on Fliess's speculations on infantile
sexuality and bisexuality to elaborate and
revise his own ideas. His first attempt at
a systematic theory of the mind, his Project
for a Scientific Psychology was developed
as a metapsychology with Fliess as interlocutor.
However, Freud’s efforts to build a bridge
between neurology and psychology were eventually
abandoned after they had reached an impasse,
as his letters to Fliess reveal, though the
soundest ideas of the Project were to be taken
up again in the concluding chapter of The
Interpretation of Dreams.Freud had Fliess
repeatedly operate on his nose and sinuses
to treat "nasal reflex neurosis", and subsequently
referred his patient Emma Eckstein to him.
According to Freud her history of symptoms
included severe leg pains with consequent
restricted mobility, and stomach and menstrual
pains. These pains were, according to Fliess's
theories, caused by habitual masturbation
which, as the tissue of the nose and genitalia
were linked, was curable by removal of part
of the middle turbinate. Fliess's surgery
proved disastrous, resulting in profuse, recurrent
nasal bleeding - he had left a half-metre
of gauze in Eckstein's nasal cavity the subsequent
removal of which left her permanently disfigured.
At first, though aware of Fliess's culpability
– Freud fled from the remedial surgery in
horror – he could only bring himself to
delicately intimate in his correspondence
to Fliess the nature of his disastrous role
and in subsequent letters maintained a tactful
silence on the matter or else returned to
the face-saving topic of Eckstein's hysteria.
Freud ultimately, in light of Eckstein's history
of adolescent self-cutting and irregular nasal
and menstrual bleeding, concluded that Fliess
was "completely without blame", as Eckstein's
post-operative hemorrhages were hysterical
"wish-bleedings" linked to "an old wish to
be loved in her illness" and triggered as
a means of "rearousing [Freud's] affection".
Eckstein nonetheless continued her analysis
with Freud. She was restored to full mobility
and went on to practice psychoanalysis herself.Freud,
who had called Fliess "the Kepler of biology",
later concluded that a combination of a homoerotic
attachment and the residue of his "specifically
Jewish mysticism" lay behind his loyalty to
his Jewish friend and his consequent over-estimation
of both his theoretical and clinical work.
Their friendship came to an acrimonious end
with Fliess angry at Freud's unwillingness
to endorse his general theory of sexual periodicity
and accusing him of collusion in the plagiarism
of his work. After Fliess failed to respond
to Freud's offer of collaboration over publication
of his Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality
in 1906, their relationship came to an end.
=== Early followers ===
In 1902, Freud at last realised his long-standing
ambition to be made a university professor.
The title "professor extraordinarius" was
important to Freud for the recognition and
prestige it conferred, there being no salary
or teaching duties attached to the post (he
would be granted the enhanced status of "professor
ordinarius" in 1920). Despite support from
the university, his appointment had been blocked
in successive years by the political authorities
and it was secured only with the intervention
of one of his more influential ex-patients,
a Baroness Marie Ferstel, who had to bribe
the minister of education with a painting.With
his prestige thus enhanced, Freud continued
with the regular series of lectures on his
work which, since the mid-1880s as a docent
of Vienna University, he had been delivering
to small audiences every Saturday evening
at the lecture hall of the university's psychiatric
clinic.From the autumn of 1902, a number of
Viennese physicians who had expressed interest
in Freud's work were invited to meet at his
apartment every Wednesday afternoon to discuss
issues relating to psychology and neuropathology.
This group was called the Wednesday Psychological
Society (Psychologische Mittwochs-Gesellschaft)
and it marked the beginnings of the worldwide
psychoanalytic movement.Freud founded this
discussion group at the suggestion of the
physician Wilhelm Stekel. Stekel had studied
medicine at the University of Vienna under
Richard von Krafft-Ebing. His conversion to
psychoanalysis is variously attributed to
his successful treatment by Freud for a sexual
problem or as a result of his reading The
Interpretation of Dreams, to which he subsequently
gave a positive review in the Viennese daily
newspaper Neues Wiener Tagblatt.The other
three original members whom Freud invited
to attend, Alfred Adler, Max Kahane, and Rudolf
Reitler, were also physicians and all five
were Jewish by birth. Both Kahane and Reitler
were childhood friends of Freud. Kahane had
attended the same secondary school and both
he and Reitler went to university with Freud.
They had kept abreast of Freud's developing
ideas through their attendance at his Saturday
evening lectures. In 1901, Kahane, who first
introduced Stekel to Freud's work, had opened
an out-patient psychotherapy institute of
which he was the director in Bauernmarkt,
in Vienna. In the same year, his medical textbook,
Outline of Internal Medicine for Students
and Practicing Physicians, was published.
In it, he provided an outline of Freud's psychoanalytic
method. Kahane broke with Freud and left the
Wednesday Psychological Society in 1907 for
unknown reasons and in 1923 committed suicide.
Reitler was the director of an establishment
providing thermal cures in Dorotheergasse
which had been founded in 1901. He died prematurely
in 1917. Adler, regarded as the most formidable
intellect among the early Freud circle, was
a socialist who in 1898 had written a health
manual for the tailoring trade. He was particularly
interested in the potential social impact
of psychiatry.Max Graf, a Viennese musicologist
and father of "Little Hans", who had first
encountered Freud in 1900 and joined the Wednesday
group soon after its initial inception, described
the ritual and atmosphere of the early meetings
of the society:
The gatherings followed a definite ritual.
First one of the members would present a paper.
Then, black coffee and cakes were served;
cigar and cigarettes were on the table and
were consumed in great quantities. After a
social quarter of an hour, the discussion
would begin. The last and decisive word was
always spoken by Freud himself. There was
the atmosphere of the foundation of a religion
in that room. Freud himself was its new prophet
who made the heretofore prevailing methods
of psychological investigation appear superficial.
By 1906, the group had grown to sixteen members,
including Otto Rank, who was employed as the
group's paid secretary. In the same year,
Freud began a correspondence with Carl Gustav
Jung who was by then already an academically
acclaimed researcher into word-association
and the Galvanic Skin Response, and a lecturer
at Zurich University, although still only
an assistant to Eugen Bleuler at the Burghölzli
Mental Hospital in Zürich. In March 1907,
Jung and Ludwig Binswanger, also a Swiss psychiatrist,
travelled to Vienna to visit Freud and attend
the discussion group. Thereafter, they established
a small psychoanalytic group in Zürich. In
1908, reflecting its growing institutional
status, the Wednesday group was renamed the
Vienna Psychoanalytic Society.In 1911, the
first women members were admitted to the Society.
Tatiana Rosenthal and Sabina Spielrein were
both Russian psychiatrists and graduates of
the Zürich University medical school. Prior
to the completion of her studies, Spielrein
had been a patient of Jung at the Burghölzli
and the clinical and personal details of their
relationship became the subject of an extensive
correspondence between Freud and Jung. Both
women would go on to make important contributions
to the work of the Russian Psychoanalytic
Society founded in 1910.Freud's early followers
met together formally for the first time at
the Hotel Bristol, Salzburg on 27 April 1908.
This meeting, which was retrospectively deemed
to be the first International Psychoanalytic
Congress, was convened at the suggestion of
Ernest Jones, then a London-based neurologist
who had discovered Freud's writings and begun
applying psychoanalytic methods in his clinical
work. Jones had met Jung at a conference the
previous year and they met up again in Zürich
to organize the Congress. There were, as Jones
records, "forty-two present, half of whom
were or became practicing analysts." In addition
to Jones and the Viennese and Zürich contingents
accompanying Freud and Jung, also present
and notable for their subsequent importance
in the psychoanalytic movement were Karl Abraham
and Max Eitingon from Berlin, Sándor Ferenczi
from Budapest and the New York-based Abraham
Brill.
Important decisions were taken at the Congress
with a view to advancing the impact of Freud's
work. A journal, the Jahrbuch für psychoanalytische
und psychopathologishe Forschungen, was launched
in 1909 under the editorship of Jung. This
was followed in 1910 by the monthly Zentralblatt
für Psychoanalyse edited by Adler and Stekel,
in 1911 by Imago, a journal devoted to the
application of psychoanalysis to the field
of cultural and literary studies edited by
Rank and in 1913 by the Internationale Zeitschrift
für Psychoanalyse, also edited by Rank. Plans
for an international association of psychoanalysts
were put in place and these were implemented
at the Nuremberg Congress of 1910 where Jung
was elected, with Freud's support, as its
first president.
Freud turned to Brill and Jones to further
his ambition to spread the psychoanalytic
cause in the English-speaking world. Both
were invited to Vienna following the Salzburg
Congress and a division of labour was agreed
with Brill given the translation rights for
Freud's works, and Jones, who was to take
up a post at the University of Toronto later
in the year, tasked with establishing a platform
for Freudian ideas in North American academic
and medical life. Jones's advocacy prepared
the way for Freud's visit to the United States,
accompanied by Jung and Ferenczi, in September
1909 at the invitation of Stanley Hall, president
of Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts,
where he gave five lectures on psychoanalysis.The
event, at which Freud was awarded an Honorary
Doctorate, marked the first public recognition
of Freud's work and attracted widespread media
interest. Freud's audience included the distinguished
neurologist and psychiatrist James Jackson
Putnam, Professor of Diseases of the Nervous
System at Harvard, who invited Freud to his
country retreat where they held extensive
discussions over a period of four days. Putnam's
subsequent public endorsement of Freud's work
represented a significant breakthrough for
the psychoanalytic cause in the United States.
When Putnam and Jones organised the founding
of the American Psychoanalytic Association
in May 1911 they were elected president and
secretary respectively. Brill founded the
New York Psychoanalytic Society the same year.
His English translations of Freud's work began
to appear from 1909.
==== Resignations from the IPA ====
Some of Freud's followers subsequently withdrew
from the International Psychoanalytical Association
(IPA) and founded their own schools.
From 1909, Adler's views on topics such as
neurosis began to differ markedly from those
held by Freud. As Adler's position appeared
increasingly incompatible with Freudianism,
a series of confrontations between their respective
viewpoints took place at the meetings of the
Viennese Psychoanalytic Society in January
and February 1911. In February 1911, Adler,
then the president of the society, resigned
his position. At this time, Stekel also resigned
his position as vice president of the society.
Adler finally left the Freudian group altogether
in June 1911 to found his own organization
with nine other members who had also resigned
from the group. This new formation was initially
called Society for Free Psychoanalysis but
it was soon renamed the Society for Individual
Psychology. In the period after World War
I, Adler became increasingly associated with
a psychological position he devised called
individual psychology.
In 1912, Jung published Wandlungen und Symbole
der Libido (published in English in 1916 as
Psychology of the Unconscious) making it clear
that his views were taking a direction quite
different from those of Freud. To distinguish
his system from psychoanalysis, Jung called
it analytical psychology. Anticipating the
final breakdown of the relationship between
Freud and Jung, Ernest Jones initiated the
formation of a secret Committee of loyalists
charged with safeguarding the theoretical
coherence and institutional legacy of the
psychoanalytic movement. Formed in the autumn
of 1912, the Committee comprised Freud, Jones,
Abraham, Ferenczi, Rank, and Hanns Sachs.
Max Eitingon joined the Committee in 1919.
Each member pledged himself not to make any
public departure from the fundamental tenets
of psychoanalytic theory before he had discussed
his views with the others. After this development,
Jung recognised that his position was untenable
and resigned as editor of the Jarhbuch and
then as president of the IPA in April 1914.
The Zürich Society withdrew from the IPA
the following July.Later the same year, Freud
published a paper entitled "The History of
the Psychoanalytic Movement", the German original
being first published in the Jahrbuch, giving
his view on the birth and evolution of the
psychoanalytic movement and the withdrawal
of Adler and Jung from it.
The final defection from Freud's inner circle
occurred following the publication in 1924
of Rank's The Trauma of Birth which other
members of the committee read as, in effect,
abandoning the Oedipus Complex as the central
tenet of psychoanalytic theory. Abraham and
Jones became increasingly forceful critics
of Rank and though he and Freud were reluctant
to end their close and long-standing relationship
the break finally came in 1926 when Rank resigned
from his official posts in the IPA and left
Vienna for Paris. His place on the committee
was taken by Anna Freud. Rank eventually settled
in the United States where his revisions of
Freudian theory were to influence a new generation
of therapists uncomfortable with the orthodoxies
of the IPA.
=== Early psychoanalytic movement ===
After the founding of the IPA in 1910, an
international network of psychoanalytical
societies, training institutes and clinics
became well established and a regular schedule
of biannual Congresses commenced after the
end of World War I to coordinate their activities.Abraham
and Eitingon founded the Berlin Psychoanalytic
Society in 1910 and then the Berlin Psychoanalytic
Institute and the Poliklinik in 1920. The
Poliklinik's innovations of free treatment,
and child analysis and the Berlin Institute's
standardisation of psychoanalytic training
had a major influence on the wider psychoanalytic
movement. In 1927 Ernst Simmel founded the
Schloss Tegel Sanatorium on the outskirts
of Berlin, the first such establishment to
provide psychoanalytic treatment in an institutional
framework. Freud organised a fund to help
finance its activities and his architect son,
Ernst, was commissioned to refurbish the building.
It was forced to close in 1931 for economic
reasons.The 1910 Moscow Psychoanalytic Society
became the Russian Psychoanalytic Society
and Institute in 1922. Freud's Russian followers
were the first to benefit from translations
of his work, the 1904 Russian translation
of The Interpretation of Dreams appearing
nine years before Brill's English edition.
The Russian Institute was unique in receiving
state support for its activities, including
publication of translations of Freud's works.
Support was abruptly annulled in 1924, when
Joseph Stalin came to power, after which psychoanalysis
was denounced on ideological grounds.After
helping found the American Psychoanalytic
Association in 1911, Ernest Jones returned
to Britain from Canada in 1913 and founded
the London Psychoanalytic Society the same
year. In 1919, he dissolved this organisation
and, with its core membership purged of Jungian
adherents, founded the British Psychoanalytical
Society, serving as its president until 1944.
The Institute of Psychoanalysis was established
1924 and the London Clinic of Psychoanalysis
established in 1926, both under Jones's directorship.The
Vienna Ambulatorium (Clinic) was established
in 1922 and the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute
was founded in 1924 under the directorship
of Helene Deutsch. Ferenczi founded the Budapest
Psychoanalytic Institute in 1913 and a clinic
in 1929.
Psychoanalytic societies and institutes were
established in Switzerland (1919), France
(1926), Italy (1932), the Netherlands (1933),
Norway (1933) and in Palestine (Jerusalem,
1933) by Eitingon, who had fled Berlin after
Adolf Hitler came to power. The New York Psychoanalytic
Institute was founded in 1931.
The 1922 Berlin Congress was the last Freud
attended. By this time his speech had become
seriously impaired by the prosthetic device
he needed as a result of a series of operations
on his cancerous jaw. He kept abreast of developments
through a regular correspondence with his
principal followers and via the circular letters
and meetings of the secret Committee which
he continued to attend.
The Committee continued to function until
1927 by which time institutional developments
within the IPA, such as the establishment
of the International Training Commission,
had addressed concerns about the transmission
of psychoanalytic theory and practice. There
remained, however, significant differences
over the issue of lay analysis - i.e. the
acceptance of non-medically qualified candidates
for psychoanalytic training. Freud set out
his case in favour in 1926 in his The Question
of Lay Analysis. He was resolutely opposed
by the American societies who expressed concerns
over professional standards and the risk of
litigation (though child analysts were made
exempt). These concerns were also shared by
some of his European colleagues. Eventually
an agreement was reached allowing societies
autonomy in setting criteria for candidature.In
1930 Freud was awarded the Goethe Prize in
recognition of his contributions to psychology
and to German literary culture.
=== Patients ===
Freud used pseudonyms in his case histories.
Some patients known by pseudonyms were Cäcilie
M. (Anna von Lieben); Dora (Ida Bauer, 1882–1945);
Frau Emmy von N. (Fanny Moser); Fräulein
Elisabeth von R. (Ilona Weiss); Fräulein
Katharina (Aurelia Kronich); Fräulein Lucy
R.; Little Hans (Herbert Graf, 1903–1973);
Rat Man (Ernst Lanzer, 1878–1914); Enos
Fingy (Joshua Wild, 1878–1920); and Wolf
Man (Sergei Pankejeff, 1887–1979). Other
famous patients included Prince Pedro Augusto
of Brazil (1866-1934); H.D. (1886–1961);
Emma Eckstein (1865–1924); Gustav Mahler
(1860–1911), with whom Freud had only a
single, extended consultation; Princess Marie
Bonaparte; Edith Banfield Jackson (1895–1977);
and Albert Hirst (1887–1974).
=== Cancer ===
In February 1923, Freud detected a leukoplakia,
a benign growth associated with heavy smoking,
on his mouth. Freud initially kept this secret,
but in April 1923 he informed Ernest Jones,
telling him that the growth had been removed.
Freud consulted the dermatologist Maximilian
Steiner, who advised him to quit smoking but
lied about the growth's seriousness, minimizing
its importance. Freud later saw Felix Deutsch,
who saw that the growth was cancerous; he
identified it to Freud using the euphemism
"a bad leukoplakia" instead of the technical
diagnosis epithelioma. Deutsch advised Freud
to stop smoking and have the growth excised.
Freud was treated by Marcus Hajek, a rhinologist
whose competence he had previously questioned.
Hajek performed an unnecessary cosmetic surgery
in his clinic's outpatient department. Freud
bled during and after the operation, and may
narrowly have escaped death. Freud subsequently
saw Deutsch again. Deutsch saw that further
surgery would be required, but did not tell
Freud that he had cancer because he was worried
that Freud might wish to commit suicide.
=== Escape from Nazism ===
In January 1933, the Nazi Party took control
of Germany, and Freud's books were prominent
among those they burned and destroyed. Freud
remarked to Ernest Jones: "What progress we
are making. In the Middle Ages they would
have burned me. Now, they are content with
burning my books." Freud continued to underestimate
the growing Nazi threat and remained determined
to stay in Vienna, even following the Anschluss
of 13 March 1938, in which Nazi Germany annexed
Austria, and the outbreaks of violent anti-Semitism
that ensued. Jones, the then president of
the International Psychoanalytical Association
(IPA), flew into Vienna from London via Prague
on 15 March determined to get Freud to change
his mind and seek exile in Britain. This prospect
and the shock of the arrest and interrogation
of Anna Freud by the Gestapo finally convinced
Freud it was time to leave Austria. Jones
left for London the following week with a
list provided by Freud of the party of émigrés
for whom immigration permits would be required.
Back in London, Jones used his personal acquaintance
with the Home Secretary, Sir Samuel Hoare,
to expedite the granting of permits. There
were seventeen in all and work permits were
provided where relevant. Jones also used his
influence in scientific circles, persuading
the president of the Royal Society, Sir William
Bragg, to write to the Foreign Secretary Lord
Halifax, requesting to good effect that diplomatic
pressure be applied in Berlin and Vienna on
Freud's behalf. Freud also had support from
American diplomats, notably his ex-patient
and American ambassador to France, William
Bullitt. Bullitt alerted US President Roosevelt
to the increased dangers facing the Freuds,
resulting in the American consul-general in
Vienna, John Cooper Wiley, arranging regular
monitoring of Berggasse 19. He also intervened
by phone call during the Gestapo interrogation
of Anna Freud.The departure from Vienna began
in stages throughout April and May 1938. Freud's
grandson Ernst Halberstadt and Freud's son
Martin's wife and children left for Paris
in April. Freud's sister-in-law, Minna Bernays,
left for London on 5 May, Martin Freud the
following week and Freud's daughter Mathilde
and her husband, Robert Hollitscher, on 24
May.By the end of the month, arrangements
for Freud's own departure for London had become
stalled, mired in a legally tortuous and financially
extortionate process of negotiation with the
Nazi authorities. Under regulations imposed
on its Jewish population by the new Nazi regime,
a Kommissar was appointed to manage Freud's
assets and those of the IPA whose headquarters
were nearby Freud’s home. Freud was allocated
to Dr. Anton Sauerwald, who had studied chemistry
at Vienna University under Professor Josef
Herzig, an old friend of Freud's. Sauerwald
read Freud's books to further learn about
him and became sympathetic towards his situation.
Though required to disclose details of all
Freud's bank accounts to his superiors and
to arrange the destruction of the historic
library of books housed in the offices of
the IPA, Sauerwald did neither. Instead he
removed evidence of Freud's foreign bank accounts
to his own safe-keeping and arranged the storage
of the IPA library in the Austrian National
Library where it remained until the end of
the war.Though Sauerwald's intervention lessened
the financial burden of the "flight" tax on
Freud's declared assets, other substantial
charges were levied in relation to the debts
of the IPA and the valuable collection of
antiquities Freud possessed. Unable to access
his own accounts, Freud turned to Princess
Marie Bonaparte, the most eminent and wealthy
of his French followers, who had travelled
to Vienna to offer her support and it was
she who made the necessary funds available.
This allowed Sauerwald to sign the necessary
exit visas for Freud, his wife Martha and
daughter Anna. They left Vienna on the Orient
Express on 4 June, accompanied by their housekeeper
and a doctor, arriving in Paris the following
day where they stayed as guests of Princess
Bonaparte before travelling overnight to London
arriving at Victoria Station on 6 June.
Among those soon to call on Freud to pay their
respects were Salvador Dalí, Stefan Zweig,
Leonard Woolf, Virginia Woolf and H. G. Wells.
Representatives of the Royal Society called
with the Society's Charter for Freud, who
had been elected a Foreign Member in 1936,
to sign himself into membership. Princess
Bonaparte arrived towards the end of June
to discuss the fate of Freud's four elderly
sisters left behind in Vienna. Her subsequent
attempts to get them exit visas failed and
they would all die in Nazi concentration camps.
In early 1939 Sauerwald arrived in London
in mysterious circumstances where he met Freud's
brother Alexander. He was tried and imprisoned
in 1945 by an Austrian court for his activities
as a Nazi Party official. Responding to a
plea from his wife, Anna Freud wrote to confirm
that Sauerwald "used his office as our appointed
commissar in such a manner as to protect my
father". Her intervention helped secure his
release from jail in 1947.In the Freuds' new
home, 20 Maresfield Gardens, Hampstead, North
London, Freud's Vienna consulting room was
recreated in faithful detail. He continued
to see patients there until the terminal stages
of his illness. He also worked on his last
books, Moses and Monotheism, published in
German in 1938 and in English the following
year and the uncompleted An Outline of Psychoanalysis
which was published posthumously.
=== Death ===
By mid-September 1939, Freud's cancer of the
jaw was causing him increasingly severe pain
and had been declared to be inoperable. The
last book he read, Balzac's La Peau de chagrin,
prompted reflections on his own increasing
frailty and a few days later he turned to
his doctor, friend and fellow refugee, Max
Schur, reminding him that they had previously
discussed the terminal stages of his illness:
"Schur, you remember our 'contract' not to
leave me in the lurch when the time had come.
Now it is nothing but torture and makes no
sense." When Schur replied that he had not
forgotten, Freud said, "I thank you," and
then "Talk it over with Anna, and if she thinks
it's right, then make an end of it." Anna
Freud wanted to postpone her father's death,
but Schur convinced her it was pointless to
keep him alive and on 21 and 22 September
administered doses of morphine that resulted
in Freud's death around 3 am on 23 September
1939. However, discrepancies in the various
accounts Schur gave of his role in Freud's
final hours, which have in turn led to inconsistencies
between Freud's main biographers, has led
to further research and a revised account.
This proposes that Schur was absent from Freud's
deathbed when a third and final dose of morphine
was administered by Dr Josephine Stross, a
colleague of Anna Freud's, leading to Freud's
death around midnight on 23 September 1939.Three
days after his death Freud's body was cremated
at the Golders Green Crematorium in North
London, with Harrods acting as funeral directors,
on the instructions of his son, Ernst. Funeral
orations were given by Ernest Jones and the
Austrian author Stefan Zweig. Freud's ashes
were later placed in the crematorium's Ernest
George Columbarium. They rest on a plinth
designed by his son, Ernst, in a sealed ancient
Greek krater painted with Dionysian scenes
that Freud had received as a gift from Princess
Bonaparte and which he had kept in his study
in Vienna for many years. After his wife,
Martha, died in 1951, her ashes were also
placed in the urn.
== Ideas ==
=== 
Early work ===
Freud began his study of medicine at the University
of Vienna in 1873. He took almost nine years
to complete his studies, due to his interest
in neurophysiological research, specifically
investigation of the sexual anatomy of eels
and the physiology of the fish nervous system,
and because of his interest in studying philosophy
with Franz Brentano. He entered private practice
in neurology for financial reasons, receiving
his M.D. degree in 1881 at the age of 25.
Amongst his principal concerns in the 1880s
was the anatomy of the brain, specifically
the medulla oblongata. He intervened in the
important debates about aphasia with his monograph
of 1891, Zur Auffassung der Aphasien, in which
he coined the term agnosia and counselled
against a too locationist view of the explanation
of neurological deficits. Like his contemporary
Eugen Bleuler, he emphasized brain function
rather than brain structure.
Freud was also an early researcher in the
field of cerebral palsy, which was then known
as "cerebral paralysis". He published several
medical papers on the topic, and showed that
the disease existed long before other researchers
of the period began to notice and study it.
He also suggested that William John Little,
the man who first identified cerebral palsy,
was wrong about lack of oxygen during birth
being a cause. Instead, he suggested that
complications in birth were only a symptom.
Freud hoped that his research would provide
a solid scientific basis for his therapeutic
technique. The goal of Freudian therapy, or
psychoanalysis, was to bring repressed thoughts
and feelings into consciousness in order to
free the patient from suffering repetitive
distorted emotions.
Classically, the bringing of unconscious thoughts
and feelings to consciousness is brought about
by encouraging a patient to talk about dreams
and engage in free association, in which patients
report their thoughts without reservation
and make no attempt to concentrate while doing
so. Another important element of psychoanalysis
is transference, the process by which patients
displace onto their analysts feelings and
ideas which derive from previous figures in
their lives. Transference was first seen as
a regrettable phenomenon that interfered with
the recovery of repressed memories and disturbed
patients' objectivity, but by 1912, Freud
had come to see it as an essential part of
the therapeutic process.The origin of Freud's
early work with psychoanalysis can be linked
to Josef Breuer. Freud credited Breuer with
opening the way to the discovery of the psychoanalytical
method by his treatment of the case of Anna
O. In November 1880, Breuer was called in
to treat a highly intelligent 21-year-old
woman (Bertha Pappenheim) for a persistent
cough that he diagnosed as hysterical. He
found that while nursing her dying father,
she had developed a number of transitory symptoms,
including visual disorders and paralysis and
contractures of limbs, which he also diagnosed
as hysterical. Breuer began to see his patient
almost every day as the symptoms increased
and became more persistent, and observed that
she entered states of absence. He found that
when, with his encouragement, she told fantasy
stories in her evening states of absence her
condition improved, and most of her symptoms
had disappeared by April 1881. Following the
death of her father in that month her condition
deteriorated again. Breuer recorded that some
of the symptoms eventually remitted spontaneously,
and that full recovery was achieved by inducing
her to recall events that had precipitated
the occurrence of a specific symptom. In the
years immediately following Breuer's treatment,
Anna O. spent three short periods in sanatoria
with the diagnosis "hysteria" with "somatic
symptoms", and some authors have challenged
Breuer's published account of a cure. Richard
Skues rejects this interpretation, which he
sees as stemming from both Freudian and anti-psychoanalytical
revisionism, that regards both Breuer's narrative
of the case as unreliable and his treatment
of Anna O. as a failure. Psychologist Frank
Sulloway contends that "Freud's case histories
are rampant with censorship, distortions,
highly dubious 'reconstructions,' and exaggerated
claims."
=== 
Seduction theory ===
In the early 1890s, Freud used a form of treatment
based on the one that Breuer had described
to him, modified by what he called his "pressure
technique" and his newly developed analytic
technique of interpretation and reconstruction.
According to Freud's later accounts of this
period, as a result of his use of this procedure
most of his patients in the mid-1890s reported
early childhood sexual abuse. He believed
these stories, which he used as the basis
for his seduction theory, but then he came
to believe that they were fantasies. He explained
these at first as having the function of "fending
off" memories of infantile masturbation, but
in later years he wrote that they represented
Oedipal fantasies, stemming from innate drives
that are sexual and destructive in nature.Another
version of events focuses on Freud's proposing
that unconscious memories of infantile sexual
abuse were at the root of the psychoneuroses
in letters to Fliess in October 1895, before
he reported that he had actually discovered
such abuse among his patients. In the first
half of 1896, Freud published three papers,
which led to his seduction theory, stating
that he had uncovered, in all of his current
patients, deeply repressed memories of sexual
abuse in early childhood. In these papers,
Freud recorded that his patients were not
consciously aware of these memories, and must
therefore be present as unconscious memories
if they were to result in hysterical symptoms
or obsessional neurosis. The patients were
subjected to considerable pressure to "reproduce"
infantile sexual abuse "scenes" that Freud
was convinced had been repressed into the
unconscious. Patients were generally unconvinced
that their experiences of Freud's clinical
procedure indicated actual sexual abuse. He
reported that even after a supposed "reproduction"
of sexual scenes the patients assured him
emphatically of their disbelief.As well as
his pressure technique, Freud's clinical procedures
involved analytic inference and the symbolic
interpretation of symptoms to trace back to
memories of infantile sexual abuse. His claim
of one hundred percent confirmation of his
theory only served to reinforce previously
expressed reservations from his colleagues
about the validity of findings obtained through
his suggestive techniques. Freud subsequently
showed inconsistency as to whether his seduction
theory was still compatible with his later
findings. In an addendum to The Aetiology
of Hysteria he stated: "All this is true [the
sexual abuse of children]; but it must be
remembered that at the time I wrote it I had
not yet freed myself from my overvaluation
of reality and my low valuation of phantasy".
Some years later Freud explicitly rejected
the claim of his colleague Ferenczi that his
patients’ reports of sexual molestation
were actual memories instead of fantasies,
and he tried to dissuade Ferenczi from making
his views public. Karin Ahbel-Rappe concludes
in her study "'I no longer believe': did Freud
abandon the seduction theory?’’: "Freud
marked out and started down a trail of investigation
into the nature of the experience of infantile
incest and its impact on the human psyche,
and then abandoned this direction for the
most part."
=== 
Cocaine ===
As a medical researcher, Freud was an early
user and proponent of cocaine as a stimulant
as well as analgesic. He believed that cocaine
was a cure for many mental and physical problems,
and in his 1884 paper "On Coca" he extolled
its virtues. Between 1883 and 1887 he wrote
several articles recommending medical applications,
including its use as an antidepressant. He
narrowly missed out on obtaining scientific
priority for discovering its anesthetic properties
of which he was aware but had mentioned only
in passing. (Karl Koller, a colleague of Freud's
in Vienna, received that distinction in 1884
after reporting to a medical society the ways
cocaine could be used in delicate eye surgery.)
Freud also recommended cocaine as a cure for
morphine addiction. He had introduced cocaine
to his friend Ernst von Fleischl-Marxow who
had become addicted to morphine taken to relieve
years of excruciating nerve pain resulting
from an infection acquired while performing
an autopsy. His claim that Fleischl-Marxow
was cured of his addiction was premature,
though he never acknowledged he had been at
fault. Fleischl-Marxow developed an acute
case of "cocaine psychosis", and soon returned
to using morphine, dying a few years later
after more suffering from intolerable pain.The
application as an anesthetic turned out to
be one of the few safe uses of cocaine, and
as reports of addiction and overdose began
to filter in from many places in the world,
Freud's medical reputation became somewhat
tarnished.After the "Cocaine Episode" Freud
ceased to publicly recommend use of the drug,
but continued to take it himself occasionally
for depression, migraine and nasal inflammation
during the early 1890s, before discontinuing
in 1896.
=== The Unconscious ===
The concept of the unconscious was central
to Freud's account of the mind. Freud believed
that while poets and thinkers had long known
of the existence of the unconscious, he had
ensured that it received scientific recognition
in the field of psychology. The concept made
an informal appearance in Freud's writings.
The unconscious was first introduced in connection
with the phenomenon of repression, to explain
what happens to ideas that are repressed.
Freud stated explicitly that the concept of
the unconscious was based on the theory of
repression. He postulated a cycle in which
ideas are repressed, but remain in the mind,
removed from consciousness yet operative,
then reappear in consciousness under certain
circumstances. The postulate was based upon
the investigation of cases of traumatic hysteria,
which revealed cases where the behavior of
patients could not be explained without reference
to ideas or thoughts of which they had no
awareness. This fact, combined with the observation
that such behavior could be artificially induced
by hypnosis, in which ideas were inserted
into people's minds, suggested that ideas
were operative in the original cases, even
though their subjects knew nothing of them.
Freud, like Josef Breuer, found the hypothesis
that hysterical manifestations were generated
by ideas to be not only warranted, but given
in observation. Disagreement between them
arose when they attempted to give causal explanations
of their data: Breuer favored a hypothesis
of hypnoid states, while Freud postulated
the mechanism of defense. Richard Wollheim
comments that given the close correspondence
between hysteria and the results of hypnosis,
Breuer's hypothesis appears more plausible,
and that it is only when repression is taken
into account that Freud's hypothesis becomes
preferable.Freud originally allowed that repression
might be a conscious process, but by the time
he wrote his second paper on the "Neuro-Psychoses
of Defence" (1896), he apparently believed
that repression, which he referred to as "the
psychical mechanism of (unconscious) defense",
occurred on an unconscious level. Freud further
developed his theories about the unconscious
in The Interpretation of Dreams (1899) and
in Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious
(1905), where he dealt with condensation and
displacement as inherent characteristics of
unconscious mental activity. Freud presented
his first systematic statement of his hypotheses
about unconscious mental processes in 1912,
in response to an invitation from the London
Society of Psychical Research to contribute
to its Proceedings. In 1915, Freud expanded
that statement into a more ambitious metapsychological
paper, entitled "The Unconscious". In both
these papers, when Freud tried to distinguish
between his conception of the unconscious
and those that predated psychoanalysis, he
found it in his postulation of ideas that
are simultaneously latent and operative.
=== Dreams ===
Freud believed that the function of dreams
is to preserve sleep by representing as fulfilled
wishes that would otherwise awaken the dreamer.In
Freud's theory dreams are instigated by the
daily occurrences and thoughts of everyday
life. His claim that they function as wish
fulfillments is based on an account of the
"dreamwork" in terms of a transformation of
"secondary process" thought, governed by the
rules of language and the reality principle,
into the "primary process" of unconscious
thought governed by the pleasure principle,
wish gratification and the repressed sexual
scenarios of childhood.In order to preserve
sleep the dreamwork disguises the repressed
or "latent" content of the dream in an interplay
of words and images which Freud describes
in terms of condensation, displacement and
distortion. This produces the "manifest content"
of the dream as recounted in the dream narrative.
For Freud an unpleasant manifest content may
still represent the fulfilment of a wish on
the level of the latent content. In the clinical
setting Freud encouraged free association
to the dream's manifest content in order to
facilitate access to its latent content. Freud
believed interpreting dreams in this way could
provide important insights into the formation
of neurotic symptoms and contribute to the
mitigation of their pathological effects.
=== Psychosexual development ===
Freud's theory of psychosexual development
proposes that, following on from the initial
polymorphous perversity of infantile sexuality,
the sexual "drives" pass through the distinct
developmental phases of the oral, the anal,
and the phallic. Though these phases then
give way to a latency stage of reduced sexual
interest and activity (from the age of five
to puberty, approximately), they leave, to
a greater or lesser extent, a "perverse" and
bisexual residue which persists during the
formation of adult genital sexuality. Freud
argued that neurosis or perversion could be
explained in terms of fixation or regression
to these phases whereas adult character and
cultural creativity could achieve a sublimation
of their perverse residue.After Freud's later
development of the theory of the Oedipus complex
this normative developmental trajectory becomes
formulated in terms of the child's renunciation
of incestuous desires under the phantasised
threat of (or phantasised fact of, in the
case of the girl) castration. The "dissolution"
of the Oedipus complex is then achieved when
the child's rivalrous identification with
the parental figure is transformed into the
pacifying identifications of the Ego ideal
which assume both similarity and difference
and acknowledge the separateness and autonomy
of the other.Freud hoped to prove that his
model was universally valid and turned to
ancient mythology and contemporary ethnography
for comparative material arguing that totemism
reflected a ritualized enactment of a tribal
Oedipal conflict.
=== Id, ego, and super-ego ===
Freud proposed that the human psyche could
be divided into three parts: Id, ego and super-ego.
Freud discussed this model in the 1920 essay
Beyond the Pleasure Principle, and fully elaborated
upon it in The Ego and the Id (1923), in which
he developed it as an alternative to his previous
topographic schema (i.e., conscious, unconscious
and preconscious). The id is the completely
unconscious, impulsive, childlike portion
of the psyche that operates on the "pleasure
principle" and is the source of basic impulses
and drives; it seeks immediate pleasure and
gratification.Freud acknowledged that his
use of the term Id (das Es, "the It") derives
from the writings of Georg Groddeck. The super-ego
is the moral component of the psyche, which
takes into account no special circumstances
in which the morally right thing may not be
right for a given situation. The rational
ego attempts to exact a balance between the
impractical hedonism of the id and the equally
impractical moralism of the super-ego; it
is the part of the psyche that is usually
reflected most directly in a person's actions.
When overburdened or threatened by its tasks,
it may employ defence mechanisms including
denial, repression, undoing, rationalization,
and displacement. This concept is usually
represented by the "Iceberg Model". This model
represents the roles the Id, Ego, and Super
Ego play in relation to conscious and unconscious
thought.
Freud compared the relationship between the
ego and the id to that between a charioteer
and his horses: the horses provide the energy
and drive, while the charioteer provides direction.
=== Life and death drives ===
Freud believed that the human psyche is subject
to two conflicting drives: the life drive
or libido and the death drive. The life drive
was also termed "Eros" and the death drive
"Thanatos", although Freud did not use the
latter term; "Thanatos" was introduced in
this context by Paul Federn. Freud hypothesized
that libido is a form of mental energy with
which processes, structures and object-representations
are invested.In Beyond the Pleasure Principle
(1920), Freud inferred the existence of a
death drive. Its premise was a regulatory
principle that has been described as "the
principle of psychic inertia", "the Nirvana
principle", and "the conservatism of instinct".
Its background was Freud's earlier Project
for a Scientific Psychology, where he had
defined the principle governing the mental
apparatus as its tendency to divest itself
of quantity or to reduce tension to zero.
Freud had been obliged to abandon that definition,
since it proved adequate only to the most
rudimentary kinds of mental functioning, and
replaced the idea that the apparatus tends
toward a level of zero tension with the idea
that it tends toward a minimum level of tension.Freud
in effect readopted the original definition
in Beyond the Pleasure Principle, this time
applying it to a different principle. He asserted
that on certain occasions the mind acts as
though it could eliminate tension entirely,
or in effect to reduce itself to a state of
extinction; his key evidence for this was
the existence of the compulsion to repeat.
Examples of such repetition included the dream
life of traumatic neurotics and children's
play. In the phenomenon of repetition, Freud
saw a psychic trend to work over earlier impressions,
to master them and derive pleasure from them,
a trend was prior to the pleasure principle
but not opposed to it. In addition to that
trend, there was also a principle at work
that was opposed to, and thus "beyond" the
pleasure principle. If repetition is a necessary
element in the binding of energy or adaptation,
when carried to inordinate lengths it becomes
a means of abandoning adaptations and reinstating
earlier or less evolved psychic positions.
By combining this idea with the hypothesis
that all repetition is a form of discharge,
Freud reached the conclusion that the compulsion
to repeat is an effort to restore a state
that is both historically primitive and marked
by the total draining of energy: death.
=== Melancholia ===
In his 1917 essay "Mourning and Melancholia",
Freud drew a distinction between mourning,
painful but an inevitable part of life, and
"melancholia", his term for pathological refusal
of a mourner to "decathect" from the lost
one. Freud claimed that, in normal mourning,
the ego was responsible for narcissistically
detaching the libido from the lost one as
a means of self-preservation, but that in
"melancholia", prior ambivalence towards the
lost one prevents this from occurring. Suicide,
Freud hypothesized, could result in extreme
cases, when unconscious feelings of conflict
became directed against the mourner's own
ego.
=== Femininity and female sexuality ===
Initiating what became the first debate within
psychoanalysis on femininity, Karen Horney
of the Berlin Institute set out to challenge
Freud's account of the development of feminine
sexuality. Rejecting Freud's theories of the
feminine castration complex and penis envy,
Horney argued for a primary femininity and
penis envy as a defensive formation rather
than arising from the fact, or "injury", of
biological asymmetry as Freud held. Horney
had the influential support of Melanie Klein
and Ernest Jones who coined the term "phallocentrism"
in his critique of Freud's position.In defending
Freud against this critique, feminist scholar
Jacqueline Rose has argued that it presupposes
a more normative account of female sexual
development than that given by Freud. She
notes that Freud moved from a description
of the little girl stuck with her 'inferiority'
or 'injury' in the face of the anatomy of
the little boy to an account in his later
work which explicitly describes the process
of becoming 'feminine' as an 'injury' or 'catastrophe'
for the complexity of her earlier psychic
and sexual life.According to Freud, "Elimination
of clitoral sexuality is a necessary precondition
for the development of femininity, since it
is immature and masculine in its nature."
Freud postulated the concept of "vaginal orgasm"
as separate from clitoral orgasm, achieved
by external stimulation of the clitoris. In
1905, he stated that clitoral orgasms are
purely an adolescent phenomenon and that,
upon reaching puberty, the proper response
of mature women is a change-over to vaginal
orgasms, meaning orgasms without any clitoral
stimulation. This theory has been criticized
on the grounds that Freud provided no evidence
for this basic assumption, and because it
made many women feel inadequate when they
could not achieve orgasm via vaginal intercourse
alone.
=== Religion ===
Freud regarded the monotheistic God as an
illusion based upon the infantile emotional
need for a powerful, supernatural pater familias.
He maintained that religion – once necessary
to restrain man's violent nature in the early
stages of civilization – in modern times,
can be set aside in favor of reason and science.
"Obsessive Actions and Religious Practices"
(1907) notes the likeness between faith (religious
belief) and neurotic obsession. Totem and
Taboo (1913) proposes that society and religion
begin with the patricide and eating of the
powerful paternal figure, who then becomes
a revered collective memory. These arguments
were further developed in The Future of an
Illusion (1927) in which Freud argued that
religious belief serves the function of psychological
consolation. Freud argues the belief of a
supernatural protector serves as a buffer
from man's "fear of nature" just as the belief
in an afterlife serves as a buffer from man's
fear of death. The core idea of the work is
that all of religious belief can be explained
through its function to society, not for its
relation to the truth. This is why, according
to Freud, religious beliefs are "illusions".
In Civilization and Its Discontents (1930),
he quotes his friend Romain Rolland, who described
religion as an "oceanic sensation", but says
he never experienced this feeling. Moses and
Monotheism (1937) proposes that Moses was
the tribal pater familias, killed by the Jews,
who psychologically coped with the patricide
with a reaction formation conducive to their
establishing monotheist Judaism; analogously,
he described the Roman Catholic rite of Holy
Communion as cultural evidence of the killing
and devouring of the sacred father.Moreover,
he perceived religion, with its suppression
of violence, as mediator of the societal and
personal, the public and the private, conflicts
between Eros and Thanatos, the forces of life
and death. Later works indicate Freud's pessimism
about the future of civilization, which he
noted in the 1931 edition of Civilization
and its Discontents.In a footnote of his 1909
work, Analysis of a Phobia in a Five year
old Boy, Freud theorized that the universal
fear of castration was provoked in the uncircumcised
when they perceived circumcision and that
this was "the deepest unconscious root of
anti-Semitism".
== 
Legacy ==
=== 
Psychotherapy ===
Though not the first methodology in the practice
of individual verbal psychotherapy, Freud's
psychoanalytic system came to dominate the
field from early in the twentieth century,
forming the basis for many later variants.
While these systems have adopted different
theories and techniques, all have followed
Freud by attempting to achieve psychic and
behavioral change through having patients
talk about their difficulties. Psychoanalysis
is not as influential as it once was in Europe
and the United States, though in some parts
of the world, notably Latin America, its influence
in the later 20th century expanded substantially.
Psychoanalysis also remains influential within
many contemporary schools of psychotherapy
and has led to innovative therapeutic work
in schools and with families and groups. There
is a substantial body of research which demonstrates
the efficacy of the clinical methods of psychoanalysis
and of related psychodynamic therapies in
treating a wide range of psychological disorders.The
neo-Freudians, a group including Alfred Adler,
Otto Rank, Karen Horney, Harry Stack Sullivan
and Erich Fromm, rejected Freud's theory of
instinctual drive, emphasized interpersonal
relations and self-assertiveness, and made
modifications to therapeutic practice that
reflected these theoretical shifts. Adler
originated the approach, although his influence
was indirect due to his inability to systematically
formulate his ideas. Neo-Freudian analysis
places more emphasis on the patient's relationship
with the analyst and less on exploration of
the unconscious.Carl Jung believed that the
collective unconscious, which reflects the
cosmic order and the history of the human
species, is the most important part of the
mind. It contains archetypes, which are manifested
in symbols that appear in dreams, disturbed
states of mind, and various products of culture.
Jungians are less interested in infantile
development and psychological conflict between
wishes and the forces that frustrate them
than in integration between different parts
of the person. The object of Jungian therapy
was to mend such splits. Jung focused in particular
on problems of middle and later life. His
objective was to allow people to experience
the split-off aspects of themselves, such
as the anima (a man's suppressed female self),
the animus (a woman's suppressed male self),
or the shadow (an inferior self-image), and
thereby attain wisdom.Jacques Lacan approached
psychoanalysis through linguistics and literature.
Lacan believed that Freud's essential work
had been done prior to 1905 and concerned
the interpretation of dreams, neurotic symptoms,
and slips, which had been based on a revolutionary
way of understanding language and its relation
to experience and subjectivity, and that ego
psychology and object relations theory were
based upon misreadings of Freud's work. For
Lacan, the determinative dimension of human
experience is neither the self (as in ego
psychology) nor relations with others (as
in object relations theory), but language.
Lacan saw desire as more important than need
and considered it necessarily ungratifiable.Wilhelm
Reich developed ideas that Freud had developed
at the beginning of his psychoanalytic investigation
but then superseded but never finally discarded.
These were the concept of the Actualneurosis
and a theory of anxiety based upon the idea
of dammed-up libido. In Freud's original view,
what really happened to a person (the "actual")
determined the resulting neurotic disposition.
Freud applied that idea both to infants and
to adults. In the former case, seductions
were sought as the causes of later neuroses
and in the latter incomplete sexual release.
Unlike Freud, Reich retained the idea that
actual experience, especially sexual experience,
was of key significance. By the 1920s, Reich
had "taken Freud's original ideas about sexual
release to the point of specifying the orgasm
as the criteria of healthy function." Reich
was also "developing his ideas about character
into a form that would later take shape, first
as "muscular armour", and eventually as a
transducer of universal biological energy,
the "orgone"."Fritz Perls, who helped to develop
Gestalt therapy, was influenced by Reich,
Jung and Freud. The key idea of gestalt therapy
is that Freud overlooked the structure of
awareness, "an active process that moves toward
the construction of organized meaningful wholes...
between an organism and its environment."
These wholes, called gestalts, are "patterns
involving all the layers of organismic function
– thought, feeling, and activity." Neurosis
is seen as splitting in the formation of gestalts,
and anxiety as the organism sensing "the struggle
towards its creative unification." Gestalt
therapy attempts to cure patients through
placing them in contact with "immediate organismic
needs." Perls rejected the verbal approach
of classical psychoanalysis; talking in gestalt
therapy serves the purpose of self-expression
rather than gaining self-knowledge. Gestalt
therapy usually takes place in groups, and
in concentrated "workshops" rather than being
spread out over a long period of time; it
has been extended into new forms of communal
living.Arthur Janov's primal therapy, which
has been an influential post-Freudian psychotherapy,
resembles psychoanalytic therapy in its emphasis
on early childhood experience, but has also
differences with it. While Janov's theory
is akin to Freud's early idea of Actualneurosis,
he does not have a dynamic psychology but
a nature psychology like that of Reich or
Perls, in which need is primary while wish
is derivative and dispensable when need is
met. Despite its surface similarity to Freud's
ideas, Janov's theory lacks a strictly psychological
account of the unconscious and belief in infantile
sexuality. While for Freud there was a hierarchy
of danger situations, for Janov the key event
in the child's life is awareness that the
parents do not love it. Janov writes in The
Primal Scream (1970) that primal therapy has
in some ways returned to Freud's early ideas
and techniques.Ellen Bass and Laura Davis,
co-authors of The Courage to Heal (1988),
are described as "champions of survivorship"
by Frederick Crews, who considers Freud the
key influence upon them, although in his view
they are indebted not to classic psychoanalysis
but to "the pre-psychoanalytic Freud... who
supposedly took pity on his hysterical patients,
found that they were all harboring memories
of early abuse... and cured them by unknotting
their repression." Crews sees Freud as having
anticipated the recovered memory movement
by emphasizing "mechanical cause-and-effect
relations between symptomatology and the premature
stimulation of one body zone or another",
and with pioneering its "technique of thematically
matching a patient's symptom with a sexually
symmetrical 'memory.'" Crews believes that
Freud's confidence in accurate recall of early
memories anticipates the theories of recovered
memory therapists such as Lenore Terr, which
in his view have led to people being wrongfully
imprisoned or involved in litigation.
=== Science ===
Research projects designed to test Freud's
theories empirically have led to a vast literature
on the topic. American psychologists began
to attempt to study repression in the experimental
laboratory around 1930. In 1934, when the
psychologist Saul Rosenzweig sent Freud reprints
of his attempts to study repression, Freud
responded with a dismissive letter stating
that "the wealth of reliable observations"
on which psychoanalytic assertions were based
made them "independent of experimental verification."
Seymour Fisher and Roger P. Greenberg concluded
in 1977 that some of Freud's concepts were
supported by empirical evidence. Their analysis
of research literature supported Freud's concepts
of oral and anal personality constellations,
his account of the role of Oedipal factors
in certain aspects of male personality functioning,
his formulations about the relatively greater
concern about loss of love in women's as compared
to men's personality economy, and his views
about the instigating effects of homosexual
anxieties on the formation of paranoid delusions.
They also found limited and equivocal support
for Freud's theories about the development
of homosexuality. They found that several
of Freud's other theories, including his portrayal
of dreams as primarily containers of secret,
unconscious wishes, as well as some of his
views about the psychodynamics of women, were
either not supported or contradicted by research.
Reviewing the issues again in 1996, they concluded
that much experimental data relevant to Freud's
work exists, and supports some of his major
ideas and theories.Other viewpoints include
those of Hans Eysenck, who writes in Decline
and Fall of the Freudian Empire (1985) that
Freud set back the study of psychology and
psychiatry "by something like fifty years
or more", and Malcolm Macmillan, who concludes
in Freud Evaluated (1991) that "Freud's method
is not capable of yielding objective data
about mental processes". Morris Eagle states
that it has been "demonstrated quite conclusively
that because of the epistemologically contaminated
status of clinical data derived from the clinical
situation, such data have questionable probative
value in the testing of psychoanalytic hypotheses".
Richard Webster, in Why Freud Was Wrong (1995),
described psychoanalysis as perhaps the most
complex and successful pseudoscience in history.
Crews believes that psychoanalysis has no
scientific or therapeutic merit.I.B. Cohen
regards Freud's Interpretation of Dreams as
a revolutionary work of science, the last
such work to be published in book form.
In contrast Allan Hobson believes that Freud,
by rhetorically discrediting 19th century
investigators of dreams such as Alfred Maury
and the Marquis de Hervey de Saint-Denis at
a time when study of the physiology of the
brain was only beginning, interrupted the
development of scientific dream theory for
half a century. The dream researcher G. William
Domhoff has disputed claims of Freudian dream
theory being validated.
The philosopher Karl Popper, who argued that
all proper scientific theories must be potentially
falsifiable, claimed that Freud's psychoanalytic
theories were presented in unfalsifiable form,
meaning that no experiment could ever disprove
them. The philosopher Adolf Grünbaum argues
in The Foundations of Psychoanalysis (1984)
that Popper was mistaken and that many of
Freud's theories are empirically testable,
a position with which others such as Eysenck
agree. The philosopher Roger Scruton, writing
in Sexual Desire (1986), also rejected Popper's
arguments, pointing to the theory of repression
as an example of a Freudian theory that does
have testable consequences. Scruton nevertheless
concluded that psychoanalysis is not genuinely
scientific, on the grounds that it involves
an unacceptable dependence on metaphor. The
philosopher Donald Levy agrees with Grünbaum
that Freud's theories are falsifiable but
disputes Grünbaum's contention that therapeutic
success is only the empirical basis on which
they stand or fall, arguing that a much wider
range of empirical evidence can be adduced
if clinical case material is taken into consideration.In
a study of psychoanalysis in the United States,
Nathan Hale reported on the "decline of psychoanalysis
in psychiatry" during the years 1965–1985.
The continuation of this trend was noted by
Alan Stone: "As academic psychology becomes
more 'scientific' and psychiatry more biological,
psychoanalysis is being brushed aside." Paul
Stepansky, while noting that psychoanalysis
remains influential in the humanities, records
the "vanishingly small number of psychiatric
residents who choose to pursue psychoanalytic
training" and the "nonanalytic backgrounds
of psychiatric chairpersons at major universities"
among the evidence he cites for his conclusion
that "Such historical trends attest to the
marginalisation of psychoanalysis within American
psychiatry." Nonetheless Freud was ranked
as the third most cited psychologist of the
20th century, according to a Review of General
Psychology survey of American psychologists
and psychology texts, published in 2002. It
is also claimed that in moving beyond the
"orthodoxy of the not so distant past...new
ideas and new research has led to an intense
reawakening of interest in psychoanalysis
from neighbouring disciplines ranging from
the humanities to neuroscience and including
the non-analytic therapies".Research in the
emerging field of neuropsychoanalysis, founded
by neuroscientist and psychoanalyst Mark Solms,
has proved controversial with some psychoanalysts
criticising the very concept itself. Solms
and his colleagues have argued for neuro-scientific
findings being "broadly consistent" with Freudian
theories pointing out brain structures relating
to Freudian concepts such as libido, drives,
the unconscious, and repression. Neuroscientists
who have endorsed Freud's work include David
Eagleman who believes that Freud "transformed
psychiatry" by providing " the first exploration
of the way in which hidden states of the brain
participate in driving thought and behavior"
and Nobel laureate Eric Kandel who argues
that "psychoanalysis still represents the
most coherent and intellectually satisfying
view of the mind."
=== Philosophy ===
Psychoanalysis has been interpreted as both
radical and conservative. By the 1940s, it
had come to be seen as conservative by the
European and American intellectual community.
Critics outside the psychoanalytic movement,
whether on the political left or right, saw
Freud as a conservative. Fromm had argued
that several aspects of psychoanalytic theory
served the interests of political reaction
in his The Fear of Freedom (1942), an assessment
confirmed by sympathetic writers on the right.
In Freud: The Mind of the Moralist (1959),
Philip Rieff portrayed Freud as a man who
urged men to make the best of an inevitably
unhappy fate, and admirable for that reason.
In the 1950s, Herbert Marcuse challenged the
then prevailing interpretation of Freud as
a conservative in Eros and Civilization (1955),
as did Lionel Trilling in Freud and the Crisis
of Our Culture and Norman O. Brown in Life
Against Death (1959). Eros and Civilization
helped make the idea that Freud and Karl Marx
were addressing similar questions from different
perspectives credible to the left. Marcuse
criticized neo-Freudian revisionism for discarding
seemingly pessimistic theories such as the
death instinct, arguing that they could be
turned in a utopian direction. Freud's theories
also influenced the Frankfurt School and critical
theory as a whole.Freud has been compared
to Marx by Reich, who saw Freud's importance
for psychiatry as parallel to that of Marx
for economics, and by Paul Robinson, who sees
Freud as a revolutionary whose contributions
to twentieth century thought are comparable
in importance to Marx's contributions to nineteenth
century thought. Fromm calls Freud, Marx,
and Einstein the "architects of the modern
age", but rejects the idea that Marx and Freud
were equally significant, arguing that Marx
was both far more historically important and
a finer thinker. Fromm nevertheless credits
Freud with permanently changing the way human
nature is understood. Gilles Deleuze and Félix
Guattari write in Anti-Oedipus (1972) that
psychoanalysis resembles the Russian Revolution
in that it became corrupted almost from the
beginning. They believe this began with Freud's
development of the theory of the Oedipus complex,
which they see as idealist.Jean-Paul Sartre
critiques Freud's theory of the unconscious
in Being and Nothingness (1943), claiming
that consciousness is essentially self-conscious.
Sartre also attempts to adapt some of Freud's
ideas to his own account of human life, and
thereby develop an "existential psychoanalysis"
in which causal categories are replaced by
teleological categories. Maurice Merleau-Ponty
considers Freud to be one of the anticipators
of phenomenology, while Theodor W. Adorno
considers Edmund Husserl, the founder of phenomenology,
to be Freud's philosophical opposite, writing
that Husserl's polemic against psychologism
could have been directed against psychoanalysis.
Paul Ricœur sees Freud as one of the three
"masters of suspicion", alongside Marx and
Nietzsche, for their unmasking 'the lies and
illusions of consciousness'. Ricœur and Jürgen
Habermas have helped create a "hermeneutic
version of Freud", one which "claimed him
as the most significant progenitor of the
shift from an objectifying, empiricist understanding
of the human realm to one stressing subjectivity
and interpretation." Louis Althusser drew
on Freud's concept of overdetermination for
his reinterpretation of Marx's Capital. Jean-François
Lyotard developed a theory of the unconscious
that reverses Freud's account of the dream-work:
for Lyotard, the unconscious is a force whose
intensity is manifest via disfiguration rather
than condensation. Jacques Derrida finds Freud
to be both a late figure in the history of
western metaphysics and, with Nietzsche and
Heidegger, a precursor of his own brand of
radicalism.Several scholars see Freud as parallel
to Plato, writing that they hold nearly the
same theory of dreams and have similar theories
of the tripartite structure of the human soul
or personality, even if the hierarchy between
the parts of the soul is almost reversed.
Ernest Gellner argues that Freud's theories
are an inversion of Plato's. Whereas Plato
saw a hierarchy inherent in the nature of
reality, and relied upon it to validate norms,
Freud was a naturalist who could not follow
such an approach. Both men's theories drew
a parallel between the structure of the human
mind and that of society, but while Plato
wanted to strengthen the super-ego, which
corresponded to the aristocracy, Freud wanted
to strengthen the ego, which corresponded
to the middle class. Paul Vitz compares Freudian
psychoanalysis to Thomism, noting St. Thomas's
belief in the existence of an "unconscious
consciousness" and his "frequent use of the
word and concept 'libido' – sometimes in
a more specific sense than Freud, but always
in a manner in agreement with the Freudian
use." Vitz suggests that Freud may have been
unaware that his theory of the unconscious
was reminiscent of Aquinas.
=== Literature and literary criticism ===
The poem "In Memory of Sigmund Freud" was
published by British poet W. H. Auden in his
1940 collection Another Time.Literary critic
Harold Bloom has been influenced by Freud.
Camille Paglia has also been influenced by
Freud, whom she calls "Nietzsche's heir" and
one of the greatest sexual psychologists in
literature, but has rejected the scientific
status of his work in her Sexual Personae
(1990), writing, "Freud has no rivals among
his successors because they think he wrote
science, when in fact he wrote art."
=== 
Feminism ===
The decline in Freud's reputation has been
attributed partly to the revival of feminism.
Simone de Beauvoir criticizes psychoanalysis
from an existentialist standpoint in The Second
Sex (1949), arguing that Freud saw an "original
superiority" in the male that is in reality
socially induced. Betty Friedan criticizes
Freud and what she considered his Victorian
view of women in The Feminine Mystique (1963).
Freud's concept of penis envy was attacked
by Kate Millett, who in Sexual Politics (1970)
accused him of confusion and oversights. Naomi
Weisstein writes that Freud and his followers
erroneously thought that his "years of intensive
clinical experience" added up to scientific
rigor.Freud is also criticized by Shulamith
Firestone and Eva Figes. In The Dialectic
of Sex (1970), Firestone argues that Freud
was a "poet" who produced metaphors rather
than literal truths; in her view, Freud, like
feminists, recognized that sexuality was the
crucial problem of modern life, but ignored
the social context and failed to question
society itself. Firestone interprets Freud's
"metaphors" in terms of the facts of power
within the family. Figes tries in Patriarchal
Attitudes (1970) to place Freud within a "history
of ideas". Juliet Mitchell defends Freud against
his feminist critics in Psychoanalysis and
Feminism (1974), accusing them of misreading
him and misunderstanding the implications
of psychoanalytic theory for feminism. Mitchell
helped introduce English-speaking feminists
to Lacan. Mitchell is criticized by Jane Gallop
in The Daughter's Seduction (1982). Gallop
compliments Mitchell for her criticism of
feminist discussions of Freud, but finds her
treatment of Lacanian theory lacking.Some
French feminists, among them Julia Kristeva
and Luce Irigaray, have been influenced by
Freud as interpreted by Lacan. Irigaray has
produced a theoretical challenge to Freud
and Lacan, using their theories against them
to put forward a "psychoanalytic explanation
for theoretical bias". Irigaray, who claims
that "the cultural unconscious only recognizes
the male sex", describes how this affects
"accounts of the psychology of women".Psychologist
Carol Gilligan writes that "The penchant of
developmental theorists to project a masculine
image, and one that appears frightening to
women, goes back at least to Freud." She sees
Freud's criticism of women's sense of justice
reappearing in the work of Jean Piaget and
Lawrence Kohlberg. Gilligan notes that Nancy
Chodorow, in contrast to Freud, attributes
sexual difference not to anatomy but to the
fact that male and female children have different
early social environments. Chodorow, writing
against the masculine bias of psychoanalysis,
"replaces Freud's negative and derivative
description of female psychology with a positive
and direct account of her own."Toril Moi has
developed a feminist perspective on psychoanalysis
proposing that it is a discourse that "attempts
to understand the psychic consequences of
three universal traumas: the fact that there
are others, the fact of sexual difference,
and the fact of death". She replaces Freud's
term of castration with Stanley Cavell's concept
of "victimization" which is a more universal
term that applies equally to both sexes. Moi
regards this concept of human finitude as
a suitable replacement for both castration
and sexual difference as the traumatic "discovery
of our separate, sexed, mortal existence"
and how both men and women come to terms with
it.
== Works ==
=== 
Books ===
1891 On Aphasia
1895 Studies on Hysteria (co-authored with
Josef Breuer)
1899 The Interpretation of Dreams
1901 On Dreams (abridged version of The Interpretation
of Dreams)
1904 The Psychopathology of Everyday Life
1905 Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious
1905 Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality
1907 Delusion and Dream in Jensen's Gradiva
1910 Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis
1910 Leonardo da Vinci, A Memory of His Childhood
1913 Totem and Taboo: Resemblances between
the Psychic Lives of Savages and Neurotics
1915–17 Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis
1920 Beyond the Pleasure Principle
1921 Group Psychology and the Analysis of
the Ego
1923 The Ego and the Id
1926 Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety
1926 The Question of Lay Analysis
1927 The Future of an Illusion
1930 Civilization and Its Discontents
1933 New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis
1939 Moses and Monotheism
1940 An Outline of Psycho-Analysis
=== 
Case histories ===
1905 Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of
Hysteria (the Dora case history)
1909 Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-Year-Old
Boy (the Little Hans case history)
1909 Notes upon a Case of Obsessional Neurosis
(the Rat Man case history)
1911 Psycho-Analytic Notes on an Autobiographical
Account of a Case of Paranoia (the Schreber
case)
1918 From the History of an Infantile Neurosis
(the Wolfman case history)
1920 The Psychogenesis of a Case of Homosexuality
in a Woman
1923 A Seventeenth-Century Demonological Neurosis
(the Haizmann case)
=== Papers on sexuality ===
1906 My Views on the Part Played by Sexuality
in the Aetiology of the Neuroses
1908 "Civilized" Sexual Morality and Modern
Nervous Illness
1910 A Special Type of Choice of Object made
by Men
1912 Types of Onset of Neurosis
1912 The Most Prevalent Form of Degradation
in Erotic Life
1913 The Disposition to Obsessional Neurosis
1915 A Case of Paranoia Running Counter to
the Psycho-Analytic Theory of the Disease
1919 A Child is Being Beaten: A Contribution
to the Origin of Sexual Perversions
1922 Medusa's Head
1922 Some Neurotic Mechanisms in Jealousy,
Paranoia and Homosexuality
1923 Infantile Genital Organisation
1924 The Dissolution of the Oedipus Complex
1925 Some Psychical Consequences of the Anatomical
Distinction between the Sexes
1927 Fetishism
1931 Female Sexuality
1938 The Splitting of the Ego in the Process
of Defence
=== 
Autobiographical papers ===
1899 An Autobiographical Note
1914 On the History of the Psychoanalytic
Movement
1925 An Autobiographical Study (1935 Revised
edition with Postscript).
=== The Standard Edition ===
The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological
Works of Sigmund Freud. Trans. from the German
under the general editorship of James Strachey,
in collaboration with Anna Freud, assisted
by Alix Strachey, Alan Tyson, and Angela Richards.
24 volumes, London: Hogarth Press and the
Institute of Psycho-Analysis, 1953–1974.
Vol. I Pre-Psycho-Analytic Publications and
Unpublished Drafts (1886–1899).
Vol. II Studies in Hysteria (1893–1895).
By Josef Breuer and S. Freud.
Vol. III Early Psycho-Analytic Publications
(1893–1899)
Vol. IV The Interpretation of Dreams (I) (1900)
Vol. V The Interpretation of Dreams (II) and
On Dreams (1900–1901)
Vol. VI The Psychopathology of Everyday Life
(1901)
Vol. VII A Case of Hysteria, Three Essays
on Sexuality and Other Works (1901–1905)
Vol. VIII Jokes and their Relation to the
Unconscious (1905)
Vol. IX Jensen's 'Gradiva,' and Other Works
(1906–1909)
Vol. X The Cases of 'Little Hans' and the
Rat Man' (1909)
Vol. XI Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis,
Leonardo and Other Works (1910)
Vol. XIII Totem and Taboo and Other Works
(1913–1914)
Vol. XIV On the History of the Psycho-Analytic
Movement, Papers on Meta-psychology and Other
Works (1914–1916)
Vol. XV Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis
(Parts I and II) (1915–1916)
Vol. XVI Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis
(Part III) (1916–1917)
Vol. XVII An Infantile Neurosis and Other
Works (1917–1919)
Vol. XVIII Beyond the Pleasure Principle,
Group Psychology and Other Works (1920–1922)
Vol. XIX The Ego and the Id and Other Works
(1923–1925)
Vol. XX An Autobiographical Study, Inhibitions,
Symptoms and Anxiety, Lay Analysis and Other
Works (1925–1926)
Vol. XXI The Future of an Illusion, Civilization
and its Discontents and Other Works (1927–1931)
Vol. XXII New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis
and Other Works (1932–1936)
Vol. XXIII Moses and Monotheism, An Outline
of Psycho-Analysis and Other Works (1937–1939)
Vol. XXIV Indexes and Bibliographies (Compiled
by Angela Richards,1974)
== Correspondence ==
Selected Letters of Sigmund Freud to Martha
Bernays, Ansh Mehta and Ankit Patel (eds),
CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform,
2015. ISBN 978-1-515-13703-0
Correspondence: Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud,
Cambridge: Polity 2014. ISBN 978-0-7456-4149-2
The Letters of Sigmund Freud and Otto Rank:
Inside Psychoanalysis (eds. E. J. Lieberman
and Robert Kramer). Johns Hopkins University
Press, 2012.
The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm
Fliess, 1887–1904, (editor and translator
Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson), 1985, ISBN 978-0-674-15420-9
The 
Sigmund Freud Carl Gustav Jung Letters, Publisher:
Princeton University Press; Abr edition, 1994,
ISBN 978-0-691-03643-4
The Complete Correspondence of Sigmund Freud
and Karl Abraham, 1907–1925, Publisher:
Karnac Books, 2002, ISBN 978-1-85575-051-7
The Complete Correspondence of Sigmund Freud
and Ernest Jones, 1908–1939., Belknap Press,
Harvard University Press, 1995, ISBN 978-0-674-15424-7
The 
Sigmund Freud – Ludwig Binswanger Correspondence
1908–1939, London: Other Press 2003, ISBN
1-892746-32-8
The Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Sándor
Ferenczi, Volume 1, 1908–1914, Belknap Press,
Harvard University Press, 1994, ISBN 978-0-674-17418-4
The Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Sándor
Ferenczi, Volume 2, 1914–1919, Belknap Press,
Harvard University Press, 1996, ISBN 978-0-674-17419-1
The Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Sándor
Ferenczi, Volume 3, 1920–1933, Belknap Press,
Harvard University Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-674-00297-5
The Letters of Sigmund Freud to Eduard Silberstein,
1871–1881, Belknap Press, Harvard University
Press, ISBN 978-0-674-52828-4
Psycho-Analysis and Faith: The Letters of
Sigmund Freud and Oskar Pfister. Trans. Eric
Mosbacher. Heinrich Meng and Ernst L. Freud.
eds London: Hogarth Press and the Institute
of Psycho-Analysis, 1963.
Sigmund Freud and Lou Andreas-Salome; Letters,
Publisher: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich; 1972,
ISBN 978-0-15-133490-2
The Letters of Sigmund Freud and Arnold Zweig,
Publisher: New York University Press, 1987,
ISBN 978-0-8147-2585-6
Letters of Sigmund Freud – selected and
edited by Ernst Ludwig Freud, Publisher: New
York: Basic Books, 1960, ISBN 978-0-486-27105-7
== See also ==
== Notes
