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OK, so far we've learned how to
do double integrals in terms of
xy coordinates,
also how to switch to polar
coordinates.
But, more generally,
there's a lot of different
changes of variables that you
might want to do.
OK, so today we're going to see
how to change variables,
if you want,
how to do substitutions in
double integrals.
OK, so let me start with a
simple example.
Let's say that we want to find
the area of an ellipse with
semi-axes a and b.
OK, so that means an ellipse is
just like a squished circle.
And so, there's a and there's b.
And, the equation of that
ellipse is x over a squared plus
y over b squared equals one.
That's the curve,
and the inside region is where
this is less than one.
OK, so it's just like a circle
that where you have rescaled x
and y differently.
So, let's say we want to find
the area of it.
Maybe you know what the area is.
But let's do it as a double
integral.
So, you know,
if you find that the area is
too easy, you can integrate any
function other than ellipse,
if you prefer.
But, let's do it just with area.
So, we know that we want to
integrate just the area element,
let's say, dx dy over the
origin inside the ellipse.
That's x over a2 plus y over b2
less than 1.
Now, we can try to set this up
in terms of x and y coordinates,
you know, set up the bounds by
solving for first four x as a
function of y if we do it this
order and,
well, do the usual stuff.
That doesn't look very
pleasant, and it's certainly not
the best way to do it.
OK, if this were a circle,
we would switch to polar
coordinates.
Well, we can't quite do that
yet.
But, you know,
an ellipse is just a squished
circle.
So, maybe we want to actually
first rescale x and y by a and
b.
So, to do that,
what we'd like to do is set x
over a to be u,
and y over b be v.
So, we'll have two new
variables, u and v,
and we'll try to redo our
integral in terms of u and v.
So, how do we do the
substitution?
So, in terms of u and v,
the condition,
the region that we are
integrating on will become u^2
v^2 is less than 1,
which is arguably nicer than
the ellipse.
That's why we are doing it.
But, we need to know what to do
with dx and dy.
Well, here, the answer is
pretty easy because we just
change x and y separately.
We do two independent
substitutions.
OK, so if we set u equals x
over a, that means du is one
over adx.
And here, dv is one over bdy.
So, it's very tempting to
write, and here we actually can
write, in this particular case,
that dudv is (1/ab)dxdy,
OK?
So, let me rewrite that.
OK, so I get dudv equals
(1/ab)dxdy, or equivalently dxdy
is ab times dudv.
OK, so in my double integral,
I'm going to write (ab)dudv.
OK, so now, my double integral
becomes, well,
the double integral of a
constant in terms of u and v.
So, I can take the constant out.
I will get ab times double
integral over u^2 v^2<1 of du
dv.
And, that is an integral that
we know how to do.
Well, it's just the area of a
unit circle.
So, we can just say,
this is ab times the area of
the unit disk,
which we know to be pi,
or if somehow you had some
function to integrate,
then you could have somehow
switched to polar coordinates,
you know, setting u equals r
times cos(theta),
v equals r times sin(theta),
and then doing it in polar
coordinates.
OK, so here the substitution
worked pretty easy.
The question is,
if we do a change of variables
where the relation between x and
y and u and v is more
complicated, what can we do?
Can we still do this,
or do we have to be more
careful?
And, actually,
we have to be more careful.
So, that's what we are going to
see next.
Any question about this, first?
No?
OK.
OK, so, see the general problem
when we try to do this is to
figure out what is the scale
factor?
What's the relation between
dxdy and dudv?
We need to find the scaling
factor.
So, we need to find dxdy versus
dudv.
So, let's do another example
that's still pretty easy,
but a little bit less easy.
OK, so let's say that for some
reason, we want to do the change
of variables:
u equals 3x-2y,
and v equals x y.
Why would we want to do that?
Well, that might be to simplify
the integrand because we are
integrating a function that
happens to be actually involving
these guys rather than x and y.
Or, it might be to simplify the
bounds because maybe we are
integrating over a region whose
equation in xy coordinates is
very hard to write down.
But, it becomes much easier in
terms of u and v.
And then, the bounds would be
much easier to set up with u and
v.
Anyway, so, whatever the reason
might be, typically it would be
to simplify the integrant or the
bounds.
Well, how do we convert dxdy to
dudv?
So, we want to understand,
what's the relation between,
let's call dA the area element
in xy coordinates.
So, dA is dxdy,
maybe dydx depending on the
order.
And, the area element in uv
coordinates, let me call that dA
prime just to make it look
different.
So, that would just be dudv,
or dvdu depending on which
order I will want to set it up
in.
So, to find this relation,
it's probably best to draw a
picture to see what happens.
Let's consider a small piece of
the xy plane with area delta(A)
corresponding to just a box with
sides delta(y) and delta(x).
OK, and let's try to figure out
what it will look like in terms
of u and v.
And then, we'll say,
well, when we integrate,
we're really summing the value
of the function of a lot of
small boxes times their area.
But, the problem is that the
area of the box in here is not
the same as the area of the box
in uv coordinates.
There, maybe it will look like,
actually,
if you see that these are
linear changes of variables,
you know that the rectangle
will become a parallelogram
after the change of variables.
So, the area of a parallelogram
delta(A) prime,
well, we will have to figure
out how they are related so that
we can decide what conversion
factor,
what's the exchange rate
between these two currencies for
area?
OK, any questions at this point?
No? Still with me mostly?
I see a lot of tired faces.
Yes?
Why is delta(A) prime a
parallelogram?
That's a very good question.
Well, see, if I look at the
side of a rectangle,
say there's a vertical side,
it means I'm going to increase
y, keeping x the same.
If I look at the formulas for u
and v, they are linear formulas
in terms of x and y.
So, if I just increase y,
see that u is going to decrease
at a rate of two.
v is going to increase at a
rate of one at constant rates.
And, it doesn't matter whether
I was looking at this site or at
that site.
So, basically straight lines
become straight lines.
And if they are parallel,
they stay parallel.
So, if you just look at what
the transformation,
from xy to uv does,
it does this kind of thing.
Actually, this transformation
here you can express by a
matrix.
And, remember,
we've seen what matrices do the
pictures.
We just take straight lines to
straight lines.
They keep the notion of being
parallel, but of course they
mess up lengths,
angles, and all that.
OK, so let's see.
So, let's try to figure out,
what is the area of this guy?
Well, in fact,
what I've been saying about
this transformation being
linear,
and transforming all of the
vertical lines in the same way,
all the horizontal lines in the
same way,
it tells me,
also, I should have a constant
scaling factor,
right, because how much I've
scaled my rectangle doesn't
depend on where my rectangle is.
If I move my rectangle to
somewhere else,
I have a rectangle of the same
size, same shape,
it will become a parallelogram
of the same size,
same shape somewhere else.
So, in fact,
I can just take the simplest
rectangle I can think of and see
how its area changes.
And, if you don't believe me,
then try with any other
rectangle.
You will see it works exactly
the same way.
OK, so I claim that the area
scaling factor -- -- here in
this case doesn't depend on the
choice of the rectangle.
And I should say that because
we are actually doing a linear
change of variables -- So,
you know, somehow,
the exchange rate between uv
and xy is going to be the same
everywhere.
So, let's try to see what
happens to the simplest
rectangle I can think of,
namely, just the unit square.
And, you know,
if you don't trust me,
then while I'm doing this one,
do it with a different
rectangle.
Do the same calculation,
and see that you will get the
same conversion ratio.
So, let's say that I take a
unit square -- -- so,
something that goes from zero
to one both in x and y
directions.
OK, and let's try to figure out
what it looks like on the other
side.
So, here the area is one.
Let's try to draw it in terms
of u and v coordinates,
OK?
So, here we have x equals 0,
y equals 0.
Well, that tells us u and v are
going to be 0.
Next, let's look at this corner.
Well, in xy coordinates,
this is one zero.
If you plug x equals 1,
y equals 0, you get u equals 3;
v equals 1.
So, that goes somewhere here.
And so, this edge of the square
will become this line here,
OK?
Next, let's look at that point.
So that point here was (0,1).
If I plug x equals zero y
equals one I will get (-2,1).
So, this edge goes here.
Then, if you put x equals one,
y equals one,
you will get u equals 1,
v equals 2.
So, I want (1,2).
And, these edges will go to
these edges here.
And, you see,
it does look like a
parallelogram.
OK, so now what the area of
this parallelogram?
Well, we can get that by taking
the determinant of these two
vectors.
So, one of them is ,
and the other one is
.
That will be 3 2.
That's 5.
OK, this parallelogram is
apparently five times the size
of this square.
Here, it looks like it's less
because I somehow changed my
scale.
I mean, my unit length is
smaller here than here.
But, it should be a lot bigger
than that.
OK,
and if you do the same
calculations not with zero and
one,
but with x and x plus delta x,
and so on,
you will still find that the
area has been multiplied by
five.
So, that tells us,
actually for any other
rectangle, area is also
multiplied by five.
So, that tells us that dA
prime, the area element in uv
coordinate is worth five times
more than the area element in
the xy coordinate.
So, that means du dv is worth
five times dx dy.
What's so funny?
What?
Oh.
[LAUGHTER] OK, rectangle.
OK, is that OK now?
Did I misspell other words?
No?
OK, it's really hard to see
when you are up close.
It's much easier from a
distance.
OK, so yeah,
so we've said our
transformation multiplies areas
by five.
And so, dudv is five times dxdy.
So, if I'm integrating some
function, dx dy,
then when I switch to uv
coordinates, I will have to
replace that by one fifth dudv.
OK, and of course I would also,
here my function would probably
involve x and y.
I will replace them by u's and
v's.
And, the bounds,
well, the shape of my origin in
the xy coordinates I will have
to switch to some shape in the
uv coordinates.
And, that's also something that
might be easy or might be tricky
depending on what origin we are
looking at.
So, usually we will do changes
of variables to actually
simplify the region so it
becomes easier to set up the
bounds.
So, anyway, so this is kind of
an illustration of a general
case.
And, why is that?
Well, here it looks very easy.
We are just using linear
formulas, and somehow the
relation between dx dy and du dv
is the same everywhere.
If you take actually more
complicated changes of variables
that's not true because usually
you will expect that there are
some places where the rescaling
is enlarging things,
and some of other places where
things are shrunk,
so, certainly the exchange rate
between dudv and dxdy will
fluctuate from point to point.
It's the same as if you're
trying to change dollars to
euros.
It depends on where you do it.
You will get a better rate or a
worse one.
So, of course,
we'll get a formula where
actually this scaling factor
depends on x and y or on u and
v.
But, if you fix a point,
then we have linear
approximation.
And, linear approximation tells
us, oh, we can do as if our
function is just a linear
function of x and y.
So then, we can do it the same
way we did here.
OK, so let's try to think about
that.
So, in the general case,
well, that means we will
replace x and y by new
coordinates, u and v.
And, u and v will be some
functions of x and y.
So, well,
we'll have an approximation
formula which tells us that the
change in u,
if I change x or y a little
bit,
will be roughly (u sub x times
change in x) (u sub y times
change in y).
And, the change in v will be
roughly (v sub x delta x) (v sub
y delta y).
Or, the other way to say it,
if you want in matrix form is
delta u delta v is,
sorry, approximately equal to
matrix |u sub x,
u sub y, v sub x,
v sub y| times matrix |delta x,
delta y|,
OK?
So, if we look at that,
what it tells us, in fact,
is that if we take a small
rectangle in xy coordinates,
so that means we have a certain
point, x, y,
and then we have a certain
width.
This is going to be too small.
Well, so, I have my width,
delta x.
I have my height, delta y.
This is going to correspond to
a small uv parallelogram.
And, what the shape and the
size of the parallelogram are
depends on the partial
derivatives of u and v.
So, in particular,
it depends on at which point we
are.
But still, at a given point,
it's a bit like that.
And, so if we do the same
argument as before,
what we will see is that the
scaling factor is actually the
determinant of this
transformation.
So, that's one thing that maybe
we didn't emphasize enough when
we did matrices at the beginning
of a semester.
But, when you have a linear
transformation between
variables, the determinant of
that transformation represents
how it scales areas.
OK, so one way to think about
it is just to try it and see
what happens.
Take this side.
This side in x,
y coordinates corresponds to
delta x and zero.
And, now, if you take the image
of that, if you see what happens
to delta u and delta v,
that will be basically u sub x
delta x and v sub x delta x.
There's no delta y.
For the other side,
OK, so maybe I should do it
actually.
So, you know,
if we move in the x,
y coordinates by delta x and
zero,
then delta u and delta v will
be approximately u sub x delta
x,
and v sub x delta x.
And, on the other hand,
if you move in the other
direction along the other side
of your rectangle,
zero and delta y,
then the change in u and the
change in v will correspond to,
well, how does u change?
That's u sub y delta y,
and v changes by v sub y delta
y.
And so, now,
if you take the determinant of
these two vectors,
OK, so these are the sides of
your parallelogram up here.
And, if you take these sides to
get the area of the
parallelogram,
you'll need to take the
determinant.
And, the determinant will be
the determinant of this matrix
times delta x times delta y.
So, the area in uv coordinates
will be the determinant of a
matrix times delta x,
delta y.
And so,
what I'm trying to say is that
when you have a general change
of variables,
du dv versus dx dy is given by
the determinant of this matrix
of partial derivatives.
It doesn't matter in which
order you write it.
I mean, you can put in rows or
columns.
If you transpose a matrix,
that doesn't change the
determinant.
It's just any sensible matrix
that you can write will have the
correct determinant.
OK, so what we need to know is
the following thing.
So,
we define something called the
Jacobian of a change of
variables and used the letter J,
or maybe a more useful notation
is partial of u,
v over partial of x,
y.
That's a very strange notation.
I mean, that doesn't mean that
we are actually taking the
partial derivatives of anything.
OK, it's just a notation to
remind us that this has to do
with the ratio between dudv and
dxdy.
And, it's obtained using the
partial derivatives of u and v
with respect to x and y.
So, it's the determinant of the
matrix |u sub x,
u sub y, v sub x,
v sub y|, the matrix that I had
up there.
OK, and what we need to know is
that du dv is equal to the
absolute value of J dx dy.
Or, if you prefer to see it in
the easier to remember version,
it's (absolute value of d of
(u, v) over partial xy) times dx
dy.
OK, so this is just what you
need to remember,
and it says that the area in uv
coordinates is worth,
well, the ratio to the xy
coordinates is given by this
Jacobian determinant except for
one small thing.
It's given by,
actually, the absolute value of
this guy.
OK, so what's going on here?
What's going on here is when we
are saying the determinant of
the transformation tells us how
the area is multiplied,
there's a small catch.
Remember, the determinants are
equal to areas up to sine.
Sometimes, the determinant is
negative because of reversing
the orientation of things.
But, the area is still the same.
Area is always positive.
So, the area elements are
actually related by the absolute
value of this guy.
OK, so if you find -10 as your
answer, then du dv is still ten
times dx dy.
OK, so I didn't put it all
together because then you would
have two sets of vertical bars.
See, this is a vertical bar for
absolute value.
This is vertical bar for
determinant.
They're not the same.
That's the one thing to
remember.
OK, any questions about this?
No?
OK.
So, actually let's do our first
example of that.
Let's check what we had for
polar coordinates.
Last time I told you if we have
dx dy we could switch it to r dr
d theta.
And, we had some argument for
that by looking at the area of a
small circular sector.
But, let's check again using
this new method.
So, in polar coordinates I'm
setting x equals r cosine theta,
y equals r sine theta.
So, the Jacobian for this
change of variables,
so let's say I'm trying to find
the partial derivatives of x,
y with respect to r,
theta.
Well, what is,
OK, let me actually write them
here again for you.
And, so what does that become?
Partial x over partial r is
just cosine theta.
Partial x over partial theta is
negative r sine theta.
Sorry, I guess I'm going to run
out of space here.
So, let me do it underneath.
So, we said x sub r is cosine
theta;
x sub theta is negative r sine
theta.
y sub r is sine;
y sub theta is r cosine.
And now, if we compute this
determinant, we'll get (r cosine
squared theta) (r sine squared
theta).
And, that simplifies to r.
So, dx dy is,
well, absolute value of r dr d
theta.
But, remember that r is always
positive.
So, it's r dr d theta.
OK, so that's another way to
justify how we did double
integrals in polar coordinates.
OK, any questions on that?
Where?
Yeah, OK.
Yeah, so this one seems to be
switching.
Well, it depends what you do.
So, OK, actually here's an
important thing that I didn't
quite say.
So, I said, you know,
we are going to switch from xy
to uv.
We can also switch from uv to
xy.
And, this conversion ratio,
the Jacobian,
works both ways.
Once you have found the ratio
between du dv and dx dy,
then it works one way or it
works the other way.
I mean, here,
of course, we get the answer in
terms of r.
So, this would let us switch
from xy to r theta.
But, we can also switch from r
theta to xy.
Just, we'd write dr d theta
equals (1 over r) times dx dy.
And then we'd have,
of course, to replace r by its
formula in xy coordinates.
Usually, we don't do that.
Usually, we actually start with
xy and switch to polar.
But,
so in general,
when you have this formula
relating du dv with dx dy,
you can use it both ways,
either to switch from du dv to
dx dy or the other way around.
And, the thing that I'm not
telling you that now I should
probably tell you is I could
define two Jacobians because if
I solve for xy in terms of uv
instead of uv in terms of xy,
then I can compute two
different Jacobians.
I can compute partial uv over
partial xy, or I can compute
partial xy over partial uv if I
have the formulas both ways.
Well, the good news is these
guys are the inverse of each
other.
So, the two formulas that you
might get are consistent.
OK, so useful remark -- So,
say that you can compute both
-- -- these guys.
Well, then actually,
the product will just be 1.
So, they are the inverse of
each other.
So, it doesn't matter which one
you compute.
You can compute whichever one
is the easiest to compute no
matter which one of the two you
need.
And, one way to see that is
that, in fact,
we're looking at the
determinant of these matrices
that tell us the relation in
variables.
So, if one of them tells you
how delta u delta v relate to
delta x delta y,
the other one does the opposite
thing.
It means they are the inverse
matrices.
And, the determinant of the
inverse matrix is the inverse of
the determinant.
So, they are really
interchangeable.
I mean, you can just compute
whichever one is easiest.
So here, if you wanted,
dr d theta in terms of dx dy,
it's easier to do this and then
move the r over there than to
first solve for r and theta as
functions of x and y and then do
the entire thing again.
But, you can do it if you want.
I mean, it works.
Oh yeah, the other useful
remark, so, I mentioned it,
but let me emphasize again.
So, now, the ratio between du
dv and dx dy,
it's not a constant anymore,
although there it used to be
five.
But now, it's become r,
or anything.
In general, it will be a
function that depends on the
variables.
So, it's not true that you can
just say, oh,
I'll put a constant times du
dv.
Yes?
It would still work the same.
You could imagine drawing a
picture where r and theta are
the Cartesian coordinates,
and your picture would be
completely messed up.
It would be a very strange
thing to do to try to draw,
you know, I'm going to do it,
but don't take notes on that.
You could try to draw picture
like that, and then a circle
would start looking like,
you know, a disk would look
like that.
It would be very
counterintuitive.
But, you could do it.
And that would be equivalent to
what we did with a previous
change of variables.
So, in this case,
certainly you would never draw
a picture like that.
But, you could do it.
OK, so now let's do a complete
example to see how things fit
together, how we do everything.
So, let's say that we want to
compute, so I have to warn you,
it's going to be a very silly
example.
It's an example where it's much
easier to compute things without
the change of variables.
But, you know,
it's good practice in the sense
that we're going to make it so
complicated that if we can do
this one, then we can do that
one.
So, let's say that we want to
compute this.
And, of course,
it's very easy to compute it
directly.
But let's say that for some
evil reason we want to do that
by changing variables to u
equals x and v equals xy.
OK, that's a very strange idea,
but let's do it anyway.
I mean, normally,
you would only do this kind of
substitution if either it
simplifies a lot the function
you are integrating,
or it simplifies a lot the
region on which you are
integrating.
And here, neither happens.
But anyway, so the first thing
we have to do here is figure out
what we are going to be
integrating.
OK, so to do that,
we should figure out what dx dy
will become in terms of u and v.
So, that's what we've just seen
using the Jacobian.
OK, so the first thing to do is
find the area element.
And, for that,
we use the Jacobian.
So, well, let's see,
the one that we can do easily
is partials of u and v with
respect to x and y.
I mean, the other one is not
very hard because here you can
solve easily.
But, the one that's given to
you is partial of u and v with
respect to x and y,
so partial u partial x is one.
Partial u partial y is zero.
Partial v partial x is y.
And partial v partial y is x.
So that's just x.
So, that means that du dv is x
dx dy.
Well, it would be absolute
value of x, but x is positive in
our origin.
So, at least we don't have to
worry about that.
OK, so now that we have that,
we can try to look at the
integrand in terms of u and v.
OK, so we were integrating x
squared y dx dy.
So, let's switch it.
Well, let's first switch the dx
dy that becomes one over x du
dv.
So, that's actually xy du dv.
And, what is xy in terms of u
and v?
Well, here at least we had a
little bit of luck.
xy is just v.
So, that's v du dv.
So, in fact,
what we'll be computing is a
double integral over some
mysterious region of v du dv.
Now, last but not least,
we'll have to find what are the
bounds for u and v in the new
integral so that we know how to
evaluate this.
In fact, well,
we could do it du dv or dv du.
We don't know yet.
Oh, amazing.
It went all the way down this
time.
OK, so it could be dv du if
that's easier.
So, let's try to find the
bounds.
In this case,
that's the hardest part.
OK, so let me draw a picture in
xy coordinates and try to
understand things using that.
OK, so x and y go from zero to
one.
The region that we want to
integrate over was just this
square.
Let's try to figure out how u
and v vary there.
So, let's say that we're going
to do it du dv.
OK, so What we want to
understand is how u and v vary
in here.
What's going to happen?
So, the way we can think about
it is we try to figure out how
we are slicing our origin.
OK, so here,
we are integrating first over
u.
That means we start by keeping
u constant, no,
by keeping v constant as u
changes.
OK, so u changes as v is
constant.
What does it mean that I'm
keeping v constant.
Well, what is v?
v is xy.
So, that means I keep xy equals
constant.
What does the curve xy equals
constant look like?
Well, it's just a hyperbola.
y equals constant over x.
So, if I look at the various
values of v that I can take,
for each value of v,
if I fix a value of v,
I will be moving on one of
these red curves.
OK, and u, well,
u is the same thing as x.
So, that means u will increase.
Here, maybe it will be 0.1 and
it will increase all the way to
one here.
OK, so we are just traveling on
each of these slices.
Now, so the question we must
answer here is for a given value
of v, what are the bounds for u?
So, I'm traveling on my curve,
v equals constant,
and trying to figure out,
when do I enter my origin?
When do I leave it?
Well, I enter it when I go
through this side.
So, the question is,
what's the value of u here?
Well, we don't know that very
easily until we look at these
formulas.
So, u equals x,
OK, but we don't know what x is
at that point.
v equals x and v equals xy.
What do we go here?
Well, we don't know x,
but we know y certainly.
OK, so let's forget about
trying to find u.
And, let's say,
for now, we know y equals one.
Well, if we set y equals one,
that tells us that u and v are
both equal to x.
So, in terms of u and v,
the equation of this uv
coordinate is u equals v.
OK, I mean, the other way to do
it is, say that you know you
want y equals one.
You want to know what is y in
terms of u and v.
Well, it's easy.
y is v over u.
So, let me actually add an
extra step in case that's,
so, we know that y is v over u
equals one.
So, that means u=v is my
equation.
OK, so when I'm here,
when I'm entering my region,
the value of u at this point is
just v, u equals v.
That's the hard part.
Now, we need to figure out,
so, we started u equals v.
u increases,
increases, increases.
Where does it exit?
It exits one when we are here.
What's the value of u here?
One. That one is easier, right?
This side here,
so, this side here is x equals
one.
That means u equals one.
So, we start at u equals one.
Now, we've done the inner
integral.
What about the outer?
So, we have to figure out,
what is the first and what is
the last value of v that we'll
want to consider?
Well, if you look at all these
hyperbola's, xy equals constant.
What's the smallest value of xy
that we'll ever want to look at
in here?
Zero, OK.
Let me actually,
where's my yellow chalk?
Is it, no, ah.
So, this one here,
that's actually v=0.
So, we'll start at v equals
zero.
And, what's the last hyperbola
we want to look at?
Well, it's the one that's right
there in the corner.
It's this one here.
And, that's v equals one.
So, v goes from zero to one.
OK, and now,
we can compute this.
I mean, it's not particularly
easier than that one,
but it's not harder either.
How else could we have gotten
these bounds,
because that was quite evil.
So, I would like to recommend
that you try this way in case it
works well.
Just try to picture,
what are the slices in terms of
u and v, and how you travel on
them, where you enter,
where you leave,
staying in the xy picture.
If that somehow doesn't work
well, another way is to draw the
picture in the uv coordinates.
So, switch to a uv picture.
So, what do I mean by that?
Well, we had here a picture in
xy coordinates where we had our
sides.
And, we are going to try to
draw what it looks like in terms
of u and v.
So, here we said this is x
equals one.
That becomes u equals one.
So, we'll draw u equals one.
This side we said is y equals
one becomes u equals v.
That's what we've done over
there.
OK, so u equals v.
Now, we have the two other
sides to deal with.
Well, let's look at this one
first.
So, that was x equals zero.
What happens when x equals zero?
Well, both u and v are zero.
So, this side actually gets
squished in the change of
variables.
It's a bit strange,
but it's a bit the same thing
as when you switch to polar
coordinates at the origin,
r is zero but theta can be
anything.
It's not always one point is
one point.
So anyway, this is the origin,
and then the last side,
y equals zero,
and x varies just becomes v
equals zero.
So, somehow,
in the change of variables,
this square becomes this
triangle.
And now, if we want to
integrate du dv,
it means we are going to slice
by v equals constant.
So, we are going to integrate
over slices like this,
and you see for each value of
v, we go from u equals v to u
equals one.
And, v goes from zero to one.
OK, so you get the same bounds
just by drawing a different
picture.
So, it's up to you to decide
whether you prefer to think on
this picture or draw that one
instead.
It depends on which problems
you're doing.
