 
### MINISTRY OF HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIALIZED EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN

### BUKHARA STATE UNIVERSITY

Authors: SHIRINOV ANVAR, TURDIEV BEXRUZ

"THE HISTORY OF UZBEKISTAN. NEW VERSION"

Bukhara \- 2020

The teaching kit is compiled on the basis of the approved exemplary program of the Ministry of Higher and Secondary Special Education of the Republic of Uzbekistan from 2018 approved by No. 744- order

A teaching kit was discussed and recommended at the scientific, educational, methodical meeting of the Bukhara State University with protocol No. 1 of 2019.

### Compiled by:

Shirinov A.Q. – Senior lecturer of the department: National Idea, Fundamentals of Spirituality and Law Education

Turdiev B.S. - Lecturer of the department: National Idea, Fundamentals of Spirituality and Law Education

Reviewers:

Sayfullayeva D.K. - Senior lecturer of the department: National Idea, Fundamentals of Spirituality and Law Education

### Dean of the Faculty J.R.Joʻrayev

1-THEME: INTRODUCTION. THE SUBJECT OF THE COURSE OF HISTORY OF UZBEKISTAN. **ITS THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS**

Plan:

  1. General information about Uzbekistan

  2. Uzbekistan from the earliest times to the present day: brief information about the history of Uzbekistan

  3. History of Uzbekistan: Ancient States

  1. General information about Uzbekistan

Uzbekistan is a sunny, picturesque country in the heart of Central Asia. Home to the ancient cities of Samarkand, Bukhara, Khiva, Shakhrisabz and Termez, it has countless historical and architectural monuments dating back thousands of years. Uzbekistan nature is equally captivating: the Tien Shan Mountains, Kyzyl Kum desert, Ustyurt plateau and the remnants of the Aral Sea are truly awe-inspiring.

But the true heart and experience of Uzbekistan is found within the well-preserved culture of this little landlocked country: centuries-old traditions, zoroastrian and muslim rituals, original art, and Uzbek hospitality and cuisine will be a delightful discovery for any traveler.

Capital: Tashkent  
Area: 447,400 square meters. km  
Population: more than 33 million people.  
Languages: Uzbek (state language), Russian (international, in large cities), Tajik (in Samarkand and Bukhara)  
Religion: Islam \- 88%, Christianity - 9%, other religions - 3%  
Electricity: 220V AC, 50 A; standard double plug socket.  
Time zone: + 5 hours  
Internet zone: .uz  
International dialing code: +998  
Monetary unit: sum

Regions

Uzbekistan has 13 regions (provinces), bordering Kazakhstan in the north, Kyrgyzstan and Tadjikistan in the east, Turkmenistan in the west and Afghanistan in the south.

  1. Andijan

  2. Bukhara

  3. Djizzak

  4. Fergana

  5. Kashkadarya

  6. Khorezm

  7. Namangan

  8. Navoi

  9. Samarkand

  10. Surkhandarya

  11. Syrdarya

  12. Tashkent

  13. Republic of Karakalpakistan

The Province of Andijan is situated in the eastern part of the Fergana Valley. It covers an area of 4,200 square kilometers. The climate is typically continental with extreme variations between winter and summer temperatures. The population of the Province is 1,899,000, and the average density is 499 people per square kilometer.

The Province is divided into 14 administrative districts. The administrative center of which is the city of Andijan, with 303,000 inhabitants. Other major centers in the Province are Asaka, Khanabad, Khodjaabad, Shakhrikhan, and Karasu. Multiple deposits of oil, ozokerite and lime represent the mineral resources of the Province.

The Bukhara province is situated in the southwestern part of Uzbekistan. The Kizil-Kum Desert takes up a large portion of its territory. The total area of the Province is 39,400 square km. The climate is characteristically continental and arid.

The Bukhara Province has a population of 1,384,700, about 68% of whom live in the rural areas, while the other 32% live in urban centers. The Province is divided into 11 administrative districts, and the province's administrative center is the city of Bukhara, which has a population of 263,400. Other towns in the Province are Alat, Karakol, Galasiya, Gazly, Gidjduvan, Kagan, Romitan, Shavirkan and Vabkent.

The Province of Djizzak lies in the central part of Uzbekistan. The total area of the Province is 20,500 square kilometers. The climate is typically continental, with dry, hot summers and mild winters.

Its population is 910,500 people with an average density of 108 people per square kilometer. The Province is divided into 11 administrative districts, with Djizzak as its administrative center. This town has 127,200 residents. Other main towns are Dustlik, Gagarin, Gallyaaral, Pakhtakor, and Mardjanbulak.

The Province's economy is based on agriculture, chiefly cotton and cereal. There are tens of thousands of hectares of virgin soil, which have been studied for agricultural purposes. This land has adequate irrigation infrastructure, which has been created in the past few years.

The Province of Fergana is situated in the southern part of the Fergana Valley. Its total area equals 6,800 square kilometers. The climate is typically continental, with mild winters and very hot summers.

The population is about 2,597,000, with approximately 70.7% of the total population living in rural areas. The Province is divided into 15 administrative districts.

The administrative center is Fergana city, which has a population of 214,000. Other towns are Beshkarik, Khamsa, Kokand, Kuva, Kuvasay, Margilan and Rishtan.

The Province of Kashkadarya is situated in the basin of the Kashkadarya River on the western slopes of the Pamir Alay Mountains.

The total area of the Province is 28,400 square kilometers. The climate is typically continental, arid and partly subtropical.

The province has a population 2,029,000, with more than 73% living in rural areas.

Kashkadarya is divided into 14 administrative districts, with Qarshi as its administrative Center. The town of Qarshi has a population of 177,000. Other important towns are Shakhrisabz, Kitab, Kasan, Mubarekh, Yakkabad, Gusar, and Kamashi.

The Province of Khorezm is situated in the northwestern part of Uzbekistan, on the lower reaches of the Amudarya River. Its total area is 6,300 square kilometers. The climate is continental, with moderately cold winters and dry hot summers.

The population of the Province is 1,200,000, with about 80% living in the outlying areas.

The Province is divided into 10 administrative districts, with Urgench as the administrative center. Urgench has a population of 135,000. Other major towns in the Province are Khiva, Shoyot, and Djuma.

The Province of Namangan is situated in the northeastern part of the Fergana Valley, on the right bank of the Syrdarya River, covering an area of 7,900 square kilometers. The climate is typically continental, with hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters.

The population of the Province is 1,862,000, with 62.3% living in rural areas and 37.7% in towns.

The Province is divided into 11 administrative districts, with Namangan City as the administrative center. The city has a population of 341,000. Other important towns are Chartac, Kasansay, Khakolabad Pap, Uchkurgan, Turakurgan, and Chust.

The Province of Navoi is situated in the southwestern part of Uzbekistan, in the middle of the Kizil-Kum Desert. It covers an area of 110,800 square kilometers. The climate is typically continental and arid. The population is approximately 767,500, with about 59.4% living in rural areas and 40.6% living in towns.

The province is divided into 8 administrative districts. The town of Navoi is the administrative center; it has a population of 128,000. Other towns are Kisiltepa, Nurata, Uchkuduk, Zarafshan, and Yangirobad.

The Province of Samarkand is situated in the center of Uzbekistan, in the basin of the Zarafshan River. Its total area is 16,400 square kilometers. The climate is characteristically continental and arid.

The population is 2,322,000, of which three quarters live in rural areas. The Province is divided into 16 administrative districts, with an average population density of 149 people per square kilometer.

The administrative center of the Province is the city of Samarkand, with a population of 368,000. Other important towns are Bulungur, Djuma, Ishtikhon, Kattaqurgan, Urgut, and Aktash.

The province of Surkhandarya is situated in the southern part of Uzbekistan, bordering on Afghanistan. Its total area covers 20,800 square kilometers. The climate is typically continental with mild winters and hot summers.

The Province has a population of approximately 1,676,000 with the majority (79.8%) living in rural areas.

The Province is divided into 14 administrative districts, with Terms as its administrative center. Termez has a population of 95,000. Other towns in the Province are Baysin, Denau, Jarqurgan, Qumqurgon, Shargun, Sherabad, Shurchy, and Sariaciya.

The Province of Syrdarya is located in the center of Uzbekistan, on the left bank of the Syrdarya River. The Steppe takes up a significant part of its area. Its total area is 5,100 square kilometers, and the climate is typically continental and arid.

The population of the Province is 648,100. Syrdarya Province is divided into 9 administrative districts, with Gulistan as its administrative centre. Gulistan has a population of 54,000. Other towns are Baht, Khavast, Mirzakent, Pakhtaabad, Sardoba, Syrdarya, Shirin and Yangiyer.

The Province of Tashkent is situated in the northeastern part of Uzbekistan, between the western slopes of the Tian-Shan mountain range and the Syrdarya River. Its total area equals 15,300 square kilometers. The climate is typically continental, with mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers.

The population of the province is 4,450,000 and the average density is 147 people per square kilometer. The province is divided into 15 administrative districts. The administrative center is the city of Tashkent, which has a population of more than 2 million. There are 16 towns in the Province; the largest towns are Angren, Almalik, Akhangaran, Bekabad, Chirchik, Gazalkent, Keles, Parkent, Toy-Tepa, Yangiabad and Yangiyul, where most productive activities are concentrated. There are also 13 towns and smaller villages.

The territory is rich in copper, brown coal, molybdenum, zinc, gold, silver, rare metals and more. The Republic of Karakalpakistan is situated in the north-western part of Uzbekistan. It occupies the area from the western part of the Kizil-Kum Desert to the Amu-Darya river delta. The Republic's total area covers 165,600 square kilometers. The climate is typically continental, with very hot summers and cold winters without snow.

The population of Karakalpakistan is 1.4 million, mainly Uzbek (32.8%) and Karakalpak (32.1%). About 48% of the population lives in rural areas, while the other 52% live in towns. The Republic is divided into 15 administrative districts, 12 towns and 16 villages, and its administrative center is Nukus which has a population of 236,700. Other significant towns are Beruny, Buston, Khodjeily, Kungrad, Muynaq, Takhiatash, Turtkul, and Chimbad.

National Holidays

January 1 New Year

March 8 International Women Day

March 21 Navruz (traditional New Year)

May 9 Day of Memory and Respect

September 1 Independence Day

October 1 Teachers' Day

December 8 Constitution Day

Ruza Hayit (Eid-Al Fitr) is announced every year according to the lunar calendar

Qurban Hayit (Eid-Al Adha) is announced every year according to the lunar calendar

People

The population of the Republic of Uzbekistan is more than 26.4 million (by 4-th quarter 2006), 37 % of them living in urban areas and 63 % - rural residents.

Uzbeks are the main ethnicity, forming around 80% of population. Uzbekistan is a multicultural country with more than 100 nationalities living together for a long historic period.

Republic of Uzbekistan, as other countries of the Central Asia, characterizes with comparatively young population and high portion of them in the structure of labour force. Share of people below working age is 39% of total population, with working age people compromising 54% and 7% are above.

  2. Uzbekistan from the earliest times to the present day: brief information about the history of Uzbekistan

U zbekistan is located in the heart of Central Asia, between two large rivers Amu Darya and Syr Darya. History of nations, living on this territory, is more than thousand years. This land became the motherland of civilization, which is perhaps one of the most ancient in the world.

H istory of Uzbekistan is the history of individuals and great nations, bloody conquests and large rebellions; it is the history of origin of the most beautiful cities in Central Asia; it is the history of people, who wholeheartedly loved their homeland.

P eople settled on the territory of Uzbekistan centuries ago. They built beautiful cities of Samarkand, Bukhara, Khiva and others, which were ruined by neighboring tribes, but thanks to people's efforts they again rose from the ashes and became much beautiful. This land was the crossroad of the Great Silk Road, connecting Asia and Europe. Here, in numerous bazaars and workshops craftsmen created fine works of art, which by the Silk Road reached the most remote parts of Europe and Asia.

A ccording to archeologists, Uzbekistan is one of the most ancient places of human habitation. It is known, that the area was inhabited long before our era, in the early Paleolithic period, according to the findings of ancient dwellings in Baysun Tau mountains and primitive tools in Samarkand. In the upper Paleolithic period this land was settled by Neanderthals; their burial place, discovered in the Teshik-Tash cave, dates back to the Moustierian culture.

Particularly, archeologists discovered the burial of 8-9 years old boy that gives grounds to speak about the most ancient ritual of burial on the territory of Central Asia. The child's body was laid into a pit, surrounded by bones of a mountain goat. Excavations show that a man of that period hunted and gathered food from natural sources. Primitive tools were made of a stone as well as wood and bones.

With the development of humanity images of life rock paintings (petroglyphs) began to appear: hunting, battles and rituals. Exploring the petroglyphs of different periods of history one can "read" the history of mankind: the domestication of animals, the first religious ideas, the emergence of weapons and much more - all this is embedded by our ancestors on the rocks.

N ext epoch was the Mesolithic era, 15-20 millenniums ago. Typical monuments of that period are a primitive settlement in Samarkand, upper soil layers of Machay cave of the Baysun region, rock paintings in the Shibad region and others.

D eveloped Neolithic era is characterized by the transition to a lower stage of barbarism, as evidenced by the settlement on the western part of Kyzyl Kum desert, near Amu Darya River, settlement in Uzgun, northern part of Karakum Desert, cave dwellings in Surkhandarya region and findings in Tashkent, Fergana, Samarkand and Surkhandarya regions. Primitive pottery, shepherd cattle-breeding and weaving were developed.

Bronze epoch in the history of Uzbekistan includes the period from the 3rd millennium to early centuries of 1st millenniums BC. It was the epoch of transformations, formation of first states on the territory of two great rivers: Ancient Baktria and Great Khorezm. It was the period of origin of first religion in Central Asia, Zoroastrianism, and first powerful empire of Achaemenids.

  3. History of Uzbekistan: Ancient States

  1. A chaemenid (Persian) dynasty

In the 6th century BC Central Asia was conquered by the king Cyrus, the founder of the Achaemenid Persian state. Over two hundred years the entire southern part of Central Asia was a part of the Achaemenid Empire, in which all its territory was divided into satraps. Three of the Central Asian satrapies: Bactria, Sogdiana, Khorezm were first ancient states, which wholly or partialy were located within the territory of modern Uzbekistan. Freedom-loving people of Central Asia could not live under the oppression of the Persians. They often struggle against invaders. In the second half of the 4th century BC after long struggle, Khorezm gained its independence. Then Saks became an independent state. Numerous rebellions weakened the Persians and the arrival of the army of Alexander the Great brought an end to the Achaemenid Empire.

  2. A ge of Hellenism

The collapse of the Persian empire occurred in the 4th century BC, when the great Greek military leader Alexander the Great defeated the Persians at the Battle of Gavgamellah. In 329 BC Alexander strengthened his power in Sogdiana.

In 323 BC, after Alexander's death, Sogd became the part of the Seleucid State, founded by the Greek commander Seleucus. In 250 BC a Seleucid satrap Diodot detached from this state a separate Greco-Bactrian kingdom with the capital in Baktry. This ancient state included Margiana and Sogdiana. After Diodot Evtidem came to the power and then Demetriy became the ruler of the state. During his reign a part of India was joined to the Greco-Bactrian State. Culture and economy reached a high level of prosperity, crafts, agriculture, trade and town planning were developed and money was coined. The ancient state was centralized and, as well as the Seleucid State, it was divided into satrapies. At that time, due to the construction of the road from Seleucid State to Baktria an international trade and relations with various countries around the world were developing. Baktria was situated on the trade road of China-India (southern branch of the Silk Road).

  3. Kushan Empire

D espite the rapid development, the Greco-Bactrian kingdom was torn by civil dissensions. It caused to the collapse of the state in the middle of the 2nd century BC. Sogd waited another stage of development in the new state, Kushan. It was founded by a nomadic tribe of Kushan (Yuezhi), which managed to conquer a previously separated Khorezm. The Kushan Empire became one of the greatest states of the period. It included Central Asia, a part of present-day Afghanistan and northern India. Kushan ruler, Kanishka I, adopted Buddhism. Throughout the state Buddhist temples were constructed. Cities of Central Asia became the centers of crafts and trade. It was the period of prosperity of the region, its economy, culture and art development. But the most important achievement of that period was a new land trade route, later named the Great Silk Road. The route stretched from China to western countries through a vast territory. Central Asia, namely central part of Uzbekistan and the Fergana Valley, became an important part of this highway. Kushan Empire existed in the 1st-4th centuries AD. It was destroyed by the nomad tribes of Ephtalites.

  4. Parthia

O ne of the most powerful states in Central Asia, Parthia separated from the Seleucid State in 250 BC. Parthia was located south-east from the Caspian Sea, on the territory of today Turkmenistan and a part of northern Iran. During the prosperity of the state, Parthia conquered territory, stretching from Asia Minor to India. The first ruler of Parthia, Androgen was soon replaced by Arkshak I, a founder of Arkshakid Dynasty. The Parthian State reached the highest prosperity during the reign of Mitridad in 170-138 BC, who took eastern satrapies: Persia, major part of Mesopotamia and Armeny, away from Seleucid state and conquered a part of the Greco-Bactrian state. He was first who took the title "king of kings" and declared himself the successor of Achaemenids. The capital of the Parthian State was located in Nisa. Ruins of this city are located close to Ashgabat. Nisa was divided into two parts: Old Nisa, king's reserve, and new Nisa, ruins of the ancient Parthian city. Torn by internecine conflicts and pressure from Rome, the Parthian State collapsed in 226 AD.

  5. K angju

First notes about the ancient state Kangju were found in Avesta, where it was called Kangha. Since the 3rd century Kangju existed as an independent state, and it reached the highest prosperity in the 1st-2nd centuries AD. Kangju included the Syr Darya steppes and regions along the lower and middle reaches of Syr Darya. In the south Kangju bordered with Kushan Kingdom and in the north-east with China Empire. The Silk Road laid through Kangju State that caused to the development of the economy. Strategically important location of the state provided the influence of Kangju on the political situation in the region.

Major facts about Kangju we have from Chiness sources, namely from historical records Shih Tzu by Sim Tzyan. He wrote that Kangju was the confederate state with developed economy and system of administration. Main population of Kangju consisted of nomadic tribes, but the population of southern part of the state was agricultural. The decline of the ancient state was in the 4th century AD, during the new movement of tribes and invasion of nomadic tribes to agricultural districts of Central Asia.

BLITZ \- QUESTIONS:

  1. What is the best time to visit Uzbekistan?

  2. What airlines fly into Uzbekistan?

  3. What do they speak in Uzbekistan?

  4. Is English spoken in Uzbekistan?

  5. Is Uzbekistan in the European Union?

  6. Is Uzbekistan safe for tourists?

  7. Is Uzbekistan safe to travel alone?

  8. Is Uzbekistan expensive?

  9. What do tourists eat in Uzbekistan?

  10. What do tourists wear in Uzbekistan?

  11. What accommodations are available in Uzbekistan?

  12. How do tourists get around Uzbekistan?

  13. What is Uzbekistan famous for, and what kind of souvenirs can I bring home?

  14. Can tourists use credit cards in Uzbekistan?

  15. Is there good internet and cellular service in Uzbekistan?

  16. What are the customs regulations of Uzbekistan?

  17. What should tourists expect when exiting Uzbekistan?

2-THEME: CENTRAL ASIA IS ONE OF THE CENTERS OF HUMAN CIVILIZATION

Plan:

  1. The chalcolithic and bronze

  2. Avesta - zoroastrian scripture

  3. Myths and Legends of Uzbekistan

1.The chalcolithic and bronze

The territory of modern Uzbekistan is one of the centers of origin and development of human civilization and has a nearly 3,000-year history of statehood. Archaeological finds in the territories of Selengur, Kulbulak and Teshiktash monuments prove that the first human settlements on the territory of Uzbekistan were founded hundreds of thousands of years ago.

The emergence of ancient agrocultures in Central Asia dates back to 3-2 millennium BC. In the second half of the 3 - the first half of 2nd millennium BC - in the upper reaches of the Amu Darya already existed settlements, which participated in the development and trade of Badakhshan lapis lazuli and had connection with the Harappan civilization in India. During the second millennium BC - Through Central Asia and adjacent steppe there was migration to the south (India), Southeast (Media and Persia), East (East Turkestan - Tochars) Indo-Iranian (Aryan) tribes.

The group of eastern Iranian tribes settled in jases in the territory of Central Asia. Bones of domestic animals, wheat and barley and stone graters were discovered in the ancient settlement of farmers in the lake Zamanbaba Zarafshan River Basin. The Eneolithic and Bronze Age area of over 90 hectares was found near Pendjikent's Sarazm village settlement of farmers. Ancient agricultural settlements discovered in the valley Surhandarya - settlements Sapallitepa and Djarkutan.

Archaeological sites of the Bronze Age in the territory of Khorezm were called Tazabagyabsky farming culture. Settlement of farmers Kokcha, Kavat-3 and others were founded in the middle of the 2nd millennium. There are traces of ancient canals. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC Khorezm formed Amirabad culture with advanced irrigation techniques. Gradually the population of Ferghana Valley moves to a sedentary lifestyle and engage in agriculture. Chust agricultural culture in the Ferghana Valley dates fr om the end of 2 - start of the 1st millennium BC. Such cities as Samarkand, Merv, Er-Kurgan, Ahsiket, Khiva were founded in the first millennium. This is the birth time of the Zoroastrian "Avesta" and the heroic epic.

## Sarmish-say Petroglyphs - the Bronze Age Art Gallery

The Sarmysh-say tract, located on the southern slopes of Karatau, 45 km north-east of the Navoi city, is one of the most famous places in Central Asia with petroglyphs. Karatau is one of the spurs of the Nurata mountains. There is the valley of Zarafshan to the south of the ridge. Sarmysh-say nature is diverse, there grow different kinds of trees, and slopes are covered with dense thickets of shrubs. The valley is a striking sight in spring: tulips, poppies grow everywhere, there are vast expanses of greenery around.

The nearest way to the petroglyphs of the Sarmish-say lays through the Sarmish Children's Health camp. The territory of the camp is around 1,5 km. If tour to the petroglyphs is organized in the summer, the season when the camp is full of children, the territory of it have to be crossed by foot. At any other season of the year, it can be passed by car. After the camp, you should cover a distance of another 2 km till the point of destination.

Unfortunatelly, this territory is lack of good roads. However, after overcoming all the way, you will appear in the picturesque gorge of the Sarmysh river, where you will find the unique archaeological monuments of the Stone, Bronze, Early Iron and Middle Age periods of history.

The size of the territory of really huge - 20 square kilometers. Together they form a unique cultural and historical complex of historical monuments of the ancient world and medieval times.

By today, over 10,000 petroglyphs were discovered in Sarmysh-say. It is a very large and varied collection of rock art. Most of the petroglyphs are located in the middle reaches of the say (the river). There are burial mounds and sacred places near petroglyphs.

Scientists - archaeologists of the Archaeological Institute under the Academy of Science of the Republic of Uzbekistan not exclude the possibility that the territory Sarmysh-say was inhabited as early as in the Paleolithic era (300-15 thousand years BC). In the Neolithic period (6th – 5th centuries BC) tribes of hunters and fishers of Keltaminar culture settled here. The convenient location of the tract, the availability of fresh water and a large number of animals turned Sarmysh-say into a convenient place for the performance of rituals. According to the archeologists it was a place for religious ceremonies.

The age determination of Sarmysh-say petroglyphs is a problematic task. One should carefully study the plot, style, technique of application images as well as desert tan, overlapping pictures and much more to give at least an approximate date. As the process of creating rock art and the process of their investigation \- a very difficult and time consuming task.

Sarmysh-say petroglyphs vary in age, style and plot. Here is a picture of uruses, which are referred to the Stone and Bronze Ages, images of deers, goats in the animal style typical for the Scythian tribes of art circle (early Iron IX-II cent. BC). Also in Sarmysh-say petroglyphs can be found later period relating to the Middle Ages. They depict medieval domestic goats, camels, dogs, and just as easily dated Arabic inscription.

Petroglyphs of the Stone and Bronze Ages (7th -2nd) millennium BC are the most ancient images in Sarmysh-say. These are mainly rock carvings of uruses. Similar figures were discovered on the territory of Azerbaijan and the Arabian Peninsula. The size of the images varied from 30-40 cm to 70-80 cm. Many of these ancient rock carvings are similar in technique, so that it can be assumed that they were made by one master.

Petroglyphs of the early Iron Age are distinguished with "animal" style typical for the nomadic tribes of the Scythians. Basically, they depict deer, wild rams, horses, camels. There are no rock carvings of the uruses, but there are typical for nomads images of a bow and arrows, as well as horsemen and hunting scenes. In contrast to the more ancient rock carvings, Saka-Scythian period rock carvings are smaller. In addition, they were made by different artists, but the masters very carefully and with big precise transferred the images of animals and humans.

Petroglyphs of the later period are lighter and coarser. The rock carvings technique is quite simple, but the content shows no variety typical for the ancient historical periods. Basically they depict pets. There are also Arabic inscriptions, mixed with ancient images. One can also see horsemen, with whip in hand. Unlike Saks rock carvings, medieval petroglyphs get sketchy. No precision and elegance in design.

2. Avesta - zoroastrian scripture

## Who are the Zoroastrians?

Zoroastrians are the descendants of the Proto-Indo-Iranian group of people, who in turn are descendants of the Indo-European family of nations. The Proto-Indo-Iranian group lived on the southern steppes of Russia called Airyanem Vaejah (present-day Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan), and began their migration westward towards Europe and southward towards the Indian subcontinent sometime between 8000 B.C. and 6000 B.C. During this migration, the ancestors of the Iranian and Indian Aryans separated, moving to present-day Iran (Aryana) and Northern India, respectively. Due to their ancestry, these groups shared a strong background and similarity of language, customs, beliefs, values and cultures, which over time have evolved and taken shape separately.

Over time, Zoroastrianism became the state religion of the mighty Persian empire – which at one time extended from Africa to China, from the Danube River in Europe to the plains of Judea in the Middle East, and up to Punjab and Sindh in India. Today, its followers number less than 200,000 worldwide. After the fall of the last Persian dynasty in the seventh century A.D. to the invading tribes from the Arabian Peninsula, several small groups of Zoroastrians moved to escape the proselytization and forced conversion to Islam. These groups sought refuge in isolated areas of Iran or fled to India, China, present-day Afghanistan and Russia, and other countries.

One of the largest surviving groups of Zoroastrians is to be found in India where its members are known as the Parsees. Another large population still resides in Iran. There are sizable groups in the U.S.A., Canada, Britain, and Pakistan; and smaller ones in Hong Kong, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Australia, East Africa and other places. A few Zoroastrians can be found in almost all English-speaking countries and even in some non English-speaking countries.

## W ho was Zarathushtra?

Zarathushtra was born in Iran, probably in the region that is now part of present-day Khorezm. He was married and had children. His father was Pourushaspa and his mother was Dughdova. Long before the coming of Zarathushtra, the people of what is present-day Uzbekistan followed the "Mazdayasni" religion, one characterized by the worship of multiple deities. This caused a great distress to Zarathushtra. To seek a message from Ahura Mazda (God), he withdrew himself from the material world at an early age and spent several years in solitude. When he knew that he had heard the voice of God, he set out to preach. For ten years no one paid any heed to him; in fact, he was denounced as a heretic and sorcerer. This changed when he was received by King Vishtasp. So impressed was the King by Zarathushtra's message that he publicly embraced the new religion, which then spread rapidly throughout the region. The success of the new religion was not liked by his opponents who by slander and deception succeeded in having him imprisoned on a charge of sorcery. Undaunted, he continued to spread his faith after his release from prison. His enemies, however, continued to persecute him. He died at the age of seventy-seven, at the hands of one of his enemies while praying in a temple.

There is some controversy about the time when Zarathushtra lived. Scholars today believe that he lived around 1500 B.C. or even earlier. This would make Zoroastrianism the oldest of the prophetic religions.

## What are the principal teachings of Zarathushtra?

According to Zarathushtra, the world is a battleground between the forces of good and evil. Ultimately, good will prevail over evil. The mission in life is to conduct oneself in such a manner that this ultimate victory is achieved. He urged his followers to live a full and useful life in this world, to appreciate all things that are good and beautiful in creation, not only to do good and desist from evil but also to fight evil, and to make others happy. He assured his followers that the strength of God would be given to those who fought evil, and stressed that an evil deed could be offset by a good one. As for happiness, the way to seek happiness was by making others happy.

He pointed out that in each of us there is a divine spark. It is up to us to recognize this divine spark or essence within us, to understand its capabilities and to try and so conduct ourselves that we reach the state of perfection in this world. As a practical guide for daily life, his prescription was simple:

  * **Think good thoughts.**

  * **Speak good words.**

  * **Do good deeds.**

Zarathushtra emphasized free choice. In one his first sermons he preached: "Ye who seek knowledge, please listen carefully to what I say, and perceive the truth in the light of reason, because it is possible for each man to have a separate creed."

He also taught that one should be liberal in thinking and to respect all that is good, true and beautiful: "We reserve and love all good thoughts, words and deeds that may have been presented here or elsewhere, now or at any future period, because we are on the side of goodness."

Some scholars believe that some of the important concepts found in other religions – such as the concepts of monotheism, of heaven and hell, of the end of the world, of the resurrection of the dead, and of the coming of the Savior – originated with Zoroastrianism.

## What are the most important Zoroastrian values?

**Truth.** Zoroastrianism stresses truth more than anything else. Man is equipped through mental consciousness to discern truth from falsehood, and has the free will to choose between right and wrong. The very first prayer a Zoroastrian child learns is devoted to truth. A free translation of that prayer – called Ashem Vohu – is: "Truth is the greatest virtue. It is happiness. Happy is who is truthful for the sake of truth".

**Charity.** In the very second prayer a Zoroastrian child learns – the "Yatha Ahu Vairyo" – there is a line which says: "He who give assistance to the poor acknowledges the kingdom of God."

**Purity.** Zoroastrianism puts value on purity – of both the body and the mind.

**Dignity of labor.** Hard work and the dignity of labor are emphasized in Zoroastrianism. In the Gathas, which are a record of the prophet's conversations with Ahura Mazda, Zarathushtra asks "What is the way of furthering the Mazdayasni religion?" and Ahura Mazda replies "Incessant cultivation of corn, O Spitama Zarathushtra. Who cultivates corn cultivates righteousness."

## What are the sacred books of the Zoroastrians?

All the existing scriptures propounded by Zarathushtra as well as the religious writings of his followers are collectively known as the Avesta (this is not to be confused with Avestan, which is the name of a language spoken in Persia at one time). The Avesta consists of two parts – an older Avesta and the later Avesta (or Khordeh Avesta). Today, the Avesta is written in a number of languages.

The most important part of the scriptures is the Gathas or Divine Songs. These are dialogues between the prophet and Ahura Mazda, and they are ascribed to Zarathushtra himself. The Gathas are part of the Yasna, the oldest Zoroastrian scripture. The Gathas were written in a language that was Pre-Avestan. Later scriptures were written in the Avesta language, and in the Pahlavi and Pazand dialects.

What exists today is only a fraction of the original scriptures, many of which were burned when Alexander destroyed Persepolis, the ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire.

Zoroastrians still recite their prayers in the language in which the scriptures were written.

## Do Zoroastrians believe in one God?

They do. Some scholars claim that Zarathushtra was the first prophet to preach monotheism, the concept of one God. There is a mistaken belief that Zoroastrians believe in two Gods – a God of good and a God of evil. This is not true. In fact, Zarathushtra talked about two opposing forces – the forces of good personified by Hormuzd and the forces of evil personified by Ahriman. According to Zarathushtra the forces of good will ultimately prevail over the forces of evil, and the purpose of life is to help this process.

## Do they believe in life after death?

They do. Besides one day in each month, the last ten days of the Zoroastrian calendar are set aside for remembering the dead. There is also a special day each year when the departed are supposed to visit the earth. This corresponds to the All Souls Day observed by Christians. It is also believed that the soul hovers over the dead body for three days after death.

## Do they believe in heaven or hell?

They do. In the Gathas, Zarathushtra often refers to life after death and to the Chinwat Bridge where the good deeds done on earth are weighed against the evil deeds. Many Zoroastrian scholars believe that the descriptions of heaven and hell in Zoroastrian scriptures are purely allegorical, that heaven and hell are not places but conditions. Some Zoroastrians believe that the reward or punishment for good or bad deeds is often given in this world itself rather than in the next.

## Do they believe in reincarnation?

Few scholars have found any evidence of this belief in Zoroastrian scriptures.

## Do they believe in the coming of the Final Savior?

They do. Some scholars believe that the concept of the Final Savior originated with Zoroastrianism.

## W hat is the Zoroastrian view of the nature of human beings?

Zoroastrians do not believe that human beings are born in sin. They believe that there is potential for good as well as evil in every human being. There is a divine spark or essence in each of us. We should recognize it and utilize it to its fullest potential. This divine spark (known as one's Fravashi or Farohar) is depicted in architecture as a bird with outstretched wings.

## Are Zoroastrians "fire worshippers"?

The Atash Behram in Yazd, Iran

No, they are not. They do not worship fire. The fire is a symbol of the Zoroastrian faith just as the cross is a symbol of Christianity. In a Zoroastrian temple, the only symbol before which prayers are said is the fire which is tended by a Mobed (priest) five times a day. The fire stands for a number of things. It is a symbol of purity, for fire purifies everything. It also stands for the "inner fire" or divine spark in a human being. The fire burning in the Zoroastrian temple or at home is a constant reminder that we should always keep our "inner fire" alive.

There are three grades of temples, depending upon the process of consecration and who is allowed to tend the fire. The first and second grades of fire can only be tended by Mobeds, whereas the last can be tended even by laymen.

## Are there any other symbols of faith?

There are two symbols that Zoroastrians wear. One is the sudreh, a white, muslin shirt. In the center of the front neck opening of this shirt, a small symbolic pocket is stitched into which all good deeds are believed to be inserted. This shirt serves as a daily reminder that one must perform good deeds. The garment's color is white because white represents purity.

The other symbol is the kusti, a sacred thread tied three times around the waist while saying one's prayers. It is tied three times to remind one of the three basic principles of the faith – good thoughts, good words, good deeds. The kusti is woven out of 72 threads of sheep's wool. These threads symbolize the 72 chapters of the scriptures, called the Yasna, which include the Gathas.

The first time a Zoroastrian wears the sudreh and kusti is when he or she is formally inducted into the faith, usually between the ages of 7 and 11.

The Yasna

The Yasna (from yazišn "worship, oblations", cognate with Sanskrit yajña), is the primary liturgical collection, named after the ceremony at which it is recited. It consists of 72 sections called the Ha-iti or Ha.

Yasna 28.1 (Bodleian MS J2)

The 72 threads of lamb's wool in the Kushti, the sacred thread worn by Zoroastrians, represent these sections. The central portion of the Yasna is the Gathas, the oldest and most sacred portion of the Avesta, believed to have been composed by Zarathushtra (Zoroaster) himself. The Gathas are structurally interrupted by the Yasna Haptanghaiti ("seven-chapter Yasna"), which makes up chapters 35–42 of the Yasna and is almost as old as the Gathas, consists of prayers and hymns in honour of Ahura Mazda, the Yazatas, the Fravashi, Fire, Water, and Earth. The younger Yasna, though handed down in prose, may once have been metrical, as the Gathas still are.

The Visperad

The Visperad (from vîspe ratavo, "(prayer to) all patrons") is a collection of supplements to the Yasna. The Visparad is subdivided into 23 or 24 kardo (sections) that are interleaved into the Yasna during a Visperad service (which is an extended Yasna service). The Visperad collection has no unity of its own, and is never recited separately from the Yasna.

The Vendidad

The Vendidad (or Vidēvdāt, a corruption of Avestan Vī-Daēvō-Dāta, "Given Against the Demons") is an enumeration of various manifestations of evil spirits, and ways to confound them. The Vendidad includes all of the 19th nask, which is the only nask that has survived in its entirety. The text consists of 22 Fargards, fragments arranged as discussions between Ahura Mazda and Zoroaster. The first fargard is a dualistic creation myth, followed by the description of a destructive winter on the lines of the Flood myth. The second fargard recounts the legend of Yima. The remaining fargards deal primarily with hygiene (care of the dead in particular) [fargard 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 16, 17, 19] as well as disease and spells to fight it Fargards 4 and 15 discuss the dignity of wealth and charity, of marriage and of physical effort, and the indignity of unacceptable social behaviour such as assault and breach of contract, and specify the penances required to atone for violations thereof. The Vendidad is an ecclesiastical code, not a liturgical manual, and there is a degree of moral relativism apparent in the codes of conduct. The Vendidad's different parts vary widely in character and in age. Some parts may be comparatively recent in origin although the greater part is very old.

The Vendidad, unlike the Yasna and the Visparad, is a book of moral laws rather than the record of a liturgical ceremony. However, there is a ceremony called the Vendidad, in which the Yasna is recited with all the chapters of both the Visparad and the Vendidad inserted at appropriate points. This ceremony is only performed at night.

The Yashts

F aravahar, believed to be a depiction of a Fravashi, as mentioned in the Yasna, Yashts and Vendidad

The Yashts (from yešti, "worship by praise") are a collection of 21 hymns, each dedicated to a particular divinity or divine concept. Three hymns of the Yasna liturgy that "worship by praise" are—in tradition—also nominally called yashts, but are not counted among the Yasht collection since the three are a part of the primary liturgy. The Yashts vary greatly in style, quality and extent. In their present form, they are all in prose but analysis suggests that they may at one time have been in verse.

The Siroza

The Siroza ("thirty days") is an enumeration and invocation of the 30 divinities presiding over the days of the month. (cf. Zoroastrian calendar). The Siroza exists in two forms, the shorter ("little Siroza") is a brief enumeration of the divinities with their epithets in the genitive. The longer ("great Siroza") has complete sentences and sections, with the yazatas being addressed in the accusative.

The Siroza is never recited as a whole, but is a source for individual sentences devoted to particular divinities, to be inserted at appropriate points in the liturgy depending on the day and the month.

The Nyayeshes

five Nyayeshes, abbreviated Ny., are prayers for regular recitation by both priests and laity. They are addressed to the Sun and Mithra (recited together thrice a day), to the Moon (recited thrice a month), and to the Waters and to Fire. The Nyayeshes are composite texts containing selections from the Gathas and the Yashts, as well as later material.

The Gahs

The five gāhs are invocations to the five divinities that watch over the five divisions (gāhs) of the day. Gāhs are similar in structure and content to the five Nyayeshes.

The Afrinagans

The Afrinagans are four "blessing" texts recited on a particular occasion: the first in honor of the dead, the second on the five epagomenal days that end the year, the third is recited at the six seasonal feasts, and the fourth at the beginning and end of summer.

Fragments

All material in the Avesta that is not already present in one of the other categories falls into a "fragments" category, which – as the name suggests – includes incomplete texts. There are altogether more than 20 fragment collections, many of which have no name (and are then named after their owner/collator) or only a Middle Persian name. The more important of the fragment collections are the Nirangistan fragments (18 of which constitute the Ehrbadistan); the Pursishniha "questions," also known as "Fragments Tahmuras"; and the Hadokht Nask "volume of the scriptures" with two fragments of eschatological significance.

##

## Avesta Museum in Khiva

The **Avesta Museum** is situated in **Khiva** , in one of its numerous **madrasahs**. According to some scientists, **Avesta** , the sacred book of Zoroastrianism, originated in **Ancient Khorezm** (also spelled Khwarezmia, Khwarizm, Khwarazm, Khwarezm, Khoresm, Khorasam, Harezm, Horezm, and Chorezm), which was the reason why the **Avesta Museum** was organised in **Khiva** , the capital of this ancient state. Khiva is mentioned in the Zoroastrian sacred book under the names of 'Urva' and 'Urga'.

**Zoroastrianism**  
 **Z  oroastrianism** (Mazdaism, Zoroastrism) is one of the first religions in the history of the mankind. Although its place of birth has not been ascertained, scientists have found a lot of evidence allowing them to make a suggestion that the religion appeared in **Ancient Khorezm**.

According to **Avesta** , the **prophet** and the **founder** of the religion of **Zoroastrianism** , as well as the author of the sacred book, was **Zoroaster** (also spelled Zarathushtra, Zarathustra). As Avesta was being written for several centuries, influenced by various cultures, dialects and languages, the prophet Zoroaster is mentioned under different names in it (Zaotara, Ataurvan). The principal god of wisdom and everything good was **Ahura Mazda** (also spelled Auramazda, Ormizd, Ormazd), who communicated his knowledge to Zoroaster.

**Avesta** is not only a collection of **Zoroastrian holy texts** and a monument of the Old Iranian language and philosophy, but also a unique document describing the history of the first states in the territory of **Central Asia** and the social and economic relations between the people of the region. Avesta told that the first of the best places and countries created by **Ahura Mazda** was Aryanem Vaychakh (Arian spaces), the second of the best places was Guvu (Sogd), the home of the S ogdians, the third was Mauru (Merv) and the fourth place was Bahdi (Bactria).

According to the majority of scientists, Zoroaster lived in the **1** **st** **millennium BC**. **Avesta** 's first texts had only an oral form, but in the 7th-6th centuries BC they were collected and written in **Ancient Persia**. The writings were made **on bullock skin with the use of golden ink**. All those texts written on 20,000 pieces of bullock skin were burnt up by **Alexander the Great**. At a later time Zoroaster's teaching was restored and re-written. Today **Avesta** is considered to **consist of 21 books** , 5 of which have a written form and 16 are oral, communicated from generation to generation.

Avesta tells about the life of communities (farmers and cattle-breeders) ruled by **patriarchal** relations, about the class differentiation and about divinities and spirits, which produces a rather clear image of the people of that time.

Avesta is also a **collection of laws** demonstrating that the class differentiation and the sense of justice were not alien to the people in the first states. For instance, beating of slaves was forbidden; in case of violation of this law the slave could appeal to a court. This testifies to the existence of a social structure consisting of slaves, their masters and a court above, which was to protect everyone regardless of their social class. Children were also under the protection of the state. They had to live with their parents and receive an education since early years. Persons involved in children abduction and those refusing to take care of their children were severely punished.

**The struggle of the good with the evil** was the basic **principle of Zoroastrianism**. In his teaching Zoroaster called upon people to love and help each other and to unite at moments of disaster. The dog, a friend guarding one's home and cattle, had to be treated with care and love. On the contrary, killing a **wolf, a symbol of the evil** , was regarded a noble deed.

T he **earth, fire, water and air** were sacred elements. That was why the dead were not buried or burnt, but were brought onto a special hill, **dahma** , where their flesh was eaten up by predators. After that the bones were put into special containers, **ossuaries**. _Risto-kasha_ , people, whose job was to carry dead bodies, were cursed to the end of their days and were forbidden from contacting fire or water and from approaching too close to other people.

Avesta also mentions the architecture of that period and the building material used in construction (mud brick and pakhsa blocks).

No doubt, Zoroastrianism influenced all the four world religions - Islam, Buddhism, Christianity and Judaism (with candles as an inherent attribute and god assuming the form of fire to descend onto the earth in Judaism and Christianity). One of the most important **holidays** mentioned in Avesta was **Navruz** (Nowruz, Novruz), which is to this day celebrated as a major official holiday in a number of Asian countries.

Avesta's postulates calling to good deeds are as usable today as they were thousands of years ago. A **monument to Avesta** , an image of a large white-leaved book in the flame of red stone over a marquee was erected in **Urgench** (Urgenc). Avesta is being largely studied in Uzbekistan and throughout the world. In 2001 **UNESCO** organised a celebration of **Avesta's 2,700** **th** **anniversary**.

##

3.Myths and Legends of Uzbekistan

Stories, folk eposes, myths and legends as well as history are the cultural heritage of every nation. The world of myths and legends of Uzbekistan is very colorful and rich. It is the world, where the folk stories mix with history and the legends become the source of truth. In the history of Uzbekistan there were a lot of events, when people glorified their heroes and composed legends about them. For centuries, people kept stories about great deeds and legendary heroes, magnificent buildings and beautiful women; everything was embodied in myths and legends of Uzbekistan. Many people, living on the territory of modern Uzbekistan, composed legends about courage, bravery and valor of national heroes. Shirak, Tomiris, Jaloliddin Manguberdi were historical personalities, whose great feats became the legends. Life of such great people as Tamerlane also is covered with many myths, which both frighten and fascinate us ever since. Each historical monument in Uzbekistan cloaked in myths and legends of the past. They represent the world outlook of Uzbek ancestors. Often myths and legends are the only source that can tell us about the particular epoch.

Legends and myths of Uzbekistan is a unique and mysterious world of folk tales and stories, which were carefully collected and passed on from generation to generation by the people of Uzbekistan. The ancient cities of Samarkand, Bukhara, Khiva are shrouded with mysteries and superstitions, which were eventually embodied in myths and legends. Ancient Samarkand and the secret of the tomb of Tamerlane, hidden in its heart, still fascinate people.

Bukhara where even the air is saturated with the spirit of antiquity and narrow streets of the old city remember bygones seems like living in the world of folk tales and legends. Khiva is the center of Khorezm where remains of thousand ancient fortresses as myriad scattered stars maintain many ancient mysteries.

Religions of Central Asia, both pre-Islamic teachings and Islam, had a great influence on myths and legends of Uzbekistan. The myth of Mashad of Kussama in Shakhi Zinda, the legend of Chashma Ayub Mausoleum in Bukhara, legend of the Khoja Danier in Samarkand are just few examples of religious myths and legends about saints.

Legends of prophets are a part of Muslim traditions and myths, related with the worship of saints, who were able to resurrect from the dead, to assume various aspects, instantly transport from one place to remote one, to prevent dangers, to treat illnesses.

Uzbekistan has very rich history full of folk stories and legends. Stories about wonderful cities, great rulers, immortal love were maintained and passed on from generation to generation by our ancestors.

## THE LEGEND OF TOMYRIS - QUEEN OF MASSAGETAE

The vast expanses of the Eurasian steppes in ancient times were under the control of the legendary warriors-nomads of Scythian range: the Saka, the Massagetae, the Sarmatians and the Scythians. For over the millennia, since the 8th century to 4th century, they had been terrifying the civilizations of East and Europe: Greece, Rome, Egypt and Persia. The Saka and Massagetae were eastern tribes who lived in Central Asia.

The Achaemenid Empire often referred to as First Persian Empire emerged in the 6th century BC. The Persian king Cyrus II united the countries of Mesopotamia and started military expansion. He planned an extensive conquest of Egypt. However, Cyrus wisely foresaw that a war against such a large state strengthened by the pharaoh Amasis' policy would be difficult. Cyrus decided to postpone the campaign to Egypt and to take measures to protect the eastern borders of the empire, where the expanse steppes were inhabited by nomadic Saka and Massagetae. The steppe tribes had an impressive military power, they were unpredictable in their movements and therefore could attack the Central Asian region conquered by the Persians any time of the year. In 530 BC Cyrus the Great headed his huge army and ventured to the East.

At that time, the Massagetae were ruled by the queen Tomyris. She was the daughter of Spargapises - the leader of all Massagetae tribes. After the death of the leader, Tomyris inherited the power as his only child, but many tribal leaders who were dissatisfied with the fact that they were guided by a woman, tried to overthrow her. Throughout her youth, Tomyris had been fighting for the right to lead Massagetae and she proved it by her courage, valor and devotion to her people.

There is a story about how Tomyris chose a husband by herself. During the war with other tribes of Saka, Spargapises turned to his ally Kavad, the head of the Saka Tigrakhauda clan, for help. At that time, Kavad was fighting at his borders, so he sent his favorite son Rustam instead of himself. When Rustam came to the Massagetae encampment, there was a contest being held between batyrs. The prize in this competition was the marriage with Tomyris, the daughter of the leader. The one who managed to catch Tomyris in the horse contest would be her husband. Tomyris was one of the best riders in her tribe, so only the best of the warriors could overtake her. Rustam won the tournament.

When Tomyris learnt about the attack of Cyrus II, she ordered the Massagetae to leave off to the steppe. Cyrus, in his turn, decided to use military cunning to take over the power over the Massagetae. He sent an envoy with a letter to the queen Tomyris. In his message, Cyrus praised her beauty and intelligence and proposed her so she would save her people from the bloody war. But the wise Tomyris realized that the Persian ruler needed only her kingdom and she refused.

The military campaign seemed to begin successfully for the Persians. Protecting the nomads retreating back to the steppes, the Massagetae tried not to get involved in serious clashes, dropping back off the Persian army acting on the offensive. This was the tactic of luring the enemy into the steppe. As usually after clashes, the Massagetae successfully shook off the pursuer on their fast horses. Thus, the Persians came to the Jaxartes. Here, Cyrus again decided to use a trick. He ordered to set a camp and to poison all the wounded and sick soldiers, ambushing with his good troops near the river. The Massagetae led by the son of Tomyris Spargapises attacked the camp at night, but found no resistance and decided that the Persians fled. Celebrating the victory, they drank the poisoned wine left by the Persians. When most of the Massagetae squad fell asleep, the Persians attacked and massacred almost the entire detachment. Son of Tomyris was captured.

When the queen Tomyris heard what happened to her son and the army, she sent a herald to Cyrus demanding to release her son, since he was captured "by trickery not in the battle of strengths". The Massagetae Queen sternly warned the Persian ruler: "Refuse, and I swear by the sun, the sovereign lord of the Massagetae, bloodthirsty as you are, I will give you your fill of blood." Cyrus refused and Spargapises committed suicide, unwishing to be used by Cyrus for manipulating Tomyris.

As soon as Tomyris learnt of her son's death, she decided to attack the Persians. In the steppe was a battle in which Massagetae unleashed all its might and fury on the Persian army. Cyrus was killed in this combat. Tomyris ordered to fill a skin full of human blood, she dipped the head of Cyrus in the gore, saying, as she thus insulted the corpse, "... thus I make good my threat, and give you your fill of blood."

Tomyris' victory over Cyrus became a legend. For a long time, the Saka and the Massagetae had secured their borders against the Persians. The queen Tomyris became a symbol of freedom and strength of the Saka and the Massagetae army.

#

# THE LEGEND OF SHIRAK

## The shepherd who defeated the whole army

In the 7th century BC Scythian tribes, inhabiting the east of the lower reaches of the Syr Darya river, attacked Medes – the heart of the future Persian empire. These tribes were the Scythians. In 530 BC Cyrus II troops were defeated in a battle with Massagetae headed by Tomyris. The Persians never forgave these nomads and a humiliating defeat, so in 520 BC Darius I decided to undertake a military campaign against the Saka, which would finally break the resistance of the nomads.  
Darius I gathered 700,000 soldiers against the Saka. It evidences that he intended not only to conquer the Saka but also had other purposes. The conquest of the Saka would have weakened the positions of the Scythians in the Black Sea region who would have surrendered to the Persians in the absence of the aid by their eastern relatives. Conquering the Black Sea region, Darius planned to launch a successful campaign against the Greek city-states.

At that historical period the country of the Saka had no single government. Many Saka tribes fought for territory and pastures and were constantly attacking each other. Among them was a tribal chief Skunk whose son Shirak was one of the best Saka warriors. But Shirak preferred to maintain a peaceful lifestyle and to shepherd flocks of sheep, living in love and happiness with his family. Once, Shirak's tribe was attacked by the neighboring Scythians, who were bribed by Darius the Great. During the battle Shirak lost his wife and was also wounded. He galloped away into the steppe, buried his wife and grieved at her for seven days. On the seventh day he swore over the grave of his wife that he would take revenge upon the Saka traitors and the Persians.

Upon his return to the tribe, he came to the council, which brought together tribal chiefs Omar, Tamyr and Skhefar. They discussed a protection plan. Shirak offered his plan. He said: "We are now at the edge of a desolate and arid desert. We are followed by Darius with his army. If we trap the Persians, if we get them into the heart of the desert, they will die. Life is given only once, and then comes death. So isn't it better to die in such a way that future generations would remember you as a man who sacrificed his life for the sake of his motherland, for the sake of his people?! "The only thing he asked them was to take care of their children.

After that Shirak jagged all of his own face, cut off his own ears and nose and went to the camp of the Persians. When he was brought to Darius, Darius asked him why he betrayed his people, Shirak said: "Here, look what they did to me! I need to take revenge! I will show you a roundabout way and bring you to the rear of the Scythian army. So I will avenge for the humiliation!".

The Persians believed Shirak. He told them to take the food for seven days only. Shirak led them to the barren desert. Many Persians perished during the journey from thirst and heat. Shirak promised to take the troops out to the oases, but they were going deeper into the desert and there was no water. Then the commander of the Persians Ranasbat put a sword to the throat of Shirak intending to kill him. Shirak said: "This is a victory!" and dropped dead.

The Persian troops came out of the desert with heavy losses. The King Darius I survived, but ordered to leave the land of the Saka. Later he conquered many other nations in Asia and Europe, but the Saka remained beyond the reach of Persian arrows.The memory of Shirak and his great devotion to his people swept through the millennia, and even today it is praised in legends and folk songs of Central Asian peoples.

BLITZ-QUESTIONS:

  1. What is the culture of Central Asia?

  2. Which tribe is found in Central Asia?

  3. Which country is known as crossroads of Central Asia?

  4. Why is Central Asia considered a region?

### **3-THEME:** **THE FORMATION OF UZBEK STATEHOOD AND THE EARLY STAGES OF ITS DEVELOPMENT**

Plan:

  1. # Ancient periods in Central Asia

* # The Great Silk Road History

* **"** **The Great Silk Road"** as a global historical brand

  1. ANCIENT BACTRIAN KINGDOM

The oldest state association of Central Asia is ancient Bactrian kingdom (written sources called it Bahdi in "Avesta", Baktrish in Behistun inscriptions, Bactriana – by ancient authors), which had ties with Assyria, New Babylon, the Medes, Indian states. According to ancient historians, during the hegemony of Assyria, in the 9-7 centuries BC "Assyrian campaign" was held to Bactria to establish control over lapis lazuli. According to Ctesias of Cnidus, who lived at the court of Artaxerxes II (404-358), as early as the 8th century BC there was a large Bactrian kingdom, which was attacked by Assyrian troops led by King Nin - the husband of the legendary Semiramida and even became part of Assyria. One of the documents states that the king Ashurbanipal calls for help fr om troops fr om Bactria and Sogdiana. According to Ctesias, during the war of Media and Assyria bactrians first acted as allies of the Assyrians, and then switches over to the Medes.

In 7-6 centuries BC the ancient Bactrian kingdom territory covered valleys of Surkhan, Kashkadarya and Zarafshan, included Margiana and Sogdiana. Products of Bactrian masters of gold, stone and bronze gained fame in China, Persia and Europe. The largest cities located on site Kyzyltepa, Er-Kurgan, Uzunkir and Afrasiab. The time traveler fr om afar would see Bactrian city silhouette - a powerful citadel towering over adobe dwellings, craft workshops and outbuildings. Quintus Curtius Rufus wrote: "Nature of Bactria is rich and diverse. In some places, trees and vineyards give juicy fruits in abundance, rich soil irrigated by numerous sources. Where the soil is soft, bread is sawn, and the rest are left as pasture land". The main occupation of the population was irrigated agriculture. An important role in society played a craft and trade.

ANCIENT KHOREZM

Ancient northern trade routes fr om the region were controlled by Khorezm, referred to as Hvarizam in "Avesta", Hvarazmish - in Behistun scripts, Horasm - in the writings of Arrian and Strabo. Ancient culture of Khorezm, destroyed during the Arab invasion in the 8th century, consisted of nearly two thousand years. Khorezm was the holy land "ayran vaychah" of Avesta - the center of the ancient cults for the entire region. State associations already existed on the territory of Khorezm in the 7-6 centuries BC.

Archaeological evidence suggests that in the second quarter of the 1st millennium BC in this region there was a powerful irrigation network, fed fr om the Amu Darya. In the middle of the 6th century BC Khorezm was conquered by the Persians, who took gems, pottery, jewelery and craftsmen fr om Khorezm. Top builders went to build the royal palaces.

In the construction of the palace of Darius I at Susa it is reported that dark blue gems fr om Khorezm were used. In 5-4 centuries BC Khorezm seeks independence fr om the Persians. Fr om the 4-3 centuries BC there was a Kharezmian writing, the largest religious and administrative center, the royal residence - Toprak-kala, the ancient mausoleum, temple and observatory - Coy Krylgan-Kala existed. Greek sources say that winter 329-328 BC Kharizmian king Farisman concluded a peace treaty with Alexander the Great.

THE CONQUEST BY ALEXANDER THE GREAT

In 334 B.C., Alexander began marching to Asia. Having conquered the Minor Asia, Syria, Phoenicia, Egypt, and Iran Alexander, entered the territory of Central Asia in spring 329, crossing Hindukush Mountains. Bess, the Satrap of Bactria and Sogd, who had accepted the title of King and name of Artakserks, left Bactria and ran to the other side of Amudarya, territory of Sogdiana, after he had known that Alexander had come near. Alexander crossed Amudarya surreptitiously. Bess could not avoid him because at that time his recent supporters - Spitamen and Datafern - imprisoned him. They sent their messengers to Alexander with offer to send his force to capture Bess. In Nautak (north-western part of Kashkadarya Valley) Alexander conquered several fortresses. Having left his garrison in Marakand, he took a tour to the Land of Saks, Syrdarya. On their way to Marakand, the Macedonians had faced tough resistance of local population - the Usturshan highlanders. Alexander was hardly wounded.

The "riverside barbarians" began to revolt fr om back with defeating the Macedonian garrisons. At the same time, Sogdians led by Spitamen began to revolt. The Sogdians adjoined Baktrians. Spitamen had stood openly against Alexander and halted the Macedonian garrison in Marakand. Over the short period of time, on the bank of Syrdarya, the Macedonians built their fortress of Alexandria Distant (Alexandria Eskhata). Alexander hurriedly accomplished peace with Saks and threw his basic forces against Spitamen. The regular retaliatory actions of Greek-Macedonian armies in the territory of Sogd fr om autumn 329 till the same period in 328 did not bring results, which Alexander expected. After two years of wearisome and unsuccessful struggle he changed his tactics and went for rapprochement with local elites. Kwint Kursye Roof writes: "He ordered to give cities and lands of those who persisted in insubordination to those barbarians, who have obeyed". As a result, Alexander could involve a significant number of local dynasties and formed military contingencies from Sogdians and Baktrians in his campaign. In autumn 328 the decisive battle between Alexander and Spitamen took place, in which Spitamen had lost and ran to desert, wh ere his recent allies executed him. Having conquered the mountain fortresses of Horien and Oxiart in Gissar mountains, Alexander married the daughter of Oxiart - Roxanne, thus related with local elite. Having appointed the king of Sogd, Oropiya, one of the representatives of Sogdian elite, who took sides with Alexander, he finished the conquest of Central Asia. Crossing through Amudarya, in the very summer of 327, he passed through Hindukush and began his famous Indian campaign.

THE STATE OF SELEVKIDES

After the death of Spitamen and the consensus with Sogdian-Baktrian crest in 327 BC, Central Asia had become a part of the Great Empire of the Alexander the Great. The military groups of local elite were included in his army. In 323 BC, when the message about Alexander's death had reached Central Asia, the Greek settlers in Sogd and Bactria gathered group of 20,000 infantrymen and 3,000 cavalrymen, intending to return home. The commander Perdikka, Alexander's comrade-in-arms, was sent to stop them. He managed to disarm and interrupt the runners. A Sogdian satrap from local grandees, who sympathized with Macedonian retreat, was displaced with Macedonian Phillip, ruling for some time two satrapies - Sogdiana and Bactria. After 315 BC, the Greeks and Macedonians replaced all the appointed local satraps, with exception of Oxiart (Alexander's father-in-law) and Iranian Atropat (Perdikk's father-in-law).

In 312 Selevk, one of the commanders of Alexander, secured Babylon. Soon, he expanded his possessions up to Syrdarya and Ind, and his son - Antioch 1 Soter (born from a marriage of Selevk and Apama, who was Spitamen's daughter) had possessed even more Asian territories, which belonged to Alexander. In Central Asia, only one satrapy, which included Sogdiana and Bactria with Margiana, was formed. Khorezm did not belong to Selevkids. During the period of Achaemenids and Alexander, it kept its independence. Selevk and Antioch paid much attention in strengthening their position in Central Asia. The fortresses and cities, settled by Greeks, had been built actively. The historical tradition imputes building of 75 new cities to Selevk. In keeping in line with Pleniy, Antiochia behind Yaksart was one of the most distant cities. Supposedly, it was situated in the area of modern Tashkent (Kanka town) or the Ferghana Valley. Till the sixties of 3rd century B.C., in Bactras, there was a selevkian mint, which issued mainly large nominal gold and silver coins. From the beginning of Selevkian Antioch II (261-247 BC) governance, Diodod, his strap in Bactria, issued coins of Selevkian sample, which witnesses of relative autonomy. Bactria, Sogdiana and other areas of Central Asia kept living with their economic life, significantly differing from the western regions of Selevkian kingdom.

GREEK-BACTRIAN KINGDOM

In 256 B.C. Parphia, Bactria and Sogdiana separated from Selevkides. In response to this, the Arshakids captured power in Parphia. Sogdiana went under Bactria. In 230 B.C. Sogdiana's satrap (leader) Evtidem overthrew Diodot's descendent. There was a constant struggle between Greece-Bactrian kingdom over the possession of the trading roads. During 208-209 B.C. Selevkian king Antioch III the Great went on eastern crusade for re-establishment of the past powerful orb of Selevkids. Delivering defeat on Parphs, he has raged fierce attacks against Greece-Bactrian kingdom. As Evtidem's troops suffered much and Antioch besieged capital town of Baktri. A siege lingered for two years. Fighting for Bactri, Evditem cut peace agreement with Antioch, and left all his elephants to him. In the meantime, Evditem's son Demetriy married a Selevkien princess. Defeat delivered to Selevkians by Romans during the fight at Magnesia opened new chance for Greece-Bactrian kingdom in its quest for domains in southern territories - former allies of Selevkids. Around 187 B.C. Demetriy with inheriting father's throne conquered Arahosia and went further to India. In 171 B.C. during Demetriy's long absence, who was delayed in northern India, due to Bactrian power was conquered by one of his military commanders - Evkratid.

Evkratid's kingdom was named "The Kingdom of Thousand Cities". Chinese sources assert that in 165 B.C. yuetji came from the land between two rivers (present Syrdarya and Amudarya). They managed to conquer Bactria. In 155 AD Evkratid was killed by his son during his military campaigns. Greece-Indian kingdom has been formed during these times. During 141-129 A.D. Greece-Bactrian kingdom collapsed. Presumably, after yuetji's conquest of Bactria King Geliokl kept power in Paropamisads or Arahosia. Two centuries of Hellenic rule world left behind a deep track in the territory of Central Asia. Sogd and Bactria became satraps (municipalities), backed up by Greek - Macedonian military command troops. New cities have been built (Herat and Merv). The Greek was a communication tool for governors and military officials. Greek standard money was issued in the area. The pantheon of Greek lords/gods, Greek literature and Greek theater became accessible to local elites. Synthesis of local and Greek tradition has occurred.

KANGYUY

Chinese historian Si Ma-tsyan in his chronicle writes about nomadic state of Kangyuy or Kadzyuy and Kangha, wh ere "traditions were similar to those of yuetji". Ancient authors do not mention about State of Kangha, but it was told in Avesto and Mahabharat, mentioned as Saks, Tohars and Kanghs. Later Chinese chronicles maintained that Kangyuy occupied the entire territory to the north of Amudarya: Bukhara, Shakhrisabz, Kattakurgan region, Tashkent oasis, wh ere governors of Kangyuy were called "Chao-vu". Probably, "jabru" is the Chinese transcription for "Chao-vu". The second half of 2 century BC and 1 century AD are the period when the state of Kangyuy has seen its peak. The short-lived crisis in Kangyuy, when southern hegemony belonged to yuetji and northeastern part to Hun, Kangyuy re-established its power with the help of weak yuetji government in Bactria. In 2-1 BC Kangyuy issued the currency exchange. The Greek-Bactrian currency types were selected for the issue, as an example.

Recovery from the territory of Khorezm, particularly at right side of Janbas-Kala, testifies about the level of material culture. The castle with a 200x170 m size is a 10-11 m high, and was built from the silver bricks. There is a wide street inside. At the end of street there are remains of buildings, community fire in the oval metal altar. There were many religious beliefs during Kangyuy era: Zoroastrianism, Anahita cult, Mitra cult - embodied on the horse. One of the great achievements of the period in the military field, which was related to the Kangyuy cult was the tactics that later were widespread. They were the metal worn riders on metal covered horses in a tightly lined fight. There is little information on the later history of state of Kangyuy. It is uncertain, whether it was included into Kushan state later. According to Chinese sources, from the beginning AD Kangyuy safekept its independence and conquered yantsay (aorsi-alans) and other tribes (areas).

KUSHAN KINGDOM

Invasion of yuetji in middle 2nd century BC. Initial possessions of yuetji was in the north of Bactria (in the south of modern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan). Kushan Kingdom emerged in the first half or in the middle of the 1st century AD, as a result of rising of yuetji the Kingdom of Kushan, which corresponds with the name of yuetji tribe. Founder of the kingdom was Kudzula Kadviz I, under whom Kushans conquered the largest part of now Afghanistan and Pakistan. Under his successor, Vina Tok, the considerable part of India was annexed to the territory of Kushan.

In Kanishka's time Kushan Kingdom has seen its highest rise (78-123 AD) The capital has been transferred from Bactria to Peshavar, that stretched the territory to India and Hotan. In Central Asia the northern part of Kushan ownership passed through Ghyssar Mountain Range, in the south of Uzbekistan, wh ere huge borderline walls were erected. New cities were built with trade relations established with India, China, and Roman Empire. Kushan coins and figures made of bones, made by Kushan masters, were discovered during excavations in Pompeii. The architecture reached its highest level of development in Kushan Kingdom. Particular attention has been paid in construction of palaces and temples. The high artistic work in wall painting and sculptures in the palace of governor's in Halchayan and Buddhist temple in old Termez and Dalvarzintepa are still preserved. The archaeologists revealed bronze vessel, graceful candlesticks, morrows, fine jewelry products by brilliant Kushan masters, concerning high masters of Kushan craftsman. The main economy of Kushan was land irrigation. Fertilizers were used in a bid to increase the harvest of crops.

The cattle breeding evolved in foothills and steppes. The excavations in ancient Termez also revealed inscription in Aramaic writing. Kushan Italic letters characterized in combination with acute-angled, quadrate and rounded form of letters that were wide spread. In Kanishka's time the Kushan Kingdom accepted the religion of Buddhism, which later remained as a main state religion of Kushans.

However, simultaneously existed Zoroastrianism and also local Central Asian minor beliefs. In the third century the Kushan Empire began to face its gradual downfall and suffered a number of defeats from the Sassanid monarchies. By the fourth century, the empire no longer existed.

THE STATE OF EPHTALITES

The state of the Ephtalites came into being on the territory of the Kushan Empire after its decline. The majority of the population engaged in agriculture. The rest led a nomadic mode of life. The sources reveal information about the E. since 457 AD when their ruler Vahshunvar conquered Chaganian, Toharistan and Badahshan. The Sasanide king Peroz feared the growing expansion of the Ephtalites and started campaigns against them but was captured and appealed to Byzantium for help stating that nomadic invasions would be a threaten to it too. As a result, Peroz was set free for a ransom granted by the Byzantine emperor. Peroz promised the E. to give a frontier town Talkan but didn't keep to his promise and launched his second campaign, which also ended in a failure.

Abandoning his small son with the Ephtalites as a hostage he had paid a large tribute. In 484 Pervoz organized another campaign. This time he and his troops were tracked by the Ephtalites and fell dead. After crushing Peroz completely, the Ephtalites burdened Iran with a heavy contributions and occupied Merv, later the Kabul Valley, Pendiap, Karashar, Kucha, Kashgar and Khotan. So, they integrated Central Asia, Eastern Iran, Northern India, Eastern Turkestan into a single powerful empire. Under Peroz's son Kavad who spent his children by the E. court as a hostage, Iran was paying a tribute to the Ephtalites.

The Ephtalites actively participated in international trade through the Great Silk Route. They dealt with Iran, Byzantine, India, and China. The epic legends of the Ephtalites about Persian wars are contained in "Shah-name" That reflects a battle of the E. with the Turks in a story about an E. king Galferd. The academician V. Bartold supposes to see Gatferd as historical Katulf from Byzantine sources. Katulf out of spite injured to his wife by the king, escaped to Iran betraying his country to the Turks. Politically the Ephtalites created a single unified state bringing together many nations of various religious backgrounds. Zoroastrianism intertwined with local beliefs of Anahita, Sigarush, Mitra, and Buddhism.

THE TURKIC KHANATE

In the middle 6th century Turkic tribes of Altai entered into alliance with neighboring tribes and established "the most powerful nomadic empire in the pre-Mongolian period". Two brothers Tumin and Istemi read a vast state formation. While Tumin expanded his dominions in the eastern Khanate, his brother Istemi engaged himself in the West of the country with unification of tribes of the area of Seven Rivers of Eastern Turkestan. A westward expansion made him approach the dominions of Ephtalites. In 563-567 the Turks defended the Ephtalite Empire and collided with Sasanide Iran on the Amu-Darya. When the Turks and Iran had a common opponent as the Ephtalite, their relations were friendly natured.

The King Hasrov Anushirran even married a Turkic queen. After the Turks defeated the Ephtalites there arose a conflict between them and Iran. The Turk's aspirations to own the most vital trade routes contributed to the tension in relations with Iran. The mission of Istemi to Iran on trade issues failed, and the second and last members of the mission were poisoned. Following that, the Turks launched a struggle against Iran in an alliance with Byzantium. In 568-569 the first successful mission to Constantinople led by Maniah. The mutual struggle of Byzantium and Iran diverted their attention from the Khanate, which, in its turn, promoted a flourishing growth of semi-nomadic state of Turkic Khanate the Turks made several successful raids upon China once weakened by internal conflicts and achieved a big annual silk tribute. In 588 a Turkic King Kara-churin in alliance with Byzantium and Hazars, attacked Iran but was defeated and killed by a Sasanide General Bahram-Chubin. This defeat served as an impetus for the true fall of the Khanate and its disintegration in the 80s of sixth century AD into eastern and western parts. In the first half of the 7th century AD the Western Khanate saw its rise. There was an up growth. Its frontiers reached the banks of the Ind River. The trade links with China and Iran prospered. The caravan route along Merr-Chardjuy-Buhara-Samarkand-Chach flourished.

SOGD

In the 4th-8th century Sogdians were the main intermediaries in the trade of the Far East, Central Asia and the Middle East, and in fact, organized, regular international caravan trade throughout the Great Silk Road. Sogd at this time was a community principalities and free cities, among which are Samarkand, Maymurg, Kesh, Nahsheb, Ishtihan, Bukhara, Amul and Andhoi. On the whole route of the Great Silk Road from to Central Asia Sogdian colonies were settled, which lasted until the 12th century. The major Sogdian colonies in Turkestan and China existed in cities such as Heap, Chang'an, Lanzhou, Dunhuang, Luoyang, wh ere Sogdians lived in closed communities. Only in Dunhuang in the 4th century Sogdian community numbered about 1,000 people.

Eastern gate of Samarkand was called "Chinese." International trade operations were controlled by the rich Sogdian families from Samarkand, Paikend etc. They recovered loans through their agents led trade transactions. In the history of the Tang it was said that in Sogd "newly born boys had their tongues smeared with honey, and a glue was put on their arms so that they become it was tongued and gripped the coin ... The man who has reached twenty years, went to neighboring lands and everywhere he visits, he sought only benefit. "Long-haul travel, contact with the craft and traditions of China, India, Iran, Turkey formed an open culture of medieval Sogd - its unique synthesis of achievements of the West and the East. The need for security of trade routes and centers of Sogdian crafts - Samarkand Pendjikent, Paikend, Bukhara and Varakhsha - defined political orientation of an alliance with the powerful state formations.

In the 6th century Sogd was included into Eftalits State, and later - in Turk Empire, from 630 recognizes the supremacy of the Chinese Tang Dynasty. In the heyday of Kaganate Sogdians were able to trade silk obtained by Turks as a tribute to China. In the 70 years of the 6th century on behalf of Turkic rulers Sogdian merchant Maniah negotiating safeguards Shahinshah trade with Iran first, and then with the Byzantine emperor. In the Middle Ages the Sogdian language became the main language on the Silk Road. Buddhists, Christians, Manichaeans transferred their religious texts in Sogdian language, using his written tradition: Indian alphabet - Buddhists, Aramaic font - the Manichaean original joint letter from Christian Syrians, religious Nestorians and Jacobites alphabets. However, they could not dislodge itself Sogdian writing based on the Aramaic text later acquired by Uighurs. The samples of this writing can be found on "old pal" of the colony in Dunhuang and documents found on the mountain in the valley of Zarafshan Moog mountain. In the early 8th century Sogd was defeated by Muslim forces of Kuteyba ibn Muslim and obeys remaining powerful trade and craft center in the geopolitical space of Islam.

THE ARAB CONQUEST

In 7th century after tough inter-tribal wars a town of Medina became the center of unity of Arab tribes. In no time the leaders of nomadic tribes united their forces and focused their attention on conquering of neighboring oases and cities. Victory after victory, Syria, Palestine and Iran were quickly invaded, by 651 the Arabs were already by Merv which was later taken over with no resistance. The main reason behind Arab victories was not their military superiority but rather the weakness of states conquered. The first Arab to cross the Amudarya was Ubaydullah ibn Ziyad who was sent by Caliph Muaviya in 674. He besieged and conquered Paykent, beat rulers of Bukhara in a fierce battle as a result of which Bukhara was plundered by Arabs leaving many people homeless and turned to slaves. The governors of neighboring Sogd, Kesh, Nasaf united to help Bukhara against invaders but, as Narshahi wrote, Sogd soldiers were so impressed by the size and power of Arab army as to flee the battlefield.

Another Arab historian Belazuri wrote that all people who participated in resistance against Arabs and survived in Bukhara were turned to slaves. Freedom loving people of Bukhara could not resign themselves to Arab rule. They attacked the castle of Seid ibn Osman and killed him. In 704 Kutaiba ibn Muslim was appointed as a governor of Khorasan, who has led the all-out invasion of Maveraunnakhr, that is all the land on the right bank of Amudarya. While in 705-706 he conquered Balh, Paykent. He met strong resistance by Sogdians and Turks led by Bagdice Nizak Tarhan who has managed to make Arabs to retreat. The year 709 was the turning point for the Arab conquest. The much-acclaimed Tarhan was killed and Bukhara was again taken without much fight. Soon after Shoumen, Nasaf and Kesh were also brought to control.

Arabs were moving in closer to the heart of Sogd -Samarkand and it seemed that Samarkand would be the next target on Kutaiba's agenda diverting much of the forces and delayed the fall of Samarkand for two more years. In 711 Kutaiba restored the ruler of Khorezm to power thus making him vassal of Caliphate. The siege of Samarkand began in 712. The governor of Samarkand Gurek was able to deliver Arabs much pain and inflict considerable damage. Despite all these effort the city of Samarkand fell under Arab control thanks to the wall-destroying equipment. After much resistance the world famous city was conquered. A huge levy was imposed on the people of the city. Meanwhile, Kutaiba continued with his mission and took Khojent, Ferghana, Shash. In 715 after the death of Caliph Walid, his own soldiers killed Kutaiba when he attempted a plot against the new Caliph.

THE SAMANIDS DYNASTY

In early ninth century Asad ibn Saman with his sons stood out among many local dynasties and increased his influence by helping Arabs to clamp down on rebels led by Rofe ibn Lays. Their forefather Saman came from one of the rich families of Ferghana. In return for their service under the orders of Caliph al- Mahmur governor of Horasan Gassan ibn Abbas appointed the sons of Asad as governors of important cities. Nuh was given Samarkand, Ahmad - Ferghana, Yahya-Shash and Usturshona, Ilyas -Herat. The head of family was Nuh, after his death - Ahmed ibn Asad. During Ahmed's rule Samanids gained full autonomy from the Arab Caliphate and Tahirids -another local dynasty. Ahmed united all the cities and territories under his brothers' control and formed a big state. His son Nasr, who ruled Samarkand, continued Ahmed's policy of self-rule. In recognition of Nasr's independence the Caliph Mutadim accepted Nasr's sovereignty over Maveraunnakhr with the capital in Samarkand. In 892 Ismail - Nasr's brother, became the Amir of Maveraunnakhr.

He was given Bukhara in 874. In the year 900 Ismail won a decisive battle against Saffarids (another local dynasty). Later Khorasan, Seyistan were incorporated into Samanids state. Till 999 Khorasan was retained under Samanids rule. His son Ahmed (907-914) succeeded Ismail. During the reign of Nasr II (914-943) the teachings of Karmad spread all over the country against which Nuh II (943-954) fought aggressively. During Samanids' reign in Maveraunnakhr the handcraft and culture prospered. Many majestic buildings were erected. International trade became important. The Great Silk Road was revived and many cities were reconstructed. New weaving centers, pottery and carpentry centers developed. Inside the cities ever-present caravansaries, madrasah and mosques were built. The great scholars al-Khorezmi, Al-Ferghani, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, Beruni,Narshahi and many others also lived during that time. During the reign of Mansoor and Nuh (954-964) the state slowly but surely weakened. In 999 Karakhanids wrested away all the power from Samanids. The Samanids dynasty ceased to control Maveraunnakhr. The last representative of the dynasty Al-Muntasir was assassinated in1005.

KARAKHANID STATE

In the late 10th century on the territory of Eastern Turkestan and the Central Asian region the State of Karakhanids (kara – nation, Karakhan - the ruler of the people ) has emerged. It was headed by "padishah Yagma" or "ilekhan". It consisted of various Turkic tribes - Karluk, Chigils, Argu, Yagma and others, which already accepted Islam. In 992 Karakhanid troops headed by ilekhan Bogra invaded Transoxiana. The secret alliance concluded between Bogra Khan with Samanid governor of Khorasan Abu Ali Simdzhur and betrayal Foika military chief contributed to the success of Karakhanids. As a result, almost without a fight Karakhanids captured Bukhara and Emir Nuh II had fled to Chardjuy. However Bogra Khan became ill and died on the way home to Kashgar. Karakhanids returned from Maverannahr with rich booty. Ilekhan Nasr became the new head of Karakhanids, who resumed the offensive in Bukhara.

In 999 Karahanids again captured Bukhara and Emir Abd - al-Malik II and the entire royal family fell into captivity. It finally settled the question of power in Transoxiana in favor of Karakhanids. Karakhanid government seized land from Kashgar to the Amu Darya River and includes part of East Turkestan, the Seven Rivers, Shash, Ferghana and the land of ancient Sogdiana. Up until 1005 the last Samanid al-Muntasir successfully fought with Karahanid, but their superior forces last secured victory. With the blessing of the Baghdad Caliph Ali ibn Nasr ilekhan asserted his authority over Mawarannahr. Karakhanids destroyed the class of farmers and their land and water were transferred to the state and in the form of "ikty" heard military commanders and the clergy. After the death of ilekhan Nasr in 1012 he was succeeded by his brother Ali Tegin. Karakhanids were in constant war with the neighboring country Ghaznavid for the territory and in the late 11th century were a vassal of the exalted state Seljuks. Capital of ilekhan was initially in Uzgen, and then was moved to Samarkand. Bukhara and Samarkand also obeyed them. Karakhanid khans built a lot in Samarkand, Bukhara, Binkent, built palaces, mosques and madrassas, maintained and strengthened the authority of the Muslim clergy.

KHOREZMSHAH STATE

In the 11th and the first half of the 12th century Khorezm became a part of the Seljuk (formed in the 11th century on the ruins of the Ghaznavid state). Rise of Khorezm in the 11th century is closely associated with the policy of the Turkish Khorezmshahs dynasty dates back to Anush tegin - last dignitary Seljuk emir. We know about him that he had a distinguished career at the court of Malik Shah (1072-1092). The competence of this department was to control Khorezm. Clear tendency to become an independent state in the Khorezm was demonstrated by Atsyz – the grandson of Anush tegin, which already worn the revived title of Khoresmshah. Khorezmshah Atsyz (1127-1156) successfully fought against the Seljuk sultan Sandzhar. Talented diplomat and decisive military leader, he began to pursue an independent foreign policy. So, without the permission of his suzerain Sanjar, he started a war with the Kipchaks and Turkmen.

In the early 12th century the new conquerors Kara-China came from the east. Seljuk Sultan Sanjar came to the aid of Samarkand Karakhanid Mahmoud Khan, who was his closest relative. Battle of Samarkand with Kara - China ended in total defeat of Sanjar. Khorezmshah Atsyz immediately took advantage of the defeat of Sanjar and in winter of 1141 conquered and destroyed Merv, and in 1142 was already close to Nishapur. In 1156 Atsyz dies, and his son Il-Arslan continued to strengthen the Khorezm state. He conquers Dihistan. His son Tekesh (1172-1200) captures Nishapur in 1187, Merv - in 1192, and inflicts a decisive defeat to Western Seljuk Sultan in 1194. As a result the entire eastern Iran goes into his hands.

In 1195 Tekesh troops defeated Abbasid caliph, and Khorezm troops enter Iraq as the sole masters. Khorezmshakh Tekesh needs to be recognized as the most talented ruler of Khorezm, who managed to double the area and create a powerful state. The weak point of his policy was the protection exerted to Kipchak military aristocracy, which strives to influence public affairs. Willful interference of Turkic "generals" into the affairs of state subsequently significantly contributed to the fall of the Khorezm state during the reign of the Tekesh's son Kharizmshah Muhammed.

CONQUEST OF CENTRAL ASIA BY GENGHIS KHAN

In 1215 Genghis Khan, having consolidated the successes in northern China, draws his interests to the West. In 1219 he instructs Chepe Noyon to march on Eastern Turkestan and the Seven Rivers region. Defeating Kuchluk state Genghis Khan invaded Transoxiana. Khorezmshah Muhammad gave the order to strengthen the city. To fortify Samarkand a large sum of money was raised, but it was spent wrongly, and the walls were not reinforced. In 1219 Genghis Khan moved to Otrar - big and strong fortress. Dividing his forces, he left one part for Otrar siege, and another led by his son Juchi was sent to capture Signak, Uzgen, Jenda, and then Urgench. Squad in 5000 people had been sent up to the Syrdarya, and cities of Khujand and Benaket. Genghis Khan himself with the main forces marched the shortest way through the arid steppe towards Bukhara. In February 1220 Bukhara was taken. The city was given by Genghis Khan his soldiers to plunder. The news of the terrible fate of Bukhara quickly spread in Maverannakhr. Population was in fear and panic. Khorezmshah Muhammad cowardly didn't react and was ready to run.

After Bukhara the Mongols went to Samarkand. The chief of the garrison of Samarkand was Turk Tugay Khan, who surrendered the city, hoping to go into the service of Genghis Khan. Mongols entered the city and committed a massacre. Only a quarter of the population of Samarkand had survived. In April 1220 the Mongols took Jend. In the upper reaches of the Syrdarya they took Benaket. Khujand's ruler Timur Malik courageously resisted the Mongols. With a small detachment he managed to reach a fighting Urgench. Before summer 1220 eastern and central part of Transoxiana were captured by the Mongols. Khorezmshah fled. He died on the island off the southern coast of the Caspian Sea. In Urgench Timur Malik briefly headed the army and militia. He successfully fought Juchi. In the autumn of 1220 Genghis Khan stormed Termez. In winter 1221 the siege of Urgench began. Residents put up a heroic resistance. Even before the fall of Urgench Balkh and Merv were taken. By the summer of 1221 the entire territory of Central Asia belonged to the Mongols. After the death of Genghis Khan the region was recognized as ulus of Genghis Khan's son - Chagatai. Collection of taxes in favor of the Chagatai house was entrusted to local tax collector Mahmoud Yalavach.

EMPIRE OF TAMERLANE

In the middle of the 14th century, Temur - the son of barlass bek Taragai began his political activity in Maveranahr. Together with the ruler of Samarkand Emir Hussein - the grandson of influential Turkic Kazagan, Amir Temur began fighting for the unification of Maveranahr and liberation from the Mongol rule. Later, their relationship deteriorated. In 1370 Amir Temur defeated the army of Hussein and was proclaimed as the Amir of Maveranahr.

During the 1372-1388 Amir Temur makes five military marches to Khorezm, achieving its full submission. After that, he begins his military campaigns in Iran, Iraq, the Caucasus, Syria and Turkey. The result was a creation of a vast empire. However, Temur was constantly threatened by the might of the Golden Horde and the White Horde, who were part of the Juchi Ulus.

In 1379, Amir Temur promotes Tokhtamish ascension to the throne of the White Horde. However, after defeating Mamay in 1380 Tokhtamish captures the supreme power in the Golden Horde and begins expansion into possessions of Temur. In response, the Amir Temur inflicts serious losses to Tokhtamish in battles at Kunduzchi in 1391 and 1395 in the valley of the Terek River in the North Caucasus. After this Tokhtamish was so weakened that Temur had a road opened to the capital of the Golden Horde - Sarai Berke. The city was captured, looted and burned.

In 1398-1399 there was a famous Indian campaign, which resulted in a huge bounty. In 1400 Amir Temur joined the fight against the Ottoman Sultan Bayazid 1 and the Egyptian Sultan Faraj. In 1402 the Ottoman Sultan's Ankara was completely defeated, which for 50 years has delayed the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks. At the end of 1404 Temur headed the 200-thousand army on a march to China. However, the death of Timur in February 18, 1405 in Otrar ceased the campaign.

The reign of Amir Temur was a time of intensive development of the economy, trade and culture. Maveranahr became a part of a vast empire. 14-15 century - the time of the "Timurid renaissance" - often referred to in the history of Central Asia as a "golden age". This century has given the world 's greatest scientists, poets and genius artists. Isfahani in the "Book of Bukhara guest" tells about the development and production of cotton in Samarkand cotton and silk fabrics. Temur considered that the world is made comfortable by merchants and spend a lot on new roads, shopping facilities. During his reign economic and political ties with the countries of the Middle East and the West were widened, as well as with the distant countries of Europe: Spain, France and England.

THE STATE OF THE TEMUR DYNASTY (1405-1450)

During five years after Amir Temur's death the long dynastic war took place in Maveraunnakhr. In 1409 Temur's son Shahrukh (1376-1447) gained an upper hand over his brother Miranshakh's son Halil-Sultan and became the head of united state of the Temur Dynasty. But, in fact, it had already consisted of two states. Shahrukh ruled in Horasan with its center in Herat, and Shahrukh's son Mirzo Ulugbek (1394-1449) governed Maveraunnakhr. Both states consisted of small fiefdoms governed by Temur descendants. Many of them aspired "for the larger portion of the cake" pretended on the larger part. Shahrukhs grandson, Sultan-Muhammad, who was appointed to rule Iran, began to demonstrate such level of independence that Shahrukh had to establish the order with the help of his army. Ulugbek was conducting an independent external policy. He was alertly following the situation in the Lower Syrdarya, from wh ere the Uzbeks of Dashti-Kipchak were raging attacks at Khorezm.

In 1419 he supported Barak and helped him to become the Khan of the nomadic Uzbeks. In Mongolia after long discords Shirmuhammad secured victory, but he made it with the help of Mirzo Ulugbek. But soon Ulugbek had to struggle with his protegees (those who were appointed by him). In 1425 Ulugbek crashed the Moguls. In 1427 after the relations with Barak had been spoiled, Ulugbek went to Lower Syrdarya and was defeated. After Shakhrukhs's death in 1447 Ulugbek made an attempt to conquer Herat and Horasan, but failed. In 1448 Ulugbek with his son Abdullatif tried again to conquer Herat, and this time being the successful. However, he couldn't conquer Horasan because of the riot of rulers of Horasan and incursions of nomadic Uzbeks led by Abulkhairkhan to Maveraunnakhr. In 1449 Abdullatif got to intrigue against his father, which has ended with Ulugbek's death. Abdullatif became the ruler, but he was killed in May 1450. Abdulla, who did try to revive Ulugbek's policy, took the power.

THE STATE OF THE TEMUR DYNASTY (1451-1507)

In counterweight to Abdulla, who was supported by Turks, the Emirs of Bukhara, supported by Nakshbandiya movement by Hoja Akhror, promoted their own claimant to the throne. It was Abu-Sayid (1451-1468), Miranshakh's grandchild, who was the son of Amir Temur. Abu-Sayid attracted at his side the khan of nomadic Uzbeks - Abulhair. In the summer of 1451 not far from Samarkand the great battle occurred. The nomadic Uzbeks won, Abdulla was killed. Abu-Sayid seized power over Samarkand and Maveraunnakhr. Hoja Akhror became his closest counselor. Abu-Sayid failed in securing Horasan, because Abul-Kasim Bobur had possessed the throne of Herat since 1452 till 1457. Relations between two governors were hostile. In 1457 Abu-Sayid seized the throne of Herat, temporarily uniting two states. But another Temur descendant - Sultan Husein Boikaro, Omar-sheikh's great-grandson, who was the son of Amir Temur - tried to gain power in Herat.

In 1468 Abu-Sayid went to conquer Iran and didn't come back. Sultan Husein (1469-1506) used the situation and seized the power. Abu-Sayid's sons declined from struggle for the throne and went to Maveraunnakhr. In the second half of the 15th century there was the period of political split in Maveraunnakhr. From 1469 to 1494 Sultan Ahmed, Abu-Sayid's son, ruled in Samarkand (the power in fact was in the hands of Hoja Akhror and Nakshbandiya religious teaching), Sultan Ali-mirza - in Bukhara, Zakhiriddin Muhammad Bobur - in Ferghana. It was Bobur who made the fierce resistance against the invasion of nomadic Uzbeks led by Sheibany-khan. In 1497 the Andijan army headed by Bobur took over Samarkand. In spring 1501 Bobur failed in battle with Sheibany-khan on the Kuhak River. Bobur had to go to Kabul. From 1501 till 1506 Sheibany-khan conquered Samarkand, Tashkent, Kyat and Buldumsaz, Urgench, and Balh. Meanwhile, weak Sultan-Husein couldn't make a serious resistance against Sheibany-khan. Only after Sheibany-khan had seized Horezm, Sultan-Husein decided to set out, but soon he died. In Herat his sons Badi az-Zamin and Muzaffar Husein - wh ere appointed as successors. The discord between them only accelerated the fall of Herat. In 1507 Sheibany-khan conquered Herat.

SHEIBANID STATE

Sheibanids made Samarkand their state capital. During the reign of Ubaidullah Khan (1533-1539), despite the difficult military and political situation, big attention was paid to the development of science and culture. Ubaidullah Khan was a very educated man, masterfully recited Quran and provided his comments in the Turkic language, was a gifted singer and musician. Abdullah Khan II (1557-1598) attempted to create a single powerful state. In 1557 he took possession of Bukhara, which after 1561 became the capital, and the state became known as the Bukhara khanate. During his reign, the construction took the broadest scope. Bridge across the river in Kermine Zarafshan, as well as numerous madrasas in Balkh and Bukhara were built. Khan built the whole ensemble - a mosque, madrasa, a house and other buildings around the mausoleum of Imam Abubakr Sa'd.

After the death of Abdullah Khan in 1598 hope for a united state Uzbeks collapsed. The last representative of the Sheibanids dynasty Pirmuhammad was pretty ordinary person and did not have the political influence of specific rulers. Unable to cope with the ensuing anarchy, he soon died in the internecine struggle. Lack of central authority in the country and reigned confusion immediately took advantage of the internal and external enemies of the Bukhara Khanate. In the south of the Iranian Shah Abbas captured Sebzevar, Mashhad and Herat. In Balkh, he planted his protege Muhammad Ibrahim. Kazakh sultans captured one of the major principalities - Tashkent. Khorezm regained independence. "Across the country turmoil and anarchy began, no one wanted to submit another " - wrote about those years Munshi Muhammad Yusuf. As a result of internecine strife and wars three khanates of Bukhara, Khiva and Kokand were formed.

KHIVA KHANATE

In 1505 the troops Sheibani Khan captured Khorezm. However, in 1512 the Khan's power passed into the hands of Ilbars Khan, the leader of the other branch of nomadic Uzbeks. From that time on, the Khanate of Khiva, the capital of which at various times were Wazir, Old Urgench, Khiva. Into the Khanate, besides Khorezm oasis entered Mangishlak, areas Balkhan mountains, Dehistan, Uzboi and Middle Khorasan. In the struggle for hegemony in Central Asia with Bukhara khanate Khiva troops devastated Karakul Chardjuy, Vardanzi and got to Kermine. In 1662, the Khan of Khiva Abulgazi after a raid made peace with the Khan of Bukhara Abulaziz. However, attacks on Bukhara continued under his son Anusha Khan (1663-1687).

In 1685 Khivans managed to capture Samarkand. However, near to Gijduvon Anusha Khan was defeated and was forced to leave Samarkand. Soon Bukhara's Khan conspired against Anusha Khan, which was the son of Anush Irnak (Ereng) . In 1687 Anusha was captured and blinded. In 1688 Shah Niaz khan sought to strengthen the power and get rid of dependence on Bukhara.

In 1700 he secretly sent an ambassador from Bukhara to Peter 1 to accept him "with all the people subservient to him" into the Russian citizenship. Apparently Khan Arab Muhammad (1702-1714) also relied on Russia's support. During the reign of Shirgazi Khan (1715-1728) internal turmoil tore apart the feudal state. In 1717 Khiva khanate successfully repel the invasion of the Russian state military expedition led by A.Bekovich - Cherkassky. After that Ilbars became Shirgazi Khan (1728-1740). Using lack of Nadir Shah, who at that time undertook a campaign in Afghanistan and India, Ilbars raided Khorasan. This, and the failure of Khiva acknowledge their dependence on Iran and its military support of Bukhara, led by Nadir Shah to undertake a campaign to Khorezm.

In the battle of Khazarasp Ilbars was defeated. Iranian forces had taken Hanka and Ilbars himself was killed in battle. After a four-day siege, Nadir Shah took the capital. A considerable part of Khiva was attached to the army troops of Nadir Shah. In Khiva Nadir Shah left a garrison and a ruler. However, the northern part of the Khanate did not obey to Iran. Nurali - Abul- Khair son, Khan of Small Kazakh ulus emerged on the arena and in 1730-1732 received Russian citizenship. In 1741 Khivans rebelled against Iran. Khiva was taken by the rebels, the governor and the garrison massacred. Nurali took the imperial throne. Nadir Shah, having heard about these events, gives the order to his son Nasrullah Mirza to retake Khorezm. Khiva dignitaries who contributed to the the rise of Nurali to the throne, hastened to Merv acknowledging their guilt. At their request, Nadir Khan appointed Abu Muhammad, son of Ilbars as the Khan of Khiva. Nurali fled to the steppe. During the 40's of the 18th century Khiva changed several khans.

EMIRATE OF BUKHARA

After the death of Rahim Mangyts brought to the place the ruler Miankal Daniar bey (1758-1785). However, he failed to maintain a rigid central authority. The civil strife and conflicts between supporters and opponents of Mangits dragged on for several decades. In 1784 dissatisfied with the weakness of Daniar the citizens of Bukhara revolted and Daniyarbiy ceded power to his son Shahmurad (1785-1800). Shahmurad innovations started with the fact that eliminated two major dignitaries - Dawlat kushbegi and Nizamuddin kazikalon, killing them in front of the Arch. Shahmurad then solemnly handed residents of Bukhara Tarhan letter, frees them from some taxes. Text ratification was carved in stone, attached to Yvan large mosque. Instead, he established a new tax "Jul" for the maintenance of troops in case of war. Concentrating power in his hands, he refused to take khan title, remaining as emir.

He put Danishmandchu first and then Abulgazi - descendants of Genghis Khan to the throne and they had no real power. In 1785 Shahmurad held monetary reform, starting to produce high-grade silver coins 0.7 mithqala (3.36 g), as well as standardized gold coins. He personally led the legal department. Shahmurad returned the left bank of the Amu Darya from Balkh and Merv to Bukhara Emirate. In 1786 he suppressed a revolt in the county Kermine then made successful campaigns in Shakhrisyabz and Khujand. Shahmurad successfully fought with the Afghan ruler Timur Shah, managing to retain the region of the southern Turkestan inhabited by Uzbeks and Tajiks. When Emir Haidar (1800-1826) received the throne from his father, the entire Maveranahr obeyed his authority. Accession to the throne was accompanied by Haidar strife and mass uprisings. In 1800 Merv Turkmens rebelled. Soon a war with Kokand Uratyube that Haidar managed to defend began.

During Emir Haidar political system was a centralized monarchy, evolving towards absolutism. Emir Haidar had bureaucracy of up to four thousand people. Increased the army. Only in Bukhara, there were 12,000 troops. Ahmad Danisch reports that "the reign of Emir Haidar can be characterized as a time of incessant feudal wars that occurred every 3-6 months". Haidar succeeded by his son, Nasrullah (1826-1860). To clear the way to power for him, his older brothers Hussein and Umar were killed. Relying on the army and the alliance with the clergy, Nasrullah led a fierce struggle against feudal fragmentation, seeking to curb the nobility. During the first month of reign he executed daily 50-100 people. He worked for the unification of regions, nominally belonged to the emirate. For the administration of provinces, he drew "unknown" people that obeyed him completely. The reign of Nasrallah was accompanied by incessant wars with Khiva and Kokand khanate for certain border areas – Merv, Chardjuy, Uratyube, Khujand. Stubborn resistance was done by Shahrisabz and Kitab rulers. Only in 1853 after repeated military campaigns, they were subject to Bukhara.

THE KHANATE OF KOKAND

Fergana became separate from Bukhara in the early 18th century under conditions of political instability in Ashtarkhanid Khanate. There was founded an independent state with the center in Kokand, wh ere firstly came to power hodzhas, and then khan dynasty Ming. Khanate included the territories of Namangan, Kokand, Andijan and Margilan regions. Shahrukhbiy from Uzbek tribe Ming was proclaimed as the first ruler of the Khanate. In the 1721-1722 years Shahrukh was killed as a result of strife between emirs. His son Abdurahimbiy (1721-1733) became his successor. He joined Khanate Andijan and Khojand, and also Samarkand, Kattakurgan, Dzhizak, the regions belonged to Bukhara Khanate at that time. Osh was conquered by Khanate during the period of his brother Abdukarimbiy's ruling (1733-1748).

Following twenty years were marked by frequent changes of rulers. In 1770 Narbuta (1770-1800) was proclaimed as a ruler by Kokand nobility. He has succeeded to stifle rebellion of Chust, Khodjant and Namangan rulers. Narbutabiy send troops to Tashkent, but failed to conquer the city. Under Narbutabiy in the Khanate reigned relative political stability that positively affected to economic development. The irrigation system was expanded and many new madrassas were built, including Mir madrasa. Narbuta succeeded by his son Alimbek (1800-1809), under whom the political importance of Kokand has risen significantly. The state was officially declared as the Khanate of Kokand in 1805 and Alimbek was given the title of «Khan». He created a mercenary army, made up of mountain Tajiks, which became his mainstay in the struggle to centralize power. Alimkhan subordinated Tashkent and Fergana, made a number of military campaigns on Uratyuba. As a result of a plot he was killed and his brother Omarkhan (1809-1822) came to throne.

He signed a treaty with Bukharian emir Haydar and joined to the Khanate Kazakh land up to the Syrdarya River mouth. Omarkhan built Akmachit fortress at the crossroads of the Tashkent, Bukhara and Khiva roads. Omarkhan had the title of «Faithful lord» \- «Amir ul-Muslimin», minted coins in his name. Under him the administrative system of Bukhara Khanate was taken as administrative system of the Khanate. Omarkhan's successor was his 12 - year-old son Muhammad Alikhan (Madalihan) (1822-1842). He was young, and his mother prominent poetess Nodirabegim ruled the state in his youth years, who made significant contribution to the development of culture and art in Kokand.

Madalikhan made a number of successful campaigns to East Turkistan and Kashgar to subordinate Tadjiks who lived in the mountainous areas of Alay ridge. During his reign an advanced irrigational system was established in the Khanate, and the foreign trade communications have strengthened. Flatterers called him «gazi» (The Fighter for Belief), however the clergy determined him as an apostate. Khan's opponents sent their complaint to Emir of Bukhara Nasrulla. In 1840 Emir send his ambassador to Kokand with Fetva, in which Madalikhan admitted as «Kafir» (Infidel). Having failed in the battle with armies of Emir Nasrulla, Madalikhan recognized himself as the Vassal of Bukhara and was compelled to concede Hodjent. But, after that, relations between Bukhara and Kokand continued worsening. As a result, in 1841 Muhammad Alikhan refused the throne for the benefit of his brother Sultan Mahmudkhan. Then, in 1842 emir Nasrulla hold Kokand once again. By Emir'sorder Madalikhan, his brother Sultan Mahmudhan and his mother Nodirabegim, and also a number of high-ranking officials were executed. Under decree of Nasrulla his deputy began to rule in Khanate that imposed heavy tax burden on people. As a result, in summer of 1842 in the Khanate began a rebellion, during which all supporters of Emir were killed, and the nephew of Norbutabij - Sherali was put forward as Khan. Emir of Bukhara Nasrulla held Kokand again. But after 40 days, after having been informed that the Khan of Khiva Ollokulihon invaded to the territory of Emirate he had to raise the siege and returned back.

Under Sheralihan (1842-1845) Musulmankul (from Kipchak tribe), who help him to come to power, was appointed as Mingbashi (the commander of forces). Musulmankul, in his turn, filled the majority of fighting corpuses with his fellow tribesmen. Having the influence among soldiers, he tried to exert influence on ruler, but Sheralikhan did not allow it.

Not having achieved his purpose, in 1845 Musulmankul organized an attempt at Khan when the Khan was on the way to Osh to suppress the rebellion that had flashed because of a discontent for imposed taxes. After the assassination of Sheralihan, Alimkhan`s son - Murad sat on the throne. In order to keep his position, he had to recognize himself as the vassal of the Emir of Bukhara. Then Musulmonkul eliminated him and put on the throne Sheralikhan's son – Hudoyor marrying him to his daughter.

Making use of Khan's adolescence, Musulmankul actually gathered all power in his hands. In particular, he distributed the majority of high-ranking posts to the representatives of kipchaks. Because of it, the discontent was increased in Kokand and Musulmankul was discharged off his post.

Having decided to return his influence, Musulmankul secretly tried to establish contact with V.V.Velyaminov-Zernov, the representative of Russian army command forces. In order to get rid of kipchaks, Kokand nobility tried to win over Hudoyorkhan. In 1853 began mass kipchak slaughter in Kokand, and Musulmonkul was taken in captivity and then executed.

But internal struggle for the throne did not stop. The people once assisted Hudoyorkhan to eliminate Musulmankul, joined in a conspiracy against him. Those were unsuccessful attempts. From 1852 to 1865 on the throne came several governors. In 1865 Kipchaks and Kyrgyzs declared Hudoykulbek as Khan of Kokand, who ruled the country only 14 days and run away to Kashgar with all treasury. As a result, Hudoyorhan occupied the throne of Kokand without difficulties.

Making use of internal political instability, Russia started active military operations against Khanate. As a result from 1853 to 1865 Russian army forces occupied the cities of the Khanate of Kokand - Okmasjid, Takmak, Pishpek (current Bishkek) Avliyoota, Turkistan, Chimkent and Tashkent with joining to them territories. On July 14, 1867 Emperor Alexander II founded Turkistan general – governorship that included the seized territory in Central Asia.

The territory of Kokand Khanate was noticeably reduced as a result of the Russian military expansion, which became the reason of reduction tax revenues to state treasury. In order to refill the treasury Khan increased tax burden. That decision raised public discontent, and in 1871 in Sokh began a revolt that has turned to long-term armed mutiny, and this went down in history as «Pulatkhan Revolt». Russian armies suppressed the revolt, and Pulatkhan was taken in prison and executed in March 1876 in Margilan. In the same year with Emperor's decision the Khanate of Kokand was officially liquidated and Fergana region of the Turkestan general – governorshipwas formed in its territory.

CONQUEST OF CENTRAL ASIA RUSSIA

Since the 20s of the 19th century British goods began to compete with Russian goods in Central Asia. UK openly declared its claim to the presence in Afghanistan, Iran and Central Asia. To strengthen its position in the Asian markets, Russia is creating favorable conditions for the export customs for Russian goods.

Under Nicholas I the diplomatic and military presence of Tsarist Russia in the region was activated. In 1834 the Novo-Aleksandrovskoe fortress (Mangishlak) was built on the way to the Uzbek khanates. In late 1839 and early 1840 the Governor-General of Orenburg graf Perovskiy made a bad winter military campaign against Khiva. In 1847 General Oruchev took the northeastern coast of the Aral Sea and founded fortress Raim (Kazalinsk). Aral flotilla was created, consisting of the steamers "Nicholas" and "Constantine". In 1850-1855 Russian troops captured Kokand fortresses Kumushkurgan, Chimkurgan, Kushkurgan, Ak-Mosque (Kyzyl-Orda) occupied the valley of the Ili River, wh ere they established the Verniy fortress.

During the reign of Alexander II the conquest of Central Asia became the main goal of the imperial foreign policy of Russia. The reason for the marching to the south became constant raids of military units of the Kokand khanate on Russian settlements in southern Kazakhstan, the lower reaches of the Syrdarya and the coast of the Aral Sea. In 1865 Major General M.Chernyaev captured Tashkent and elders of the city forced to sign an armistice agreement. Emperor Alexander II ordered the Orenburg governor to take Tashkent residents to Russian citizenship upon their requests. Part of influential individuals, merchants from Tashkent signed such treatment. In 1866 Russian troops captured the fortress of Khujand and Namangan. Chinaz fortress was built.

In July 1867 an imperial decree has established Turkestan Military District, headed by the Governor-General. In 1868 the Turkestan Military District troops under the command of the Adjutant General von Kaufman started hostilities against the khanate of Bukhara. In May, the Russian troops came to Samarkand without a fight and went into town. In June, the Emir of Bukhara signed an armistice agreement. Zarafshan district was formed. Detachment of General Abramov captures Karshi and returns it to the Emir of Bukhara. In 1870 as a result of military operations Major General Abramov captures Shakhrisyabz and Kitab. Shakhrisyabz and Kitab were transferred to Emir of Bukhara. In 1873 offensive against the Khanate of Khiva was organized from the Turkestan, Mangishlak and Orenburg. In May the fortress Khazarasp was taken, Khiva and later the fortress Kungrat, Hodzhayli , Gurlen were captured. In August an armistice with the Khan of Khiva was signed. Russian protectorate was established over the Khanate of Khiva. Muhammad Rahim Khan Bogodur (Feruz) withheld the power. In the autumn of 1873 a new political agreement with the Bukhara khanate was signed.

In 1875-1876 as a result of military action a rebellion against Khudoyar Khan and the Russian authorities in the Fergana Valley was suppressed. Kokand khanate was liquidated and on its territory Fergana region was formed as a part of Russia. In 1881 the Akhal-Teke oasis and Ashgabat were captured. A convention on the delim itation was signed between Russia and Persia. In 1884 Merv subordinated. Kushka became the southern point of the Russian borders.

Thus, in 80s 19th century Russian borders in Central Asia were finally formed. In 1895 the Russian and British governments signed an agreement on the delim itation of the zones of influence with the definition of the dividing line in the Pamir Mountains.

UZBEKISTAN IN THE 20TH - 90TH OF THE XX CENTURY

In 1924 Uzbekistan as one of the republics joined the former USSR. In March 1927 the first Constitution of Uzbekistan was adopted. During this period the final role and decision - making were the priority of inter-republican management bodies for developing national economy and the culture of Central Asian republics: Central Asian Economic Council (in 1923), Central Asian water resource management, Central Asian State Planning and etc. In a short period of time hard consequences of Civil War were eliminated. The industry was developing rapidly. The great changes have been taken in engineering industry, metal - working industry and Power branches. During the period from 1928 to 1942 515 enterprises and electric power stations were launched among which are Chirchik city electrochemical plant, Tashselmash, Kuvasay city cement and lime works, Tashkent city textile industrial complex, and others. In 1925 - 1929 the land - water use reform was carried out.

The agriculture and irrigation sectors were on the rise with new canals and reservoirs being reconstructed. In the country the literacy of the population was 95% by the end of 1941. The State University of Turkestan (1920) became prominent center of higher education. There a number of scientific - research institutions were functioning which placed more than 1000 researches to the end of 20th. Tashkent was declared capital of Uzbekistan SSR in 1930. A new UzSSR Constitution was adopted in 1937. According to the Constitution the elections were held for the republican bodies of power led Yu. Akhunbabaev and Fayzulla Khojaev. The entire life in the republic went on under the increasing cult of personality of Stalin and strengthening totalitarian management methods. The mass repression of outstanding party members and statesmen. The bodies of political administration have trumped - up criminal cases regarding F.Khodjaev, A.Ikramov, D.Manjari and the others. Dozens of people, including leaders of Uzbekistan Communist Party S.Baltabaev, I.Khudaykulov, A.Tsekher, M.Shermukhamedov. M.Usmanov, and others were arrested in August - September. In spring of 1938 more than 60 percent party secretaries such as obkoms (regional party committee), gorkoms (city party committee) and raikoms (district party committee) were subjected to purges.

UZBEKISTAN DURING THE WORLD WAR II (1941 - 1945)

On June 22, 1941 Germany in violation of the non-aggression pact suddenly attacked the USSR. On June 23 many thousand demonstrations were held in Tashkent, wh ere the citizens expressed their readiness to do all their best at home for the front and for the sake of the victory. In the first months of war 32,000 requests for sending to the front battlefields were submitted. In November 1941 it 14 national brigades: 9 infantries and 5 cavalries groups were formed. In 1941 - 1943 Uzbekistan received and placed 1 million refugees, evacuated because of military operations in Russia, Ukraine and Byelorussia. Among them 200, 000 were children. War conditions required urgent measures for strengthening the home front. More than one hundred industrial enterprises were moved to Uzbekistan: Leningrad factory for textile machinery, Rostselmash, "Krasniy Aksay" Stalingrad Chemical plant, Moscow factories "Podemnik", "Elektrostanok", and many others. By the end of 1941 more than 50 evacuated enterprises were put into operation. In the middle of 1942 all enterprises relocated to Uzbekistan were operated in full power for supplying military machines, ammunitions and munitions. From the very beginning of war the republican industrial enterprises were reorganized for producing goods for the defense. Tashselmash, steam - locomotive repair, Chirchik city electrochemical plant and the others were few of them.

During 1941 - 1945 280 industrial enterprises were put in operation. In 1943 the specific gravity of enterprises in national economy has been taken to 75 percent. In autumn 1942 the construction of the metallurgical plant in Bekabad region has been launched. It was started the setting up of non-ferrous metallurgy on the basis of explored reserves of tungsten, molybdenum and copper. Also, the Almalyk copper ore deposit was put into operation. From 1940 till 1943 because of constructing of new electric power stations the power production increased 3, 5 times. During 1941 - 1945 there were put in operation 280 Industrial enterprises representing all branches of industry. Uzbekistan became one of the leading arsenals of the country. More than two thousands planes, 1,7 thousand aircraft engines and mortars, 22 million mines, 560 thousand shells, about millions of grenades, 330 thousand parachutes, 5 armed trains, more than 100 thousand km. of different wires were sent. There were relocated 22 scientific- research institutions, 16 institutes of higher education, 2 libraries. On November 1943 the inauguration of Academy of Science was held. T.N.Kari-Niyazov was elected as the first president. By late 1944 22 scientific institutions were the part of Academy of Science. 41 institutes of Higher education including 12 evacuated ones and 51 secondary education institutions functioned in 1943. More than 20,000 specialists were trained during the war at those institutions. About one million citizens of Uzbekistan fought in front lines. Tens of national force units were created. Many of them were awarded with orders and military rank of guardsmen. The soldiers of Uzbekistan took part in defense of Brest fortress, cities of Kiev, Smolensk, Odessa, Sevastopol, and so on. (D.Abdullaev, T.Aliev, Isaev, Yusupov, F.Laenkov, U.Ataev and other).

UZBEKISTAN IN 1945 - 1991

In post-war period there were continued the development process of diversified industries with deployed transport and power systems. The cities became a scientific and culture canters. The new Grand Academic Theater of Uzbekistan was established in 1947. A few years later the theater of opera and ballet has been opened in the city of Samarkand. The agriculture sector was mechanized. In 1984 more than 4,175 hectares of sown areas were assimilated, 2,056 thousand hectares of which were given for cotton fields. The leadership in post-war period included U.Yusupov, A.Niyazov, N.Mukhitdinov, Sh.Rashidov. During the 80s the USSR faced the political and ideological crisis. It turned out that the centrifugal forces were powerful resulting in the end of dissolution of the former Soviet Union and breaking up to newly independent states in the vast area.

INDEPENDENCE OF UZBEKISTAN

Uzbekistan gained independence on August 31, 1991 in the difficult political and socio- economic conditions. For over 130 years the colonial regime domination made it impossible for the independent development of the Republic.

Declaration of independence put to the people and the country's leadership task of fundamental reforms. As a result of internal and external policies pursued by the government led by Islam Karimov Uzbekistan has been recognized by the international community as an independent state. Within a very short time Uzbekistan has identified its own model of development.

"The Uzbek model" of development designed and implemented by the President Islam Karimov set the stage for social and economic development of the country. In a short time grain and oil independence was ensured. Uzbekistan had turned from agricultural and raw materials exporting country to rapidly growing, modern technology country. The global financial and economic crisis of 2008 has confirmed the correctness of the chosen path of Uzbekistan's development. "Uzbek model" successfully weathered the crisis, deservedly received high positive ratings from international financial organizations and experts.

Historical experience shows that no country can develop in isolation from the world community. As a result of a balanced foreign policy of Uzbekistan has been recognized by more than 180 countries, and 130 countries have established diplomatic relations with the republic. Uzbekistan is a member of such authoritative international organizations as the UN, CIS, SCO, etc.

Today, Uzbekistan has bilateral and mutually beneficial cooperation in the economic, political and cultural spheres with most of the countries of North and South America, Europe, Middle East and Asia.

In accordance with the Constitution of Uzbekistan equality of citizens regardless of their ethnic, linguistic and religious identity is ensured. Currently the country is inhabited by over a hundred nations and nationalities, for which all the necessary conditions are created.

  4. # THE GREAT SILK ROAD HISTORY

The Great Silk Road is a unique phenomenon in the history of mankind, with its aspiration for unity and cultural values exchange, its conquests of lands and monopolization of the markets. They say in the orient, "A sitting man is like a mat, a walking man is like a river". Life is motion, and traveling, perceiving of outer world have always been the driving force for progress.

T his most important in the human history transcontinental trade route, that linked Europe and Asia, in the bygone days stretched from antique Rome to Nary, the ancient capital of Japan. Evidently the trade between the East and the West was conducted from the time immemorial, but several separate land tracks of what later became known as the Great Silk Road were used. The emergence of trade relations was much challenged by the exploitation in the mountains of Central Asia of semi-precious stones deposits – lapis lazuli, jade, cornelian, turquoise. These stones were highly valued in the East. Thus there existed a "lazurite" road, along which lapis lazuli was delivered from Central Asia to Iran, Mesopotamia and even Egypt. Concurrently, there developed a "jade" road which linked Khotan and Yarkend with the regions of Northern China. Besides, to the countries of eastern Mediterranean the ancient merchants delivered cornelian from Sogdiana and Bactria, and turquoise from Khorezm. All these routes finally formed the Great Silk Road.

The area along the caravan trails in Central Asia has been a hotly contested region. Already in the middle of the first millennium B.C. the Persian rulers levied tributes on their vassal territories in Sogdiana and Bactria. The troops of Alexander the Great were the first to open the route from Europe to Asia in the 4th century B.C. Together with the warriors there moved eastwards the merchants who transported various goods to the remote lands and who brought back to their native countries a great deal of wonderful things. From Asia Minor and Arabia to the banks of the Yangtze the vast territory was intersected by trade routes along which there sprang up, prospered and went into a decline or vanished under the attacks of stronger conquerors many kingdoms and states. But trade caravans kept laying new routes.

In the 1st-2nd centuries B.C. Roman senators and noblemen preferred to wear silk togas. So it was no wonder that Sogdian enterprising merchants established several trading posts along the roads heading toward China - in Kashgar, Yarkend, Khotan. Here at the thriving markets they met the caravans from China and bought from them longed-for silk and superfine China porcelain. The Chinese tradesmen did not dare traveling further to the lands beyond these trading posts.

The great overland thoroughfare that put together a series of caravan trails heading from Central Asia to the West and to the South and the paths leading from China to Eastern Turkestan, originated in the mid-second century B.C. when the Chinese for the fist time discovered the territories lying beyond the western borders – the countries of Central Asia.

Retreating for a long time from the western world China itself opened its "door to the west". In 138 B.C. Chinese emperor Wu Di of the Han dynasty sent an emissary, experienced commander and diplomat Zhang Qian, on a secret mission to Yueh - chi tribes in quest of an alliance against the disruptive Xiongnu. Zhang Qian presented to the emperor the results of this travel in his report called " The journey that is 25 thousand li long ". In his report he suggested a thorough plan of developing the relations with the western countries, the plan that soon was put into operation. Thus there met two branches of the great transcontinental road: the trail heading east from the Mediterranean world and the one heading west from the Hun Empire.

It should be noted that there was never a single, static Silk Road, but rather a network of various routes which forked and branched like a big tree. The principal branch traversing Asia from East to West originated in **Changan** , an ancient capital of China, skirted the **Gobi** desert up to the north-western borders, across the Tarim Basin and further across Eastern Turkestan. Passing through the Tien Shan some caravans continued their way via the Ferghana Valley and Tashkent oasis to Samarkand – the capital of Sogdiana, to Bukhara, Khorezm and further to the Caspian Sea. From Samarkand a number of caravans headed for Bactria and crossing the Kashkadarya valley reached Termez where they got across the Amudarya river and headed further south to Kabul and India. Another branch of the road skirted the Taklamakan desert in the south and via **Khonan** and **Yarkend** headed to Bactry (northern Afganistan) and **Merv** and then through Persia and Syria reached the Mediterranean coast where by maritime routes some goods were delivered to _Rome_ and _Greece_.

As seen from the name of this transcontinental thoroughfare silk was the main article of trade. Silk was highly valued both in the East and in the West. In early Middle Ages it used to be the most popular unit of payment, actually making gold be withdrawn from circulation. Thus in Sogdiana the cost of a stallion equaled the cost of ten lengths of silk. Silk was used as payment unit for the works done, as mercenary's salary; it could be also used to pay off the punishment for the committed crime.

The name "Silk Road" was originally given to caravan tracks by Marco Polo, a Venetian merchant who was the first European to reach as far as Chinese empire. The term "the Great Silk Road" was coined for the first time by the German geographer Ferdinand Richthofen in his basic work "China" .

It is said that the Chinese were the first to discover the silk production from silkworm five thousand years ago. For a long time they held a monopoly for silk supply in the international markets. But in the 6th century a vagrant monk smuggled to Constantinople a silkworm grain hidden in his hollow walking cane. Thus the long-kept Chinese secret was revealed and silk began to be produced in Byzantium, Syria and Central Asia, particularly by Sogdians who traded domestically manufactured silk alongside with the one brought from China. In the 20th century in Notre Dame Cathedral situated in a small Belgian town of Huy there was found a piece of goldish patterned silk cloth decorating the sepulcher of Saint Dominician. The research proved the cloth to be called "zandanechi" and to be manufactured in the 6th-8th centuries in a remote settlement of Zandan in the vicinity of Bukhara. Sogdian silk was widely used for decoration of the relics of Christian saints in many cathedrals of France, Italy, Germany. "Zandanechi" silk was also found in the burials in Northern Caucasus.

Though being the main article of trade silk was not the only goods that was conveyed along the transcontinental road. Central Asia exported horses highly valued in China, arming, gold and silver, gems and articles made of glass, leather and wool, carpets and cotton, exotic fruits – watermelons and peaches, fat-tail sheep and hounds, leopards and lions. To balance the trade from China there came caravans loaded with porcelain and bronzes, lacquerware and perfumes, tea and rice.

In merchants bales one could find tusks of the elephant, the horn of the rhinoceros, tortoise-shell, spices and many other exotic things.

In the old days traveling involved risks that each merchant had to consider. The road itself was often far from being smooth and scenic. Generally it ran across deserts dotted with camel's skeletons – sinister milestones of the paths. Freezing cold in winter and unbearable heat in summer. Agonizing thirst and frequent lack of water. Constant anticipation of blinding storms rivaled only by possible conflicts with nomads. Sporadic towns, oases where extortion was more frequent than hospitality. And on the top of all these hazards that travelers faced there was a constant threat of attack from brigands who plagued the caravan routes.

But the fabled Silk Road was not a mere channel of trade: it was the means of propagation the cultural achievements of the peoples, spiritual wealth and religious doctrines. Ancient Zoroastrian cults prevalent in Khorezm, Sogdiana and Bactria, were replaced by Buddhism which became the main religion of the mighty Kushan empire and expanded to China. At the beginning of our era, from Asia Minor, Christianity eventually reached Central Asia and China via the Silk Road. In the 8th century the rigorous warriors of Arabia brought Islam to the eastern lands. In the later period the hordes of Genghis Khan rushed from the Mongol steppes to the European plains following the tracks treaded out by tradesmen and missionaries. From Samarkand \- the city situated in the very heart of the Great Silk Road \- Tamerlane, the great commander of the Middle Ages, started his military campaigns .

For centuries travelers and pilgrims, scholars and explorers journeyed along the caravan roads. The Chinese monk Xuan Zang, the Venetian merchant Marco Polo, the Arabian missionary Akhmad ibn Fadlan and Bavarian warrior Shiltberger, the explorer from Hungary Armin Vamberi and Swedish geographer S. Hedin, Russian scientist Alexey Fedchenko and Swiss journalist Ella Maillart, US geologist Rafael Pampelli and French traveler Joseph Martin \- this is but a short list of travelers whose travel notes and scientific proceedings make it possible to learn much about the history of countries lying along the Great Silk Road, the traditions and customs of people inhabiting these countries.

Ancient Uzbek cities such as Samarkand, Bukhara, Khiva, Shakhrisabz, Termez, whose stunning architectural monuments bear the marks of centuries-old history of the Silk Road, are too, the living memory about the peoples who laid this unique overland highway from East to West.

  1. **" THE GREAT SILK ROAD"** AS A GLOBAL HISTORICAL BRAND

The Great Silk Road is a system of caravan routes crossing in ancient and middle age time Eurasian continent from Mediterranean Sea to China and influencing the emergence and development of trade and cultural ties between people and statehoods located along the way. The legacy of first transnational contact between people of West and East prove importance of implementing this project aimed at launching open source online web portal dedicated to studies on Silk Road and studies about it. Moreover, local surveys and research are aimed to support scientific and cultural cooperation between the scholars and experts representing different regions and countries once surpassed by the Silk Road.

Connecting eastern and western margins of Eurasian continent, extended routes of the Silk Road crossed China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. On the east the road led to Korea and Japan; on the west to Russia, Eastern and Western Europe; on the south to India and Middle East on south-west. This was a transit road with two-way movement of goods, scientific ideas and achievements, as well as cultural and religious values. At certain period of time Silk Road used to be important and quick means of disseminating information through merchants, travelers and diplomats.

Many people assume that Silk Road first served as a route for exporting Chinese silk to Western countries, however many findings show that different goods produced in Rome, Byzantium, India, Iran, Arab Caliphate, later Russia and European countries were imported to China. Long list of exotic goods comprised: frankincense and myrrh, jasmine and amber, cardamom and nutmeg, ginseng and bile of a python, carpets and fabrics, dyes and minerals, diamonds, jade, amber, corals, ivory and "fish tusks", gold and silver bullions, fur and coins, bows, arrows, swords and spears. Highly pedigreed species ofFergana horses, Arab and Nissyan horses, camels and elephants, rhinoceros and lions, cheetahs and gazelles, hawks and falcons, peacocks, parrots and ostriches passed the routes of Silk Road to be sold for higher prices. Cultivated crops, such as grapes, peaches, melons, vegetables as well as spices and sugar enhanced their geographic distribution with the help of merchants. Aside from movement of goods and animal trade, Silk Road served as a channel for dissemination of fashion and artistic styles that became widespread once grounded in a new ethno-cultural environment.

There is a theory that Silk Road contributed to the popularization of Timurid style in ceramics that is distinctive for blue palette of painting on white background. First emerging in emperors' workshops of China during Yuan dynasty (1279-1369) it received its wide distribution in Iran, Turkey and Central Asia. Nowadays superb examples of ceramic bowls and vases painted with cobalt are exposed in many museums of the world.

Baghdad painting was regarded as a model. We believe, that public fascination with the style may explain why the walls of VIII-IX sanctuary located on the settlements of Kostobe and Talass valley, identified with Jammukat/Hammukat* were decorated with thick layer carving of plaster. Wide variety of grape withers, bundles of rape berries, tulips, rosettes, palmettes, rhombus shaped belts, meander borders, bouquet of plants were painted on panels. The palace walls of Afrasiyab and Varakshi, Samarra and Fustat encounter close analogies in carving motives, ornament details and general style. This meant that vision of Baghdad masters, fashion and lifestyle of the caliphate's capital spread along the Silk Road, surpassing the borders of Muslim civilization.

A uthors of different countries, contemporaries of those distant events praised not only prosperity of a certain state, but integration of other cultures' values. The idea of cultural interaction naturally bears in itself main component of one of the real forms of developing world culture. Great Silk Road was not merely a route for transmitting goods, outstanding cultural pieces and standards of applied arts, architecture, wall paintings, but music art, dance and theatric performances of middle age. Performances of musicians and dancers, tamers of wild animals, acrobats and mimes, magicians and illusionists - all these forms possessed such qualities as entertainment and mobility. No language barriers existed for wandering troupes. Similar performances were showcased to Greek Basileus, Kiev Knyaz, Turkic Kagan and Chinese Emperor. Foreign orchestras traditionally were part of court staff. They were displayed both on official palace ceremonials and in unofficial celebrations and social gatherings. There are records left on reception of ambassadors by Turkic Kagan in his headquarters near Suyab city. It is widely known that most popular music in Tang China was music of the West – coming from cities of Eastern Turkestan and Central Asia. Music traditions of Kuchi and Kashghar, Bukhara and Samarkand merged with Chinese music tradition. Iranian, Sogdian and Turkic actors made significant contribution in choreographic culture of China. In China most popular artists were young dancing men and women from Central Asia. "Western prancing dance" was often performed by young boys from Tashkent, dressed in Iranian style blouses and tall pointed hats trimmed with beads. They were belted with long sashes, ends of which were waving during dance movements. "Chacha" dance was performed by two young girls in transparent robes decorated with multi-color embroidery and silver belts.

The dressing of the dancers was complimented with narrow sleeves, peaked head wearings with golden bells and red brocade shoes. Another frequently performed dance was so-called "Girls from the West spinning in a whirlwind", during which Sogdian girls dressed in scarlet dresses with green oriental style trousers and red suede boots, galloping, hopping and spinning on decorative balls. Of great popularity among all nations were various theatre performances with masks. In later time this traditional was guarded in Muslim countries. It is well known that during celebrations of Nowruz in Baghdad mask performances were displayed to the Caliph himself.

Monuments of spiritual culture found during excavations in different places located on traces of the Silk Road, speak about high level of cultural enrichment. For instance, terracotta collection of Tan period depicts dancers and actors in masks, musical ensembles sitting on camels. Facial features of these artists are identified with Central Asian people. Musicians and actors wearing masks are depicted on all paintings preserved in the staterooms of Penjikent, Afrasiyab, Toprak-kala and cities of East Turkestan. Exquisite wooden sculpture of a dancer was found in Penjikent, modem Tajikistan. Clay mask belonging to an artist of XXI centuries was found during the excavations of Keder city located in Syr-Darya regwn.

In addition, Great Silk Road played tremendous role in dissemination of religious ideas. On the routes of Silk Road different missionaries "carried" their faith to foreign lands. Buddhism came from India via Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan; Christianity and later Islam were transmitted from Syria, Iran and Arabia.

As archeological findings show, trade routes coming from Europe to Asia and vice-or-versa crossed Middle age Central Asia and Kazakhstan in different places: they went through steppes, overcoming mountains, and going down to fertile valleys. Silk Road, remaining as a main trade artery for many countries and people was at the same time the road of cooperation, mutual interpenetration and enrichment of different cultures. It is logical to conclude that Great Silk Road is a phenomenon of human civilization.

When in the second half of the 19th century German orientalist Ferdinand Richthoven, who investigated the ancient caravan trails heading from the East to the West, in his fundamental scientific work titled "China" for the first time coined the term "Silk Road", he did not expect, that only one and a half century later the term **"The Great Silk Road"** would become a global historical brand.

On the Great Silk Road lie the cities whose names breathe of Oriental exotics - Samarkand and Tashkent, Bukhara and Khiva, Teheran and Baku... But life goes on and everything changes in the world. The ancients had all the reason to say that one can't hold the time. The Minaret Kalyan in Bukhara, which for many centuries dominated over the city, has yielded the palm to the modern TV tower. Camel trails have been intersected by modern autobahns, railways have been built along the caravan routes.

In the age of globalization, when transnational companies gain importance, the revival of intercontinental route is becoming a social need, a demand of the times.

In 1988 **UNESCO** approved the project **"The integral research of the Silk Road - the road of a dialogue"** , intended for the period of 10 years. This project was meant for a large-scale and detailed study of the history of the ancient route, the formation and development of cultural contacts between the East and the West, improvement of relations between the nations populating the Eurasian continent.

In 1993 the **UN General Assembly** took the decision on reviving the Great Silk Road as an important channel of international cooperation in the field of diplomacy, culture, science, trade, and tourism.

Transport communications and tourism have become important components of the brand **"The Great Silk Road"**. Nowadays, the leading role in the revival of the ancient route belongs to the **World Tourism Organization (WTO)** , which is carrying out the long-term project called ****_"Tourism on The Great Silk Road"_. A unified concept of transcontinental tourism was elaborated by tourist companies of nineteen countries of the Great Silk Road region - **Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Iran, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, China, Pakistan, Turkey, Japan, India etc**.

In Uzbekistan alone there are more than four thousand ancient monuments, including those whose age exceeds 1000 years. Here one can find such treasures of the world culture as the Mausoleum of Ismail Samani and Minaret Kalyan in Bukhara, built in the 10th - 12th centuries, Registan square in Samarkand, Buddhist temples in Dalverzintepe and Fayaztepe and a lot more. According to the UNESCO decision the historical centers of Samarkand, Bukhara, Shakhrisabz, the complex of Ichan-kala in Khiva are included into the World Heritage List.

Like landmarks of history on the Great Silk Road are such cities as ancient Merv, located in Turkmenistan and called by Arab historians the "father of the cities", the majestic construction of Amir Temur epoch - the mausoleum of Hodja Ahmad Yassavi in the Kazakh town of Turkestan, the monuments on the territory of Iran - the ruins of ancient Elama, Chogi-Zembil, a well-known complex of Meydan-Imam in the centre of Isfahan, Tahte-Suleyman settlement with its Zoroastrian temple dedicated to the goddess Anahit.

The routes of the Great Silk Road also crossed South Caucasus - Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan. The UNESCO World Heritage List was supplemented with the names of cathedrals and monasteries of Echmiadzin, temple of Zvartnots in Armenia, cathedrals of Sveti-Tshoveli and Bagraty and Ghelaty monastery ensemble in Georgia, the old urban ensemble with castle of Shirvanshah and Maiden's Tower in Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan.

All of them like many other historic monuments are main tourist attractions and are visited by crowds of travelers all the year round. At the service of tourists there are comfortable jet planes, high-speed buses, fast trains, developed infrastructure and comfortable hotels.

Tourism on the Great Silk Road has rather distinctive features. Transnational tourism becomes more and more popular. This notion appeared not long ago, in the nineties of the 20th century, when the traditional practice of making a tour of one country was supplemented with the tours to the neighbouring countries. Such a 'regional' tourism is very convenient and advantageous for travelers and tour operators alike and promote further cooperation of the countries in travel market. The most wide spread sort of such traveling is 'touring triangle', when tourists are offered to visit three neighboring countries of their choice, for example, Uzbekistan - Kazakhstan - Kyrgyzstan or Uzbekistan - Turkmenistan - Iran.

There are also other forms of traveling on the Great Silk Road. For example "The Great Silk Road World Heritage" tour offers the travelers the itinerary which includes several countries: Kazakhstan - Uzbekistan - Turkmenistan - Iran. Another tour, called _"Along the countries of Central Asia"_ , allows the travelers to make acquaintance with different countries of Central Asia.

But the Great Silk Road is not only the network of caravan trails and a number of cities and towns which used to be stopping places for traders. It is also a magnificent scenery: mountain peaks and alpine meadows of the Tien-Shan and the Pamirs, sandy deserts intersected by a unique handmade construction - the Karakum Canal, glittering waters of Lake Issyk-Kul and relic pine forests of Borovoye, skiing resorts of Chimgan and Beldersay, picturesque Charvak water reservoir, nut groves in Arslanbob tract and a number of other notable places to visit. Those who fancy extreme tourism could try their strengths by mountaineering, down-stream boating or rafting on the rapid mountain rivers, or, just as ancient pilgrims did, to make a horseback riding or even more exotic camel riding along desert dunes.

The development of transport communications on the Great Silk Road also contributes to its revival. During the years of independence the transport system of Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan obtained new outlets to China, Iran and through Georgia to Turkey.

It is planned to gradually build new routes to the west, in particular, Lyanyungan (China) - St.Petersburg and Lyanyungan - Rotterdam.

An important project, which is being carried out at present, is creation of a transport corridor **Europe - Caucasus - Asia (TRASECA)**. In the South it passes round Trans-Siberian trunk-railway and is ready to provide services for the increasing number of tourists and flow of cargo from Europe to China and back. At the heart of all these projects is an idea of the Great Silk Road revival - building up of a through highway across two continents.

4-THEME: UZBEK STATEHOOD IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES IN V-XII CENTRUIES.

SOCIO-POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL LIFE

Plan:

  1.     1. History of Uzbekistan: Early Middle Ages

  2. Sufism in Uzbekistan: History of Development, Trends, Leaders

  3. Sufi Liders in Uzbekistan

  1. History of Uzbekistan: Early Middle Ages

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### Ephtalite State

I n the 5th century Ephtalites conquered all the cities of Central Asia and created a vast empire that stretched from the Caspian Sea to Kashgar, and from the Aral Sea to India. They preferred not to interfere in politics of Sogdiana, which meanwhile had been divided into many kingdoms, the largest of which was Samarkand. Ephtalits promoted Buddhist traditions, they built many Buddhist temples. Ephtalites carried on active foreign trade through the Great Silk Road. They had good relations with China, India and Byzantine. They traded silk, jewelry and spices.

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### Turkic Khanate

I n the 6th century the Ephtalite State was destroyed by the Turks, who in 550-750 through the union of various nomadic tribes and Altai nations established a powerful state, Turkic Khanate, stretching from China to the Volga. Central Asia became its part. Turkic Khanate lived by endless wars, by which it became richer. Captives were settled in special villages and paid to Khagans by products or handicrafts. Sogdiana and Fergana cities under the reign of Turks preserved a relative autonomy and paid only a tribute to kaghans.

The Turkic Khanate took part in political and economic relations of the largest states of that period: Byzantine, Sasanid Empire, Iran and China and struggled for the control on the Silk Road. Cotton and silk production were actively developed. In the early Middle Ages cotton and silk were the main resources of the region; local gold and silver were highly estimated too.

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### The Arab conquest and early Muslim expansion

I n the 7th century AD a Sogdian fertile land became a subject of keen interest of the Arabs who from 673 started to invade these lands. The Arabs called it Mawarannahr ("that which is beyond the river"). In 709-712 the Arab leader Ibn Muslim Kuteiba conquered the main centers of Mawarannhr: Samarkand, Bukhara and Khorezm. As a result, Uzbekistan and practically the whole Central Asia became a part of the Arab Caliphate under the control of the Baghdad caliphs (Omeiad Dynasty till the middle of 8th century and since 750 the Abassid dynasty). The Arab influence in the Mawarannahr became dominant. The Arabs brought Islam and forcibly converted residents of the conquered lands to this new religion. By the 10th century the entire population of Mawarannahr (the region between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya) adopted Islam. All attempts of local people to resist the invaders were not successful. But such major rebellions as the rebellion of Mukanna and Rafi ibn Leis forever remained in the chronicles of the liberation movements of Central Asian nations.

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### Takhirid State

B aghdad caliphs appointed governors in the conquered regions from the Persian officials. In 821 Abdullah ibn Takhir was appointed the Governor of Khorasan. He founded the Takhirid Dynasty, influence of which spread to Chorasan and Mawarannahr. During the Arab conquest economy and culture of the region were almost destroyed. Hundreds of the most precious monuments were ruined. Arabic became a state official language. Takhirids took decisive measures to organize strong power and to order agriculture. They improved water supply and constructed new channels. By an order of Abdallah ibn Takhir, outstanding lawyers of the country worked out standards to use water for irrigations. For two centuries these works had served as the guidance to solve disputes in water consumption matters .

### Samanid State

L est the possession of Chorasan and Mawarannahr do not increase too much the power of the Takhirid Empire, the caliphate began to strongly promote the Persian race of Samanids. The descendants of the founder of the Saman-Khudat kin were appointed the governors of Mawarannahr cities: Nuh in Samarkand, Ahmad in Fergana, Yahya in Tashkent and Ilyas in Herat. In 900, the Samanids attached Chorasan to their possessions. Samanids became the founders of the first centralized feudal state in Mawarannahr with the capital in Bukhara. Their reign lasted till 999. Samanids created new economy based on the reasonable tax collection, organized efficient work of the state apparatus. Samanids contributed to the unprecedented rise in cultural life. Bukhara, Merv, Samarkand, Urgench were worldwide famous centers of science and culture in the early Middle Ages. Trade flourished as never before. Particularly Samarkand paper and glass as well as leather, cloth, silk and wool were in demand.

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### Karakhanid State

In the end of the 10th century the Turkic tribes (the remnants of once powerful Turkic Khanate) founded a new state headed by a dynasty of Karakhanids, which in 992-999 won Mawarannahr. In 999 the Karakhanid Dynasty took the place of Samanids in Samarkand and Bukhara. Karakhanids had been ruling for 200 years, almost till the Mongol invasion in the 13th century, with short break in the 11th century, when Seljuks came to the power. State borders were constantly changing at that time.

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### Ghaznavid State

In the period of Samanid dynasty, Makhmud of Ghazni (city of Ghazni in eastern Afghanistan) was appointed the governor of Chorasan. Taking advantage of revolts in the Samanid State, he began to interfere in the affairs of Mawarannahr and infringe on the heritage of the Samanids. But he could not break the influence of Karakhanids who had already consolidated their position in the conquered Mawarannakhr and moved to Khorezm, which was a separate state at that time. In 1017 he defeated and destroyed Khorezm. Then he decided to conquer India. Makhmud of Ghazni made 15 campaigns to India from 1002 to 1026. In the 12th century Ghaznavid Dynasty was replaced by Ghurids Dynasty.

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### Seljuk Empire

In 1040 the state, created by Makhmud of Ghazni, was weakened by the nomads, the Seljuk-Turks tribes. Ghaznavids were unable to hold power for long and by 1059 Seljuks had taken over Chorasan and Mawaranahr. As the result of countless conquests these tribes succeeded to create a great empire at the turn of the 11th-12th centuries. This empire included Asia Minor, Middle East and major part of the Armenian-Kurdish highlands. Following the approval of Western domination Seljuks transferred their attention to the east, namely to Mawarannahr. They conquered it in 1097. During the Seljuk reign, territory of modern Uzbekistan was decorated with many wonderful palaces and buildings. Architecture, crafts, arts and culture were flourishing. In the 12th century Mawarannahr was invaded by new nomadic tribes, Kara-Khitan. They conquered the entire Mawarannahr, large areas from Khorezm to Kashgar. Defeating the Seljuk Empire, Kara-Khitan created all the prerequisites for the strengthening of a powerful state of Khorezmshahs in the early Middle Ages.

  2. Sufism in Uzbekistan: History of Development, Trends, Leaders

When Sufism became spreading over the Arab world many Muslims were only paying attention to material values and following the rules of the Shariah, not caring much of their spiritual life. This caused many scholars to appeal to come back to simple values and start struggling with inner enemy – envy, arrogance, parsimony, laziness. This gave birth to the development of a new trend – "tasawwuf" – which means "Sufism".

Sufism ("At-tasawwuf" means mysticism in Arab) as a mystic and ascetic belief and practice in Islam appeared first in the West of the Islamic world (Egypt, Syria, Iraq) under the influence of eastern Christian monasticism at the turn of the VIII and IX centuries. By the X century having separated from asceticism, Sufism formed to an independent and progressive for its time r eligious philosophical-moral sect within Islam spreading widely over the whole Islamic world in the vast Arab Caliphate from Egypt to Spain in the West to Eastern Turkestan in the East, including Iran and Central Asia. The mystic-ascetic sect in Islam is not an exclusive phenomenon in this religion, it can be traced in all religious systems of the world - in Christian monasticism from where this sect was directly borrowed, Judaism (cabbala), Buddhism and Hinduism (various forms of monasticism) and it goes to the depths of unrecorded time.

T he formation of Sufism as the Islam religion itself was taking place in every individual region in interaction with more ancient religions. By the time of propagation and establishment of Islam in the countries conquered by the Arabs, the traditions of pre-Islamic ideology were still alive and were extremely conservative and naturally were inherited by the youngest religion of the world. Central Asian Sufism in particular was formed under the influence of the local forms of Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, Nestorianism and other eastern Iranian and religious sects of Mawarannahr existed in pre-Islamic Central Asia.

The origin of the world Sufism is interpreted differently, from Arabian "suf" - wool and Greek "sofna" - a monk, Persian "sof" – sincerity, open-heartedness, naiveté and Turkic – "sufa - a sitting place. The most diffused opinion is that the term "Sufism" originated from "suf" – wool, coarse clothes of fleece worn by Sufis in the early period of this sect.

The path of any Sufis is divided into four stages: shariah –obeying the Islamic law, tariqah– postulancy, ma'rifah – meditation and perception of God, haqiqah – full attainment of truth. The people who wish to enter upon the path of Sufi are called murids (which means "thirsty"), as well as saliks, ahl e dils, mutassavives. They have to work their path up under auspices of their counselors, teachers called as Sheikhs, Murshids, Pirs, Khojas, Ishons, Mavlons, Makhdums who in their turn received permission from their counselors. Thus Islam has a kind of system of succession with Sufi sheikhs as its main elements. The Sufi Sheikhs are counselors whose family line descends to the very source of Islam.

O ver the period of its existence Sufism went through several stages of its development and transformation, determined by the changes in the socio-economic and political situations, ideological trends, dogmatics, Sufi philosophy and geography of its propagation. Figuratively, the development of Sufism can be divided into several stages - the VIII- X, XI – end of the XII, XIII-XV and XVI-XVII centuries.

The early forms of Sufism (pronounced mysticism, asceticism, celibate and reclusion) caused a negative attitude of canonical Islam to it. Sufism at the first stage of its existence was declared heresy and it was repugnant for the Sunni clergy up to the XI century. Gradually approximately from the XI century Sufism transformed to a more suitable and tolerant form for all levels of the population - to so-called "moderate Sufism"; a gradual reconciliation of Sunni and Sufi theologies was taking place. From that time Sufism began spreading widely causing not only poor servants but also rich seigniors to join its fratry. To be Sufi was considered honorable and good style.

At the beginning of the XII century there formed three large orders in Central Asia – the Kubrawiya (in Khorezm), Kadyriya chapter (in Fergana) and Turkic fraternity of Yassawiya founded on the basis of Yusuf al-Hamadani's teachings by Akhmad Yassawy in Turkestan (the south of Kazakhstan). Various Sufi unions – tariqah were leading a fight for greater impact on believers, which sometimes took a desperate form.

A lot of Sufi monuments and mansions have preserved in Uzbekistan up to day. It is the memorial complex of Bakhauddin Nakshbandi in Bukhara suburb. They are the Khoja Akhrar Mosque and Tomb, Gur Emir Mausoleum, Ruhabad Mausoleum and others in Samarkand. It is the Sheikh Zainutdin bobo Mausoleum, referred to the Sukhravardiya Order in Tashkent. There also the Shaikhantaur Mausoleum and Mausoleum of Kaffal Shashi in the capital. And in its suburb there is the Zangiata Mausoleum.

Furthermore several female Sufi mansions where women could only join were established in the territory of Central Asia. The Kiz Bibi complex was the most prominent among them. All these places are holy for Sufis and possess healthfulness. People from far off countries are coming there to find healing and wisdom, well, as a Sufi sentence runs, "Seek for wisdom while you have strength, otherwise you can lose strength while having found no wisdom".

Sufism represented an organic whole neither in its teachings nor in cultic and institutional practice. The Orders like the Christian monasteries drew up their own consuetudinary and developed specific rituals – rejoicing: chanting "sama" and dancing dervish "raks" - different in various Sufi fratries and dating back to the depths of unrecorded time. Sufism did not become a well-shaped, expressly formulated, strictly defined system of views at any stage of its development. Sufism is not a concise ideological system; it is rather a number of sects, schools and trends united only in the field of practical Sufism - ceremonial practice where by way of ecstasy and insight Sufis attained a spiritual and intuitive cognition of God.

  3. **SUFI L** EA **DERS IN UZBEKISTAN**

Bahouddin Naqshbandi - the Founder of the Naqshbandiya Order

Muhammad ibn Muhammad Bahouddin Naqshbandi al-Bukhari (also known as Khoja Bahouddin Balogardon, Khojai Buzruk, Shokhi Naqshband) is a prominent saint (avlie) and the founder of the Naqshbandiya Order. He was born and died in Kasri Khinduvon village near Kagan (1318-1389) which later was re-named for Kasri Orifon in honor of Bahouddin Naqshbandi. He made hadj to Mecca twice.

His biography is almost unknown because he prohibited his disciples to chronicle his life and activity. He was thought to be Seyid – a direct descendant of Prophet Mohammed. He was born in a craftsman's family. His father was a weaver and chaser (Naqshband). But it was his grandfather who played an important role in his life. He was well familiar with Sufis and paid much attention to the religious sciences. Bahouddin Naqshbandi was taught by famous counselors of that time. His first teacher was Muhammad Bobo Samosiy (1340-1345), the fifth Pir (counselor) of Bukhara. After his death Naqshbandi was taught by one of the famous leaders of the "Hojagon" Order Said Amir Kulola (appr 1288 -1371), the six Pir of Bukhara who familiarized him with the Abdulholik Gijduvani's teachings (1103-1179). Gijduvani was the founder the "Hojagon" Order, one of the first Pirs of Bukhara; he propagated to obey the rules of the Shariah and prescriptions of Prophet Muhammad. He devoted his life to a true Allah's path and founded 8 rules (rakhsha) in his Order.

Naqshabandi founded his Order based on these eight Order rules, having added another three additional rules. He was a supporter of simplicity treating negatively religiosity, loud zikr and forty-day fasting. The main principle of his teaching was "Dil ba eru dast ba kor" – "Heart with Allah, hands in work". According to his teaching, the comprehension of Allah takes place though the soul while the hand should always be busy with work. The Order symbol was a heart with the word Allah inside it.

Uzbekistan widely celebrated the 675 anniversary of Bahouddin Naqshbandi in 1993. His tomb with the complex adjacent to it became a place of pilgrimage in Uzbekistan. The Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan keeps 195 scientific papers and books about Bahouddin Naqshbandi.

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## "Shaikh al-Alam" - Sayf ad-Din Boharzi

Abu-l-Mali Saiyd ben-al-Mutahhir, more known under nickname of Sayf ad-Din Boharzi was a head of khanaqah (of caliph) of Fathabad, he managed the khanaqah and lived there nearly 40 years. After his death in 1261, the shaikh was buried in a shrine specially built in the territory of the khanaqa which was an ideological centre of spiritual basis of the Sufi fratry in Fathabad, the main Bukhara sanctuary, esteemed over many centuries.

Sayf ad-Din Boharzi, called by people as "shaikh al-alam" (the sheikh of the world), a famous Sufi shaikh, poet-mystic and theologist in the Muslim East was born at the end of the XII century (1190) in Bokharz of Khorasan region. According to Khamidallah Kazvini, he studied in Herat and Nishapur where he received a religious and legal education, traditional for that time and very soon he became a Sufi. According to some data Sayf ad-Din Boharzi pilgrimaged to Mecca and Medina and studied "al-Khidaya" – the masterpiece of Muslim law science.

Upon moving to Khorezm he was adopted to the group of few murids (disciples) of popular shaikh Nadjm ad-Din Kubro (1145-1221) – a founder of the Sufi fratry (tariqah) Kurbawiya in Central Asia, killed during the Mongolian conquest of Khorezm in 1221.

The Sufi fratry Kurbawiya represented a Central Asian school of mysticism, being traditionally a Sunni one, adopted a chain of spiritual succession (sanad) to Abu Bakr or Ali b Abi Talib.

Various sources inform on the nature of Sufi hermitage of Sayf ad-Din Boharzi. Abdurakhman Jami, a poet of the XV century, in particular, stated that Sayf ad-Din Bokharzi was sent by his counselor Nadjm ad-Din Kubra to Bukhara, where the sheikh lived about 40 years.

The sheikh held an outstanding position in Bukhara, enjoyed popularity in the community and great influence among the Mongolian rulers, was a mudarris and mutavvali (manager of vakuf funds) of one of the largest spiritual school – the Khaniye madrasah destroyed in 1273-1276 by a regular violence in Bukhara during local war among the Gengizides.

Sayf ad-Din Boharzi reacted actively to all events connected with the Mongolian conquests. The Sufis were known to have stimulated the people to desperate resistance harder than the others at that difficult period. Sayf ad-Din Boharzi watched all this painful process of the Mongolian conquest and saw cruelty and spiritual dissolution of the community and appealed to restoration of the true values. The Shaikh tried to interfere with the Mongolian government policy, fought for strengthening a sheikhs' role, expressed sharply his discontent to the Mongolian government, governors and ministers who favored more the inexperienced youth trying to interfere with the religious affairs rather than the wise monks famous for their scholarship and sainthood of life.

Certain part of Mongols under the influence of Sayf ad-Din Boharzi began adopting Islam, philanthropizing the construction of madrasahs and mosques. The rulers who adopted Islam considered it an honor to be blessed by Sayf ad-Din Boharzi. Berkekhan, a Batyi younger bother adopted Islam and having chosen a Sufi path arrived specially to Bukhara from the lower reaches of Volga to adopt Islam from the great sheikh's hands.

Sayf ad-Din Boharzi was an author of several classic works which he wrote in the Arab and Persian language. "Sharkh", "al-Asma al-Husna" , "Risola dar ishk" (Mystic Love Tractate), "Ruboyat", "Vokeai Khilvat" (Events in Quiet Time), "Vasiyatnoma", "Ruznoma" survived up to date.

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## Khoja Ubaidulla Ahrar – Sufi Saint, Thinker, Miracle Worker

Khoja Ubaidulla Ahrar is not the saint's own name. People began to call him by that name for his good deeds when he was already matured. His name was Khoja Ubaidulla.

He was born in a mountain kishlak of Bogiston near Tashkent in the 806 year of hegira (1404) According to a legend the boy was born at the "night of predestination" in the month of Ramadan, when Allah sent the holy Koran to Prophet Muhammad. His mother's family line descended to the sacred house of the second blessed caliph Omar. Khoja Ahrar's father Khoja Mahmud was a younger brother of Khoja Muhammad, a Khoja Shakhobiddin Baki-Bagdadi's son who was famous for his scholarship. He was an insider of the Sufi teaching.

The Khoja Ahrar's family chronicle runs that the blessed Khoja Shakhobiddin before his death called Khoja Makhmud, Khoja Ahrar's father and asked him to bring him his grandson. Khoja Ahrar was still a baby at that time. When he was brought to his grandfather, the latter taking him in his hands pronounced with tears of tenderness in his eyes - "Oh how regretful it is for me to die and not to see him in his palmy days! He will be a God's favorite and will be able to work wonders, and kings will be asking him for advice". He kissed his grandson and gave a follow-up to his son Khoja Muhammad to protect little Khoja and bring him up in care.  
When Khoja Ahrar was 22 years old his uncle sent him to Samarkand to study. There such scholars as Qazi Zadeh Rumi, Kashi were reading lectures to the students, and Ulugbek himself also liked to converse with the madrasah students. But Khoja Akhrar was not attracted with this aspect of life. He was not interested in the exact sciences; he had other internal needs and he was striving for them. Young Khoja was only doing Arab graphics in the madrasah.

Khoja Ahrar did not live long in Samarkand. He did not find true counselors and teachers for himself there. And Khoja Ahrar went as a pilgrim to Bukhara, the centre of Islamic enlightenment and native city of Shaikh Bahouddin Naqshbandi, the founder of world-famous dervish Order –Naqshbandiya. On his way to Bukhara the young Sufi visited outstanding Bakhauddin's disciples, listened to their follow ups and then he appeared before the famous sheikhs of the Naksbandiya Order.

After that in the age of 24 he set forward to Herat, the capital of Islamic scholarship, not less famous in the East. Khoja Ahrar was studying hard with Sayd Tabrizi, the most famous from the Herat sheikhs and also attended discussions with Bakhauddin Umar and Zainutdin Khavafi. When Khoja Ahrar was in Herat he heard about prominent knowledge in Sufism and good life of the famous Sheikh Bahouddin Naqshbandi's disciple Yakub Charkhi, in whom Khoja Ahrar would soon found an agreeable teacher for himself.

He went on foot from Herat to Khisar to mountain kishlak of Khalatu where holy sheikh Yakub Charkhi lived. After study with Yakub Charkhi, Khoja Ahrar returned to Tashkent to lead the life deserving a Sufi. Very soon a fame of the heavenly-minded sheikh reached Turkestan, Bukhara and Samarkand.

As the history runs this prominent person was not only a thinker, miracle worker and protector of the poor but also a sophisticated politician. This unsuspected aspect of the sheikh's activity was confirmed eloquently in "Nasaim al-Mukhabbat min Shamail al-Futuwwat", a prosaic work written by Alisher Navoi, the great contemporary of Khoha Ahrar. "In the year to follow he gained an amazing influence to empires and an ineffable closeness to the rulers and sovereigns. The Mawerannahr rulers considered themselves to be his murids and companions, but many sovereigns from Egypt to China and India considered themselves to be Khoja's companions and his subjects. His scripts exerted different influence to the rules from moderate to the strongest..."

His role as a politician and protector of people was also esteemed high by Abdurakhman Jami, his great contemporary poet.

Khoja Ahrar died in the age of 89, in the year of 895 of hegira (1489) on Saturday in the day of 24 month of rabi-al-ahir in the settlement of Kamangaran near Samarkand.

#

# Khoja Ahmed Yasawi

Ahmed Yasawi is one of the brightest representatives of Sufism who founded his own tariqah. He was born in 1093 in Sayram in the territory of modern Kazakhstan. After his father's death his family moved to Yassy town (present Turkestan). When he lived in Bukhara he was a disciple of one of the famous Muslim notionalists – Yusuf Hamadani. In the age of 63 he decided to leave the temporal affairs and confined himself in a cell. His loyalty to his path and Islamic teaching caused deep respect in the hearts of people who began to worship him as a saint after his death.

The theological school founded by Khoja Ahmed Yasawi became a centre of attraction for those who thirst for knowledge. Owing to his authority, Turkestan became the most important medieval educational centre of Kazakhstan. After the Shaikh's death, the spiritual centre Yassawiya continued its fruitful activity, and the memorial complex built at his tomb became one of the most popular shrines in Central Asia. And as it was common in the Muslim East, a place of mass hierolatry became a centre of an active trade, handicraft and spiritual life. He was buried in Turkestan, his native town.

The shrine erected at his tomb by the order of the Karakhanides was destroyed in the course of the Mongolian conquest and 223 years after his death, "Hazret Sultan" Mausoleum was erected at his tomb by a personal order of Amir Timur who worshiped Yassawi as a saint. The Yasawi's teachings were named Yassawiya – tariqa. It was especially prevailing in Bukhara in the XIX century.

5-THEME: UZBEK STATEHOOD IX-XII CENTURIES. SOCIO-POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC LIFE. MAKING A HUGE CONTRIBUTION OF OUR SCIENTISTS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF WORLD CIVILIZATION

Plan:

1. Concept "Renaissance" and its main signs.

2. Central Asia center of high spirituality and thinking of the East.

3. Contribution of thinkers of an era of the Renaissance to a world civilization.

1. Concept "Renaissance" and its main signs.

Introduction Our country which was located at the intersection of various civilizations on the Great Silk way, connecting the East and the West, since ancient times is famous for great scientists and thinkers. They made an invaluable contribution to development of a world civilization. The thoughts which are a fruit and the boundless genius of our great ancestors of one thousand and one thousand works, unique manuscripts on history, literature, art, ethics, philosophy, medicine, mathematics, chemistry, astronomy, architecture and other spheres is an invaluable spiritual property of our people. As the President of our country Islam Karimov noted, in the world the people seldom meet such rich heritage, "We by right are proud of our such great thinkers who admired the whole world, as the first-ever algorithm and algebra which introduced in science decimal system of calculation, concepts Mahomed Musa al-Horezmi, scientists-Encyclopaedists Ahmad al-Fergani, Abu Raykhan Beruni, the founder of medical science Abu Ali ibn Sino who created perfect grammar of the Arabic language Mahmoud Zamakhshari, the author of the astronomical table with the indication of the movement more than one thousand stars Mirzo Ulugbek and others. Boundless pride of our ancestors urges us to live with feeling of high advantage, to be in anything and inferior to nobody, worthy descendants of these great people". At the initiative of the head of our state in the city of Samarkand" the international scientific conference "Historical Heritage of Scientists and Thinkers of the Medieval East, Its Role and Value for a Modern Civilization" (on May 15- 16, 2014) was held. Participants of a forum discussed and exchanged opinions and experiment on questions of scientific, historical and philosophical heritage of scientists and thinkers of the Medieval East, their huge contribution to formation and development of astronomy, mathematics, geography, geodesy, medicine, pharmacology, chemistry, mineralogy and other sciences. In days of independence interest in studying of this enormous spiritual heritage even more increased.

In our country the international scientific and cultural cooperation is widely adjusted, the large scientific conferences devoted to this subject are held. Anniversaries of our great scientists and thinkers, the ancient cities were internationally celebrated. Under the leadership of the head of our state sacred places of worship of our great ancestors are restored and equip with modern conveniences. Special attention to revival and preservation of national spiritual heritage, to development of science and education is paid. The international scientific conference is bright confirmation of more and more increasing high attention, respect and interest in scientific heritage of great ancestors. Main objective of this case: to provide theoretical development of a contribution of scientists and thinkers of East Renaissance to world spirituality. The expected results of educational activity: contribution of spiritual and moral experience of great ancestors to spiritual enrichment of youth, their education in the spirit of patriotism and humanity. For the successful solution of a case it is necessary to have knowledge of "Renaissance", Ancient Greek philosophy and science, religion Islam, development factors to science and culture in the Medieval East, in Central Asia particulars.

1. Concept "Renaissance" and its main signs Term "Renaissance" - The Renaissance (the XIV-XVI centuries), marked by great opening and inventions, revived philosophy and art of Ancient Greece and Rome, contacted the blossoming of culture in Europe which began in Italy, and then thrown to other countries - France, England, Germany, Russia more often. However the Renaissance in Central Asia began almost that for five hundred years earlier, than the European Renaissance.

East Renaissance – revival of cultural and cultural wealth, rapid development of science and philosophy, literature and art in Central Asia in IX, XII-XV centuries. It is natural that when it is about Renaissance in Central Asia, it is necessary to consider the important factor connected with religion. It is known that Islam was the spiritual base of everything that was available in social political life of society.

Distinction between the Western and East Renaissance: 1. In the West the Renaissance was in X1V-XVII of centuries, and in the east it shares for 2 periods. It: The early Renaissance – the IX-XII centuries and the Late Renaissance – the XIV-XV centuries 2. If in the Western Renaissance there is a fight for feudalism and religion, in the east we don't keep the sharp resolution of this problem Common features of East and Western Renaissance is an antiquity, "revival", development of applied sciences, and also an entsiklopedichnost. Early Vostochny Renaissance of the IX-XII centuries. In it the period Bukhara, Samarkand, Merv, Urgench, Fergana become the centers of culture of Moverannakhr. During this era large libraries which scientists used were created. At that time great scientists lived and created: Ibn Musa Horezmi, Ahmad Fergani, alFarabi, Abu Raykhan Beruni, Abu Ali ibn Xing, Mahmoud of Kashgaria, Rudaki, etc. The late Renaissance (the XIV-XV centuries) was the period connected with a name of the outstanding statesman Amir Timur. For spiritual life of this period the appeal to secular and religious sciences, aspiration to studying of the nature, an eminence of human reason to studying of the nature, an eminence of human reason of its abilities, high moral qualities of the person, the sermon of humanistic, universal qualities are characteristic.

2. Central Asia center of high spirituality and thinking of the East

Central Asia in the Middle Ages had the developed agricultural production, municipal economy, diversified craft, ancient statehood, rich material and spiritual culture. Distribution here of own sogdiysky, urkhunsky, horezmiysky writing, art, ceramics, architecture, wall painting, various musical instruments testifies to it. In Central Asia since IV-V centuries to replace not really developed slaveholding relations the feudal came. It led to that spiritual life of the shattered feudal states became the extremely conservative and amorphous, differed in pessimistic tendencies and rigid restrictions. Lack of the large centralized states, uniform ideology which would rally the people living in the territory of Central Asia allowed Arabs to win these lands rather quickly. The Arab gains united the people with various traditions, beliefs and outlook, gave a new impulse to development of feudal relations of production in the seized territories, created conditions for an exchange of achievements of scientific thought and, finally, to blossoming of spiritual culture. In this regard pertinently to remind that the Renaissance began, first of all, in the central cities of the Arab caliphate. Central Asia since IX century actively studied ancient Ancient Greek philosophy, science, literature and art.

Doctrines of thinkers of antiquity served the main of blossoming of science and philosophy in the east during the considered period. The creative heritage of Platon and his followers, Gnosticism, the idealistic and mystical parties of philosophy of Aristotle strongly affected east scientists and even theologians who throughout a long time were engaged in the translations of works of Ancient Greek thinkers. Therefore in views, outlook of thinkers of the East of an era of the IX-XV centuries on fundamental problems of science, art, literature, philosophy influence of antique tradition is strong. The comments written by Central Asian scientists for works of Ancient Greek thinkers in the field of astronomy, medicine, mathematics played a salutary role. But it were not simply reviews of works of thinkers of antiquity, in them judgments and views of east scientists are accurately shown. In them new scientific approach and quite original thoughts that was creative development of achievements of antique thinkers is looked through, and in certain cases scientists of the East acted as opponents of Ancient Greek scientists. Thus, the Ancient Greek culture had huge impact on development of science and culture in the east. In some cases works of poets and writers of Central Asia borrowed Ancient Greek subject. So in A. Dzhami "Hirodnomai Iskandari" Alisher's works Navoi "Saddi Iskandary" images of the great commander of Ancient Greece Alexander of Macedon are created. In Central Asia the greatest achievements in political, economic and spiritual life of society are result of the Renaissance.

During this period in essence, jurisprudence, new literature and art, medicine and philosophy, new esthetic consciousness were created political. The problem of the person for the first time was so sharply put by figures of the Renaissance and everything that was reached, served development of the person. This era needed the creators and the history gave them. Scientific feat which was made Fergani, Farabi, Firdausi, Abu Ali ibn Xing, Beruni, Ulugbek, Dzhami still surprises people and their discoveries make pride of our national culture. The natural-science and philosophical opening they made revolution in human consciousness.

3. Contribution of thinkers of an era of the Renaissance to a world civilization.

The period of Early East Renaissance (the IX-XII centuries) – the bright page in the history of scientific and cultural life not only the people of Central Asia, but also all Middle East. During this period Bukhara, Samarkand, Merv, Urgench, Fergana become the centers of culture of Maveraunnakhr. Strengthening of the centralized management at Samanidakh promoted that the next governors and nomads stopped plundering and ruining the country, the developing karavanny trade promoted a cultural exchange with many European and east countries. Big development during this period was gained by science. It developed in close interaction from the Middle Eastern. Many Central Asian scientists went to study to Baghdad and other large scientific centers. So, for example, al – Horezmi wrote big scientific work, working in observatory of the Caliph Mamun in Baghdad. Scientists of Central Asia made the significant contribution not only in Middle Eastern, but also in world science. There was a special type of educational institution – madrasah, so characteristic for all Muslim East subsequently. Protection of poetry, to literature and science was characteristic feature of policy the samanidskikh of governors. During this era large libraries which scientists used were created. At that time great scientists lived and created: Ibn Musa Horezmi, Ahmad Fergani, al – Farabi, Abu Raykhan Beruni, Abu Ali ibn Xing, Mahmoud Koshgari, Rudaki, etc.

Mahomed ibn Musa of al Horezmi (782 – 850) – the founder of algebra. The name of this section of mathematics is taken from its work "The Book about Restoration and Opposition" in which rules of actions with algebraic sizes are provided and the way of the solution of the equations of the first and second degree is given. Works of al – Horezmi "Astronomical tables", "The treatise about a sundial", works on geography "Drawing up maps), stories, etc., translated into Latin, had fruitful impact on development of medieval scientific thought in the countries of the East and West. Al-Horezmi is creativity top the book about "Al-dzhabre and a shaftmukabale" where bases of elementary algebra (830 g) are stated. It by tradition of that time is devoted Baghdad to the Caliph Mamun. In the preface the scientist wrote: "I made this small composition of the easiest and useful calculation in science and besides such that is required constantly to people in cases of inheritance, hereditary duties, at sections of property, in trials, in trade and in all business relationship, cases of measurement of lands, carrying out channels, geometrical calculations and other different subjects". The book consists of three parts: 1. Ways of the solution of the equations. 2. Measurement and solution of geometrical tasks. 3. The solution of the tasks connected with wills. From the point of view of Al-Horezmi, algebra – science about the equations. As experts recognize, to Al-Horezmi the equation of a little noticeable role in mathematics didn't play, decided occasionally. There was no standard method of their decision. Therefore, to it there was no algebra as sciences. Ahmad Fergani – the astronomer (IX century). His most known compositions are "The book about the heavenly movements" and "The science arch about stars". In them the astronomical data which are based on the principles of the Greek school are collected. "The science arch about stars" consists of thirty sections telling about the movement of heavenly bodies moon phases, astronomical constants.

Abu Raykhan Beruni (973 – 1048) became history of science as the scientist – the Encyclopaedist. He created more than 150 works devoted to almost all branches of knowledge. Its works "Science about stars", "India", "Monuments of the past generations", "Chronology of the ancient people", "Maksudova of the table", "Comets", "Researches", "Geodesy", etc. are most known. According to Biruni, stars - an uncountable set, however the majority of them we don't see. There are 1017 stars, visible with the naked eye. On brightness they share on six classes. The brightest stars belonging to the first class is 15, stars of the second class which are slightly weaker, than stars of the first class – 45, stars of the third class - the 207, fourth class - the 475, fifth class – the 218 and sixth – 57. He dealt with issues of arithmetics, algebra, geometry, the theory of numbers, solved many applied problems connected with astronomy, geodesy, cartography, geography, chronology etc. At Beruni the geography has close connection with geology. One of its important works on geology and geography is the book: "Specification of borders of the occupied world for determination of distances between settlements" ("Takhdid nakhait"). The huge contribution was made by Biruni in mineralogy. Its major work in this branch of science is "Mineralogy" which shares on two parts: about minerals – jewels and about metals. Beruni's works didn't lose the value so far. Interests of thought of Beruni of education. In many works he claims that only knowledge and work improve the person. I assigned a leading role in formation of the person Beruni to work. He emphasized that only work forms high human qualities. Abu Nasr

Mahomed ibn Mahomed of al – Farabi (870 – 950) – the outstanding philosopher and the scientist, one of the brightest figures in the history of world culture – left an indelible trace in science and philosophy of that time. To it the honorary title of "the second teacher" is given, "teacher" in the Muslim East called Aristotle. Al – Farabi created more than 100 works. Among them special value "Philosophy sources" have, "The treatise about reason", "The treatise about statehood", etc. I gained wide popularity of Farabi in connection with promotion of Ancient Greek philosophy by it – Aristotle, Platon, Euclide's doctrines. One of the most interesting aspects of philosophical system of Farabi is its doctrine about knowledge to which he pays much attention in many works – "Philosophical questions and answers to them", "Essence of wisdom", "Comment", "Civil policy", "About the beginnings of existence of forms and accidents", etc. In these works such questions as emergence of human knowledge and its attitude towards reality, knowledge of objective reality, degree of cognoscibility of the world, a form and types of knowledge, feature of sensory and rational perception, relationship concrete and abstract in knowledge, interrelation of a body and soul, etc. are taken up. By consideration of a problem of knowledge of Farabi proceeds from natural-science achievements of the era and uses the knowledge in the field of medicine, physiology, mathematics, astronomies, philology and other sciences. He considers a knowledge problem as part of the general problem of clarification of essence of the person. The person, according to Farabi, is a wreath of development of the nature and on the sincere qualities differs from other fauna. However the person as creation of the nature doesn't come off it, and by all bonds is connected with it though as it was already told above, his soul on an initial origin is connected with the heavenly soul having non-material essence.

The act of emergence of the person Farabi reads out, on the one hand, as natural continuation of the general development of the nature, and from another – qualitatively new stage in the course of an emanation. The doctrine of Farabi about a subject, the contents and classification of sciences, and also its theory of knowledge were one of the largest achievements of medieval science played a big role in development of scientific thought and systematization of scientific knowledge. Huge value of the doctrine of Farabi consists also that it supplies with the exhaustive and comprehensive information on all branches of knowledge existing in the medieval East and submits some kind of encyclopedia of sciences.

Each science, across Farabi, studies certain parties, substances, a certain group or properties of material bodies; sciences differ from each other, first of all, in object of studying. In the scientific researches of Farabi in comparison with Aristotle is more consecutive. If Aristotle excessively opposes "the first philosophy" as science about essence (i.e. metaphysics) to all other concrete sciences studying separate properties of life, Farabi puts metaphysics on one of the last places – after pedagogical (science about language and logic), mathematical and natural (i.e. after concrete) sciences and considers a metaphysics subject as the general, abstract, abstract. Besides, Farabi allocates in separate group of science, the studying features of informative abilities of the person, - science about language, to logician, calling them "pedagogical sciences" and by that emphasizing their difference from the sciences studying properties of objectively existing natural bodies. The similar group testifies to a subtlety of supervision, to deep knowledge of Farabi and its scientific approach to the studied subject. Classification of sciences of Farabi played a progressive role and long time kept the value. And in this area of Farabi I had a number of followers who represented various branches of sciences both in the east, and in the West. For creation of harmonous logical system – kulliit – Farabi received the special title "al-Mantiki" ("Logical"). He wrote comments to all compositions of Aristotle logically. He not only knew the maintenance of each of them, but also for the first time and medieval philosophy brought them into system. Attaches great value of Farabi to consideration of the main logical forms: concepts, judgments, conclusions. It divides logic into eight sections. Farab was one of the first thinkers of the medieval East who developed the doctrine about features and structure of public life. It divided city-states on virtuous, or ideal, and not virtuous, or ignorant. On Farabi, original freedom and equality have to reign in the societies which reached perfection. Residents of such city elect to themselves the head whom can always displace. The head of such city proceeds in the activity from the principles of justice, equality and the general benefit. In general the doctrine of Farabi, being synthesis of cultural and scientific achievements of the IX-X centuries, reflected in itself strong and weaknesses of the time and played a huge role in further development of scientific and philosophical thought not only in the east, but also in the West.

Other not less outstanding thinker of the period of early East Renaissance is Abu Ali ibn Xing (980 – 1037). In the east of this scientist called аш – the Sheikh – the Spiritual Mentor or are – Rice – the Head; it had one more honorary title – Hudzhat of al – Haque, i.e. Authority of Truth. In the West, in the medieval – Christian Europe, it was known as Avicenna. Scientific activity of Ibn Cynna captured all areas of medieval knowledge. He created a huge number of the compositions relating to medicine, mathematics, astronomy, chemistry, physics, music, psychology, logic and philosophy. His compositions gained wide popularity in the east, and then and in the West. As the original scientist-Encyclopaedist it with great success was engaged in all areas of science of the era. Over 450 names of its works are mentioned in various sources, and remained more than 200. From them about 150 compositions are devoted to philosophical, world outlook problems, 40 medicine, 50-other sciences. Its largest works are the "Book of healing" consisting of 22 volumes, "The book of knowledge", "The book of rescue", "A canon of medical science" which was the main source of knowledge of medicine within six centuries for doctors of the East and West. Doctors use many data from this book and today.

Already at eighteen-year age of Ibn Xing enjoyed big authority among physicians of Bukhara of that time, I accepted patients and quite successfully I treated them. But, despite great success achieved in the field of medicine it wasn't satisfied with the knowledge. The scientist with exclusive keenness and tension continues to study philosophical sciences independently. At its order there were works on philosophies in the Arabic language on which it with a great interest studied Ancient Greek philosophy, getting acquainted with works of her best representatives on the translations extended then in the Middle East.

Especially he was fond of Aristotle's works. As testifies itself Ibn Xing, he considered Aristotle's "Metaphysics" forty times, the text knew by heart, but he managed to penetrate into essence of her ideas only with the help of the comment of Abu Nasr Farabi. Replenishment of knowledge of the young scientist was promoted by the well-known library of the samanidsky emir Nukh ibn Mansura. The scientist carried out the second half of the life in Iran, in the cities of Hamadan and Isfahan where it, known as the skilled doctor, by order of the governor Shams a hell – Daulya Abu Takhira was appointed his vizier. It was the most fruitful period of scientific creativity of Abu Ali ibn Cynna. Here it started working on the works "Book of Healing" and "Medicine Canon". Hamadan and to move to Isfahan it compelled to leave because of political intrigues, even being ground in fortress, continues the scientific work. In such situation he creates the scientific work "It Is Scarlet — Hadayat" ("The treatise about the correct way"), the novel "About Haye, Yakzan's Son" and the book on medicine "Al – Kulandzh" ("The book about gripes"). Having unbound, Ibn Xing again is engaged in scientific work in Isfahan. In this city it finished the filosofsy encyclopedia "аsh-Schiff" ("The book of healing") and "Danishnam" ("The book of knowledge"). Abu Ali Ibn Xing died on June 18, 1037. The scientist was buried in Hamadan. In the history of science the name, costs Ibn Cynna in the same row with such giants of human thought as great doctors of antiquity Hippocrates and Galen as the ingenious Greek thinker Aristotle. It is known that many opening were included forever into science and received practical confirmation some centuries later, in a century of a microscope, the telescope, biological chemistry, experimental physiology. Some scientific messages in the field of human anatomy, herbs and now deserve a close attention, especially because in our country the great value is attached to use of medicinal herbs in traditional medicine. Ibn Xing the first data on meningitis, an apopleksiya, stomach ulcer, pleurisy that gives the grounds to assume belong that despite a religious ban, it made secret openings. He long before the invention of a microscope stated offers on existence of microbes in input and therefore recommended to boil water.

Abulkasim Firdousi (934 – 1020) collected legends, fairy tales, national legends and myths. Having collected extensive data on the past of the Iranian people, he started their statement in verses. Called the poem of Firdousi "Shakhnam". I saw the main task of the poem of Firdousi in that on the basis of display of the heroic past of the people to wake him patriotic feelings. Rudaki Abdullah Jafar – the outstanding poet of the X century was the incomparable master of a kasyda and the author of several poems: "Also Dimna", "Sindbad – Nam", "Rare sprouts", "Rotation of the sun", etc. heated. The part of its works reached us in small fragments, others didn't remain absolutely. However even the parts of huge poetic heritage of Rudaki which reached us testify to his bright talent, expressiveness of its poetic diction of picturesqueness of the images imprinted by it. Yusuf Balasaguni (apprx. 1021-?) – author of a remarkable monument of Turkic writing, Poem "Science how to Be Happy". Abu – Bakr – Narshakhi (899 – 959) – one of famous historians of the samanidsky period. In 40 – x years of the IX century he writes in the Arabic language "History of Bukhara". Here data on the Arab gain of Central Asia, revolts of Abruya and Mukanna, distribution of Islam and replacement of local pagan religion are of special interest. The second stage of East Renaissance (the XIV-XV centuries) which was shown only in Central Asia, the period connected with a name of the outstanding statesman Amir Temur was. In the XIV century Temur creates the strong centralized state, rise in agriculture and craft is observed, development of science and culture rises by new level. During this period, as well as during an era of early East Renaissance, interest in ancient art grows. During this period the whole cohort of outstanding scientists, thinkers, poets – preachers of high humanistic national universal values moves forward. Mahomed Taragay Ulugbek (1394 – 1449) – outstanding scientific HU of century, Amir Temur's grandson being the governor of Transoxiana, I paid much attention to science and culture. As well as many thinkers of that time, Ulugbek was the Encyclopaedist. Its scientific interests lay in the field of mathematics, astronomy, geometry, chemistry, history and other sciences. In formation of views of the thinker Platon, Aristotle, Ptolemaeus, Horezmi, Fergani's works, Farabi, Beruni, Ibn Cynna, etc. played a role. The madrasah constructed by Ulugbek on a plan of his creator had to become the higher school with obligatory teaching mathematics, astronomy, philosophy and literature. Ulugbek dreamed of that here scientific debates, discussions were arranged. From the first days it and began to be called — Ulugbek's madrasah. In science there can't be secrets, it shouldn't know neither borders, nor hostility, the educated governor considered. Trade and science are urged to make the countries allies. But these thoughts contradicted philosophy of his well-known grandfather. After long thoughts Ulugbek came to a conclusion that the stronger and profound knowledge, the is stronger than communication with the countries of the East and the West, the it is less than reasons for wars. The mankind needs the world and wellbeing. One person without another can't make anything. To do to nobody without friends. In madrasah the youth will study, he considered, acquiring knowledge.

**Abu-Rayhon Beruniy**

Abu-Rayhon Beruniy– a remarkable scientist, amazing with variety of his scientific interests, boldness of idea, the author of more than 150 works devoted to actual issues of natural sciences, philosophy, history, philology, great encyclopaedist– the thinker, the humanist of the Middle Ages epoch.

Outlook of Abu-Rayhon Beruniy was formed at the end of X – the beginning of XI century in Central Asia. He was born on 2 Zu-ul-hidja in 362 (on September 4, 973 A.D.) in suburb of Kyat, former feudal capital of Khorezm. On the native land he has received good education and from a youth began his scientific activity. Due to political events in Khoresm Beruniy left the native land and approximately in between 998-1004 lived in Gurgan, at southeast coast of Caspian Sea. At this time he has done a great work – «Monuments of the past generations ».

In about 1005 Beruniy came back to Khorezm, where at a court yard of the Khorezm king Abu Abbas Mamun ibn Mamun (1009-1017) occupied honorable position. In 1017 Mahmud Gaznavi (998-1034) has subordinated to himself Khoresm, and in the same year Beruniy together with some other scientists had been compelled to follow the conqueror to Hansa where he stayed up to the end of his life.

Despite the unfavorable conditions for him in the capital Mahmuda, Beruniy was entirely given to scientific researches. Together with the army of sultan, Beruniy had several times visited India. He has taken advantage of the trips for studying this country and as a result, by 4030 he had written an outstanding composition on India. Earlier, in 1025 Beruniy finished "Geodesy". To sultan Masud (1030-1041), the receiver Mahmud, Beruniy has devoted his main work on mathematics and astronomy – « Masudov kanon». At government of the subsequent sultan – Masud (1041 - 1048) – Беруни written the big work on mineralogy, and at the end of a life – "Saydan".   
He died in Gazna 2 Radjab 440. (on December 11, 1048).

**Al-Khorezmi Muhammed Bin - Mussa**

(783 - 850)

Nickname Al – Khorezmi specifies his native land – the Central Asian state Khoresm (nowadays territory of Uzbekistan), Bin Mussa – "son of Mussa", and one of nicknames of the scientist – Al – Madjusi– speaks about his origin from a sort of magicians (on – Arabic "madjus"). It shows also, that one of sources of knowledge of Mohammed Al – Хорезми was science prior to Islamic Central Asia the keepers of which were magicians. He managed in Baghdad the library of wisdom House of some sort of the Baghdad academy at caliphate of Al – Mamun. There were the arithmetic treatise « The Book about the Indian account », the algebraic treatise « The Brief book about calculation of algebra and almukabal», astronomical tables and a geographical path. Both mathematical treatises have been translated into Latin language of medieval Europe and served for a long time as the basic textbooks on mathematics. Nickname Al-Khorezmi in the modified form has turned to a nominal word "algorithm" and all over again meant all system of decimal item arithmetics. Subsequently this term has received a wider sense in mathematics as a rule performing operations in certain order.

Thus, actions « Al - Djebr» and "Al-Mukabala" have replaced with themselves transfer of nowadays-used equation members from one part of the equation into another and reduction of similar members. These two operations have allowed Al – Khorezmi to transfer any algebraic equation of the first and second degree into initial forms which Al – Khorezmi has six.

Unlike Greeks who, certainly, also solved quadratic equations, but solved in geometrical way, Al – Khorezmi used drawings only for explanation of the rhetorical decision validity. He could solve any quadratic equation by his general rule (finding positive roots). If Greeks had geometrical solutions the method Al – Khorezmi was almost algebraic. This is an enormous step forward in comparison with geometrical algebra of Greeks. In the arithmetic treatise Al – Khorezmi basically followed the Indian samples, and from him the Europeans have got familiar with the Indian methods of recording the numbers, that is the use of zero and location of figures values. The algebraic path differed from both works, that of Indian mathematicians, and Greeks. It can be believed, that in this book Al – Khorezmi followed local traditions and own results. If the majority of Greeks did not see necessity to apply the scientific knowledge to practical needs, the main desire of Al – Khorezmi was to place a science to serve to humankind and to adapt it for the practical purposes. In Algebra Al – Khorezmi has a section about trade and commercial transactions, with problems on a threefold Rule. Thus, for the first time in a history of mathematics in the treatise of Al – Хорезми have appeared the general rules of solving the quadratic equations.

**Ismail-Al-Bukhari**

Al – Bukhari, Muhammad Ismail Abu Abdullah al – Djufi (810 - 870) – well-known Sunni muhaddist – traditionalist. He was born in the family of Iranian origin in Bukhara, has died in the Hartanka settlement (near Samarkand). Having started studying hadis at the age of 10 years, Al–Bukhari has shown uncommon abilities and unusual memory. During many years h) traveled, comprehending a science about hadises on different provinces of Khaliftae (Hijaz, Egypt, Iraq, Khurasan). According to sources, he listened хадисы more, than at thousand sheikhs. Аль – Бухари has aimed to collect all "authentic" (sahih) legends about statements and acts of Muhammed. Having shown peculiar to muhaddises of that time his critical attitude, Al–Bukhari has checked up 600 thousand hadises which were in use at that times, and 200 thousand more which he has written down from the teachers and informants. From this enormous amount of legends Al – Bukhari has selected by quality of "faultless" only about 7400 hadises. He has made the arch of them Al – Djami as– sahih which is usually named briefly as as– Sahih.

As– Sahih of Al–Bukhai had already been recognized by contemporaries as an outstanding manual on fikh and by the 10th century has occupied despite criticism of some particulars, alongside with the As– Sahih of Muslim the first place among assemblies of sunni traditions. For the majority of sunnits the As– Sahih of Al–Bukhari became the second book after the Koran.  
Al Bukhari is also known as the composer of the authoritative arch of biographies of khadis transmitters – At – Trih al - kabir, created by him in several editions. Among his other compositions it is necessary to name still poorly studied interpretation on the Koran – Tafsir al–Kuran.

In Samarkand has finished his life the great seminary student of East Imam Al-Bukhari. He is the thinker of Middle Ages, has written about 400 thousand hadises – interpretation of positions of the Koran, has made a big contribution to theology. Now all Muslim world lives on his hadisas while on his native land al-Bukhari has been given to a precept. The name has emerged only when the well-known Lebanese writer in 1958, having visited the USSR, has told, that wants to visit the tomb of the well-known seminary student. His request has caused an alarm at party players. The inquiry has been made to the Central Committee of Communist Party of Uzbekistan, therefrom – to the Academy of sciences. Both in the afternoon and at night they searched for tomb of Al Bukhari, yet having found out near Samarkand, near not perceptible village.

Now the Imam Al-Bukhari complex is the magnificent construction constructed on modern technologies, keping all east architecture. It is 30 kilometers from Samarkand, but it is easy to reach it, for there are a lot of indexes, and the road is in good condition. In a complex, which occupies a huge territory (including external – with a fountain, additional constructions, park) are located the mosque, a tomb of the seminary student (it is processed from a jewel – onyx which bought from Iran), there is a hotel for tourists and pilgrims, shops where it is possible to get religious subjects and the literature.

6-THEME: INVASION OF THE MONGOLS AND THE STRUGGLE AGAINST THE INVADERS. JALALIDDIN MANGUBERDI

Plan:

  1. Mongol invasions and conquests

  2. Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu

  4. # Mongol invasions and conquests

Mongol Conquests

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**Expansion of the Mongol Empire 1206–94**

|

Date | 1206–1405

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Location | Eurasia

Result |   * Mongols conquer most of Eurasia

  * Establishment of the Mongol Empire

  * Destruction of Abbasid Caliphate, Alania, Assassins, Ayyubid Dynasty, Cumania, Jin dynasty), Qara Khitai, Khwarazmian Empire, Kievan Rus', Kimek Khanate, Song dynasty, Dzudzurketia (Chechnya), Tatar confederation, Volga Bulgaria and Western Xia

  * Vassalization of Antioch, Armenian Cilicia, County of Tripoli, Kings of Dali, Kingdom of Georgia, Goryeo, Novgorod, Pskov, Qocho, Rum, Second Bulgarian Empire, Sukhothai Kingdom, Trebizond and Serbia)

  * Devastation throughout Eastern and Central Europe, including Poland, Czech lands, Hungary and Croatia), Austria), and Thrace

  * Failure to conquer the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Mamluk Sultanate), and Japan

  * Emergence of the Pax Mongolica

The Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia lasted from 1219 to 1221. It marked the beginning of the Mongol Conquest of the Islamic States, and it also expanded the Mongol invasions, which would ultimately culminate in conquest of virtually the entire known world save western Europe, Scandinavia, Arabia, north Africa, part of southeast Asia, and Japan.

Ironically, it was not originally the intention of the Mongol Khanate to invade the Khwarezmid Empire. Indeed, Genghis Khan had originally sent the ruler of the Khwarezmid Empire, Ala ad-Din Muhammad , a message greeting him as his equal: "you rule the rising sun and I the setting sun." The Mongols original unification of all "people in felt tents" unifying the nomadic tribes in Mongolia, and then Turcomens and other nomadic peoples, had come with relatively little bloodshed, and almost no material loss. Even his invasions of China, to that point, had involved no more bloodshed that nomadic invasions such as the Huns had previously mounted, had caused.

It would be the invasion and utter destruction and complete devastation of the Khwarezmid Empire which would earn - and rightly so - the Mongols the name for bloodthirsty ferocity that would mark all the remainder of their campaigns. In this brief less than two year war, not only was a huge empire destroyed utterly, but Genghis Khan introduced the world to tactics that would not be seen again until the Germans used them so well in World War II - indirect attack, and complete and utter terror and slaughter of populations wholesale as weapons of war.

Origins of the Conflict

After the defeat of the Kara-Khitais, Genghis Khan's Mongol Empire had a border with the Khwarezmid Empire, governed by Shah Ala ad-Din Muhammad. The Shah had only recently taken some of the territory under his control, and he was also busy with a dispute with the caliph in Baghdad. The Shah had refused to make the obligatory homage to the Caliph as Titular Leader of Islam, and demanded recognition as Sultan of his Empire, without any of the usual bribes, or pretend homage. This alone had created him problems along his southern border. It was at this junction the Mongol Empire, expanding incredibly, made contact. It is possible that Genghis Khan's long term goal was to take advantage of the internal instability of the Shah's empire. However, in the short term, it is clear that Genghis Khan saw the potential advantage in Khwarezmia as a commercial partner and started a correspondence with the shah in 1218 in order to establish trade between their empires. Mongol history is adamant that the Great Khan at that time had no intention of invading the Khwarezmid Empire, and was only interested in trade and even a potential alliance. (It must be noted that Genghis Khan eventually abrogated every allegiance he ever made, but in the short term, he probably did not intend to invade the Khwarezmid Empire when he did)

The shah was very suspicious of Genghis' want for a trade agreement and messages from the shah's ambassador at Zhongdu in China describing the exaggerated savagery of the Mongols when they assaulted the city during their war with the Jin Dynasty . Of further interest is that the caliph of Baghdad, An-Nasir, had attempted to instigate a war between the Mongols and the Shah some years before the Mongol invasion actually occurred. This attempt at an alliance with Genghis was done because of a dispute between Nasir in the Shah. But the Khan had no interest in alliance with any ruler who claimed ultimate authority, titular or not, and which marked the Caliphate for an extincation which would come by Genghis's Grandson, Hulegu Khan. At the time, this attempt by the Caliph involved the Shah's ongoing dispute with wanting to be named sultan of Khwarezm, something that Nasir had no wish to do, as the Shah refused to acknowledge his authority, however illusory such authority was. However, it is known that Genghis rejected the notion of war as he was engaged in war with the Jin Dynasty and was gaining much wealth from trading with the Khwarezmid Empire.

Genghis then sent a 500-man caravan, comprised of Muslims to officially establish trade ties with Khwarezmia. However Inalchuq, the governor of the Khwarezmian city of Otrar, had the members of the caravan that came from Mongolia arrested, claiming that the caravan was a conspiracy against Khwarezmia. It seems unlikely, however, that any members of the trade delegation were spies. Nor does it seem likely that Genghis was trying to provoke a conflict with the Khwarezmid Empire, considering he was still dealing with the Jin in northeastern China.

Genghis Khan then sent a second group of three ambassadors (one Muslim and two Mongols) to meet the shah himself and demand the caravan at Otrar be set free and the governor be handed over for punishment. The shah had both of the Mongols shaved and had the Muslim beheaded before sending them back to Genghis Khan. Muhammad also ordered the caravan to be executed. This was seen as a grave affront to Khan himself, who considered ambassadors "as sacred and inviolable." This led Genghis Khan to attack the Khwarezmian Dynasty. The Mongols crossed the Tien Shan mountains, coming into the Shah's empire in 1219.

Initial Invasion of Khwarezmia

After compiling information from many intelligence sources, primarily from spies along the Silk Road, Genghis Khan carefully prepared his army, which was organized differently from Genghis' earlier campaigns. (see " Mongol military tactics and organization" for overall coverage). The changes had come in adding supporting units to his dreaded cavalry, both heavy and light. While still relying on the traditional advantages of his mobile nomadic cavalry, Genghis incorporated many aspects of warfare from China, particularly in siege warfare. His baggage train included such siege equipment as battering rams, gunpowder, trebuchets, and enormous siege bows capable of throwing 20-feet arrows into siege works. Also, the Mongol intelligence network was formidable. The Mongols never invaded an opponent whose military, and economic will and ability to resist had not been thoroughly and completely scouted. (for instance, Subutai and Batu Khan spent a year scouting central Europe, before destroying the armies of Hungary and Poland in two separate battles, two days apart) .

The size of Genghis' army is often in dispute, ranging from a small army of 90,000 soldiers to a larger estimate of 250,000 soldiers, and Genghis brought along his most able generals to aide him, the dreaded " dogs of war". Genghis also brought a large body of foreigners with him, primarily of Chinese origin. These foreigners were siege experts, bridge-building experts, doctors and a variety of speciality soldiers.

A  minaret in Samarkand

But it is vital to note at this juncture that it was in this invasion that the Khan first demonstrated the concept of indirect attack, that would so mark his career, and even that of his sons and grandsons. The Khan divided his armies, and literally sent one force solely to find and execute the Shah - so that a ruler of an Empire as large as the Mongols, with an army which was larger, was literally forced to run for his life in his own country, as various Mongol armies decimated his forces piecemeal, and began the utter devastation of the country which would so terribly mark their other conquests in history.

The Shah's army, numbered roughly 400,000, was split among the various major cities. This was done because of two reasons. Firstly, the Shah was fearful of his army being in one large unit. He did not want the army to be under a single command structure, one that could possible be turned against him. Secondly, the Shah's reports from China seemed to indicate that the Mongol's were not experts in siege warfare and experienced problems attempting to take fortified positions. This proved to be a disastrous decision on the Shah's part as the campaign unfolded.

Tired and exhausted from the journey, the Mongols still won their first victories against the Khwarezmia army. A Mongol army, under Jochi, with 25,000 to 30,000 men, attacked the Shah's army in southern Kwarezmia and prevented the much larger Shah army from forcing them into the mountains. The primary Mongol army, headed personally by Khan, quickly sieged the town of Otrar, reaching the city in the fall of 1219. For five months Genghis sieged the city before he managed to storm the main part of the city, by entering a sally port gate that was not secured.

Another month went by before the citadel at Otrar was taken. Inalchuq held out until the end, even climbing to the top of the citadel in the last moments of the siege, throwing down tiles at the oncoming Mongols. Genghis killed many of the inhabitants, enslaving the rest, and executed Inalchuq by pouring molten silver into his ears and eyes, as retribution for the death of Genghis' caravan.

R uins of Muhammad's palace in Urgench.

**Sieges of Bukhara, Samarkand, and Urgench**

Genghis had sent one of his generals, Jebe, far to the south, at the head of a small army, intending to cut off any retreat by the Shah to the southern half of his kingdom. Further, Genghis and Tolui, at the head of an army of roughly 50,000 men, skirted past Samarkand and went westwards, intending to siege the western city of Bukhara first. Bukhara was not heavily fortified, with a moat and a single wall, plus the typical citadel that every Khwarezmi town had. The garrison at Bukhara was made up of Turkish soldiers and led by Turkish generals. They attempted to break out on the third day of the siege, but the break out force, comprised of as many as 20,000 men, were annihilated in open battle. The city leaders opened the gates to Bukhara, though a unit of Turkish defenders held the city's citadel for another twelve days. Survivors from the citadel were executed, artisans and craftsmen were sent back to Mongolia, young men who had not fought were drafted into the Mongolian army and the rest of the population was sent into slavery. This was to be Genghis' typical treatment of captured cities throughout the rest of the campaign. As the Mongol soldiers looted the city, a fire broke out, razing the majority of the city to the ground.

After the fall of Bukhara, Genghis headed west, towards the Khwarezmi capital of Samarkand and arrived at the city in March 1220. Samarkand was significantly more fortified and there were as many as 100,000 men defending the city. As Genghis began seiging the city, his sons Chaghatai and Ogodei joined him after finishing off the reduction of Otrar and the joint Mongol forces launched an assault on the city. Using prisoners as body shields, the Mongols attacked. On the third day of fighting, the Samarkand garrison launched a counterattack. Feigning retreat, Genghis reportedly drew out a garrison force of 50,000 outside the fortifications of Samarkand and slaughtered them in open combat. Muhammad attempted to relieve the city twice, but was driven back. On the fifth day, all but an approximate 2,000 soldiers surrendered. The remaining soldiers, diehard supporters of the Shah, held out in the citadel. After the fortress fell, Genghis reneged on his surrender terms and executed every soldier that had taken arms against him at Samarkand.

Around the fall of Samarkand, Genghis Khan charged Subutai and Jebe, two of the Khan's top generals, with hunting down the Shah, who had fled westwards to escape the Mongols. The Shah fled with some of his diehard soldiers and his son, Jalal Al-Din, towards the shores of the Caspian Sea, where he was taken to a small island out in the sea. It was there that the Shah died. Most scholars attribute his death to pneumonia, but others cite the sudden shock of the loss of his empire and his power. This was in December 1220. Meanwhile, the wealthy trading city of Urgench was still in the hands of Khwarezima forces. Previously, the Shah's mother had ruled there, but she fled and was captured when she learned her son had fled to the Caspian Sea. She was imprisoned and sent back to Mongolia. One of Muhammad's generals, a man by the name of Khumar Tegin, had declared himself Sultan of Urgench. Jochi, who had been on campaign in the north since the invasion, approached the city from that direction, whereas Genghish, Ogodei, and Chaghatai attacked Urgench from the south.

The siege and assault on Urgench proved to be the hardest battle in the entire course of the invasion. The city was built along the river Amu Darya in a marshy delta area. The soft ground did not lend itself to siege warfare, and there was a lack of large stones for the catapults. The Mongols assaulted regardless, and after the defenders put up a stout defense, fighting block for block, the city fell. Mongolian casualties were higher than normal, due to the difficult city fighting that did not lend well to Mongolian tactics. The taking of Urgench was further complicated by Genghis' eldest son, Jochi, who had been promised the city as his prize. It must be noted that there had always been tension between Jochi and his father. It was this battle, that brought that tension to a point it would mean permanent estrangement between the two. Jochi's mother was the same as his three brothers, Genghis's "official" sons. Genghis Khan's teen bride, and apparent lifelong love, was Borte - only her sons would command as sons of the Khan, not the bastards conceived by the Khan's 500 or so other "wives and consorts." But Jochi had been conceived in controversy. Borte was captured in the early days of the Khan's rise, and held prisoner while she was raped. Jochi was born nine months later, and while Genghis Khan chose to acknowledge him as his oldest son, (primarily due to his love for Borte, whom he would have had to reject if he rejected her child) tension always existed over Jochi's true parentage. Ultimately, the single quarrel would destroy the unity of the Mongol Empire. But the tension was present as Jochi engaged in negotiations with the defenders, trying to get them to surrender so that as little of the city as possible was undamaged. This angered Chaghatai, and Genghis headed off this sibling fight by appointing Ogodei the commander of the seiging forces and Urgench fell. But the removal of Jochi from command, and the sack of a city he considered promised his, enraged him, estranged him from his brothers, and is credited with being essentially the final straw for a man who saw his younger brothers being promoted over him, despite his own considerable military skills. As usual, the artisans were sent back to Mongolia, the young women and children were given to the Mongol soldiers as slaves, and the rest of the population was massacred. The Persian scholar Juvayni states that 50,000 Mongol soldiers were given the task of executing twenty-four Urgench citizens each, which would mean that 1.2 million people were killed. While this is almost certainly exaggeration, Juvayni's numbers highlight the fear effects that the Mongol tactics created.

**The Khurasan Campaign**

As the Mongols battered their way into Urgench, Genghis dispatched his youngest son Tolui, at the head of an army, into the western Khwarezmid province of Khurasan. Khurasan had already felt the strength of Mongol arms. Earlier in the war, the generals Jebe and Subatai had travelled through the province while hunting down the fleeing Shah. However, the region was far from subjugated, many major cities remained free of Mongol rule, and the region was rife with rebellion against the few Mongol forces present in the region after the rumors of Jalal Al-Din gathering an army to fight against the Mongols. Tolui's army consisted of somewhere around 50,000 men, which was comprised of a core of Mongol soldiers (some estimates place it at 7,000), supplemented by a large body of foreign soldiers, such as Turks and previously conquered peoples in China and Mongolia. The army also included "3,000 machines flinging heavy incendiary arrows, 300 catapults, 700 mongonels to discharge pots filled with naphtha, 4,000 storming-ladders, and 2,500 sacks of earth for filling up moats." The major city to fall to Tolui's army was the city of Merv. Juvayni wrote of Merv: "In extent of territory it excelled among the lands of Khurasan, and the bird of peace and security flew over its confines. The number of its chief men rivaled the drops of April rain, and its earth contended with the heavens."

The garrison at Merv was only about 12,000 men, and the city was inundated with refugees from eastern Khwarezmid. For six days, Tolui sieged the city, and on the seventh day, he assaulted the city. However, the garrison beat back the assault and launched their own counter-attack against the Mongols. The garrison force was similarly forced back into the city. The next day, the city's governor surrendered the city on Tolui's promise that the lives of the citizens would be spared. As soon as the city was handed over, however, Tolui reneged on his promise and slaughtered almost every person who surrendered. After finishing off Merv, Tolui headed westwards, attacking the cities of Nishapur and Herat. Nishapur fell after only three days and Tolui put every living thing in city, including the cats and dogs, to the sword. After Nishapur's fall, Herat surrendered without a fight. By spring 1221, the province of Khurasan was under complete Mongol rule. Leaving garrison forces behind him, Tolui headed back east to rejoin his father.

The Final Campaign and Aftermath

After the Mongol campaign in Khurasan, the majority of the Shah's army was broken. Jalal Al-Din, who took power after his father's death, began assembling the remnants of the Khwarezmid army in the south, in the area of Afghanistan. Genghis had dispatched forces to hunt down the gathering army under Jalal Al-Din, and the two sides met in the spring of 1221 at the town of Parwan. The engagement was a humiliating defeat for the Mongol forces. Enraged, Genghis headed south himself, and defeated Jalal Al-Din on the Indus River. Jalal Al-Din, defeated, fled to India. Genghis spent some time on the southern shore of the Indus searching for the new Shah, but failed to find him. Khan returned northwards, content to leave the Shah in India.

After the remaining centers of resistance were destroyed, Genghis returned to Mongolia, leaving Mongolian garrison troops behind. The destruction and absorption of the Khwarezmid Empire would prove to be a sign of things to come for the Islamic world, as well as Eastern Europe. The new territory proved to be an important stepping stone for Mongol armies under the reign of Genghis' son Ögedei to invade Russia and Poland, and future campaigns brought Mongol arms to Austria, the Baltic Sea and Germany. For the Islamic world, the destruction of Khwarezmid left Iraq, Turkey and Syria wide open. All three were eventually subjugated by future Khans.

The war with Khwarezmid also brought up the important question of succession. Genghis was not young when the war began, and he had four sons, all of whom were fierce warriors and each with their own loyal followers. Such sibling rivalry almost came to a head during the siege of Urgench, and Genghis was forced to rely on his third son, Ögedei, to finish the battle. Following the destruction of Urgench, Genghis officially selected Ögedei to be successor, as well as establishing that future Khans would come from direct descendants of previous rulers. Despite this establishment, the four sons would eventually come to blows, and those blows showed the instability of the Khanate that Genghis had created.

Jochi never forgave his father, and essentially withdrew from further Mongol wars, into the north, where he refused to come to his father . - indeed, at the time of his death, the Khan was contemplating a march on his rebellious son. While Jochi acknowledged officially the rule of Ögedei, he never accepted it literally, and that bitterness, transmitted to his sons, and especially grandsons, Batu and Berke Khan, (of the Golden Horde) who would conquer Kiev Rus, and the Russian States, brought open warfare to the empire, and it's fall. When the Mamluks of Egypt managed to inflict one of history's more significant defeats on the Mongols at Ain Jalut in 1260, Hulegu Khan, one of Genghis Khan's grandsons by his son Tolui, who had sacked Bagdad in 1258, was unable to avenge that defeat when Berke Khan, his cousin, (who had converted to Islam) attacked him in the Transcaucus to aid the cause of Islam, and Mongol battled Mongol for the first time. The seeds of that battle began in the war with Khwarezmid when their fathers struggled for supremacy.

# 2.Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu

Mingburnu

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Dirham of Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu

Reign | 1220 – 1231

Predecessor | Muhammad II

Successor | None

Born | 1199

Died | 1231 (aged 31–32)

Spouse | Melika Khatun  
Terken Khatun  
Fulana Khatun

Issue | Manqatuy-Shah  
Qaymaqar-Shah

|

Full name

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Laqab: Jalal ad-Din (shortly)  
Kunya: Abul-Muzaffar  
Given name: Manguberdi

House | Anushtegin

Father | Muhammad II

Mother | Ay-Chichek

Religion | Islam

Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu (Turkmen: Jelaleddin Meňburun or Jelaleddin Horezmşa; full name: Jalal ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Abul-Muzaffar Manguberdi ibn Muhammad) or Manguberdi (Turkic for "God-given"), also known as Jalâl ad-Dîn Khwârazmshâh, was the last ruler of the Khwarezmian Empire.

Following the defeat of his father, Ala ad-Din Muhammad II by Genghis Khan in 1220, Jalal ad-Din Mengübirti came to power and retreated with the remaining Khwarazm forces, while pursued by a Mongol army and at the battle of Parwan, north of Kabul, defeated the Mongols.[2]

Due to the Mongol invasion, the sacking of Samarkand and being deserted by his Afghan allies, Jalal ad-Din was forced to flee to India. At the Indus River, however, the Mongols caught up with him and slaughtered his forces, along with thousands of refugees, at the Battle of Indus. He escaped and sought asylum in the Sultanate of Delhi but Iltutmish denied this to him in deference to the relationship with the Abbasid caliphs. The cities of Herat, Ghazni and Merv were destroyed and massacred by the Mongols, for his resistance or rebelliousness.

Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu spent three years in exile in India. Entering into an alliance with the Khokhars Lahore and much of the Punjab was captured. At this stage he requested an alliance with Iltutmish the Turkish Mamluk Sultan of Delhi against the Mongols. The Sultan of Delhi refused so he could avoid a conflict with Genghis Khan and marched towards Lahore at the head of a large army. Mingburnu retreated from Lahore and moved towards Uchch inflicting a heavy defeat on its ruler Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha, and plundered Sindh and northern Gujarat before returning to Persia in 1224.

Having gathered an army and entered Persia he sought to re-establish the Khwarazm kingdom but he never fully consolidated his power. In 1224 Jalal ad-Din confirmed Burak Hadjib, ruler of the Qara Khitai, in Kerman, received the submission of his brother Ghiyath al-Din Pirshah, who had established himself in Hamadan and Isfahan, and the province of Fars, and clashed with the Caliph An Nasser in Khuzestan. In 1225 the sultan dethroned the Ildegizid Uzbek Muzaffar al-Din and set himself up in their capital of Tabriz on the 25 of July in 1225. In 1226 he attacked Georgia defeating their forces in the battle of Garni and conquered Tbilisi.[5]

Jalal ad-Din spent the rest of his days struggling against the Mongols, pretenders to the throne and the Seljuk Turks of Rum. His dominance in the region required year-after-year campaigning. In 1226, the governor of Kerman, Burak Hadjib, rebelled against him, but after the sultan marched against him he was again brought back into agreement. Jalal ad-Din then had a brief victory over the Seljuks and captured the town of Akhlat in Turkey from the Ayyubids. In 1227 he battled against the Mongols on the approach to Isfahan and while he didn't defeat the invaders following their great losses they weren't able to utilise their victory and withdrew afterwards across the Oxus river. In 1228, his brother Ghiyath al-Din rebelled and was defeated by the Sultan. Ghiyath al-Din fled to Burak Hadjib in Kerman where he and his mother were murdered. The revived Khwarezmid Sultan by this time controlled Kerman, Tabriz, Isfahan and Fars. Jalal ad-Din moved against Akhlat again in 1229. However he was defeated in this campaign by Sultan Kayqubad I at Erzincan on the Upper Euphrates at the Battle of Yassıçemen (Yassi Chemen) in 1230, from whence he escaped to Diyarbakir. Meanwhile, the Khan Ögedei sent a new army of 30,000 men under the command of Chormagan and the Khwarezmids were swept away by the new Mongol army. The winter of 1231 in the ensuing confusion the Mongols arrived into Azerbaijan from the direction of Khorasan and Rayy. Jalal ad-Din was afraid of the enemy because he hadn't time to prepare an army and fled again. He was murdered the 15 of August 1231 in Diyarbakir.

Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu - A Short Biography of Khorezms most famous son

Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu al-Khwarazmi (full name: Jalal ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Abul-Muzaffar Manguberdi ibn Muhammad) or Jaloladdin Manguberdi (Turkic for "God-given"), also known as Jalâl ad-Dîn Khwârazmshâh, was the last ruler of the Khwarezmian Empire. Following the defeat of his father, Ala ad-Din Muhammad II by Genghis Khan in 1220, Jalal ad-Din Mengübirti came to power but he rejected the title shah that his father had assumed and called himself simply Sultan. After the fall of Samarkand Jalal ad-Din with the remaining Khwarazm forces beat a forced retreat into Afghanistan, while pursued by a Mongol army. At the battle of Parwan, north of Kabul, the Khwarezmians with local Afghan Tajik allies defeated the Mongols (ED: the only time in Gengiz Khans lifetime that the Mongols were defeated in battle - Interestingly even to this day no foreign army however mighty has ever been able to hold sway in Afghanistan).

After being deserted by his Afghan allies (as legend has it over a dispute about whom would have the white steed of the defeated Mongol General) the Mongols regrouped and soon after Jalal ad-Din and his troops were forced to flee towards India. On the left bank of the Indus River, however, the Mongols caught up with the Kharwarezms and at what has become known as the Battle of Indus inflicted a major blow against his army, killing most of his men along with slaughtering thousands of civilians with his army. He and his core followers famously putting up a heroic struggle against huge odds along the banks of the river, with the survivors including Mingburnu escaping across the Indus.

Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu was to spend the next three years in exile in India. Entering into an alliance with the Khokhars he captured Lahore and much of the Punjab. The next year he requested an alliance with Iltutmish against the Mongols. However the Sultan of Delhi refused, not wishing to get into a conflict with Genghis Khan and instead marched towards Lahore at the head of a large army. Mingburnu retreated from the city and moved towards Uchch inflicting a heavy defeat on its ruler Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha, and occupied Sindh and northern Gujarat before returning to Persia in 1224.

Once again he gathered an army and briefly re-established a kingdom, however he was unable to consolidate his power for long as once again his forces were pursued by the Mongols who met his forces in battle in the Alborz mountain range (located in northern Iran stretching from the border of Azerbaijan along the western and entire southern coast of the Caspian Sea) after which he and his men had to make a forced crossing of the Caucasus whereupon they captured Azerbaijan in 1225, setting up their capital at Tabriz. After initially forming an alliance with the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm against the Mongols, Manguberdi fell out with them and his forces went on the attack once more in 1226 sacking Tbilisi (capital of the Kingdom of Georgia). Several years of skirmishes were to follow and in 1230 his army captured the town then Armenian city Akhlat (now situated in Turkey) from the Ayyubids. However his forces were overextended and in 1230 where defeated by Sultan Kayqubad I the Seljuq Sultan of Rûm at Erzincan on the Upper Euphrates at the famous Battle of Yassıçemen (Yassi Chemen).

O nce again he and a core group of followers managed to escape into the Mountains of Kurdistan finding refugee in the city of Diyarbakir, however in the ensuring confusion the Mongols capture his previous stronghold of Azerbaijan. (ED: Diyarbakir today is one of the largest cities in south eastern Turkey and in the heartland of the Kurdish struggle for self determination). Diyarbakir was to be his last sanctuary, as he was assassinated there in 1231 by a Kurdish assassin hired by the Seljuks.

Manguberdi's loyal followers, however, remained loyal to him even after his death, transforming themselves into a mercenary force called the Khwarezmiyya. Thirteen years later they made history when in pay of the Ayyubid Sultan Salih Ayyub of Egypt, the Khwarezmiyya they invaded Christian-held Jerusalem, capturing the city's citadel, the Tower of David; and on July 11, 1244, forcing the surrender of the crusader army. Of great note is that after being conquered by the Khwarezmiyya, Jerusalem would stay under control of Islamic sovereignty until 1917, near the end of World War I, when it was taken from the Ottomans by victorious British and Commonwealth forces.(ED: The Australian Light Horse brigade playing a critical role in the battle).

7-THEME: SOCIO-ECONOMIC, POLITICAL AND CULTURAL LIFE UNDER THE REIGN OF AMIR TIMUR AND THE TIMURIDS

Plan:

  1. **Life path of** **Amir Temur**

  2. **Alisher Navoiy** **– great poet and wise statesman**

## 3.The Timurid's dynasty

## 4.The Timurid's as builders

  1. **Life path of** **Amir Temur**

Amir Temur was born in 8th April 1336 in Hodja Ilgor village (Yakkabag) near Kesh (Shahrisabz). His father emir Muhammad Taragaj was from notable family of a Turkic sort barlas. He was the influential person and had the big authority in Movarounnahr. His ancestors took a worthy place in the ranks of Chigatay ulus palace elite and made up their family tree from legendary turkis marshal Alan – Kuva, and their possessions were around Kesh and Nefes. Temur's father emir Taragay constantly participated in kurultyas of chugatay beks, convened by the ulus khan on coast of the river Il.

In 1355 he marries the daughter of emir Dzhaku – of Turmush aga barlas. The Supreme emir of Mivarounnahr Kazagan, having convinced of advantages of Amir Temur., in the same year has given him his grand daughter Uldzhaj Turkan aga as wife. Due to this marriage there was a union of Amir Temur with emir Husajnom, grandson of Kazagana. They together opposed Mongols. In 1356 A. Temur had two sons – Djahangri and Omar Shajh.

The economic situation in Movarounnahr at the end of 13th – first half of 14th century worsened from day to day. Khan of Mongolia Togluk Temur who without resistance in 1360 has reached up to Kashkadarya has taken advantage of it. Amir Temur has arrived to him for service. But when Togluk Temur has appointed as the governor of Movarounnahr his son Iljas Hodzha, Amir Temur has not wished to serve this prince and having agreed with governor Balh emir Husejnom Amir Temur has entered persistent struggle against Mongols.

At that time Samarkand was dominated by sarbadors – "hunged men", who were also struggling against Mongols. The name of this national movement has arisen from slogans of its participants «Struggle for freedom, or a head on the gallows». In 1370 Amir Temur on kurultay in Balh has been proclaimed by the Supreme as emir of Turan.

And the marriage with daughter of Chingizs Saray Mulk Hanum allowed Amir Temur to add to his name a honorable title "kuragan", i.e. « the son-in-law of khan ».  
The primary objective of Amir Temur became overcoming dissociation and association of separate possession into a uniform state. As a Capital of this state he has chosen Samarkand where has urgently started erection of city defensive walls, citadels and a palace. He has put in pawn a new Samarkand, near to ruins of ancient capital of Sogdiana (modern Afrasiab).

Having united and subordinated the lands between Amu Darya and Syr-Darya, and also Fergana and Shash viloyat, Amir Temur began aggressive campaigns.   
For 35 years had lasted board of A.Temur (1370 - 1405) in Central Asia. He has created enormous empire from Indus and Ganges up to Syr-Darya and Zarafshan, from Tien-Shan up to Bosporus, he had lead the most part of his life in campaigns.

During the campaign to China, in 1405 Amir Temur died in Ortrar.  
During the life time of Amir Temur a special composition about the government known under the name «Temur Code» has been written. It is a valuable historical source of the Middle Ages, consisting of two parts. In it there is a biography of Temur and the events connected to his life, sights of this outstanding statesman and the commander on military art, the methods and management of the country are stated. It is the valuable code of laws from which it is visible on the basis of what Amir Temur has created the centralized, controlled mighty state.

Having created huge power, Amir Temur prepared conditions for economic and cultural development of the country. Century traditions of the last epoch revive in a new historical context. As Movarounnahr becomes the center of trade, economy and culture of Near and Middle East. Such ancient cities as Samarkand, Kesh, Bukhara, Termez, Tashkent, Merv, etc., which were destroyed by hordes of Chingizhan began to equip with modern conveniences. Majestic buildings of mosques, madrasah , the mausoleums, a caravan – sheds and bath houses were under construction. Became usual, that each victory or event were immortalized in architecture. In building activity Amir Temur pursued a certain political aim– the constructions erected by him were to show force, power and greatness of his empire.

During years of his board Amir Temur has put an end to feudal dissociation, has established trading - diplomatic relations with the largest kingdoms of Europe – France, England, Castile. Unfortunately, after death of Amir Temur trading - diplomatic relations with the Western Europe, incorporated by him have no further developed. The history puts Amir Temur in same line with such greatest commanders, as Alexander the Great, Dari 1, Yuriy Caesar.

  2. **Alisher Navoiy** **– great poet and wise statesman**

An ingenious poet and the thinker, the musician and the artist, the teacher and the scientist, a great statesman and one of the most cultural persons of his time. Alisher Navoi was the conventional head of the cultural life of Herat, the patron of numerous representatives of sciences, arts and cultures. "Due to Alisher many people have received literary and art education and talent strengthening and there is no any other patron and the tutor of people as Alisher". - wrote Babur

Alisher Navoi was born on February 9, 1441 in the city of Herat, the capital of Huroson State.From the childhood Alisher was interested in reading the works of classics of Persian-Tadjik literature: Saadi, Attar and others. According to Navoiy himself, such poets as Lutfi Sheikh Kemal Turbati have directed, assessed the verses written by him. Navoiy studied at the most educated people of that time, took part in their highly intellectual and deeply instructive conversations.

Having no family, no children, no successors, the poet spent a significant part of his huge wealth for charity. He has constructed a lot of educational institutions, hospitals, a caravan–sheds, channels, bridges and roads.

In Herat Navai maintained the closest relations with the great Tadjik poet and thinker Abdurrahman Dzhami (1414 - 1492) who was his closest friend, the adherent, the teacher and the spiritual instructor. Friendship of Navoiy and Dzhami remain in a history for ever as a bright symbol of friendship between Uzbeks and Tadjiks.

By the time when Navoiy became one of the outstanding persons in Hurasan, having received a honorable post at a court yard, he already had reputation of the masterly master of a verse. The generosity of his talent was that the poet has captured all versions of lyrical works created by peoples of the Muslim East during many centuries. Gazals and kitas, tarjibans and rubai– in what genre would not act Navai, he proved everywhere with shine boundless opportunities of his talent and skill.

Many known representatives of the literature, art and science of second half 15 – the beginning of 16 century, as a token of deep respect for Alisher Navoi and in gratitude for his support, devoted to him their works.

The image of this versatile and talented person historically is not separable from the broad audience of his contemporaries, friends, admirers and direct pupils – poets and musicians, scientists and architects, calligraphers and artists, historians and the writers, who defined their activity as cultural blossoming of Herat « epoch of Nabvoiy ».

Nvai has died On January 3, 1501 in Herat. All Herat saw off to last way its favorite poet and the wise figure. The mourning concerning Alisher Navoi's death lasted during the whole year - so great was the love to the person who has devoted all talent and skills to the people who had been indefinitely loved by him.

Alisher Navoi's literary heritage is very huge. In it we find the set of fine poems, epic products, scientifically – philosophical pathes, literary researches, biographies of scientists, poets, philosophers, works on a history, on linguistics.

On the top of poetic creativity of Navoi is creation of "Hamsa" – a cycle from five poems: « Confusion just », « Layli and Madjnun», « Farhad and Shirin», « About seven wanderers », « Wall of Iskandar».

The spiritual heritage of the remarkable son of Uzbeks presently gets to be known internationally, it becomes the property of everyone, to whom the interests of the world, friendship and nations unity is valuable.

Succession

Timurid Empire

The Timurid Empire at Timur's death in 1405

Timur had twice previously appointed an heir apparent to succeed him, both of whom he had outlived. The first, his son Jahangir, died of illness in 1376. The second, his grandson Muhammad Sultan, had succumbed to battle wounds in 1403. After the latter's death, Timur did nothing to replace him. It was only when he was on his own death-bed that he appointed Muhammad Sultan's younger brother, Pir Muhammad as his successor.

Pir Muhammad was unable to gain sufficient support from his relatives and a bitter civil war erupted amongst Timur's descendants, with multiple princes pursuing their claims. It was not until 1409 that Timur's youngest son, Shah Rukh was able to overcome his rivals and take the throne as Timur's successor.

## Religious views

Timur was a Muslim, possibly belonging to the Naqshbandi school of Sufism, which was influential in Transoxiana. His chief official religious counsellor and adviser was the Hanafi scholar 'Abdu 'l-Jabbar Khwarazmi. In Tirmidh, he had come under the influence of his spiritual mentor Sayyid Baraka, a leader from Balkh who is buried alongside Timur in Gur-e-Amir.

Timur was known to hold Ali and the Ahl al-Bayt in high regard and has been noted by various scholars for his "pro-Alid" stance. Otherwise, he punished Shias for desecrating the memories of the Sahaba. Timur was also noted for attacking the Shia with Sunni apologism, while at other times he attacked Sunnis on religious ground as well. In contrast, Timur held the Seljuk Sultan Ahmad Sanjar in high regard for attacking the Ismailis at Alamut, while Timur's own attack on Ismailis at Anjudan was equally brutal.

##

## Personality

A Timurid-era illustration of Timur

Timur is regarded as a military genius and as a brilliant tactician with an uncanny ability to work within a highly fluid political structure to win and maintain a loyal following of nomads during his rule in Central Asia. He was also considered extraordinarily intelligent – not only intuitively but also intellectually. In Samarkand and his many travels, Timur, under the guidance of distinguished scholars, was able to learn the Persian, Mongolian, and Turkish languages (according to Ahmad ibn Arabshah, Timur could not speak Arabic). More importantly, Timur was characterized as an opportunist. Taking advantage of his Turco-Mongolian heritage, Timur frequently used either the Islamic religion or the law and traditions of the Mongol Empire to achieve his military goals or domestic political aims. Timur was a learned king, and enjoyed the company of scholars; he was tolerant and generous to them. He was a contemporary of the Persian poet Hafez, and a story of their meeting explains that Timur summoned Hafiz, who had written a ghazal with the following verse:

For the black mole on thy cheek  
I would give the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara.

Timur upbraided him for this verse and said, "By the blows of my well tempered sword I have conquered the greater part of the world to enlarge Samarkand and Bukhara, my capitals and residences; and you, pitiful creature, would exchange these two cities for a mole." Hafez, undaunted, replied, "It is by similar generosity that I have been reduced, as you see, to my present state of poverty." It is reported that the King was pleased by the witty answer and the poet departed with magnificent gifts.

Timur used Persian expressions in his conversations often, and his motto was the Persian phrase rāstī rustī (راستی رستی, meaning "truth is safety" or "veritas salus").

## L egacy

Inside the mausoleum –deep niches and diverse muqarnas decorate the inside of the Gur-e Amir.

Timur's legacy is a mixed one. While Central Asia blossomed under his reign, other places, such as Baghdad, Damascus, Delhi and other Arab, Georgian, Persian, and Indian cities were sacked and destroyed and their populations massacred. He was responsible for the effective destruction of the Nestorian Christian Church of the East in much of Asia. Thus, while Timur still retains a positive image in Muslim Central Asia, he is vilified by many in Arabia, Iraq, Persia, and India, where some of his greatest atrocities were carried out. However, Ibn Khaldun praises Timur for having unified much of the Muslim world when other conquerors of the time could not.[96] The next great conqueror of the Middle East, Nader Shah, was greatly influenced by Timur and almost re-enacted Timur's conquests and battle strategies in his own campaigns. Like Timur, Nader Shah conquered most of Caucasia, Persia, and Central Asia along with also sacking Delhi.

T imur's short-lived empire also melded the Turko-Persian tradition in Transoxiana, and in most of the territories that he incorporated into his fiefdom, Persian became the primary language of administration and literary culture (diwan), regardless of ethnicity. In addition, during his reign, some contributions to Turkic literature were penned, with Turkic cultural influence expanding and flourishing as a result. A literary form of Chagatai Turkic came into use alongside Persian as both a cultural and an official language.

Emir Timur and his forces advance against the Golden Horde, Khan Tokhtamysh.

Tamerlane virtually exterminated the Church of the East, which had previously been a major branch of Christianity but afterwards became largely confined to a small area now known as the Assyrian Triangle.

Timur became a relatively popular figure in Europe for centuries after his death, mainly because of his victory over the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid. The Ottoman armies were at the time invading Eastern Europe and Timur was ironically seen as an ally.

Timur has now been officially recognized as a national hero in Uzbekistan. His monument in Tashkent now occupies the place where Karl Marx's statue once stood.

Muhammad Iqbal, a philosopher, poet and politician in British India who is widely regarded as having inspired the Pakistan Movement, composed a notable poem entitled Dream of Timur, the poem itself was inspired by a prayer of the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II: The Sharif of the Hijaz suffers due to the divisive sectarian schisms of his faith, And lo! that young Tatar (Timur) has boldly re-envisioned magnanimous victories of overwhelming conquest.

In 1794, Sake Dean Mahomed published his travel book, The Travels of Dean Mahomet. The book begins with the praise of Genghis Khan, Timur, and particularly the first Mughal emperor, Babur. He also gives important details on the then incumbent Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.

### Historical sources

Ahmad ibn Arabshah's work on the Life of Timur

The earliest known history of his reign was Nizam ad-Din Shami's Zafarnama, which was written during Timur's lifetime. Between 1424 and 1428, Sharaf ad-Din Ali Yazdi wrote a second Zafarnama drawing heavily on Shami's earlier work. Ahmad ibn Arabshah wrote a much less favorable history in Arabic. Arabshah's history was translated into Latin by the Dutch Orientalist Jacobus Golius in 1636.

As Timurid-sponsored histories, the two Zafarnamas present a dramatically different picture from Arabshah's chronicle. William Jones remarked that the former presented Timur as a "liberal, benevolent and illustrious prince" while the latter painted him as "deformed and impious, of a low birth and detestable principles".

## 3.THE TIMURID'S DYNASTY

The empire that Timur had built could not be kept together by his descendents, none of whom shared the same iron will that he had possesed. As had happened with Chingiz Khan's empire, factions soon developed, and vassals on the periphery of the Timurid domains quickly seized their chance to assert their independence. Shortly after Timur's death, little was left of the former empire except for Transoxiana and Afghanistan. However, although the size of the Timurid empire was drastically reduced, his successors went on to usher in the Muslim equivalent of the European Renaissance, centered in the cities of Samarkand and Herat.

Two of the Amir's four sons had died before their father: Jahangir (1355-1375) and Umar Shaykh (1355-1394). His second son, Miran Shah (1366-1408), passed away shortly after his father, leaving only the youngest, Shah Rukh (1377-1447) as an heir. In fact, Timur had appointed his grandson, Pir Muhammad to succeed him, but he also died shortly after his grandfather, in 1406. In 1409, Shah Rukh seized power, making Herat his capital. His eldest son, Ulugh Beg (1394-1449) was appointed governor of Samarkand, while his second son, Baysunghur (1399-1433) served as his wazir in the capital. None of these rulers had inherited Timur's passion for conquest, but they did share his interest in building and played a major role as patrons of the arts and sciences. A chronicler of the time wrote that "From the time of Adam until this day no age, period, cycle or moment can be indicated in which people enjoyed such peace and tranquility."  Under their patronage, music, calligraphy, Persian miniature painting, literature, and various scientific pursuits flourished.

Ulugh Beg, who ruled over the empire during the two years between his father's death and his own, was one of the greatest astronomers that the world has ever seen. He built a magnificent observatory in Samarkand and the calculations that he made with it gained him fame in Europe as an eminent scholar.  Unfortunately, he was murdered in 1449 by his son Abdul Latif, who was alarmed at the secular pursuits of his father. A year after the murder, Abdul Latif also died. In 1452, Abu Sa'id (1424-1469), a grandson of Miran Shah, brought the Timurid domains, still consisting of Transoxiana, Afghanistan and northern Persia, under his control. He was followed by Sultan Husayn Bayqara (1438-1506), a grandson of Umar Shaykh, who began his rule of nearly four decades in 1468. "It was under his beneficient direction that Herat achieved the zenith of its glory as a centre of art, literature and scholarship."  It was at Husayn's court that the poet Mir Ali Shir Nava'i, who popularized Chagatay, the classical Turkic language, as a literary medium, rose to prominence, along with the miniature painter Bihzad and the poet Jami. However, at the same time, the ruler also continued the pursuit of pleasure which had been a mark of most of the Timurid dynasty and which had resulted in more than a few of Timur's descendants dying from too much alcohol or other forms of debauchery.

Timurid power in Central Asia came to an end with the advent of another Turkic tribe from the north: the Uzbeks. These former nomads who had converted to Islam while members of the Golden Horde had become disaffected with a life of riding and raiding and were intent on settling in Transoxiana and adopting a sedentary way of life on the the trade routes that ran through Central Asia. In 1500, under their leader, Muhammad Shaibani Khan (1451-1510), they captured Samarkand from Zahiruddin Babur (1483-1530), a great-great-great-grandson of Timur and the ruler of Ferghana, who had himself captured the city in 1497. Babur recaptured Samarkand in 1501, only to lose it to Shaibani again in 1505. Herat fell to the Uzbeks shortly after, in 1507. Babur made one more attempt to regain Samarkand in 1511, but he was unsuccessful and was forced by the Uzbeks to flee south in the following year. However, his career as a ruler was not over, as he subsequently went on to found the Moghul dynasty, which ruled India until the British took over the country in the early nineteenth century. The Shaibanid Uzbeks established an empire in Transoxiana which lasted until the end of the sixteenth century.

##

## SAMARKAND

Samarkand, Timur's royal city, celebrated its 2500th anniversary in 1970. It is an ancient site, located on the Zarafshan River, in modern-day Uzbekistan, whose exotic reputation has prompted stanzas from poets as diverse as Milton, Keats, Oscar Wilde, and the Persian Hafiz. Although Firdausi, another great Persian poet, speaks of its foundation in the mythical past, the Soviets maintained that it was founded in 530 B.C. We know little of its history prior to the fourth century B.C., but we do know that Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C.) passed through the city, then called Maracanda, in 328 B.C. in the process of subduing Central Asia. The city rose to become a major staging post on the Silk Route from China to the West. In the mid-seventh century A.D., Sa-mo-kien, as the Chinese called it, was visited by the Buddhist monk Hsuan-tsang (602-649 A.D.), whose memoirs give us a good idea of what life was like in the area prior to the advent of Islam. At this time, the residents of the city were mostly Zoroastrians, although Buddhism was not unknown and Nestorian Christianity had also been introduced into the area. In fact, the Nestorian patriarch had raised it to the rank of metropolitan see, possibly as early as the beginning of the fifth century and certainly by the early seventh century.

Without a doubt, the most significant invasion of the area came in the late seventh century, when the armies of the Arab caliph invaded, bringing the religion of Islam to Mawarannahr ("The Land Beyond the River"), as the Arabs called the area. The Arab general, Qutayba ibn Muslim, launched a jihad (holy war) against Transoxiana from Merv (in present-day Turkmenistan, south of the Oxus) in 705: Bukhara finally fell in 709, to be followed by Khiva in 711. In that same year, the armies of Islam succeeded in capturing Samarkand. The city soon developed into a major centre of Islamic scholarship under the Arabs. Among other things, Samarkand was the first place where the Arabs experimented with making paper, a skill they learnt from the Chinese after defeating them at the Battle of Talas (751). The power of the caliph was subsequently replaced by a succession of dynasties: the Samanids (875),  the Qarakhanids (999), the Seljuks (1073), the Qarakhitai (1141), and the Khwarezmians (1210). During this time, Samarkand was no mean city: it has been estimated that its population in the tenth century was over half a million.

The next major event in the life of Samarkand occurred in 1221: the armies of Chingiz Khan captured the city from Shah Sultan Muhammad, the Turkic ruler of the Khwarezmian empire, who had made it his capital. In return for the Shah's resistance to the great Khan, the city was sacked and looted, its soldiers killed and its artisans carried off into slavery. However, although Samarkand was largely abandoned, its history was not over yet. We have accounts of the city by various travellers through the area, including Marco Polo (1254-1324), who, although he did not actually visit Samarkand, passed through the area in 1272-73, and the Moor Abu Abdullah ibn Battuta (1304-1377), who, in 1333, described it as "one of the largest and most perfectly beautiful cities in the world."

It was under Timur, the Mongols' "successor," that Samarkand went on to become one of the most glorious capitals in the then-known world. The city was given a new location, south of its previous site on the mound of Afrasiyab, which had been largely destroyed by the Mongols. Under the Amir, as Timur was known, it had become "a thriving city which netted half the commerce of Asia" : in its markets could be found leather, linen, spices, silk, precious stones, melons, grapes, and a host of other goods. It was also a city of great architectural monuments, skilled artisans and scholars. Even though Timur's successor, Shah Rukh, moved the Timurid capital to Herat, Samarkand continued to prosper under Ulugh Beg. As Timurid power in Transoxiana faltered after the deaths of Shah Rukh and Ulugh Beg, the city ceased to be as important as it had been. In 1447, it was sacked by the Uzbeks, who were to return half a century later to set up yet another Turkic dynasty in the area.

After the demise of Timurid rule in Central Asia, Samarkand came under a succession of Persian, Turkic, and even Chinese rulers. The city was eventually captured by the Russians in 1868 as this new power from the north expanded into Turkestan ("Land of the Turks"), as the area was known at that time. It is today a major city in Uzbekistan, formerly one of the fifteen constituent republics of the USSR.

##

  3. ## THE TIMURIDS AS BUILDERS

T imur was not only a great conqueror; he was also a great builder. Whenever he laid waste to a city that stood in the path of his army, he would bring back the artisans to build his royal city of Samarkand. "There were sculptors, stone-masons and stucco-workers from Azerbaijan, Isfahan and Delhi; Mosaic-workers from Shiraz; weavers, glass-blowers and potters from Damascus - in such numbers that 'the city was not big enough to hold them. During the few brief times when he was not off on a military campaign, he was busy overseeing his building projects. Perhaps the main thing that strikes one about Timur's monuments is the sheer grandeur of them. They are statements about the man who made the earth shake in his day, as is evidenced by an Arab proverb quoted on one of his buildings: "If you want to know about us, examine our buildings."

Although Timur concentrated his architectural efforts on Samarkand, he also erected buildings in other cities, such as Shahr-i-Sabz, where he constructed a magnificent Aq Saray (White Palace), and Turkestan, where he erected a mosque and mausoleum in honor of Hoja Ahmed Yasavi (d. 1166), a famous poet and Sufi sheikh. The first of these structures was almost entirely destroyed by the Uzbeks in the sixteenth century, but the ruins still remain. The second has been preserved in quite good condition and apparently still functions as a "holy place" to which devout Muslims make periodic pilgrimages. However, probably the most impressive architecture that remains from this period can be found in Samarkand. Timur filled his capital with both secular and religious monuments, as well as a plethora of gardens, which featured stone walls and floors with elaborate patterns and palaces outfitted with gold, silk and carpets. Most of these structures have not survived to the present. Such is the case with his magnificent four-story palace, which Babur describes in his memoirs. However, a number of significant buildings have survived and can still be seen today.

There are also still extant examples of buildings erected by subsequent Timurid rulers. As noted above, although they did not share his passion for territorial expansion, they did inherit his love of fine architecture. Interestingly enough, one of the principle Timurid builders was Gawhar Shad, Shah Rukh's wife, who was responsible for a magnificent mosque at Meshed (built between 1405 and 1418) and a mosque-madrasah-mausoleum complex in Herat (1417-1437). Unfortunately, these structures are mostly in ruins today, largely as a result of war and earthquakes over the last two centuries. As can be imagined, the transition of the Timurid capital to Herat also moved the architectural focus from Samarkand to that city. However, the Timurids still continued to build in their founder's capital, especially Ulugh Beg, who was governor of the city under his father, Shah Rukh.

The preponderence of elaborate decoration on Timurid monuments, much of it involving various pottery techniques, especially glazed tilework, reflects the advances made in this artform during this period. "The old use of lead glazes which oxidized quickly, from pre-Mongolian times was replaced by durable glazes stained with colouring oxides.... A mosaic design of single-coloured tiles had the advantage of being simple to produce, but the ornamental design was limited to geometrical patterns based on the shape of the tiles... This difficulty was then overcome by the technique of 'inlaid mosaic' composed of variously coloured small units."

There are too many Timurid monuments in Samarkand to examine in one paper. However, we can look at some of the more significant ones that remain to this day. There are three major structures still standing in Samarkand which Timur himself was responsible for building: the Gur-i Amir, the Bibi Khanum mosque, and the Shah-i Zinda mausoleum complex (although this had been originally begun in pre-Timurid times, Timur was responsible for most of its present form). In addition, there are two important examples of Timurid architecture from the period after Timur: the madrasah and observatory of Ulugh Beg. It is these structures which will form the focus of this paper.

##

## T HE GUR-I AMIR

The fabulous Gur-i Amir  ("The Great Prince") is a mausoleum which was originally designed to house the body of Timur's favorite grandson, Muhammad Sultan (1375-1403), who was buried there after being killed on one of Timur's campaigns. Timur's body also rests in this complex, as do those of several other members of his family, including Umar Shaykh, Miran Shah, Pir Muhammad, Shah Rukh, and Ulugh Beg. Timur was the principle builder of this structure and the initial complex, minus the mausoleum, was probably finished by 1401. The mausoleum itself was completed by 1404. According to Clavijo's account, when Timur returned from a campaign to discover that the mausoleum was, in his estimate, too low, he ordered it rebuilt in ten days. As Clavijo recounts, "Without delay the rebuilding was set in hand, day and night the work went on... The chapel had now been completely rebuilt within the appointed ten day's time, and it was a wonder how so great a building could have been put up and completed within so brief a space."  Whether or not the rebulding was actually carried out in so short a period of time is debatable. Later on, Ulugh Beg also worked on it, adding an eastern gallery in 1424.

The original complex included three buildings clustered around a square courtyard: the actual mausoleum (to the south), a madrasah (to the east), and a khanaqah (to the west). The north side of the the court contained an entrance portal. There was a minaret at each corner of the courtyard. "The importance of this complex is that it represents the earliest standing evidence for ensemble planning that was to become so popular in the Timurid period and later." The only parts of the complex which remain intact are the mausoleum, the entrance portal, and one of the minarets. Excavations have unearthed the foundations of the madrasah, but there is not enough left to reconstruct the plan of the khanaqah. It appears that the madrasah, the earliest Timurid example of one, "had a central court with two axial ivans and a niche facade, from which the students' cells could be entered. In the four corners were larger rooms, lecture halls, and probably a small masjid."  As noted above, the entrance portal still stands. It is adorned with tilework (some of which has been restored) and muqarnas elements, both of which exhibit Iranian influence. This is not surprising, since the architect, Muhammad ibn Mahmud al-banna' al-Isfahani, came from Isfahan.

The mausolem proper is the focus of the complex and, since it remains largely intact, the part about which we know the most. Its exterior is octagonal in shape, whereas the interior is square (10.2 meters to a side), with a rectangular bay in each wall. Along the eastern side of the building is the gallery that Ulugh Beg added. The large dome over the main chamber rests on a tall drum. The zone of transition is accomplished by a squinch. Although the inner dome is, as usual, shallower than the outer one, it still has a steep slant. The external dome, the tip of which is 37 meters from the ground, was rebuilt and redecorated in the 1950's, after most of it had fallen down.

The external octagon has been finished in light blue glazed tiles that feature the names Allah and Muhammad. Around the base of the drum, also in tilework, runs a white-lettered inscription in kufic script: "God is immortality." The rest of the drum is elaborately decorated in various geometric patterns of both glazed and plain tiles, with dark and light blue colors playing a prominent role. Finally, the bulbous, fluted external dome, with 64 ribs, continues the same geometric patterns that were used on the drum, creating an overall visual impression of a vast expanse of azure and turquoise. This type of ribbed dome can also be seen in the shrine which Timur built to commemorate Ahmed Yasavi.

Inside the chamber, the decoration is ornate. The dado features hexagonal tiles of onyx and its upper boundary is marked by a slight muqarnas cornice, above which (about 2 meters from the floor) is a green inscription band with gold letters. Another band, featuring geometric patterns painted on plaster, is located 3.7 meters above the floor. Above this, the walls are decorated with star designs, whereas the bays employ muqarnas, originally covered with blue and gold pressed paper. Finally, just below the zone of transition, another inscription band, with letters of gold, runs around the four walls. The squinch and the inner dome were also originally covered with elaborate patterns on pressed paper. Not surprisingly, the papier-mache, which is the earliest instance of this artform in the area, soon deteriorated and is only now being restored.

The bodies lie in an underground crypt, which is accessed by a stairway in the southeast corner of the main chamber. The tombstones are located in the chamber itself. Timur's cenotaph is a massive slab (the largest in the world) of nephrite (dark green jade) which was brought back from Mongolia by Ulugh Beg in 1425 and subsequently broken in half in the eighteenth century when the invading Persian ruler, Nadir Shah, tried to remove it from the chamber. On the tombstone is the following inscription in Arabic: "When I rise from the dead the whole world will tremble." On the very day that the Soviet archaeologist, Professor M.M. Gerasimov, exhumed the skeleton of Timur from the crypt in which it lay (which, incidently, confirmed that the Amir had indeed been limp), June 22, 1941, Hitler's armies invaded Russia.

As one author has pointed out, "Possibly the greatest butcher the world has ever known could have been more fittingly commemorated by the ingenuous inscription on an anonymous tomb in an anteroom of the Gur-i-Mir: 'If I were alive, people would not be glad.'"  Both this tombstone and the one covering his actual grave in the crypt have inscriptions on them that trace Timur's genealogy back to both Chingiz Khan and 'Ali, the fourth caliph of Islam. By so doing, Timur was making an indirect claim to be the rightful heir of not only the Mongol Empire, but also the Muslim one. Another reminder of the regal aspirations of Timur and his dynasty is the large white stone slab, called the kok-tosh ("green stone"), upon which the Timurid coronation ceremonies took place, which is located in the courtyard outside the mausoleum.

##

## THE BIBI KHANUM MOSQUE

The Bibi Khanum ("The Old Queen") mosque,  was reputedly named after Timur's favorite wife, Saray Mulk Khanum, the daughter of the puppet Chagatay khan that Timur and Husayn had installed in 1364 in order to legitimize their conquest of Transoxiana. It is properly called the Masjid-i Jami' (congregational mosque), but has come to be known by the name of Timur's wife. Timur built it with loot that he had brought back from India and reputedly used 95 Indian elephants to haul construction materials from the quarries: it was begun in 1398-1399  and, when completed, was "one of the most colossal monuments ever built in the Islamic world." Apparently, as with the Gur-i Amir, Timur ordered part of it reconstructed in 1404-1405, but it is unclear exactly what was rebuilt and why. Clavijo tells us that, since the Amir was in ill health at the time, "it was therefore in his litter that every morning he had himself brought to the place, and he would stay there the best part of the day urging on the work." Opposite the entrance, a madrasah and mausoleum, now mostly in ruins, were erected by the queen herself. The Masjid-i Shah in Isfahan, Iran, as well as some Moghul mosques in India, seems to have copied its basic form.

There is an interesting legend that has grown up surrounding the construction of the mosque. Apparently, while Timur was away conquering India, the architect who was in charge of the project fell in love with the queen after whom the mosque is named. Bibi Khanum, in an attempt to dissuade the young man, brought 40 painted eggs to him, explaining that, just as all the eggs tasted the same, so it was with women. She would provide him with a beautiful maiden so that he could finish construction of the mosque, now delayed as a result of his infatuation with the queen. A week later, he brought her 40 gourds, 39 filled with water and one filled with wine, and said, "Oh Bibi Khanum, although they may all look alike only one can intoxicate me." She agreed to allow him to kiss her, with her hand separating his lips and her cheek. His passionate response penetrated through her hand to leave an indelible imprint on her cheek which the Amir was none too pleased to see when he returned. "Seeing the imprint of the lips upon his wife's cheek, he sent his elephant brigade into the great mosque and wreaked the damage that can still be seen today. His captains chased the architect to the top of a minaret, where he grew wings and flew off, never to be seen again. And Tamerlane decreed that in future all women should wear a veil, hence the origin of the Mohammedan custom of enshrouding their womenfolk."

In actual fact, Timur's elephants cannot be blamed for the deterioration of the building over time. Rather, hasty construction, earthquakes (including a major one in 1897), and general neglect have resulted in only a shell of the former structure remaining today, but even this is impressive. The original structure must have been awe-inspiring. A chronicler of the time wrote,"Its dome would have been unique had it not been for the heavens, and unique would have been its portal had it not been for the Milky Way."  The basic structure was rectangular in shape, measuring 109 by 167 meters. It featured four units, one located at each axis of the outer wall which ran around the perimeter of the structure: a large entrance portal, the main sanctuary, and two smaller side mosques. These four units were linked by hypostyle arcades, nine bays deep on the qiblah side and four bays deep on the other sides. At each of the four corners of the mosque was a minaret, as recorded by Sharaf ad-Din: "In each of the four corners is a minaret, whose head is directed toward the heavens, proclaiming: "Our monuments will tell about us!" which reaches to the four corners of the world."  The arcades were at least three stories high in places and were supported by 400-480 marble columns. Archaeological digs have uncovered some of these columns, but none remain standing. However, the four units do remain, albeit in ruined form, as does the minaret from the northwest corner of the perimeter.

The entrance portal is located at the east end of the mosque, and it originally projected out beyond the outer facade. The ivan, before it collapsed, was 19 meters tall and is supported by large pylons (10.5 meters wide), which in turn are flanked by two decagonal minarets, one on either side. The placement of the minarets is a development of the Il Khanid twin-minaret portal, which placed the minarets on top of the ivan. This Timurid modification gives the structure a more fortress-like appearance. The inner ivan of the entrance portal opens onto the courtyard. At the west end of the mosque, opposite the entrance, is the main sanctuary, its portal projecting into the courtyard. Its ivan, 30 meters high, is flanked by two octagonal minarets. Visible beyond the ivan are the ruins of the dome over the main chamber, which is square, with arched niches and a doubly-recessed mihrab. The two smaller side mosques, on the north and south sides of the complex, are similar to each other, but not identical. They are also square, with arched niches and topped with domes. Their ivan screens were originally nearly flush with the court facade. The three sphericonical domes each rest on an octagonal zone of transition which incorporates arched squinches and recumbent arches. The outer domes of the two side mosques were originally ribbed. In the center of the courtyard stands an enormous lectern which originally stood in the sanctuary; apparently, the Qur'an that it was designed to hold had six-foot high pages!

The decoration on the mosque, which originally covered all visible faces, is rich and varied, including kufic designs and girikhs using glazed bricks in hazarbaf technique, mosaic faience, tiles inset in brick and stone, incised marble and terracotta, and haft rangi tilework. A band of inscription separates the upper and lower sections of the ivan wall of the main sanctuary. The ivan itself was originally framed with a light blue tile spiral molding. All three domes, now in varying states of disrepair, were originally finished in light blue tile on top of a zone of muqarnas. The domes were covered in inscriptions in hazarbaf technique, the smaller ones in naskhi, the larger one in kufic. Parts of the latter are still visible. Inside, the domed chambers were decorated with painted plaster and gilt papier-mache, both of which feature the colors blue and gold; little of the latter remains to this day. Over the sanctuary ivan is an inscription made from carved unglazed terra cotta. Both this and the inscription over the entrance portal, little of which can still be made out, ascribe the building of the mosque to "The great sultan, pillar of the state and the religion, Amir Timur Gurgan..."

##

## THE SHAH-I ZINDA

T he Shah-i Zinda  ("The Living King") is a complex of sixteen buildings which was originally built to commemorate Qusam ibn Abbas, supposedly the cousin of Muhammad himself, who came to preach Islam in Samarkand in 676. There are several legends surrounding him: some say that he was beheaded by the locals, after which he "picked up his severed head and plunged with it into a well from which he will one day re-emerge. A prophecy, believed to date from the fourteenth century, foretold that he would arise and save Samarkand if the Russians attacked the city; but 1868 came and Qasim [sic] did not stir a finger to help, thus permanently damaging his reputation." Another legend recounts that "he was not killed, but in saving himself from the infidels, entered a cliff which opened miraculously before him and closed again after him."

Once Islam was established in Transoxiana, the site soon became a holy shrine, the object of pilgrimage for the faithful. Ibn Battuta describes it as follows: "Outside of Samarkand is the tomb of Kussam ben Abbas. The inhabitants of Samarkand come out to visit it every Sunday and Thursday night. The Tartars also come to visit it, pay vows to it and bring cows, sheep, dirhams and dinars [coins]."  Besides Qusam himself, the bodies of several other members of Timur's family, those who either died before the Gur-i Amir was built or who were considered too lowly to be buried there, are also located in the Shah-i Zinda. Since the complex is too extensive to document completely here, we will merely focus on some of its general features.

The Shah-i Zinda is located on the mound of Afrasiyab, the site of Samarkand prior to the Mongol conquest, just north of the present city. The entrance to the complex is a massive ivan gate. A 70 meter-long combination stairway-walkway runs up to the top of the complex, where the tomb of the Living King himself is located. On either side of the stairway are the mausolea containing the others buried there. These tombs are actually grouped into three ensembles: one near the entrance gate, another halfway up the passageway, and the third clustered around the tomb of Qusam, at the top of the hill. Excavations have unearthed remnants of the old city of Samarkand below ground level which indicate that, prior to its use as a cemetary, the area contained mostly residential and commercial buildings. However, even at this time there were religious structures on the site. Certainly, a shrine to Qusam was erected early on in the Muslim era, and it soon became the center of a cult of worship on the site. The earliest extant structures in the complex, including the minaret near Qusam's mausoleum, were built in the eleventh century. By the twelfth century, the site was being used exclusively as a burial ground. Much of the original complex that grew up around the tomb of Qusam was destroyed by the Mongols when they sacked Samarkand in 1221, although they spared the Living King from this sacrilege. During the fourteenth century, there was a revived interest in the "cult of saints," resulting in more construction on the site, and a new Shah-i Zinda sprang up on the site. Part of the earlier complex is preserved in the actual mausoleum which contains Qusam, the rest of which dates from 1334-1335 and c.1460. Building on the site continued throughout the fourteenth century and into the next, with Timur merely continuing the trend. Since that time, especially in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, more structures have been added to the complex.

Many of the same features that can be seen elsewhere in the monuments erected by Timur and his successors are evident in the Shah-i Zinda. Blue-tiled domes, some smooth and some ribbed, adorn many of the buildings. Tiled kufic inscriptions, similar to those on the Gur-i Amir and the Bibi Khanum mosque, circle the drums of many domes. The facades and entrance ivans of the mausolea are decorated with a wide selection of ornamentation, including muqarnas, glazed brick and tilework, mosaics, and glazed terra cotta. Horizontal and vertical inscription bands employ both kufic and thuluth script. Indeed, some of the finest decoration in Central Asia can be seen in the complex. Various patterns are used, including floral and vegetal motifs, stars, and geometric designs. The internal decoration of some of the buildings is also quite ornate, including "mosaic panels with fine gold painting on the glaze, others with landscapes (flowers, shrubs, rivulets, trees with birds, clouds), showing a remarkable Chinese influence, which may also be found in the stylised dragons and phoenixes in the wall ornaments."  In the words of a Soviet writer, "Not grief, but reconciliation and placidity emanated from this city of the dead, with its freshness and intensity of colour and unexpected perspectives and combinations of forms."

##

## THE MADRASAH OF ULUGH BEG

U lugh Beg's madrasah  is located on the Registan, the large square which was described in 1888 by Lord Curzon, the Viceroy of India, as "the noblest public square in the world. 'I know of nothing in the East approaching it in massive simplicity and grandeur,' he wrote, 'and nothing in Europe, save perhaps on a humbler scale the Piazza di San Marco in Venice, which can even aspire to enter the competition. No European spectacle indeed can adequately be compared with it, in our inablilty to point to an open space in any Western city that is commanded on three of its four sides by Gothic cathedrals of the finest order.

As noted by Curzon, the square is bounded today on three sides by madrasahs. The first of these is the madrasah of Ulugh Beg, built by him during the period 1417-1421. The other two were built at a later time to replace the khanaqah and caravansary that had been erected under Ulugh Beg. The Shir Dor madrasah, basically a copy of Ulugh Beg's madrasah, was constructed between 1619 and 1635 and the Tilla Kari madrasah between 1646 and 1659. "Shir Dor" means "Bearing Lions," after the tigers painted on the facade. "Tilla Kari" means "Adorned with Gold," after the profusion of gold in that building. Since these latter two structures date from after the Timurid period, we will concentrate here on Ulugh Beg's madrasah.

It is perhaps fitting that Ulugh Beg, more a scholar than a military or religious leader, has left an educational institution as his primary contribution to the architecture of Samarkand. Indeed, it is the finest example of this type of building from the early Timurid period. "As a work of architecture, it is unique in its complexity and its ambitiousness. It ranks among the best work of this period."  The building is rectangular in shape, measuring 56 by 81 meters, and encloses a courtyard (30 meters a side) with four axial ivans. There are minarets at each of its four corners and a 34.7 meter tall entrance portal on the facade that faces the Registan. This enormous entrance towers over twice the height of the walls of the enclosed courtyard. In addition, there are two smaller entrances on the sides of the madrasah. These three entrances open onto the courtyard by way of three of the four ivans. Around the courtyard, on two stories, are fifty rooms, which could house one hundred students, and two lecture halls. The fourth ivan, opposite the entrance ivan, leads into a rectangular mosque, flanked by two domed chambers.

The decoration of the madrasah, as elsewhere in Samarkand, emphasizes the color blue, with light and dark blue tiles in hazarbaf technique forming various designs, including the calligraphic representation of sacred names within geometric outlines on the facade, the exterior walls, and the secondary entrances. Mosaic faience is featured above the entrance ivan in a star-shaped design (not surprising for an astronomer!) and in other prominent places, such as the entrance to the mosque. Girikhs constructed on a diagonal grid also occur and haft rangi is used extensively, including in the rope molding that forms the border of the ivan opening onto the Registan. Marble, inset with tile, is also used, especially in the dado.

It is interesting to note the inscription that Ulugh Beg placed over the portal leading into the mosque, perhaps a reflection of his desire to relate religion and science together, a desire which eventually got him killed: "This suffeh [i.e., portal or vaulted masjid] is built to resemble Paradise... in it are teachers of the truths of the sciences useful to the religion, under the direction of the greatest of sultans..."  By the advent of the Soviet era, the madrasah was in sad shape. Since that time, the northeast minaret, which had been leaning badly, has been propped up and the mosaicwork on the main ivan arch has been largely restored.

##

## ULUGH BEG'S OBSERVATORY

Ulugh Beg built his observatory in 1420. Babur tells us that the circular building, 48 meters in diameter, was three storeys tall. It originally housed three gigantic astronomical instruments: a sextant, divided into degrees and minutes and featuring the signs of the zodiac; a solar clock; and a quadrant sector. The ground floor contained service rooms, above which were two stories of arcades. The arc of the sextant was oriented along the north-south axis of the building, beginning below ground level and rising to above the top of the third story. The solar clock was located on the wall parallel to the east-west axis, perpendicular to the sextant.

The roof, and possibly the piers of the arcades, were marked off with bronze plates to assist in sighting heavenly bodies. The exterior of the observatory was finished with glazed brick mosaics, as were other Timurid monuments. According to a contemporary report, the service rooms were decorated: "Inside the rooms (khaneh-ha) he had painted and written the image (hay'at) of the nine celestial orbits (aflak), and the shapes (ashkal) of the nine heavenly spheres, and the degrees, minutes, seconds, and tenths of seconds, of the epicycles; the seven planets (aflak-i tadawir) and pictures (suwar) of the fixed stars, the image (hay'at) of the terrestrial globe, pictures (suwar) of the climes with mountains, seas, and deserts and related things..."  All that remains of this structure today is the large concave slit in the earth which used to house the sextant. It was discovered in 1908 by the Russian archaeologist Viatkin and is a major tourist attraction in Samarkand today.

##

## CONCLUSION

Anyone who has had the opportunity to see these Timurid monuments in Samarkand can testify to the splendor that they possess, even after years of disrepair. The sheer size of them, as well as the extravagant manner in which they have been decorated, speaks of the desire of Timur and his successors to leave their impact upon the world. In his time, Timur tried to create an empire to rival that of his predecessor, Chingiz Khan, and, in doing so, to set himself up as the greatest Muslim ruler in the world at the time. His empire never did eclipse that of the Mongols and it did not last nearly as long as the Arab Empire had. However, he left an indelible imprint not only on Central Asia, but indeed upon much of the Near East. Today, long after the disappearance of the mountains of human skulls which he erected after a victorious battle, the other monuments he and his dynasty erected in the cities of Central Asia remain as testimonies of his greatness.

#

# Amir Timur Square

The history of the square in the center of Tashkent named after Amir Timur, the commander and founder of a huge medieval empire, began as early as in the XIX century, when Tashkent was the center of the Turkestan Military Command, composing the Russian Empire. It was established by order of general M. Chernyaev in 1882. The square represented a small park in the center of the city, surrounded by buildings of women and men's gymnasium, normal school and state bank.

Right in the center of the square, there is a monument to the outstanding commander and statesman of the XIV century Amir Timur, who managed to found a centralized united state composing of 27 countries in the vast territory from the Mediterranean Sea to India. The monument is represented as a bronze figure of Amir Timur with imperial regalia on a reared horse. The monument plinth is engraved with an Amir Timur's famous motto in four languages "Power is in Justice". The monument author is the sculptor Ilkhom Jabbarov.

There was a small park around the monument but after reconstruction conducted in 2009, this place was cleared and transformed to a small square with fountains and plantings.

Amir Timur Square is surrounded with the buildings of the "Uzbekistan" Hotel, University of Law (former Women's Gymnasium), the Amir Timur Museum, well-known Tashkent Chimes and the Forums Palace - one of the most grandiose architectural structures in Tashkent.

The Forums Palace was built in autumn 2009. It became a place to hold important state and international events, for instance: the SCO Summit. The Forums Palace impresses not only with its architecture, but also with its sizes. Its area is almost 10,000 m2. From outside the Forums Palace is decorated with majestic columns, but the most outstanding part of the palace architecture is its dome. It reaches almost 48 m in height; its peak is crowned with figures of storks.

Almost all the buildings located around Amir Timur Square have historical importance. One of them is the building of University of Law. It is situated opposite Amir Timur Square and is a historical monument of the XIX century. The building itself was built by order of the Turkestan governor-general Kaufman. It housed a women's gymnasium for a long time. During the Soviet time this building was given to Tashkent State University. There was History Faculty in the left wing and Faculty of Law in the right one. After proclamation of independence the building was fully given to University of Law.

To the right from University of Law there is the building of the Amir Timur Museum. The Museum inauguration was dated to 660 anniversary of Amir Timur. The Amir Timur Museum holds exhibits dedicated to the epoch of Timur and the Timurid dynasty . There, you can see beautiful miniatures reflecting events of that epoch. There is a copy of the Ottoman Koran in the central hall on the Museum ground floor. The walls of the hall, decorated by the best artists of Uzbekistan, show the scenes from Timur's life.

The exposition of the first and second floors represents a collection of utensils, weapons and clothes belonging to the Timur and Timurid epoch.

But, perhaps the most famous architectural monument located on the Square is the Tashkent Chime. Over dozens of years from the moment of its construction in 1947, it was the symbol of Tashkent. The author of the building floor plan was A.A. Mukhamedshin and this project initiator was I.A. Eisenstein – one of the Tashkent residents, a watchmaker by profession. During the war he participated in battles in German city of Allenstein and brought the famous clock mechanism from there and presented it on behalf of his regiment to Tashkent. A famous Uzbek master in ganj carving - usto Shirin Muradov participated in its outer facade decoration. In 2009 another chime being as a mirror reflection of the old one was built in the course of construction in the center of the city. Today new and old chimes may be called an original "Gate" of the Square.

Near the Amir Timur Square, there are a cinema theatre and entertainment centers, which fact contributes much to the constant popularity of the place. All roads from there lead to all parts of the city, making the city the most vital place of meeting. The history of modern Tashkent is inseparably connected with its center – Amir Timur Square.

Timurid Empire

Titular name | Personal name | Reign

---|---|---

Timur ruled over the Chagatai Khanate with Soyurghatmïsh Khan as nominal Khan followed by Sultan Mahmud Khan). He himself adopted the Muslim Arabic title of Amir. In essence the Khanate was finished and the Timurid Empire was firmly established.

Amir  
امیر  
Timur Lang  
تیمور لنگ | Timur Beg Gurkani  
تیمور بیگ گورکانی | 1370–1405

Amir  
امیر |  Pir Muhammad bin Jahangir Mirza  
پیر محمد بن جہانگیر میرزا | 1405–1407

Amir  
امیر | Khalil Sultan bin Miran Shah  
خلیل سلطان بن میران شاہ | 1405–1409

Amir  
امیر | Shahrukh Mirza  
شاھرخ میرزا | 1405–1447

Amir  
امیر  
Ulugh Beg  
الغ بیگ | Mirza Muhammad Tāraghay  
میرزا محمد طارق | 1447–1449

**BLITZ QUESTIONS:**

  1. Who was Timur in history?

  2. How did Timur die?

  3. Who was the father of Timur?

  4. When did Timur die?

8-THEME: THE COLLAPSE OF THE TERRITORY OF CENTRAL ASIA INTO KHANATES, ITS CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES

## Russian conquest

For the whole region see Russian conquest of Central Asia

The Defence of the Samarkand Citadel in 1868. From the Russian illustrated magazine Niva (1872).

The pharmacy building in Bukhara is a fine example of Uzbek architecture influenced by the Russian Empire

In the nineteenth century, Russian interest in the area increased greatly, sparked by nominal concern over British designs on Central Asia; by anger over the situation of Russian citizens held as slaves; and by the desire to control the trade in the region and to establish a secure source of cotton for Russia. When the United States Civil War prevented cotton delivery from Russia's primary supplier, the southern United States, Central Asian cotton assumed much greater importance for Russia.

As soon as the Russian conquest of the Caucasus was completed in the late 1850s, the Russian Ministry of War) began to send military forces against the Central Asian khanates. Three major population centers of the khanates—Tashkent, Bukhoro, and Samarqand—were captured in 1865, 1867, and 1868, respectively. In 1868 the Khanate of Bukhoro signed a treaty with Russia making Bukhoro a Russian protectorate. In 1868 the Khanate of Kokand was confined to the Ferghana Valley and in 1876 it was annexed. The Khanate of Khiva became a Russian protectorate in 1873. Thus by 1876 the entire territory comprising present-day Uzbekistan either had fallen under direct Russian rule or had become a protectorate of Russia. The treaties establishing the protectorates over Bukhoro and Khiva gave Russia control of the foreign relations of these states and gave Russian merchants important concessions in foreign trade; the khanates retained control of their own internal affairs. Tashkent and Quqon fell directly under a Russian governor general.

During the first few decades of Russian rule, the daily life of the Central Asians did not change greatly. The Russians substantially increased cotton production, but otherwise they interfered little with the indigenous people. Some Russian settlements were built next to the established cities of Tashkent and Samarqand, but the Russians did not mix with the indigenous populations. The era of Russian rule did produce important social and economic changes for some Uzbeks as a new middle class developed and some peasants were affected by the increased emphasis on cotton cultivation.

In the last decade of the nineteenth century, conditions began to change as new Russian railroads brought greater numbers of Russians into the area. In the 1890s, several revolts, which were put down easily, led to increased Russian vigilance in the region. The Russians increasingly intruded in the internal affairs of the khanates. The only avenue for Uzbek resistance to Russian rule became the Pan-Turkish movement, also known as Jadidism, which had arisen in the 1860s among intellectuals who sought to preserve indigenous Islamic Central Asian culture from Russian encroachment. By 1900 Jadidism had developed into the region's first major movement of political resistance. Until the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, the modern, secular ideas of Jadidism faced resistance from both the Russians and the Uzbek khans, who had differing reasons to fear the movement.

Prior to the events of 1917, Russian rule had brought some industrial development in sectors directly connected with cotton. Although railroads and cotton-ginning machinery advanced, the Central Asian textile industry was slow to develop because the cotton crop was shipped to Russia for processing. As the tsarist government expanded the cultivation of cotton dramatically, it changed the balance between cotton and food production, creating some problems in food supply—although in the prerevolutionary period Central Asia remained largely self-sufficient in food. This situation was to change during the Soviet period when the Moscow government began a ruthless drive for national self-sufficiency in cotton. This policy converted almost the entire agricultural economy of Uzbekistan to cotton production, bringing a series of consequences whose harm still is felt today in Uzbekistan and other republics.

##

## Entering the twentieth century

A group of Uzbek elders, 1890-1896

By the turn of the twentieth century, the Russian Empire was in complete control of Central Asia. The territory of Uzbekistan was divided into three political groupings: the khanates of Bukhoro and Khiva and the Guberniya (Governorate General) of Turkestan, the last of which was under direct control of the Ministry of War of Russia. The final decade of the nineteenth century finds the three regions united under the independent and sovereign Republic of Uzbekistan. The intervening decades were a period of revolution, oppression, massive disruptions, and colonial rule.

After 1900 the khanates continued to enjoy a certain degree of autonomy in their internal affairs. However, they ultimately were subservient to the Russian governor general in Tashkent, who ruled the region in the name of Tsar Nicholas II. The Russian Empire exercised direct control over large tracts of territory in Central Asia, allowing the khanates to rule a large portion of their ancient lands for themselves. In this period, large numbers of Russians, attracted by the climate and the available land, immigrated into Central Asia. After 1900, increased contact with Russian civilization began to affect the lives of Central Asians in the larger population centers where the Russians settled.

## THE JADIDISTS AND BASMACHIS

Russian influence was especially strong among certain young intellectuals who were the sons of the rich merchant classes. Educated in the local Muslim schools, in Russian universities, or in Istanbul, these men, who came to be known as the Jadidists, tried to learn from Russia and from modernizing movements in Istanbul and among the Tatars, and to use this knowledge to regain their country's independence. The Jadidists believed that their society, and even their religion, must be reformed and modernized for this goal to be achieved. In 1905 the unexpected victory of a new Asiatic power in the Russo-Japanese War and the eruption of revolution in Russia raised the hopes of reform factions that Russian rule could be overturned, and a modernization program initiated, in Central Asia. The democratic reforms that Russia promised in the wake of the revolution gradually faded, however, as the tsarist government restored authoritarian rule in the decade that followed 1905. Renewed tsarist repression and the reactionary politics of the rulers of Bukhoro and Khiva forced the reformers underground or into exile. Nevertheless, some of the future leaders of Soviet Uzbekistan, including Abdur Rauf Fitrat and others, gained valuable revolutionary experience and were able to expand their ideological influence in this period.

In the summer of 1916, a number of settlements in eastern Uzbekistan were the sites of violent demonstrations against a new Russian decree canceling the Central Asians' immunity to conscription for duty in World War I. Reprisals of increasing violence ensued, and the struggle spread from Uzbekistan into Kyrgyz and Kazak territory. There, Russian confiscation of grazing land already had created animosity not present in the Uzbek population, which was concerned mainly with preserving its rights.

The next opportunity for the Jadidists presented itself in 1917 with the outbreak of the February and October revolutions in Russia. In February the revolutionary events in Russia's capital, Petrograd (St. Petersburg), were quickly repeated in Tashkent, where the tsarist administration of the governor general was overthrown. In its place, a dual system was established, combining a provisional government with direct Soviet power and completely excluding the native Muslim population from power. Indigenous leaders, including some of the Jadidists, attempted to set up an autonomous government in the city of Quqon in the Fergana Valley, but this attempt was quickly crushed. Following the suppression of autonomy in Quqon, Jadidists and other loosely connected factions began what was called the Basmachi revolt against Soviet rule, which by 1922 had survived the civil war and was asserting greater power over most of Central Asia. For more than a decade, Basmachi guerrilla fighters (that name was a derogatory Slavic term that the fighters did not apply to themselves) fiercely resisted the establishment of Soviet rule in parts of Central Asia.

However, the majority of Jadidists, including leaders such as Abdurrauf Fitrat and Fayzulla Khodzhayev, cast their lot with the communists. In 1920 Khojayev, who became first secretary of the Communist Party of Uzbekistan, assisted communist forces in the capture of Bukhoro and Khiva. After the Amir of Bukhoro had joined the Basmachi movement, Khojayev became president of the newly established Bukharan People's Soviet Republic. A People's Republic of Khorezm also was set up in what had been Khiva.

The Basmachi revolt eventually was crushed as the civil war in Russia ended and the communists drew away large portions of the Central Asian population with promises of local political autonomy and the potential economic autonomy of Soviet leader Lenin's New Economic Policy. Under these circumstances, large numbers of Central Asians joined the communist party, many gaining high positions in the government of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (Uzbek SSR), the administrative unit established in 1924 to include present-day Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. The indigenous leaders cooperated closely with the communist government in enforcing policies designed to alter the traditional society of the region: the emancipation of women, the redistribution of land, and mass literacy campaigns.

KHIVA KHANATE

In 1505 the troops Sheibani Khan captured Khorezm. However, in 1512 the Khan's power passed into the hands of Ilbars Khan, the leader of the other branch of nomadic Uzbeks. From that time on, the Khanate of Khiva, the capital of which at various times were Wazir, Old Urgench, Khiva. Into the Khanate, besides Khorezm oasis entered Mangishlak, areas Balkhan mountains, Dehistan, Uzboi and Middle Khorasan. In the struggle for hegemony in Central Asia with Bukhara khanate Khiva troops devastated Karakul Chardjuy, Vardanzi and got to Kermine. In 1662, the Khan of Khiva Abulgazi after a raid made peace with the Khan of Bukhara Abulaziz. However, attacks on Bukhara continued under his son Anusha Khan (1663-1687).

In 1685 Khivans managed to capture Samarkand. However, near to Gijduvon Anusha Khan was defeated and was forced to leave Samarkand. Soon Bukhara's Khan conspired against Anusha Khan, which was the son of Anush Irnak (Ereng) . In 1687 Anusha was captured and blinded. In 1688 Shah Niaz khan sought to strengthen the power and get rid of dependence on Bukhara.

In 1700 he secretly sent an ambassador from Bukhara to Peter 1 to accept him "with all the people subservient to him" into the Russian citizenship. Apparently Khan Arab Muhammad (1702-1714) also relied on Russia's support. During the reign of Shirgazi Khan (1715-1728) internal turmoil tore apart the feudal state. In 1717 Khiva khanate successfully repel the invasion of the Russian state military expedition led by A.Bekovich - Cherkassky. After that Ilbars became Shirgazi Khan (1728-1740). Using lack of Nadir Shah, who at that time undertook a campaign in Afghanistan and India, Ilbars raided Khorasan. This, and the failure of Khiva acknowledge their dependence on Iran and its military support of Bukhara, led by Nadir Shah to undertake a campaign to Khorezm.

In the battle of Khazarasp Ilbars was defeated. Iranian forces had taken Hanka and Ilbars himself was killed in battle. After a four-day siege, Nadir Shah took the capital. A considerable part of Khiva was attached to the army troops of Nadir Shah. In Khiva Nadir Shah left a garrison and a ruler. However, the northern part of the Khanate did not obey to Iran. Nurali - Abul- Khair son, Khan of Small Kazakh ulus emerged on the arena and in 1730-1732 received Russian citizenship. In 1741 Khivans rebelled against Iran. Khiva was taken by the rebels, the governor and the garrison massacred. Nurali took the imperial throne. Nadir Shah, having heard about these events, gives the order to his son Nasrullah Mirza to retake Khorezm. Khiva dignitaries who contributed to the the rise of Nurali to the throne, hastened to Merv acknowledging their guilt. At their request, Nadir Khan appointed Abu Muhammad, son of Ilbars as the Khan of Khiva. Nurali fled to the steppe. During the 40's of the 18th century Khiva changed several khans.

EMIRATE OF BUKHARA

After the death of Rahim Mangyts brought to the place the ruler Miankal Daniar bey (1758-1785). However, he failed to maintain a rigid central authority. The civil strife and conflicts between supporters and opponents of Mangits dragged on for several decades. In 1784 dissatisfied with the weakness of Daniar the citizens of Bukhara revolted and Daniyarbiy ceded power to his son Shahmurad (1785-1800). Shahmurad innovations started with the fact that eliminated two major dignitaries - Dawlat kushbegi and Nizamuddin kazikalon, killing them in front of the Arch. Shahmurad then solemnly handed residents of Bukhara Tarhan letter, frees them from some taxes. Text ratification was carved in stone, attached to Yvan large mosque. Instead, he established a new tax "Jul" for the maintenance of troops in case of war. Concentrating power in his hands, he refused to take khan title, remaining as emir.

He put Danishmandchu first and then Abulgazi - descendants of Genghis Khan to the throne and they had no real power. In 1785 Shahmurad held monetary reform, starting to produce high-grade silver coins 0.7 mithqala (3.36 g), as well as standardized gold coins. He personally led the legal department. Shahmurad returned the left bank of the Amu Darya from Balkh and Merv to Bukhara Emirate. In 1786 he suppressed a revolt in the county Kermine then made successful campaigns in Shakhrisyabz and Khujand. Shahmurad successfully fought with the Afghan ruler Timur Shah, managing to retain the region of the southern Turkestan inhabited by Uzbeks and Tajiks. When Emir Haidar (1800-1826) received the throne from his father, the entire Maveranahr obeyed his authority. Accession to the throne was accompanied by Haidar strife and mass uprisings. In 1800 Merv Turkmens rebelled. Soon a war with Kokand Uratyube that Haidar managed to defend began.

During Emir Haidar political system was a centralized monarchy, evolving towards absolutism. Emir Haidar had bureaucracy of up to four thousand people. Increased the army. Only in Bukhara, there were 12,000 troops. Ahmad Danisch reports that "the reign of Emir Haidar can be characterized as a time of incessant feudal wars that occurred every 3-6 months". Haidar succeeded by his son, Nasrullah (1826-1860). To clear the way to power for him, his older brothers Hussein and Umar were killed. Relying on the army and the alliance with the clergy, Nasrullah led a fierce struggle against feudal fragmentation, seeking to curb the nobility. During the first month of reign he executed daily 50-100 people. He worked for the unification of regions, nominally belonged to the emirate. For the administration of provinces, he drew "unknown" people that obeyed him completely. The reign of Nasrallah was accompanied by incessant wars with Khiva and Kokand khanate for certain border areas – Merv, Chardjuy, Uratyube, Khujand. Stubborn resistance was done by Shahrisabz and Kitab rulers. Only in 1853 after repeated military campaigns, they were subject to Bukhara.

THE KHANATE OF KOKAND

Fergana became separate from Bukhara in the early 18th century under conditions of political instability in Ashtarkhanid Khanate. There was founded an independent state with the center in Kokand, wh ere firstly came to power hodzhas, and then khan dynasty Ming. Khanate included the territories of Namangan, Kokand, Andijan and Margilan regions. Shahrukhbiy from Uzbek tribe Ming was proclaimed as the first ruler of the Khanate. In the 1721-1722 years Shahrukh was killed as a result of strife between emirs. His son Abdurahimbiy (1721-1733) became his successor. He joined Khanate Andijan and Khojand, and also Samarkand, Kattakurgan, Dzhizak, the regions belonged to Bukhara Khanate at that time. Osh was conquered by Khanate during the period of his brother Abdukarimbiy's ruling (1733-1748).

Following twenty years were marked by frequent changes of rulers. In 1770 Narbuta (1770-1800) was proclaimed as a ruler by Kokand nobility. He has succeeded to stifle rebellion of Chust, Khodjant and Namangan rulers. Narbutabiy send troops to Tashkent, but failed to conquer the city. Under Narbutabiy in the Khanate reigned relative political stability that positively affected to economic development. The irrigation system was expanded and many new madrassas were built, including Mir madrasa. Narbuta succeeded by his son Alimbek (1800-1809), under whom the political importance of Kokand has risen significantly. The state was officially declared as the Khanate of Kokand in 1805 and Alimbek was given the title of «Khan». He created a mercenary army, made up of mountain Tajiks, which became his mainstay in the struggle to centralize power. Alimkhan subordinated Tashkent and Fergana, made a number of military campaigns on Uratyuba. As a result of a plot he was killed and his brother Omarkhan (1809-1822) came to throne.

He signed a treaty with Bukharian emir Haydar and joined to the Khanate Kazakh land up to the Syrdarya River mouth. Omarkhan built Akmachit fortress at the crossroads of the Tashkent, Bukhara and Khiva roads. Omarkhan had the title of «Faithful lord» \- «Amir ul-Muslimin», minted coins in his name. Under him the administrative system of Bukhara Khanate was taken as administrative system of the Khanate. Omarkhan's successor was his 12 - year-old son Muhammad Alikhan (Madalihan) (1822-1842). He was young, and his mother prominent poetess Nodirabegim ruled the state in his youth years, who made significant contribution to the development of culture and art in Kokand.

Madalikhan made a number of successful campaigns to East Turkistan and Kashgar to subordinate Tadjiks who lived in the mountainous areas of Alay ridge. During his reign an advanced irrigational system was established in the Khanate, and the foreign trade communications have strengthened. Flatterers called him «gazi» (The Fighter for Belief), however the clergy determined him as an apostate. Khan's opponents sent their complaint to Emir of Bukhara Nasrulla. In 1840 Emir send his ambassador to Kokand with Fetva, in which Madalikhan admitted as «Kafir» (Infidel). Having failed in the battle with armies of Emir Nasrulla, Madalikhan recognized himself as the Vassal of Bukhara and was compelled to concede Hodjent. But, after that, relations between Bukhara and Kokand continued worsening. As a result, in 1841 Muhammad Alikhan refused the throne for the benefit of his brother Sultan Mahmudkhan. Then, in 1842 emir Nasrulla hold Kokand once again. By Emir'sorder Madalikhan, his brother Sultan Mahmudhan and his mother Nodirabegim, and also a number of high-ranking officials were executed. Under decree of Nasrulla his deputy began to rule in Khanate that imposed heavy tax burden on people. As a result, in summer of 1842 in the Khanate began a rebellion, during which all supporters of Emir were killed, and the nephew of Norbutabij - Sherali was put forward as Khan. Emir of Bukhara Nasrulla held Kokand again. But after 40 days, after having been informed that the Khan of Khiva Ollokulihon invaded to the territory of Emirate he had to raise the siege and returned back.

Under Sheralihan (1842-1845) Musulmankul (from Kipchak tribe), who help him to come to power, was appointed as Mingbashi (the commander of forces). Musulmankul, in his turn, filled the majority of fighting corpuses with his fellow tribesmen. Having the influence among soldiers, he tried to exert influence on ruler, but Sheralikhan did not allow it.

Not having achieved his purpose, in 1845 Musulmankul organized an attempt at Khan when the Khan was on the way to Osh to suppress the rebellion that had flashed because of a discontent for imposed taxes. After the assassination of Sheralihan, Alimkhan`s son - Murad sat on the throne. In order to keep his position, he had to recognize himself as the vassal of the Emir of Bukhara. Then Musulmonkul eliminated him and put on the throne Sheralikhan's son – Hudoyor marrying him to his daughter.

Making use of Khan's adolescence, Musulmankul actually gathered all power in his hands. In particular, he distributed the majority of high-ranking posts to the representatives of kipchaks. Because of it, the discontent was increased in Kokand and Musulmankul was discharged off his post.

Having decided to return his influence, Musulmankul secretly tried to establish contact with V.V.Velyaminov-Zernov, the representative of Russian army command forces. In order to get rid of kipchaks, Kokand nobility tried to win over Hudoyorkhan. In 1853 began mass kipchak slaughter in Kokand, and Musulmonkul was taken in captivity and then executed.

But internal struggle for the throne did not stop. The people once assisted Hudoyorkhan to eliminate Musulmankul, joined in a conspiracy against him. Those were unsuccessful attempts. From 1852 to 1865 on the throne came several governors. In 1865 Kipchaks and Kyrgyzs declared Hudoykulbek as Khan of Kokand, who ruled the country only 14 days and run away to Kashgar with all treasury. As a result, Hudoyorhan occupied the throne of Kokand without difficulties.

Making use of internal political instability, Russia started active military operations against Khanate. As a result from 1853 to 1865 Russian army forces occupied the cities of the Khanate of Kokand - Okmasjid, Takmak, Pishpek (current Bishkek) Avliyoota, Turkistan, Chimkent and Tashkent with joining to them territories. On July 14, 1867 Emperor Alexander II founded Turkistan general – governorship that included the seized territory in Central Asia.

The territory of Kokand Khanate was noticeably reduced as a result of the Russian military expansion, which became the reason of reduction tax revenues to state treasury. In order to refill the treasury Khan increased tax burden. That decision raised public discontent, and in 1871 in Sokh began a revolt that has turned to long-term armed mutiny, and this went down in history as «Pulatkhan Revolt». Russian armies suppressed the revolt, and Pulatkhan was taken in prison and executed in March 1876 in Margilan. In the same year with Emperor's decision the Khanate of Kokand was officially liquidated and Fergana region of the Turkestan general – governorshipwas formed in its territory.

9-THEME: CONQUEST OF UZBEK KHANATES BY THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE. NATIONAL LIBERATION MOVEMENT OF THE PEOPLES OF UZBEKISTAN AGAINST THE COLONIAL POLICY OF RUSSIA. JADIDISM.

Plan:

  1. Conquest of Central Asia Russia

  2. Uzbekistan in the 20th - 90th of the XX century

  3. Uzbekistan during the world war II (1941 - 1945)

  4. Uzbekistan in 1945 – 1991. Jadidism.

The Russian conquest of Central Asia took place in the second half of the nineteenth century. The land that became Russian Turkestan and later Soviet Central Asia is now divided between Kazakhstan in the north, Uzbekistan across the center, Kyrgyzstan in the east, Tajikistan in the southeast and Turkmenistan in the southwest. The area was called Turkestan because most of its inhabitants spoke Turkic languages with the exception of Tajikistan, which speaks an Iranian language.

  1. CONQUEST OF CENTRAL ASIA RUSSIA

Since the 20s of the 19th century British goods began to compete with Russian goods in Central Asia. UK openly declared its claim to the presence in Afghanistan, Iran and Central Asia. To strengthen its position in the Asian markets, Russia is creating favorable conditions for the export customs for Russian goods.

Under Nicholas I the diplomatic and military presence of Tsarist Russia in the region was activated. In 1834 the Novo-Aleksandrovskoe fortress (Mangishlak) was built on the way to the Uzbek khanates. In late 1839 and early 1840 the Governor-General of Orenburg graf Perovskiy made a bad winter military campaign against Khiva. In 1847 General Oruchev took the northeastern coast of the Aral Sea and founded fortress Raim (Kazalinsk). Aral flotilla was created, consisting of the steamers "Nicholas" and "Constantine". In 1850-1855 Russian troops captured Kokand fortresses Kumushkurgan, Chimkurgan, Kushkurgan, Ak-Mosque (Kyzyl-Orda) occupied the valley of the Ili River, wh ere they established the Verniy fortress.

During the reign of Alexander II the conquest of Central Asia became the main goal of the imperial foreign policy of Russia. The reason for the marching to the south became constant raids of military units of the Kokand khanate on Russian settlements in southern Kazakhstan, the lower reaches of the Syrdarya and the coast of the Aral Sea. In 1865 Major General M.Chernyaev captured Tashkent and elders of the city forced to sign an armistice agreement. Emperor Alexander II ordered the Orenburg governor to take Tashkent residents to Russian citizenship upon their requests. Part of influential individuals, merchants from Tashkent signed such treatment. In 1866 Russian troops captured the fortress of Khujand and Namangan. Chinaz fortress was built.

In July 1867 an imperial decree has established Turkestan Military District, headed by the Governor-General. In 1868 the Turkestan Military District troops under the command of the Adjutant General von Kaufman started hostilities against the khanate of Bukhara. In May, the Russian troops came to Samarkand without a fight and went into town. In June, the Emir of Bukhara signed an armistice agreement. Zarafshan district was formed. Detachment of General Abramov captures Karshi and returns it to the Emir of Bukhara. In 1870 as a result of military operations Major General Abramov captures Shakhrisyabz and Kitab. Shakhrisyabz and Kitab were transferred to Emir of Bukhara. In 1873 offensive against the Khanate of Khiva was organized from the Turkestan, Mangishlak and Orenburg. In May the fortress Khazarasp was taken, Khiva and later the fortress Kungrat, Hodzhayli , Gurlen were captured. In August an armistice with the Khan of Khiva was signed. Russian protectorate was established over the Khanate of Khiva. Muhammad Rahim Khan Bogodur (Feruz) withheld the power. In the autumn of 1873 a new political agreement with the Bukhara khanate was signed.

In 1875-1876 as a result of military action a rebellion against Khudoyar Khan and the Russian authorities in the Fergana Valley was suppressed. Kokand khanate was liquidated and on its territory Fergana region was formed as a part of Russia. In 1881 the Akhal-Teke oasis and Ashgabat were captured. A convention on the delim itation was signed between Russia and Persia. In 1884 Merv subordinated. Kushka became the southern point of the Russian borders.

Thus, in 80s 19th century Russian borders in Central Asia were finally formed. In 1895 the Russian and British governments signed an agreement on the delim itation of the zones of influence with the definition of the dividing line in the Pamir Mountains.

  2. UZBEKISTAN IN THE 20TH - 90TH OF THE XX CENTURY

In 1924 Uzbekistan as one of the republics joined the former USSR. In March 1927 the first Constitution of Uzbekistan was adopted. During this period the final role and decision - making were the priority of inter-republican management bodies for developing national economy and the culture of Central Asian republics: Central Asian Economic Council (in 1923), Central Asian water resource management, Central Asian State Planning and etc. In a short period of time hard consequences of Civil War were eliminated. The industry was developing rapidly. The great changes have been taken in engineering industry, metal - working industry and Power branches. During the period from 1928 to 1942 515 enterprises and electric power stations were launched among which are Chirchik city electrochemical plant, Tashselmash, Kuvasay city cement and lime works, Tashkent city textile industrial complex, and others. In 1925 - 1929 the land - water use reform was carried out.

The agriculture and irrigation sectors were on the rise with new canals and reservoirs being reconstructed. In the country the literacy of the population was 95% by the end of 1941. The State University of Turkestan (1920) became prominent center of higher education. There a number of scientific - research institutions were functioning which placed more than 1000 researches to the end of 20th. Tashkent was declared capital of Uzbekistan SSR in 1930. A new UzSSR Constitution was adopted in 1937. According to the Constitution the elections were held for the republican bodies of power led Yu. Akhunbabaev and Fayzulla Khojaev. The entire life in the republic went on under the increasing cult of personality of Stalin and strengthening totalitarian management methods. The mass repression of outstanding party members and statesmen. The bodies of political administration have trumped - up criminal cases regarding F.Khodjaev, A.Ikramov, D.Manjari and the others. Dozens of people, including leaders of Uzbekistan Communist Party S.Baltabaev, I.Khudaykulov, A.Tsekher, M.Shermukhamedov. M.Usmanov, and others were arrested in August - September. In spring of 1938 more than 60 percent party secretaries such as obkoms (regional party committee), gorkoms (city party committee) and raikoms (district party committee) were subjected to purges.

2. UZBEKISTAN DURING THE WORLD WAR II (1941 - 1945)

On June 22, 1941 Germany in violation of the non-aggression pact suddenly attacked the USSR. On June 23 many thousand demonstrations were held in Tashkent, wh ere the citizens expressed their readiness to do all their best at home for the front and for the sake of the victory. In the first months of war 32,000 requests for sending to the front battlefields were submitted. In November 1941 it 14 national brigades: 9 infantries and 5 cavalries groups were formed. In 1941 - 1943 Uzbekistan received and placed 1 million refugees, evacuated because of military operations in Russia, Ukraine and Byelorussia. Among them 200, 000 were children. War conditions required urgent measures for strengthening the home front. More than one hundred industrial enterprises were moved to Uzbekistan: Leningrad factory for textile machinery, Rostselmash, "Krasniy Aksay" Stalingrad Chemical plant, Moscow factories "Podemnik", "Elektrostanok", and many others. By the end of 1941 more than 50 evacuated enterprises were put into operation. In the middle of 1942 all enterprises relocated to Uzbekistan were operated in full power for supplying military machines, ammunitions and munitions. From the very beginning of war the republican industrial enterprises were reorganized for producing goods for the defense. Tashselmash, steam - locomotive repair, Chirchik city electrochemical plant and the others were few of them.

During 1941 - 1945 280 industrial enterprises were put in operation. In 1943 the specific gravity of enterprises in national economy has been taken to 75 percent. In autumn 1942 the construction of the metallurgical plant in Bekabad region has been launched. It was started the setting up of non-ferrous metallurgy on the basis of explored reserves of tungsten, molybdenum and copper. Also, the Almalyk copper ore deposit was put into operation. From 1940 till 1943 because of constructing of new electric power stations the power production increased 3, 5 times. During 1941 - 1945 there were put in operation 280 Industrial enterprises representing all branches of industry. Uzbekistan became one of the leading arsenals of the country. More than two thousands planes, 1,7 thousand aircraft engines and mortars, 22 million mines, 560 thousand shells, about millions of grenades, 330 thousand parachutes, 5 armed trains, more than 100 thousand km. of different wires were sent. There were relocated 22 scientific- research institutions, 16 institutes of higher education, 2 libraries. On November 1943 the inauguration of Academy of Science was held. T.N.Kari-Niyazov was elected as the first president. By late 1944 22 scientific institutions were the part of Academy of Science. 41 institutes of Higher education including 12 evacuated ones and 51 secondary education institutions functioned in 1943. More than 20,000 specialists were trained during the war at those institutions. About one million citizens of Uzbekistan fought in front lines. Tens of national force units were created. Many of them were awarded with orders and military rank of guardsmen. The soldiers of Uzbekistan took part in defense of Brest fortress, cities of Kiev, Smolensk, Odessa, Sevastopol, and so on. (D.Abdullaev, T.Aliev, Isaev, Yusupov, F.Laenkov, U.Ataev and other).

4. UZBEKISTAN IN 1945 \- 1991

In post-war period there were continued the development process of diversified industries with deployed transport and power systems. The cities became a scientific and culture canters. The new Grand Academic Theater of Uzbekistan was established in 1947. A few years later the theater of opera and ballet has been opened in the city of Samarkand. The agriculture sector was mechanized. In 1984 more than 4,175 hectares of sown areas were assimilated, 2,056 thousand hectares of which were given for cotton fields. The leadership in post-war period included U.Yusupov, A.Niyazov, N.Mukhitdinov, Sh.Rashidov. During the 80s the USSR faced the political and ideological crisis. It turned out that the centrifugal forces were powerful resulting in the end of dissolution of the former Soviet Union and breaking up to newly independent states in the vast area.

**JADIDISM** , a movement of reform among Muslim intellectuals in Central Asia, mainly among the Uzbeks and the Tajiks, from the first years of the 20th century to the 1920s. It took its name from _oṣul-e jadid_ (new method), which was applied to the modern schools that the reformers advocated in place of the "old" ( _qadim_ ) schools: the traditional _maktab_ s and _madrasa_ s. " _Jadid_ " or " _jadidči_ " became a synonym for reformer, while " _qadim_ " or " _qadimči_ " meant a conservative opposed to change. These terms also suggested a generational divide: the _jadid_ s were, on the whole, younger men and looked to the future, whereas leading _qadim_ s were older and embraced tradition (Khalid, p. 93).

The origins of Central Asian Jadidism are diverse. It belongs within the broad framework of reformist and revolutionary movements among the Muslims of Russia and the neighboring Islamic countries in the late 19th and early 20th century. The efforts among the Volga Tatars beginning in the 1880s and by Esmāʿil Bey Gasprali/Gasprinski (d. 11 Sept. 1914), the founder of a new-method school in Bakhchisaray (Bāḡča Sarāy), the capital of the Tatars in the Crimea in 1884, and the publisher of the influential reformist newspaper _Terjümān_ beginning in 1883, were crucial sources of ideas for the Jadids ( _Ismoil Gasprinskiy va Turkiston_ , pp. 40-100). So were publications from Istanbul, Cairo, Beirut, and cities in India and Persia. Numerous books in Persian were imported from India, especially the classics of Persian poetry (e.g., Saʿdi, Rumi, Ḥāfeẓ, Jāmi) and the works of ʿAbd-al-Qāder Bidel (q.v.; Dmitriev, pp. 243-47), and Persian-language newspapers came from Calcutta, Kabul, and Cairo. The Jadids were also inspired by political movements in the Islamic world: the anti-colonial struggles in India, the constitutional movement in Persia (1905-1911, q.v.), and, above all, the Young Turk movement in the Ottoman Empire. They could not but feel a strong sense of solidarity with their fellow Muslims. Yet, however much they may have owed to others, their programs, organizations, and enthusiasms were primarily responses to the social and economic changes and the cultural initiatives introduced by Russia in Central Asia from the middle of the 19th century on. The Jadids had to confront colonialism as circumstances required in the governorate-general of Turkestan, which was under direct Russian administration, and in the Emirate of Bukhara, which maintained its own governmental institutions under a Russian protectorate. In both areas the connection with Russia suggested new models of development and raised cultural and moral challenges that called into question traditional institutions and values.

The Jadids by no means constituted a unified movement. They were conservatives, radicals, and moderates, but, above all, they were individuals, and each one professed his own ideas about culture and identity, social change, religion, and the state. Although the notion of youth is usually associated with the Jadids, two generations are, in fact, discernible within their ranks. The first generation consisted of those who undertook their education mainly in Muslim institutions, who used Persian as their language of written expression, and who were subject to only modest Russian influences before 1917. A second generation began to assert itself in the years around World War I. Its members had received educations less tied to the traditional _madrasa_ and more exposed to Russian influences, and were harsher than their somewhat older colleagues in their criticism of customs and institutions. Yet, the Jadids as a whole shared certain beliefs and aspirations that endowed their drive for reform with both coherence and idealism. They displayed a critical attitude towards the society around them, an abiding commitment to learning, and an eagerness for change that were all framed by a vision of the future that was essentially optimistic. They were, in short, modernizers and enlighteners.

The Jadids were determined, first and foremost, to bring Central Asia into the modern age. They were, in essence, Muslim modernists as their perception of the contemporary world and their attention to its problems originated in the culture and society of Muslim Central Asia. Thus, they belonged to a common Muslim modernist community that extended from the Ottoman Empire and Egypt to Persia and India, and they could converse with one another in their common Turkic and Iranian languages, but, unlike the Young Turks, they did not reject Islam. Rather, they sought to bring Islamic teachings into harmony with the norms of modern society.

At first, the Jadids perceived their cause as educational, and they assumed moral and cultural leadership as a matter of right, because they were certain that the path they had chosen would lead to an enlightened and prosperous future. They were equally certain about who their opponents were, and they waged a resolute campaign against the conservatives within the ulama. The contest between them took on the attributes of a Kulturkampf, as both sides recognized how high the stakes were, nothing less than the power to decide what Muslim culture would be. The mullahs had no intention of relinquishing the cultural dominance they had exercised for centuries, while the Jadids were filled with anxiety, lest ignorance and hidebound tradition condemn Central Asian Muslims to eternal backwardness and subordination to others.

The Jadids also merit the epithet, "enlighteners," because they had complete faith in knowledge as the most effective means of solving society's problems, and because they were inveterate dispensers of knowledge. Dismayed by the deficiencies of the _maktab_ s and many _madrasa_ s, they committed themselves, first of all, to the new-method schools. But they conceived of their didactic mission in broad terms: they wrote school textbooks, founded newspapers and filled their columns with exhortations to learn and to reform, wrote poetry and plays and experimented with new forms of fiction to popularize their ideas and to create a new mental climate, and founded publishing houses to print their works and bookstores to disseminate them.

The Jadids had no formal, written program at first. Yet, their actions made clear their determination to overcome ignorance and backwardness by establishing new schools and creating a new literature, by combating the entrenched ulama and widening the horizons of students in the _madrasa_ s, and by exposing the corruption and tyranny of the emir and his officials (ʿAyni, 1987, pp. 69-70). Thus, even under the emir's oppressive regime in Bukhara and the vigilance of Russian colonial administrators in Turkestan, the Jadids prepared themselves for political struggle.

A measure of the unity and diversity of Jadidism may be gleaned from the biographies of its leading proponents. Mahmudḵoja Behbudiy (Maḥmud Ḵᵛāja Behbudi, 1874-1919) was by all accounts the most prominent figure among the Jadids. He came from a family of means; his father was a mufti, and he himself, well educated in both religious and secular subjects, became a mufti. He had traveled extensively, including the _ḥajj_ pilgrimage in 1899 and had spent time in Russia in 1903-4; he was an enthusiastic founder of new-method schools and an ardent promoter of the indigenous press. ʿAbd-al-Raʾuf Feṭrat (1886-1937 or 1938, q.v.) also enjoyed great esteem among his contemporaries. He was a true enlightener who was engaged simultaneously in many projects, including social criticism, literary creativity, journalism, and politics. He studied in a _madrasa_ , but the four years he spent at the University of Istanbul (1909-13) and his direct acquaintance with the Young Turk movement proved decisive. He became one of the more radical Jadid leaders and was an early critic of the Emirate of Bukhara's regime in such works as _Monāẓara-ye modarres-e boḵārāʾi_ (1911). After 1917, he participated in the reconstruction of Central Asia under Soviet auspices, but he could not reconcile his own aspirations with the demands of the new regime. Ṣadr-al-Din ʿAyni (1878-1954, q.v.) came from a modest family of village craftsmen, but attended several _madrasa_ s and became engrossed in the study of classical Persian poetry. He attended small gatherings of intellectuals in Bukhara and was attracted to the Jadid cause early on, committing himself fully to educational reform. Later he accommodated himself to the Soviet regime and became the leading literary figure of the new Soviet Tajikistan. Monawwar Qori (Qāri; 1878-1931) was from a cultured family. He had an elite _madrasa_ education and was a faithful activist in all the Jadid enterprises, particularly as a pioneering founder of new-method schools and a founder and editor of newspapers. Abdulla Avloniy (ʿAbd-Allāh Awlāni, 1878-1934), born into a prosperous family, was educated in the _maktab_ and _madrasa_. He founded new-method schools, edited two short-lived newspapers, was an author of great versatility (poetry, plays, and school textbooks), and after 1917 played an important role in education. Tolagan Khojamiyorov, known as Tavallo (Tawallā; 1882-1939), came from a family of ulama and literary people and received a traditional Islamic education. He was an advocate of Muslim cultural renewal and the modernization of Muslim education and was best known as a poet. In his small book of poems, _Ravnaq al-Islom_ ( _Rawnaq al-Eslām_ , 1916), he urged his readers to strive for a cultural and economic renaissance in Turkestan. After 1917, though reserved toward the new Soviet order, he was eager to create a flourishing intellectual life. Hoji Mu'in Shukrulla (Ḥāji Moʿin Šokr-Allāh, 1883-1942), raised in modest circumstances, contributed regularly to the Jadid press and was a well-known author and producer of plays on Jadid themes.

The members of what may be called the second Jadid generation were more radical in their social activism and more experimental in their literary creativity than their elders. Hamza Hakimzoda Niyoziy (Ḥamza Ḥakimzāda Niāzi, 1889-1929), from a prosperous family, was educated in a _maktab_ and _madrasa_ in Kokand, but he also probably attended a Russian-native school, where he learned Russian. He opened numerous new-method schools and wrote textbooks for them. He wrote poetry and the first Uzbek novel in addition to plays on reformist and revolutionary themes, thereby becoming the leading playwright of the new Uzbekistan. Abdulla Qodiriy (ʿAbd-Allāh Qāderi, 1894-1938) studied in traditional schools and in a Russian-native school to learn Russian and was much influenced by the reformist press. He was a prolific writer and the founder of the modern Uzbek novel in the 1920s. Fayzulla (Fayż-Allāh) Khojaev /Khodzhaev (1896-1938) came from a well-to-do, religious family and combined a traditional _maktab_ education with studies and association with liberal Russians in Moscow before 1917. He was a radical activist who emphasized political struggle, and, allying himself with the Bolsheviks, eventually became the political leader of Soviet Uzbekistan in the 1920s and 1930s. Abdulhamid Sulaymon (ʿAbd-al-Ḥamid Solaymān) Čolpan (1897-1938) was born into a wealthy and prominent family. He received a traditional Islamic education and also attended a Russian-native school and learned Russian, which, as he gratefully acknowledged, opened European literature and culture to him. His debt to Jadid thought is evident throughout his poetry and prose.

Of all the instruments the Jadids used to achieve their goals, new-method schools most absorbed their energies at the beginning. They wanted to replace the rote learning of the _maktab_ with the phonetic method of teaching the Arabic alphabet, thereby teaching pupils actually how to read. They were also intent upon expanding the curriculum in order to provide pupils with the knowledge they would need to take their place in the modern world and thus to survive the competition from outside Central Asia. Arithmetic, the natural sciences, history, and geography became regular subjects of study, and Arabic and Persian and, here and there, Russian, were taught systematically (Dudoignon, pp. 161-68; Dolimov, pp. 88-115).

The Jadids by no means eliminated religion from their schools. Indeed, they devoted much attention to instruction in the tenets of Islam and the recitation of the Qurʾān, but the approach had changed. New textbooks written in the vernacular (Uzbek Turkish or Tajik) were used, and, instead of having pupils memorize sacred texts, teachers strove to instill in them a genuine understanding of the doctrines and practices of their faith. In the _madrasa_ s the Jadids emphasized the need to focus on the sources of Islam as the proper subject of study rather than on commentaries and interpretations, as was the prevailing practice. Yet, they also, in a sense, separated Islam from the rest of the curriculum. Under the old system, religion had pervaded every subject, but in the new-method schools it became a distinct discipline alongside history, geography, and other subjects (Khalid, pp. 172-74).

As the number of new-method schools grew, from the first one founded in Tashkent by Monawwar Qāri in 1901 to the probably several hundred in Bukhara, Samarkand, Tashkent, Kokand, and other places at the outbreak of World War I, the Jadids spared no effort to support them. In Bukhara in 1908, they formed Širkati Buḵoroi šarif (Šerkat-e Boḵārā-ye šarif "The association of noble Bukhara"), a joint-stock company whose main purpose was to publish textbooks. Among them were ʿAyni's _Tahzib-us-sibyon_ ( _Tahḏib al-ṣebyān_ "The Education of Children;" 1910), which emphasized the importance of study and the role of the family in learning, and _Zaruriyoti din_ ( _Żaruriyāt-e din_ "The requirements of religion;" 1914), which presented the fundamental teachings of Islam in straightforward language (Gafarov, pp. 102-5).

Jadid newspapers and periodicals made their appearance after the Russian Revolution of 1905, when restrictions on the press were loosened. Their founders were much influenced by reformist Tatar and Azeri publications, notably _Terjümān_ , _Waqt_ (Orenburg), and _Eršād_ and _Ḥayāt_ (Baku), which circulated widely in Central Asia; but the Jadids of Tashkent, Bukhara, and other cities were eager to create outlets of their own for their ideas. The most striking characteristic of all their publications was their didactic contents and tone. They covered a great variety of subjects, but they concentrated on education and the ways of achieving social and economic progress (Jalolov and Ozganboev, pp. 60-82). Editors favored the informative and critical essay, which sometimes took up to a quarter of each issue and was almost always committed to a moral or social cause. In these newspapers, poets (Awlāni and Tawallā) and prose writers (ʿAyni, Behbudi, Čolpan, and Feṭrat) early on tested their ideas and honed their literary skills.

The first Jadid publications, in Turkic published in Tashkent, were short-lived. Among them was Qāri's _Ḵoršid_ (1906) and Awlāni's _Šohrat_ (1907), both of which were closed by government order after only ten issues each, because of their outspokenness. In 1912, after a four year absence of the Jadid press, reformers in Bukhara obtained the emir's permission, apparently through the intervention of the Russian agent, to publish a Tajik-language newspaper, _Buḵoroi šarif_ ( _Boḵārā-ye šarif_ ). It was a true organ of enlightenment, informing its readers about a wide range of topics, almost always in a didactic vein. It was also a staunch advocate of material progress, which it made dependent on the growth of literacy. Authors regularly dwelt on ways of developing industry and improving agriculture and irrigation and, especially, trade, which they thought essential if Bukhara's economy was to flourish and poverty be eliminated. Feṭrat was a frequent contributor. Along with admonitions to raise the general level of learning in the _madrasa_ s, he urged that more attention be paid to agriculture, specifically that farmers receive specialized instruction in their "trade" and that schools specializing in agricultural studies be established. Behbudi frequently wrote in praise of new-method schools, but underlying his expressions of hope for the future were nagging doubts about the ability of his fellow Muslims to take responsibility for their own destiny. He lamented the absence among them of "invigorating thought" and "Muslim science," and he feared that they were losing their creativeness (Gafarov, pp. 128-29). The editors of _Buḵoroi šarif_ , to promote their ideas among Uzbek-speakers, published _Turon_ ( _Turān_ ), at first as a supplement and then as a separate newspaper. Both papers, which appeared three times a week, were constantly beset by financial problems, because of the small number of subscribers. The emir closed both on 2 January 1913, because of their unrelenting criticism of conditions in the emirate.

Among other important Jadid periodicals was Behbudi's _Oina_ ( _Āyna_ ; 1913-15), which was published in Uzbek and Tajik. A clear voice of reform, it was noteworthy for Behbudi's commitment to sow enlightened ideas in every possible form; no branch of knowledge escaped his attention. _Sadoi Turkiston_ ( _Ṣadā-ye Torkestān_ ; 1914-17), highly influential among intellectuals, brought together as editors Qāri, Awlāni, Niāzi, and Čolpan and published on a wide range of subjects, including religious questions and events in Muslim countries (Jalolov and Ozganboev, pp. 82-113). _Sadoi Ferḡona_ ( _Ṣadā-ye Farḡāna_ ; 1914-1915) disseminated moderate Jadid views on political, commercial, and literary questions in Kokand and the Farḡāna Valley. The influence of Jadid newspapers was undoubtedly limited, because of the small number of subscribers and the hostility of the authorities. But they are indispensable for tracing the evolution of the Jadids' ideas on politics, society, and culture before 1917, and for explaining their creativity and their stands on important public issues in the 1920s and 1930s.

In their zeal to enlighten and to reform, the Jadids turned also to literature. They were eager to create a new prose and poetry to serve as yet another means of persuading a broader public to accept their vision of a modern society. Traditional literature struck them as unsuited to their times, because it placed entertainment and artistic formulas ahead of enlightenment and social and economic progress. They used new themes and new genres to criticize prevailing social, political, and moral evils, and their early works, especially, were full of earnestness and fervor. These changes were evident in poetry. While many poets remained faithful to the traditional metric system (see ʿARŪŻ), Feṭrat and Čolpan began to write in other styles, drawing on the spoken language and the prosody of Turkic folk poetry. Feṭrat's collection of poems, _Ṣayḥa_ "Outcry" (1912), and Awlāni's collections, _Adabiyot yoḵud milliy šeʿrlar_ ( _Adabiyāt yā ḵod melli šeʿrlar_ , 4 parts, 1909-16), displayed new forms and had as themes, besides the importance of learning and science, the urgent need for justice and liberty.

The most profound literary effects of Jadidism were felt in fiction. Two writers in particular, Qodiriy (Qāderi) and Čolpan, exemplified the Jadid approach to literature before 1917, but while they placed their talents in the service of social activism, they were also conscious of themselves as literary artists. Qāderi's short story, _Juvonboz_ ( _javānbāz_ "pederast:" 1915), purely Jadid in content, reveals the corruption and lack of freedom in Turkestan society. In two other stories of the same year, _Ulogda_ "At the goat game" and _Jinlar bazmi_ "The Jinni's party," he is clearly more concerned with literature as art than with the defects of the surrounding society. His attention to character, his descriptions of place, and his humorous approach to diverse situations, all amply on display here, assured his popularity as a novelist in the next two decades (Mirbaliev, pp. 46-56).

Čolpan began his literary career with the publication of his first two short stories, _Qurboni jaholat_ ( _Qorbān-e jahālat_ "The victim of ignorance"), and _Doḵtyr Muhammadyor_ ( _Doktor Moḥammadyār_ ) in 1914. Both betray his Jadidist sympathies and accord literature a social function. In the first story the young hero is made aware of the ignorance and depravity around him through his reading of the enlightened press, and he must wrestle with the ideas espoused by reformers and conservatives. In the second story, Čolpan portrays the quintessential Jadid of the time, D. Moḥammadyār, who is not satisfied merely to lament the backwardness and torpor that pervades his Turkestan, but assumes responsibility for reform. He establishes new schools and benevolent societies and publishes a daily newspaper and a weekly journal. Thus, he spreads knowledge and enlightens minds in order to arouse people to take the tasks of reform into their own hands. He is the archetype of the Jadid, because he combines the two main constituents of Jadidism. On the one hand, he thinks about life in modern terms, but, on the other, he remains true to the conservative family from which he comes, preserving the wholesome ethical values it taught him (Karimov, pp. 34-40). Čolpan himself is the Jadid par excellence, because he sees hope for the future in the commitment of the socially conscious, enlightened individual to change society. Yet, he is unlike many Jadids, too, because of his idea of the autonomy of art. He thought that form and language and style were as important as content, and he insisted that a writer must be creative and have imagination, if his literary work was to fulfill its purpose (Čolpan, pp. 35-37).

The theater offered the Jadids a unique opportunity to bring their ideas before a larger public. Building upon a popular theater tradition, the _masḵarabozlik_ ( _masḵara-bāzlik_ "buffoonery"), they wrote and produced some thirty plays in the modern, "European" style between 1911 and 1916. Almost all of them were social dramas with a clear message excoriating ignorance, religious fanaticism, and government oppression and corruption. Focused mainly on the shortcomings of the prevailing political and social order and brimming with solutions, all in accordance with the Jadid credo, these plays were deficient in character development, as both heroes and villains were there primarily as the bearers of ideas (Rizaev, pp. 101-34). Often at the end of the play, to make certain that the audience had grasped the message, one of the characters would summarize the author's ideas, sometimes at length. Yet despite, or perhaps because of, their didactic qualities, these Jadid dramas were immensely popular, and numerous companies of amateur actors, often composed of _madrasa_ students, were organized, beginning in 1914, to perform them in Samarkand, Tashkent, Kokand, and smaller towns. The Jadids used the proceeds from performances to support their favorite causes, notably the new-method schools.

Behbudi laid the foundations of the Jadid and the modern Turkestan theater with his play, _Padarkuš_ ( _Pedarkoš_ "The patricide"), a true literary manifesto of the Jadids, written in 1911 and performed in Samarkand in 1914. A great success, it became a staple of the Jadid repertoire. The plot revolves around a rich man and his son, who, denied an education, leads a dissolute life and, in the end, kills his father. He thus fulfils the prophecy of Intelligent, a Jadid-like figure serving as the author's spokesman, who points out that Muslims must become learned people in both secular and religious subjects, if they are to survive. Related to _Padarkuš_ in its emphasis on enlightenment is Ḥāji Moʿin Šokr-Allāh's _Eski maktab – yangi maktab_ (old school – new school; 1916). Critical of the existing state of education, it lauds a wealthy patron of new-method schools who understands why Central Asia must get in step with the modern world and its secular learning and industry, if it is ever to overcome poverty and suffering.

Harsher in their judgments of Turkestan society were Awlāni and Qāderi. Awlāni's _Advokatlik osonmi?_ "Is it easy to be a lawyer?" (1916) portrays poor and downtrodden petitioners who tell their stories to a lawyer in the desperate hope that he can rescue them from unscrupulous moneylenders and officials. In _Baḵtsiz kuyov_ "The unfortunate bridegroom" (1915), Qāderi condemns a corrupt financial system that drives a young bridegroom to suicide when he cannot repay a loan. Ḥamza, perhaps the most radical of all the Jadid playwrights, questioned the moral foundations of Turkestan society. In _Zaharli hayot_ "A poisioned life," (1915) he tells of two young people in love from different social classes, whose families forbid their marriage. When the parents of the girl promise her to an elderly rich man, she and her lover see no other way out than suicide. In their tragedy, Ḥamza says, they represent the enlightened who stand for social and gender equality; only people like them can save society from ignorance and sinister traditions (Rahmonov, 1959, pp. 100-117, 292-98).

As time passed, a new sense of community took form among the Jadids. They spoke often about _mellat_ (nation). Sometimes they applied the term to the Muslims of Central Asia and sometimes, more narrowly, to the Muslims of Turkestan. Thus, at first, ethnic identities were encompassed by the broader Muslim community. For example, the history taught in the new-method schools was of Islam, not of Turks and Turkestan, and the language was called _Musulmān tili_ (Muslim language). Many Jadids also used the term _waṭan_ , which traditionally had referred to one's birthplace, that is, a city or region, but increasingly after 1900 it designated a larger territory united by a common culture. In Čolpan's _Doḵtyr Muhammadyor_ and in the works of Awlāni and Ḥamza _waṭan_ meant "Turkestan." An ethnic differentiation was also present in the thought of many Jadids, as they identified the Muslims of Turkestan as Turks, thereby excluding the Tajiks. Although these new categories did not become explicit until after 1917, language was already becoming a distinctive mark of ethnicity. Turkic Jadids insisted that Turkic (Uzbek) alone was appropriate for their new-method schools because their pupils did not understand Persian, the traditional language of instruction.

The Jadids' sense of social community remained all-inclusive. They admitted the lower classes into the _mellat_ and accepted their own responsibility to improve the lot of the poor through education and other reforms, but they left no doubt that only the intellectuals, that is, they themselves, were capable of leading society on the road to progress.

The Jadids regarded women as members of the community, too, and they strove to improve their status in two areas in particular: education and marriage. They were united in urging equal opportunities for women to study, and Ḥamza in his novel, _Yangi saodat: melli roman_ "The new happiness: A national novel" (1915), emphasized the importance of a bride's good education. Although many hesitated to change existing marriage customs, Ḥāji Moʿin Šokr-Allāh in his play, _Maẓluma ḵāten_ "The oppressed woman" (1916), condemned polygyny, and Ḥamza in _Yangi saodat_ praised marriage based on the free choice of the bride and groom. Yet, on the whole, the Jadids took a conservative approach to women's issues.

The most consistent advocates of women's rights were women writers who shared Jadid principles, such as the Uzbek poetess Anbar Otin (Atun) (1870-1916). She was anxious to end the practice of arranged marriages between young girls and older men, and she urged the sending of more girls to the _maktab_ s and _madrasa_ s. Like the Jadids, she expressed warm feelings for the _waṭan_ (for her, the Farḡāna Valley) and welcomed the influence of Russian culture and education, but she condemned the effects of colonialism (Qodirova, pp. 21-25, 32-36, 38-50).

Islam, too, defined community for the Jadids, but it is difficult to discern the precise boundaries between their thought and religion. Many had a comprehensive knowledge of Islam, gained from study in the _madrasa_ , and they maintained contacts with the ulama. They were also convinced that religion was the moral and ethical foundation of society, and, thus, they retained it in the new-method schools. Yet, however important a place Islamic religion and culture had in their thought and writings, they showed little interest in purely theological debate, preferring instead to focus their attention on cultural reform. The majority were anti-clerical because, in the interest of intellectual and social progress, they wished to limit the influence of organized religion in public affairs, especially education.

In their discussions of community and identity the Jadids had to take into account the presence of Russia in Central Asia. Their attitude was ambivalent. On the one hand, they were not separatists; they wanted to take part in the political and economic renewal of the Russian Empire after 1905 and accepted Russia and its connection to Europe as a means of modernizing their own society (Khalid, pp. 217-18). Yet, they were determined to maintain their own identity, as their strivings for autonomy and their insistence on the cultivation of their own languages, not Russian, suggest. Some Jadids put matters bluntly. Feṭrat in the original Persian text of his _Monāẓara_ , published in Istanbul in 1911, expressed strong anti-colonial, anti-Russian feelings, which were omitted from the Uzbek version published by Ḥāji Šokr-Allāh in Tashkent in 1914.

The Russian Revolution of February and, more strongly, the Bolshevik Revolution of October 1917 forced the Jadids to make crucial decisions about their immediate and long-term goals and the means of achieving them. The most urgent tasks before them were political mobilization and alliances.

The Jadids were by no means novices in either organization or politics, even though before 1917 they had had to avoid open, coordinated confrontation with the emir and the Russian administration. They had formed an association in Bukhara in 1910, Tarbiyai atfol (Tarbiat-e aṭfāl) "The education of children," primarily to promote their educational reforms. It had twenty-eight members, fourteen of whom were mullahs, and it remained secret until its dissolution in April 1917, because the authorities treated the work of enlightenment as revolutionary. The association helped students in various ways, and since there was no new-method _madrasa_ in Bukhara, it undertook to send students to Orenburg, Kazan, Urfa, Istanbul, and Cairo (Gafarov, pp. 88-99). Its members also harbored long-term political goals, notably the transformation of the emirate into a modern state by transforming its fiscal system and combating corruption. These two directions, the cultural and the political, over time caused serious divergences within the association. A number of activists, led by Feṭrat, became impatient with its concentration on cultural matters and demanded economic and social reforms to improve the lives of the common people.

The years between 1917 and 1920 were marked by upheaval in Central Asia. They were decisive for the Jadids, as revolution changed the very character of their project; the era of classical Jadidism was at an end. In the previous decade they had acted as a small intellectual elite. Now they were forced to adjust their program and methods to the demands of mass political and social struggle, and they had not only to confront the emir and the conservative ulama, but also to maneuver among competing Russian political forces in Tashkent and other cities. As their involvement in the affairs of the new Russia deepened, political activism became the defining feature of Jadidism, and new men came to the fore. One of them was Fayzulla Khojaev, who renounced Jadidism in favor of revolutionary change (Alimova, 1997, pp. 37-47).

The Jadids welcomed the February Revolution as the beginning of a new era in the history of Central Asia. They pressed forward with educational reforms and founded newspapers, but in March they formed a new party, that of the Young Bukharans, as they came to be known, whose main goals were political. No longer satisfied to pursue change by private, cultural means, they recognized the advantages of using state power. They were thus eager to drive the emir from Bukhara and to replace him by a democratic order that would allow Muslims to be fully represented in administrative and legislative bodies. They wrung liberal decrees from an embattled emir, but when they challenged him with public demonstrations in Bukhara, he arrested large numbers and withdrew his reforms (ʿAyni, 1987, pp. 139-99). When in the spring and summer the Russian Provisional Government in Petrograd failed to support them, they turned elsewhere for allies.

Many Jadids associated themselves with the Bolsheviks after October 1917. Bolshevik promises of social and economic emancipation and, especially, their "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia" of 2 November made an enormous impression on the Young Bukharans. Typical of their endorsement of the Bolshevik Revolution was Čolpan's poem, _Qizil bayroq_ ( _Qezel bayrāq_ "The red flag;" 1918), which hailed it as the harbinger of "freedom" and "prosperity," and ʿAyni's _Marshi khurriyat_ ( _Mārš-e ḥorriyat_ "The freedom march;" 1918), based on La Marseillaise (the French national anthem composed during the French Revolution), which proclaimed the advent of "liberty" and "justice."

The link between the Young Bukharans and the Bolsheviks was tenuous from the start. The basis for their cooperation lay in the realization that they needed one another to achieve their respective goals. They agreed on getting rid of the emir and his regime, but whereas the Young Bukharans wanted autonomy and self-determination (A'zamkhojaev), as promised in the "Declaration of Rights," the Bolsheviks were intent on bringing Central Asia under their own control. The result was growing despair among some Young Bukharans, notably Behbudi and Awlāni, particularly after forces controlled by the Russian-dominated Tashkent Soviet, the center of power in Turkestan, crushed the Kokand Autonomy, the short-lived Muslim experiment in self-government from December 1917 to February 1918. Behbudi, who had hoped for the establishment of an autonomous Turkestan within a Russian federated republic, was thoroughly disillusioned, and Awlāni condemned the suppression of that autonomy in a series of poems published in the newspaper _Ishtirokiyun_ ( _Ešterākiyun_ "The Communists") in 1919. Other, more radical Young Bukharans, led by Fayzulla (Fayż-Allāh) Khojaev, who emerged as their political leader, and Feṭrat, continued to see in the Bolsheviks their main hope for the future. Thus, when the Bolsheviks founded the Communist Party of Turkestan in June 1918, many Young Bukharans, including Awlāni and Tawallā, became members.

Decisive for the Young Bukharan movement was the overthrow of the emir of Bukhara by the Red Army, which entered the city on 2 September 1920. Young Bukharans returned the following day and formed a revolutionary committee. It became the foundation of the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic with Khojaev as chairman of the Council of Ministers (Khodzhaev, pp. 163-94).

For many Young Bukharans the experience of managing the affairs of the new republic between 1920 and 1924 proved bitterly disappointing. They had entered office with high hopes of advancing enlightenment and creating new political and social institutions. True to their Jadid origins and guided by Feṭrat as minister of education, they immediately formulated ambitious plans to increase literacy and to establish colleges to train the teachers for their projected network of modern schools, but here and in other areas they accomplished little, in part because they lacked funds and skilled people. Nor did they have the support of the new Soviet leaders. Their supposed mentors were pursuing their own agenda for centralization and judged the Young Bukharans' strivings for self-determination as inimical to their purposes. Matters came to a head in 1923 when they dismissed most of the officials of the Bukharan Republic, including Feṭrat, in order to make way for a new political order in Central Asia.

Alongside these political struggles other changes of great consequence for the future of Central Asia were taking place within the Young Bukharan circle itself. Uzbek-Tajik bilingualism, one of the pillars of early Jadidism, was dissolving. It could not survive the growing national feeling and the burgeoning separate ethnic identities, all of which received added impetus from the Soviet state's division of Central Asia into ethnically based republics and its support for indigenous languages and literatures.

ʿAyni and Feṭrat had been leading representatives of the linguistic and literary ties that united Tajiks and Uzbeks, but after 1917 they became ardent promoters of separate cultures. Feṭrat, who had earlier used Persian almost exclusively, turned to Uzbek. He now spoke of Turkestan as the homeland of Turkic Muslims, and in 1918 he organized a circle, the Chaghatoy Gurungi, to promote Turkic self-consciousness and Turkic culture. For his part, ʿAyni, who grouped Tajik intellectuals around the weekly Communist newspaper, _Šuʿlai inqilob_ ( _Šoʿla-ye enqelāb_ "The flame of revolution"), published in Samarkand from 1919 to 1921, promoted a distinct Tajik literature and an awareness of the Tajiks' deep Iranian roots in Central Asia. He strove to make his prose more Tajik by using the vernacular and folk sayings and by avoiding the use of Uzbek words (Naby, pp. 150-52, 193). Yet, despite the enthusiasm of Uzbek and Tajik intellectuals for the new _mellat_ s (nations), relations between them remained cordial. At the same time they both bore witness to the passing of Persian as the lingua franca of Central Asian intellectual life and the introduction of Russian as its eventual replacement.

Many Young Bukharans, including ʿAyni, Qāderi, and Čolpan, turned away from political engagement to literature in the 1920s. In so doing, they laid the foundations of modern Uzbek and Tajik fiction. In the four novels ʿAyni wrote in the 1920s and 1930s, notably _Doḵunda_ (1930) and _Gulomon_ ( _Ḡolāmān_ "The Slaves;" 1934 in Uzbek; 1935, in Tajik), he was chiefly responsible for laying down the norms of the modern Tajik literary language; Qāderi experimented with new prose forms in his novels, _Utkan kunlar_ "Past days" (1922) and _Mehrobdan čayon_ "A scorpion from the mehrāb" (1929), and became the inspiration of later Uzbek novelists (Kleinmichel, pp. 201-59); and, like his colleagues, Čolpan in short fiction such as _Taraqqi_ "Progress" (1924), remained faithful to the Jadid tradition in his advocacy of education, the renewal of society, and the emancipation of women. The course of their literary careers, however, was far from smooth (Sharafiddinov). When Qāderi and Čolpan and other Young Bukharans challenged the prevailing Soviet literary theory that came to be known as socialist realism, they suffered the harsh criticism of proletarian critics for their "nationalist" and "bourgeois" ideas.

Literary controversy was merely a symptom of deeper rifts. The incompatibility between the Young Bukharans' aspirations and Stalin's Soviet regime widened on all fronts in the 1930s and assumed violent forms. Feṭrat, Qāderi, Čolpan, Tawallā, and even Khojaev were among those who perished in the Stalinist purges; ʿAyni, almost alone, survived. By 1939 the great Jadid generation had been largely wiped out. Soviet authorities tried for several decades afterward to expunge the memory of them, too, but a few writers, such as Qāderi, returned to print in the 1950s. Interest in the Jadids revived in the 1980s with 'perestroika' and then flourished after 1991.

10-THEME: ESTABLISHMENT OF SOVIET POWER IN TURKESTAN. POLICY OF THE SOVIETS IN THE SPHERE OF SOCIO-POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC LIFE OF UZBEKISTAN

Plan:

  1. Russian Empire. Soviet Uzbekistan

  2. **Cultural revolution**

  1. Russian Empire

As a result of an armed invasion of Russian troops in the 60-ies of the 19th century the Kokand Khanate was abolished and the Turkestan Governor-Generalship was established on July 11, 1867. The Emirate of Bukhara and the Khiva Khanate received the status of a protectorate.

Power was concentrated in the hands of the governor-general, who carried out all the military and civil administration.

The new government focused on the agricultural sector of Uzbekistan economy: it resulted in the cotton growth for the needs of Russian industry. Gin houses and cottonseed oil mills were built, mining operations began, the Trans-Caspian railway was built, which connected Central Asia with European part of Russia.

Soviet Uzbekistan

In the autumn of 1917 the Soviet power was proclaimed. Turkestan was granted the status of the Soviet Republic within the RSFSR. Nationalists, disagreed with this decision, went to the mountains, from where started a fierce guerrilla war for the sovereignty of their native land. From 1917 to 1921 in Central Asia there was a struggle between guerillas and troops of the Red Army, which ended with the victory of the Soviet Union. In 1924 five new republics within the USSR were established, including the Uzbek SSR, whish existed until 1991.

In the first years of the Soviet power in Uzbekistan many measures were directed to the liquidation of illiteracy and construction of schools. At the same time the traditional life style and culture were destroyed. In the 30-ies of the 20th century an active industrialization of Uzbekistan took place: large plants and fabrics of light and heavy industry were constructed, new cities were built near these plants, and old cities were reconstructed. During that period Uzbekistan suffered from Stalin's political repressions: among the victims there were leading politicians and cultural figures of Uzbekistan.

During the World War II of 1941-1945 the male population of the republics of the Soviet Union were taken to the front and the most important enterprises and people were evacuated to the republics of Central Asia, including Uzbekistan. During this period, Tashkent became a kind of evacuation center, which gave a shelter to refugees from the whole Soviet Union, and was called the City of Bread and the City of Friendship of Nations.

In 1966 a heavy earthquake in Tashkent destroyed the major part of the old city. In this connection the city was rebuilt in the Soviet style by the architects, coming from all over the USSR. In 1977 the Tashkent metro was put into operation. It was the first metro in Central Asia.

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# The transformation of Central Asia under Soviet power

Posted on October 31, 2017

There existed three Khanates before the Russian conquest, namely, Bukhara, Khiva and Kokand. (In the Central Asia of the 19th century, half of the area covered by present-day Turkmenistan, the whole of modern Uzbekistan, almost the whole of present-day Kirghizistan and the southern region of what is now Kazakhstan were occupied by the khanates of Khiva, Bukhara and Kokand).

Timeline:

June 1865 | Tashkent captured by General Charnayev

---|---

August 1866 | Tashkent declared part of Russia

1867 | Governor-Generalship of Turkestan established with its headquarters in Tashkent and General K P Kaufman appointed as the first Governor-General

April 1868 | General Kaufman storms Samarkand and imposes a Treaty on Bukhara which reduced the Khanate to the status of a vassal

1873 | Khiva overrun and its Khan forced to acknowledge that he was " _the humble servant of the Emperor of all Russians"_ and to renounce " _all direct and friendly relations existing with neighbouring rulers and khans"._

The subjugation of Khiva marked a new era in the history of Russian advance. The last semblance of organised resistance to the Russian onslaught disappeared and the tsar found himself the undisputed suzerain of the great Khanates.

While Turkestan was a tsarist colony, Khiva and Bukhara were only nominally independent but actually " _something like colonies_ " (Lenin, 'Speech on the attitude towards the provisional government' at First All-Russia Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, June 1917, CW Vol.25 p.27).

In 1916 the population of Russian Turkestan was 7.4 million, that of Bukhara 2,236,000 and of Khiva 640,000.

After the conquest Central Asia became a region for the export of raw materials, and Russia built 3,377 km of railways, with 14 repair workshops, to serve the raw material processing industry.

The introduction of railways marked the beginning of the end of economic seclusion of different regions inside Central Asia and also the end of isolation of the whole of Central Asia.

In Central Asia, numerically the industrial proletariat was very weak before the revolution. Even among the Uzbeks, where it was more numerous compared to its size among other peoples of Central Asia, it constituted an insignificant part of the entire population. There were:

12,702 Uzbek industrial workers

1,144 in Kazakhstan

242 Turkmen workers, and

206 Tajik workers.

The Central Asian economy before the revolution was characterised predominantly by feudal relations of production and autocratic rule – with a few shoots of capitalist development sprouting among it – the rise of new towns, railway construction, emergence of capitalist agriculture, light industries and intellectual awakening.

Health and education facilities were almost non-existent.

There were only 212 doctors, entirely confined to cities, in Turkestan, leaving people at the mercy of charlatans and quacks for treatment in case of illness.

In Turkestan in 1914-15 there were 335 state educational institutions attended by 31,492 students, but in 1899 there had been 11,964 mosques with 11,860 mullahs – with more than 8,000 receiving religious education in various types of religious school.

In Bukhara and Khiva, the situation was even worse. In 1920, there were 3,000 mosques and 877 madrassas in Khiva. The army of mullahs in Bukhara numbered 40,000.

Literacy was confined to a handful of khans, bais and mullahs and a very few peasants. Literacy among women was as good as absent.

The Kirghiz, Krakalpaks and Turkmens did not even have their own written language.

Literacy stood at 2% among the Uzbeks, 0.7% among the Turkmens, 0.5% among the Tajiks and 0.2% among the Kirghiz and Kalpaks.

**The uprising of 1916 and its significance**

The occasion for the uprising of 1916 was the Decree of 25 June 1916 concerning the mobilisation of the local population for work behind the front. In spite of the failure of the uprising, through cruel suppression, it played a significant role in the history of colonial peoples.

It turned from an anti-colonial into an anti-feudal movement. Beginning with spontaneous demonstrations against mobilisation, it grew into armed struggle. It did not aim at secession from Russia, but only at freedom from national-colonial oppression.

The mobilised workers and dehkans (poor peasants) who lived and worked in Russia became politically active under the influence of Russian Bolsheviks and on their return to Turkestan became the vanguard of the native masses in the period between the February and October revolutions when they took a leading role in organising the Soviets of toiling Muslims.

The uprising of 1916 taught the Central Asian people a great lesson. It convinced them that only with the help and guidance of the Russian proletariat, and only through socialist revolution, could they liberate themselves from national and colonial oppression, and the bourgeois intelligentsia, which up this point in time had been siding with, and acting as flunkeys of, tsarist imperialism, also opened their eyes.

Contact between the masses of Central Asia and the 'two Russias' – that of the oppressed and that of the exploiters, the Romanovs and Stolypins oppressing and exploiting both the native Asians and the Russian peoples – and the Russia of revolutionaries fighting against social and national oppression, not only Russian kulaks and traders but also Russian peasants and industrial workers, scientists, teachers, workers and revolutionaries, opened the eyes of the Central Asian masses and brought them closer to the democratic and revolutionary movement in Russia. And this drawing together of Central Asian toilers with the Great Russian people became all the more significant as Russia became the centre of the world revolutionary movement as the Russian working class, having formed its militant revolutionary party, became the vanguard of the international revolutionary movement. The rising tide of the revolution in Russia could not fail greatly to influence Central Asia. The progressive forces in Central Asia gave a call for a joint struggle with the Russian proletariat against feudal and colonial oppression.

The Russian proletariat doubtless played a leading role in the socialist revolution in Central Asia. It roused the class consciousness of the native workers and in forging an alliance with the dehkans who were gradually attempting to extricate themselves from the clutches of the feudal exploiters and the clergy and who had, since the close of the 19th century, begun to enter the arena of political struggle, albeit spontaneously and in an unorganised manner.

From the beginning of the 20th century, an alliance began to form between tsarism and the native bais and mullahs against the rapidly emerging alliance of the Russian proletariat and the native workers and dehkans.

Starting from the years 1905-07, the process of alienation of the local masses from the national bourgeoisie was completed at the time of the 1916 uprising.

The victory of the February Revolution opened up new prospects for the national liberation movement in colonial Tajikstan, where people had by this time become convinced that they could achieve their liberation from national and colonial oppression and exploitation only with the help of the Russian proletariat. And they began to organise political activity, through the appearance on the stage of a number of class organisations – Soviets, committees and units of local working people.

Soviets of local toilers began to emerge towards the end of May and the beginning of June 1917. Organisationally the Russian proletariat also lent great assistance.

By the time of the October Revolution, the masses of Central Asia, consequent upon the growth of class contradictions, lost whatever little confidence they had in the reactionary organisations formed by native exploiters. Thus a revolutionary situation had fully developed and the crisis fully matured – leading to the outbreak of socialist revolution in Central Asia.

**Establishment of Soviet power**

In one of its first Decrees – the Decree on Peace – the Soviet government proclaimed the right of national self-determination as one of the basic principles of its foreign policy. It demanded the establishment of a just and democratic peace on the basis of equality of rights of all peoples and nations. It condemned all annexations of foreign land.

" _In accordance with the sense of justice of democrats in general, and of the working class in particular, the government conceives the annexation or seizure of foreign lands to mean every incorporation of a small or weak nation into large or powerful state without the precisely, clearly, and voluntarily expressed consent and wish of that nation, irrespective of the time when such forcible incorporation took place, irrespective also of the degree of development or backwardness of the nation forcibly annexed to the given state, or forcibly retained within its borders, and irrespective, finally, of whether this nation is in Europe or in distant, overseas countries_ " (Lenin, 'Report on Peace' to the Second All-Russia Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' deputes, 8 November 1917, CW Vol.26, p.250).

The right to self-determination was also included in the Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People as a principle of national development in the Soviet state. It laid down the following principles as the basis of its national policy:

• _Equality and sovereignty of the peoples of Russia_

• _Right of the peoples of Russia to self-determination up to secession and the establishment of independent states._

• _Annulment of all national and religious privileges and restrictions._

• _Free development of the national minorities and ethno-graphic groups inhabiting the territory of Russia._ (Lenin, CW Vol.26 pp.14-15).

This Declaration became the basis for the setting up of the Soviet state on a federative basis " _on the principle of a free union of free nations, as a federation of Soviet national republics"._

These measures of the Soviet Republic pointed out to the oppressed peoples everywhere the true path to their liberation and roused their revolutionary consciousness.

The formation of the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was the first step towards the founding of national states by the peoples of Central Asia; it was an event of world-historic importance.

The bourgeois nationalists came out openly against Soviet power towards the close of November 1917, convening in Kokand the so-called Regional Muslim Congress on 27 November and electing a Provisional Council of Turkestan consisting of 54 members, a third of whom were representatives of the Russian bourgeoisie.

The Kokand autonomy was not a national movement of Muslims against Russia as it was made out to be by some writers. It was in fact an expression of class struggle between the Muslim propertied classes in alliance with the Russian bourgeoisie and foreign imperialists, on the one hand, and the Russian proletariat supported by the Muslim working masses on the other. In other words, a struggle between the counter-revolutionary and revolutionary forces in Turkestan.

Owen Lattimore was correct when he summed up as follows: " _As the revolution deepened from a political struggle into a class war, the lines of cleavage more and more grouped together the possessors, Russian and non-Russian, fighting to preserve at least something of the old order, and the dispossessed, Russian and non-Russian, trying to take complete possession of the new order"_ ( _Pivot of Asia,_ Little Brown, Boston, 1950, p.204).

The bourgeois nationalists had no coherent programme on the national question. Their alliance was a mixture of Pan-Islamists, who claimed all the Muslims of Russia to be a single nation and denied the existence of class differences among the Muslims, and Pan-Turkish who, representing the interests of the Tatar bourgeoisie, desired to established its class hegemony over all Muslims of Russia belonging to the Turkish linguistic group.

The Kokand 'government' launched on the night of January 30-31, 1918, an attack on Soviet power in Turkestan. Red Guards launched a counter-offensive on 19 February 1918 and by 22 February the Kokand 'government' was suppressed.

**KHIVA**

Following the victory of the October Revolution, Khiva (currently a cultural gem in Uzbekistan) ceased to be a colony and its people were fully assured of the sympathy and support of the Soviet government for their struggle against the despotic rule of the Khan. Under the conditions of mass struggle arose the nucleus of the Communist Party of Khiva which began to organise and lead the people against the despotism of the Khan.

The Soviet government had, at the very outset, declared that it recognised the independence and sovereignty of Khiva under its Khan. But the reactionaries of Khiva, filled with blind hatred of Soviet power, crossed over to the imperialist camp and Khiva became an anti-Soviet counter-revolutionary centre in Central Asia, to where White Guards, Mensheviks, Social Revolutionaries, bourgeois nationalists and other counter-revolutionaries flocked. The Khiva counter-revolutionaries were in regular contact with the underground anti-Soviet organisation in Tashkent called the Turkestan Military Organisation, founded through the active participation of the American Consul, the French agent Castagne and the British Colonel Bailey.

After failing in his attempts to overwhelm Soviet territory, Junaid Khan (the Khivan despot) approached the Soviet government in April 1919 and sued for peace, resulting in the agreement of 19 April 1919 according to which Junaid Khan was not to indulge in any armed action against the RSFSR.

This agreement was, however, not observed by Khiva. Under the leadership of the Khivan communists, armed uprisings took place in a number of Khivan towns. The Soviet government, at the request of the people of Khiva, decided to aid the struggle against the White Guards. The Soviet army entered the territory of Khiva on 22 December 1919. On 2 February 2020, the Revolution in Khiva was victorious and the rule of the Khan was overthrown.

The First All Khwarezm Assembly of People's Representatives met in April 1920 and declared the former Khanate of Khiva the Khwarezm Soviet People's Republic.

**BUKHARA**

Like Khiva, Bukhara (another Uzbek city of outstanding architectural beauty) was ruled by feudal despotism and was a protectorate of Tsarist Russia. The Muslim priesthood was extremely influential in Bukhara. Some 20,000 students studied in the maktabs and madrasahs. The Emir of Bukhara, in alliance with British imperialism, mobilising an army of 50,000 in August 1920 issued a fatwa for a holy war against the Bolsheviks. The Communist Party of Bukhara, formed in September 1918, in its programme called for the liquidation of the Emirate and its replacement with a People's Republic.

At the invitation of the Communist Party of Bukhara, Soviet forces under Mikhail Frunze came to assist in the people's liberation. After heavy fighting, Bukhara, the citadel of despotism, was taken by Soviet forces on 6 September 1920. On 5 October 1920, the First Kurultai (Congress of People's Representatives) met in Bukhara and proclaimed a Soviet People's Republic.

By the end of 1922, the main bands of counter-revolutionary basmachi had been defeated. From 1923 began the period of peaceful reconstruction in these republics. Much success was achieved in the work of organising trade unions, peasants' unions and youth leagues. The popular masses were increasingly attracted to socialist development. The positive experience of socialist construction in adjacent Turkestan ASSR convinced the people in Khiva and Bukhara of the need to take the same path for their own republics also.

The complex process of Sovietisation and socialist reconstruction in Bukhara and Khwarezm and their economic development, as also the further development of Turkestan ASSR, was closely connected with the economic unification of the Soviet Republics in Central Asia. A decision was taken at an Economic Conference of the Soviet Asian Republics in Tashkent to coordinate economic activities of the three republics on the basis of a unified economic policy and a common economic plan. This decision facilitated the task of transition to socialism by Bukhara and Khwarezm.

But in both these republics their internal socio-political base alone was not sufficient for such a transformation. This transformation could not have been accomplished without close economic, cultural and political collaboration with the USSR, without the unity of the people of these republics with the working class and peasantry of the USSR, whose socialist industries and working class formed the necessary external base.

In October 1923, the Fourth All-Khwarezm Kurultai adopted a new constitution and proclaimed its transformation into a Soviet Socialist Republic.

In September 1924, the Fifth All Bukhara Kurultai proclaimed the Soviet Socialist Republic of Bukhara.

Their peculiar geographic location and historical context obviated for them the need to pass through a capitalist stage of social development. The alliance of their peasantry with the Russian proletariat made good the deficiency of the indigenous working class.

1924 witnessed national liberation carried out in Central Asia with the formation of:

• the **Uzbek SSR** and the **Turkmen SSR** (Union Republics which entered the USSR)

• **Tajik** – an autonomous republic within the Uzbek SSR

• **Kazakh** – areas became united in what was the called the Kirghiz autonomous SSR within the RSFSR.

This delimitation took into account the composition of the population, economic and ethnic distinctions, and geographical conditions.

" _As a result of the national delimitation a number of nationally homogeneous states appeared in Central Asia in place of the former three multinational states. This helped in resolving the complex national tangle which considerably hindered the process of their socialist development. The old demarcation of political and administrative frontiers was solely a product of military, strategic and political exigencies of the time of Tsarist conquest. As such it only aggravated the national problem. The old frontiers cut across the ethnographic distribution of peoples of Central Asia and were utilised by the old regimes of Turkestan, Bukhara and Khiva to preserve their power by playing one national group against the other. The national delimitation changed the situation removing thus the very base of national antagonism on which bourgeois nationalists always sought to thrive"_ (Devendra Kaushik, _Central Asia in Modern Times,_ Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1970, p.212).

**Socialist Industrialisation**

The industrialisation drive in Central Asia started in 1926-27. The centre's contribution formed a major part of the investment under the First Five-Year Plan, which was characterised by an impressive development of power production, machine building and metal industries. The Plan was successfully accomplished in the Central Asian Republics. The rate of industrial development during the Plan was faster there than in the central regions of Russia – 3.5 times as opposed to 2 times in the central regions.

The Second Plan had the object of liquidating all exploiting classes and establishing socialism. At the end of it, industrial production in the USSR rose 8 times as compared to 1913 and 4.3 times as compared to 1929. By way of contrast, the average production of capitalist countries in 1937 was 102.5% of their production in 1929, and in 1938 had fallen to 90%.

With socialist industrialisation, the gap in the level of development of the central regions of Russia and Central Asia was to a very large extent equalised and on this basis the national question was satisfactorily solved.

While the increase in the value of industrial production for the whole of the USSR for the Second Plan period was 220.6% for the RSFSR, it was 243.0% for the Uzbek SSR and 355.7% for Tajikstan.

The capital investment rate was higher in Central Asia than in Russia.

The growth in the number of workers in big industries in Central Asian Republics was 59.5% in comparison to an increase of 22.2% in the central regions between 1932-37.

Over a period of just 3 decades, the relative share of cattle in agricultural power fell from 60-70% to almost zero in 1963, out of 13.5 m horse-power of energy in use in agriculture, only 200,000 horse-power was produced by draught animals.

In 1963, there were 130,000 tractors working on the fields in the Soviet Republics of Central Asia.

Industrial production in the USSR accounted for 80%, while agricultural production accounted for 20%. These ratios were not very different from those in central Asia.

By 1961, Soviet Central Asia, with a population of only 15m contributed 0.7% of the entire world's industrial output, as compared to India which, with 19% of the global population, contributed only 1.2%.

Between 1913 and 1959 the gross industrial output of Uzbekistan increased 18 times, of Turkmenistan 21 times and Tajikstan 35 times.

" _Between 1913 and 1959 gross industrial output in Uzbekistan increased 18 times, in Turkmenia 21 times, in Tajikstan 35 times and in Kirghizia 55 times. Central Asian industries now produced steel, rolled metal, non-ferrous metals, mineral fertilisers, metal-cutting lathes, cotton combines and tractors, excavators, oil and electrical engineering equipment, cotton, woollen and silk fabrics, footwear, clothes, tinned food, glass, cement, prefabricated ferro-concrete structures, etc. Central Asia now exports industrial goods not only to other Soviet republics but abroad as well. Automation and telemechanics are widely employed in its industrial enterprises, power stations and oil fields._

_"In the meantime industry continues to develop apace. The industry of Soviet Uzbekistan has fulfilled the Seven Year Plan (1959-65) ahead of schedule. Today 69 countries of the world import Uzbek industrial goods – textile and agricultural machinery, chemical and mining equipment, excavators, compressor stations and electrical equipment"_ ( _ibid.,_ pp. 230-231).

**Transformation of agriculture**

The basic problem of the Central Asian countryside was the question of transforming a technically backward, small and partially patriarchal and natural peasant economy into a large-scale mechanised collective socialist economy, bypassing the stage of large-scale capitalist farming based on the exploitation of farm labourers.

The socialist construction in the countryside of Central Asia went through three phases:

1. Preparing for transition to the socialist path (1920-29);

2. Mass collectivisation of agriculture (from the autumn of 1929 to the mid-1930s);

3. Consolidation and development of the collective-farm system (from the mid-1930s onwards).

In the preparatory period, land and water reform were carried out; irrigation facilities made available; peasants were supplied with modern implements and introduced to new agrotechnical methods, and supplied with easy credits by the state to make possible these improvements.

In the early 1920s the Soviet government distributed the private estates of the Russian tsar, the Khan and the Emir, big counter-revolutionary feudal landowners and the rich Russian settlers among the Central Asian peasantry. All the same, in comparison with Russia, agrarian reform proceeded slowly in Central Asia owing to the political backwardness of the peasantry. Only in 1925-27, when the Peasants' Union Kishchi – the mass organisation of the poor and middle peasants – and the rural Soviets had gained in strength, when Party organisations had made their presence felt in the countryside, and the peasants' consciousness had registered a rise, that a land and water reform was carried out and kulaks dispossessed of part of their land, making it possible to distribute 350,000 hectares of irrigated land among some 140,000 landless and poor peasants.

Be it noted that all these measures were carried out in the teeth of bitter opposition on the part of the kulaks, money-lenders and other rural leeches. Realising that the measures taken by the Soviet government were depriving them of their instruments of exploitation, they undertook a violent campaign against Soviet power, formed armed bands, murdered many a Soviet functionary and village activist. This intensification of class struggle only served to broaden the peasants' political activity. The working peasant also rallied to the support of the Soviet government.

The peasantry of Asia was shown the way to gradual cooperative life through rural cooperatives – from the simplest consumers' cooperatives, through credit and marketing cooperatives to the higher form of producers' cooperatives, viz., the collective farms. The urban proletariat of the USSR provided great assistance to the peasants in the matter of collectivisation. At the height of collectivisation, large numbers of workers with adequate organisational and political experience, not to say technical and other expertise, were directed by the Soviet authorities to the countryside to help the peasantry. Industrial enterprises in Leningrad, Moscow and other industrial centres took various rural areas under their patronage, signed socialist emulation agreements with the peasants and floated funds to help the newly-organised collective farms with agricultural machines, etc.

Mass collectivisation met with fierce resistance by the hostile classes, who went around persuading the peasants to boycott collectivisation, to slaughter their cattle and flee, resulting in the destruction of a vast number of animals. Armed counter-revolutionary bands stepped up their activity, raiding peaceful villages in an effort to terrorise the peasants. However, all this was to no avail as the mass of the peasantry supported the drive to collectivise agriculture as the only means to prosperity and a cultured life.

The second half of 1929 marked the beginning of a mass movement for collectivisation in Central Asia, as indeed in the rest of the Soviet Union. After some initial hiccups and distortion by local officials of the Party's line on collectivisation was put right, through directives from the centre and the reorganisation of Party and Soviet work in the villages, the founding of Party units in state farms, collective farms and machine-and-tractor stations, there was a dramatic increase in the size and scope of the collectivisation movement, in which the machine-and-tractor stations played a crucial role. In 1931 there were 2,330 tractors working in these stations in Uzbekistan alone. By March 1931, nearly 48% of the peasants had joined the collectives; this number increased 56.7% by May 1931. By 1937, of all the peasant families, 95% had united in collective farms, which covered 99.4% of the entire land cultivated by peasants in Uzbekistan. The socialist form of production thus became the dominant form in the agriculture of Uzbekistan.

Great progress was accomplished in the mechanisation of agriculture during the first two Five-Year Plans. In Uzbekistan in 1937, there were 163 machine-and-tractor stations with 18,267 tractors, which served 94% of all collective farms by the end of the Second Plan. With these developments there was a tremendous increase in the productivity of labour and yield of cotton per hectare rose from 9.6 centners (480 kg) in 1925 to 16.1 centners (805 kg) in 1937.

Similarly, in the other republics of Central Asia, the collectivisation of agriculture had been completed by the end of the Second Five-Year Plan.

Consequent upon socialist industrialisation and collectivisation of agriculture, socialism became victorious in the whole of the USSR, including its Central Asian Republics, by the end of the Second Plan. This was of world-historic importance for the solution of the national question in the USSR. During a very brief period of two decades, the erstwhile oppressed and backward peoples of Central Asia, who joined the Soviet family of nations following the October Revolution, completely changed their socio-economic and cultural relations, thus achieving not merely formal legal equality but also real economic equality.

Before the Revolution Central Asia had about 1.5 million individual peasant farms with the most primitive ploughs. Lack of land, low yields and cruel exploitation doomed the overwhelming majority of the peasants to a life of grinding poverty and cultural backwardness. Collectivisation changed the face of rural life and helped dramatically to improve the living standards in the countryside, making poverty a thing of the past. Instead of the old dilapidated mud hovels, the farmers now lived in well-built modern houses, surrounded by public services and modern amenities. The collective farms were adorned with schools, clubs, dispensaries, maternity homes, nurseries, radio relay stations, electric street lighting – with many farms having their own stadiums and cinemas.

Collective farmers' homes often possessed consumer durables, which would have been completely out of reach in the old pre-collectivisation days.

The Soviet government, on the basis of the growing might of Soviet industry, supplied the Central Asian collective farms with the latest agricultural machines. In Uzbekistan alone, the number of tractors increased from 23,600 in 1940 to 69,300 in 1959. By 1961, the number of tractors in Central Asia totalled 127,800. In addition a large number of combines, excavators, bulldozers, aeroplanes and helicopters were generously supplied to the collective and state farms by the powerful socialist industry of the Soviet Union.

A whole army of agronomists and veterinary doctors served Central Asia's agriculture – 16,000 specialists with higher education and more than 22,000 specialists with secondary special education. Most of them were of local nationalities.

  2. **Cultural revolution**

The tasks of the cultural revolution were inextricably linked with industrialisation and collectivisation as mass illiteracy and ignorance are a formidable hindrance to economic progress. This revolution in the cultural sphere implied the liquidation of illiteracy among adults, introduction of compulsory education for children, creation of a modern public health system, scientific and technological development, promotion of arts, creation of a national intelligentsia, emancipation of women and building of a new cultural life.

Mass literacy is the bedrock of culture, for a person unable to read and write is not capable of operating complex modern machinery or appraise socio-political developments. Hence the drive for adult literacy and for children's education was crucial to the success of the cultural revolution – not an easy task in a thoroughly backward Central Asia where the percentage of literacy was under 2%.

For many centuries the broad masses in Central Asia had no access to knowledge. The literacy rate in tsarist Russia barely passed 28%, while among the Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Turkmenians and Kirghiz, it ranged from an abysmal 0.5% to 2%. Natives were forbidden to study in their own languages, with their access to schools strictly limited. No written language existed for dozens of nationalities and ethnic groups.

After the October Revolution, the Soviet government established a system of public education which provided for universal and free schooling for all children. The school was separated from the church, and all private schools were closed. The right to conduct instruction in the native language of the peoples was established for all nationalities. For the first time alphabets were developed for some ethnic groups where none had existed previously.

Schools and literacy courses for adults were set up. What is more, cultural advance in Central Asia became a veritable arena of class struggle, as the reactionary mullahs and bourgeois nationalists opposed tooth and nail all cultural advance and new Soviet schools, especially for the girls. Many a cultural worker fell victim to religious fanaticism.

The decisive stage in this revolution began in 1929-30. In just two years, more than a million people in Central Asia, mainly peasants, were taught to read.

The case of Turkmenia is illustrative of the education drive in Central Asia where in 1937 about half a million people were attending schools from a population slightly over 1.2 million.

The literacy rate in Turkmenia had already reached 77.7%, while in Kazakhstan it had reached 83.6% (see Leon Emin, _Muslims in the USSR,_ Novosti Press Agency Publishing House, Moscow, 1986).

At the invitation of VOKS – the Soviet Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries – a British delegation visited the Soviet Union in 1951. Among other places, it visited Tashkent (Uzbekistan). One of its members, S M Manton FRS, an internationally renowned scientist, recorded her impressions in _The Soviet Union Today,_ a book she published in 1952 (Lawrence and Wishart, London).

Writing about Uzbekistan, she noted that before Soviet rule, only 1.6% of the population were literate _._ And yet, a very high level of culture had been attained by its people in so short a period of time, thanks to the Soviet system.

Up to 1918, no general education existed in Uzbekistan; there was no higher or pre-school education, and no technical education.

By 1924, a new national state and government had been created which was the greatest event in the life of Uzbek people, laying the basis for a freedom and for a development of education, economy and culture never before experienced.

By 1924, the pre-Revolution schools were closed and 917 schools had been built and equipped and their teachers trained in the face of stiff opposition from the Islamic clergy, an opposition which resulted even in the murder of a distinguished Uzbek writer.

Expansion was rapid. The initial 75,000 schoolchildren had risen to 166,000 in 1929, with 2,710 schools in operation, and to 1.3 million children in 1950, served by 5,000 schools.

There was compulsory attendance of 7-year schools everywhere, and ten-year schools in larger towns.

Illiteracy, except among some older people, had disappeared.

In 70% of the schools and in the universities, the Uzbek language was spoken, while in the remaining 30% of the schools the teaching was in Russian.

People of all races and nationalities were educated together in a spirit of unbreakable friendship among nations, with no racial or national prejudice. And it was Uzbeks, not Russians, who occupied positions of authority.

**HIGHER EDUCATION**

Ms Manton says that in 1918 Lenin issued an order for the creation of a Middle Asian State University of Turkestan, as the area was called – subsequently it was divided up ethnographically into the five republics of which Uzbekistan was the most important, though not the largest.

The universities at Tashkent and Samarkand played the greatest part in the development of the republic. In turn, they established 36 other institutes of higher education, 17 teacher-training establishments, as well as polytechnics, institutes of medicine, agriculture, law, economics, fine art, and the Academy of Sciences, with its affiliated research institutions by 1952 – no mean achievement in so short a time. " _The standard of the education work carried out by these institutes is in no way inferior to that in other parts of the world"_ (p.74).

In 1950, the higher educational institutions catered for 32,000 students.

This progress continued in subsequent years. While not a single institution of higher learning existed in the whole of Central Asia before the revolution, by 1959-60 nearly 211,000 students were enrolled in higher education establishments, besides 176,000 studying in technical and other special schools.

Ms Manton presents this picture of the importance attached by the Soviet state to the development of dramatic and operatic arts in Central Asia as well as elsewhere in the USSR:

" _Before the revolution Uzbekistan possessed no theatres, and the Islamic religion prevented artists from portraying the human form. By 1946 thirty-seven theatres and 564 cinemas were in operation, and in 1951 the people of Tashkent possessed seven major theatres, besides those owned by industries, which present full translations of the great plays of all nations, ballet and opera, as well as modern products of local writers. An advertisement for Othello caught our eyes as we drove about the town. All qualified actors draw their State-paid salary with no anxieties concerning their future, and a growing and enthusiastic demand for their work keeps the standard high. Little did I expect to find in this Central Asian town a performance of Madame Butterfly which had nothing to learn from anything which I have seen in England._

_"Opera house_

_"The building of a new opera house in Tashkent was started in 1938, but interrupted by the war. Uzbekistan had thrown her whole weight into the war drive as her limbless men showed, but in 1943 when the German armies were thrown reeling back from Stalingrad, the building was resumed and completed by 1946. The Uzbeks did not wait for the end of the war to continue their masterpiece of modern architecture with its immense areas of hand carving and eastern designs. Theirs is the same spirit found among the Stalingraders, who have completed their theatre, circus, palaces of culture and teaching institutions before a sufficiency of flats and houses could liberate the many unfortunates who have lived up to the summer of 1951 in dug-outs and patched-up cellars. The same spirit seems to prevail among all races of the Soviet Union"_ (p.68).

The successes achieved in public education in the Thirties were reflected in the proliferation of newspapers, magazines and books in national languages.

In 1962:

• 4,138 different books were published, running into editions of 39 million copies.

• 261 journals and other periodicals with a circulation of 29.3 million were published in Central Asia

• Central Asia had 41 theatres, 29 museums, 6,801 large libraries, 4,809 cinemas and 6,000 different clubs, as well as 47 higher education institutions.

Emancipation of women added greatly to these developments in the cultural sphere, to which we devote the following few paragraphs:

**Emancipation of women**

One of the most significant achievements of the October Revolution was the emancipation of women throughout Russia. Equally, a remarkable feature of the cultural revolution in Central Asia in the wake of the establishment of Soviet power was the liberation of Central Asian women. In the very first months following the October Revolution, the Soviet government abrogated all the old laws that humiliated and demeaned women and that denied them equality of status with men. The feudal concept of treating women as inferior to men was particularly deep-rooted in Central Asia. Something more than the adoption of new laws was needed to effect the genuine emancipation of women.

For such emancipation it was necessary, first, to make women politically conscious and convince them that they were the equal of men in all spheres of public life; secondly, to overcome men's age-old arrogant attitude towards women; and, thirdly, and most importantly, to draw women into social production and public life through the provision of facilities that made it possible to do so. Be it said to the credit of the Soviet authorities that they succeeded in this goal so remarkably that they made women in the capitalist world look upon Soviet women with envy.

Here is a brief summary of what Ms Manton recorded in her book with regard to women in Uzbekistan, who went to school for the first time following the October Revolution. In 1927-28 girls accounted for 26% of school children; by 1940-41, they accounted for 44%.

Women gave up the veil in the face of opposition from conservative folk. They began to enjoy equality of status with men. Turbans went the same way as women's veils.

Resultant upon these changes was an enormous increase in the available supply of labour as women were given every assistance through the provision of crèches, kindergartens, polytechnics and feeding facilities at farm and factory. Besides those at the collective farms, 1,000 kindergartens had been established by 1951.

Ms Manton and her delegation visited the Stalin Cotton Mill in Tashkent. She says that the production techniques there were of the highest order and the factory was equipped with modern apartment houses, a departmental store a kindergarten, a canteen for meals, with a varied menu at low prices, a polyclinic, two cinemas and a " _palace of culture"_ with complete amenities.

The Palace of Culture included a theatre for amateur dramatics, with 800 seats and 40 other rooms ministering to cultural needs.

No wonder, then, that there prevailed a spirit of enthusiasm and determination at the factory (and other work places) which helped in the fulfilment and over-fulfilment of the Five-Year Plans.

" _The women of Uzbekistan, no longer confined to harems and subject only to the will of their menfolk as slaves with no rights, play a great part in the productivity of the State. Seventy per cent of the workers in factories of light industry are women, as are 20 per cent of the railway employees. Some women drive trains, 1,700 have mastered various railway techniques, and there are 100 women chairmen of collective farms. In the Stalin cotton factory the chief engineer ad the deputy director were women, and many women were Stakhanovite workers, habitually accomplishing more than the accepted norm."_ (p.79).

And what was true of Uzbekistan was equally true of the other Central Asian Republics.

**Soviet successes**

On the eve of the October Revolution, the peoples of Central Asia were oppressed and cruelly exploited, both by tsarism and by local exploiters – feudal lords, clergy, traders and money lenders, who incited the Central Asian peoples against each other in order to divide them and keep them in submission.

The Bolsheviks proclaimed the liberation of the oppressed people not merely on paper, as the bourgeoisie has often done, but in practice:

" _To the old world",_ Lenin wrote, " _the world of national oppression, national bickering, and national isolation, the workers counterpose a new world, a world of the unity of the working people of all nations, a world in which there is no place for any privileges or for the slightest degree of oppression of man by man"_ ('The working class and the national question', CW vol.19, p.92).

The nationalities policy of the socialist state was founded on the Leninist principle of " _a voluntary union of nations – a union which precludes any coercion of one nation by another – a union founded on complete confidence, on a clear recognition of brotherly unity, on absolutely voluntary consent"_ (Lenin, 'Letter to workers and peasants of Ukraine, CW vol.30, p.293).

As a result, the formerly oppressed peoples of the one-time colony of Central Asia began, after the establishment of Soviet power, to develop their national states. A hundred equal nations and nationalities lived in friendly relations with each other in Soviet Central Asia. Fraternal solidarity, mutual assistance and fruitful cooperation facilitated by the socialist system of economy and advanced forms of socialist production were the hallmarks of their life.

The best national traditions of each people were enriched by a new socialist content and were harmoniously combined with internationalist traits and traditions of the entire Soviet people.

Khan's palace, Kokand

To begin with, imperialist propagandists, and their flunkeys of Central Asian origin, such as Mustafa Chokayev, former head of the so-called Kokand Autonomous government of Turkestan, insisted that no economic or cultural progress could be made by the peoples of Central Asia under Soviet rule. But Soviet reality belied these assertions, in view of which such a diehard anti-Soviet writer as Colonel Geoffrey Wheeler (retired), ex-chief at the time of the Central Asian Research Centre, the permanent editor of the _Central Asian Review_ magazine, and an author of several books on Central Asia, was compelled to admit that:

" _As regards their_ [Central Asian peoples] _material condition there can be no doubt that during the forty years which have elapsed since the formation of the Muslim republics in Central Asia there has been a remarkable advance in public health, industrial productivity, cotton output, communications and the standard of living. In all these matters the Muslim peoples of Soviet Central Asia are far ahead of those of any non-Soviet Muslim country and indeed of any Asian country with the exception of Japan and Israel"._ Reluctantly admitting that there is national equality in the USSR, Wheeler wrote that the Muslims of Central Asia " _have good reason to be satisfied with their present material condition"_ and that they accept the existing system of political arrangement (see G Wheeler, 'Soviet Central Asia', _The Muslim World,_ October 1966, no.4, pp. 240-41).

**Imperialist response**

However, the success of the Soviet Union in solving the national question, far from pacifying Soviet critics, only angered them to distraction. What they have always been interested in is not the economic, social and cultural advance of the people, the fraternal harmony among the various nationalities, but only the undermining of the Soviet system.

The liberation by the Russian proletariat of the former colonial slaves of tsarism could not fail to shine a light on the plight of the colonial people elsewhere, who looked upon the developments in Central Asia as a shining example to follow. The greater the successes of the people of Central Asia in achieving equality and economic advance, the more these developments undermined the grip of various imperialist powers over their colonies – a fact recognised even by the _The Spectator,_ a magazine which by no stretch of the imagination can be characterised as progressive. In an article written in connection with the 50th anniversary of the October Revolution, it was obliged to state:

" _... the real impact of the Russian Revolution on the outside world began to be felt only when decolonisation and the 'modernisation' of Afro-Asia got under way. How was one to modernise?... After 1917 the new generation of colonial revolutionaries... began to see Russia as their future model"_ (3 November, 1967, p.527).

The realisation of this reality made the imperialist powers even more frantic in their efforts to undermine Soviet power. In the changed conditions, imperialism decided on a policy of using the national question as an instrument and battering ram for attacking the Soviet system and weakening the unity of its peoples. Suddenly the sworn enemies of the self-determination of peoples decided to pose as staunch champions of self-determination of the peoples of Central Asia. Colonel Wheeler candidly admitted:

" _Since, however, all the countries of the Western bloc regard the Soviet Union as a potential enemy, they are interested in the possibility of nationalism inside the Soviet Union... because they... think that widespread nationalist outbreaks would bring strategic and economic embarrassment to the USSR_ ( _op.cit.,_ pp 148-9).

Hence the hurling with gay abandon of the accusations of 'Russification', 'Sovietisation' and 'assimilation', to lament the alleged lack of freedom to worship Islam and 'restriction' of the rights of Muslims, attempts at defaming the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Communist Parties of the Union Republics, accusations of 'Soviet colonialism' and the allegation that the constitutional right of the Central Asian republics to self-determination and to secede was merely 'illusory', being obviously of the view that this right would be real only if it was exercised in favour of secession rather than unity.

**Who were these critics and falsifiers of Soviet policy?**

The answer: who benefits?

The principal reason was the mounting prestige, the growing might, and increasing influence, of the socialist Soviet Union all over the world.

Having spent billions of dollars on armaments since the start of the Cold War, the US realised that it was losing the battle of ideas. With a view to correcting this imbalance, US imperialism, and following it other imperialist powers, made a point of establishing a new branch of study – Sovietology – in the Humanities departments of various universities and specially created institutes headed by anti-communists.

They created Radio Liberty in Munich. Established on 7 March 1952 on the initiative of the CIA, it spread ceaseless slander against Soviet Central Asia, broadcasting in Uzbek, Turkmenian, Tajik, Kara-Kalpak and Uighur, the principal languages of that part of the USSR.

Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty employed a large number of renegades and traitors who had fled to the West from the socialist countries, while all important posts were held by US intelligence officers. In their vile propaganda, these stations often drew on materials produced by the Central Asian Research Centre of St Anthony's College, Oxford (UK). This so-called Research Centre, founded in 1951, operated with the support, and under the control, of British intelligence. Apart from this Centre's director, Colonel G Wheeler, and its secretary, both of whom were SIS officers, not a single member of this organisation knew of its association with British intelligence. The focus of this institute was to study the political and cultural development of six Central Asian Soviet Republics – Azerbaijan, Turkmenia, Uzbekistan, Tajikstan, Kirghizia and Kazakhstan – all with Muslim populations. The Centre's director was responsible to the Deputy Chief of the SIS.

In the Federal Republic of Germany, this dirty work was carried out under the leadership of Boris Meissner, a war criminal and fanatical Nazi who admired Hitler and the Nazi 'new order', but who sadly escaped punishment at the Nuremberg trial of Nazi criminals because the revanchist circles in West Germany protected him.

He was given academic posts, which he used to propagate anti-Soviet views, professing 'concern' about human rights of the people of Central Asia and the Baltic Republics to self-determination. His colleagues and students would surely have been shocked to discover that this mild-mannered anti-Soviet theoretician had been a practised torturer and murderer of Soviet citizens in Leningrad during the Second World War.

Another despicable character on the payroll of the imperialist intelligence services was Mustafa Chokayev – the first to launch an attack on the nationalities policy of the CPSU in Central Asia. He had been the head of the so-called Kokand Autonomous government which had a life of a few months in 1917 and 1918 in a town of the Ferghazia Valley – a 'government' with absolutely no ties with the general population. A bourgeois nationalist, he served the interests of the united counter-revolutionary forces of the Russian capitalists, local exploiters and the British in return for support. After being defeated, he made his way to Paris. Towards the end of the 1920s he moved to Berlin where, in 1929, being an avowed enemy of the Soviet Union, he was permitted to launch the Turkic language magazine, _Yash Türkistan._ With Hitler's ascent to power his activities attracted Nazi interest. The latter assigned Chokayev a special role as the Nazis prepared for war against the USSR.

Having launched the war against the USSR, the Nazis created the so-called Unity Committee of National Turkestan with the sole purpose of conducting extensive subversive activity against Soviet power. They made Chokayev president of the Committee.

As he did not live up to the expectations of his Nazi masters, they got rid of him. He was poisoned in 1942 and his place was taken by Vali Kajum-Han, a traitor who had fled his country, and whose right-hand man was none other than Baymirza Hayit, a cut-throat who had the dubious distinction of serving the Nazis during the war. He settled down in Munich after the war, from where he began serving the American propaganda machine which, in the cynical words of the Chairman of the Political Information Committee, General Jackson, in its ideological struggle against communism, needed not the truth but subversion. In this war, he said, we shall need all the cut-throats and gangsters whom we can manage to recruit.

**Explanation of the Soviet achievements on the national question**

The answer lies in the science of Marxism-Leninism and the adherence by the Soviet Union to this science.

**Marxism and national liberation**

Marxism teaches us that the concepts of 'nationality' and 'nationalism' were the products of the era of the rise of capitalism and were closely connected with the division of society into two basic classes, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, and the class struggle. The abolition of national oppression depends on the outcome of this struggle inasmuch as national oppression is a manifestation of the class domination of the bourgeoisie:

" _In proportion as the exploitation of one individual by another is put an end to, the exploitation of one nation by another will also be put an end to. In proportion as the antagonism between classes within the nation vanishes, the hostility of one nation to another will come to an end"_ (Marx and Engels 1848, _The Manifesto of the Communist Party,_ Foreign Languages Press, Peking, 1965, p.55).

The international alliance of the proletariat, and consequently its own social emancipation, were impossible without first demolishing the wall of enmity and isolation between nations, which had been created by the bourgeoisie.

" _Any nation that oppresses another forges its own chains",_ wrote Marx on 28 March 1870. In a letter to S Meyer and A Vogt of 9 April 1870, Marx noted that the working class of Britain was " _divided into two hostile camps, English proletarians and Irish proletarians"_ , and he stressed that it was crucial " _to awaken a consciousness in the English workers that for them the national emancipation of Ireland is no question of abstract justice or humanitarian sentiment but the first condition of their own social emancipation"_ (K Marx and F Engels, _Selected Correspondence,_ Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1975, p.222-23).

This is the only way to ensure the international class alliance of the workers essential for the victory over their class enemy, the bourgeoisie.

Twelve years later, in his letter to Kautsky, Engels wrote to say with reference to the future that " _the victorious proletariat can force no blessings of any kind upon any foreign nation without undermining its own victory by so doing"_ ( _Ibid._ p.331).

Lenin, living in the era of imperialism and proletarian revolutions, was the first to perceive, predict, and theoretically substantiate the role and significance of the future national liberation movements of the peoples of backward countries for the development of democracy and the victory of socialism and their interconnection with the struggle of the working class for socialism. He was able to persuade the Second Congress of the RSDLP in 1903 to include " _a right of self-determination for all nations making up the state"_ in its programme, and he fought for its retention against much opposition from sections of his party.

Over a period of two decades, Lenin never stopped stressing the importance of close connections between the struggle of the proletariat for emancipation and the struggle of oppressed nations for their liberation. He never ceased to exhort the proletariat of the oppressing nations to realise the significance of, and need to support, the national liberation movements of the oppressed peoples. Speaking at the Second Congress of the Communist Organisations of the Peoples of the East, pointing to the signs of an approaching powerful upsurge of the revolutionary struggle in the East, Lenin said:

" _The period of the awakening of the East in the contemporary revolution is being succeeded by a period in which all the Eastern peoples will participate in deciding the destiny of the whole world so as not to be simply objects of the enrichment of others. The peoples of the East are becoming alive to the need for practical action, the need for every nation to take part in shaping the destiny of all mankind"_ (22 November 1919, CW vol 30, p. 160).

Speaking at the Second Congress of the Comintern, this is how Lenin urged the proletariat of the imperialist countries to unite with the oppressed peoples in the struggle against imperialism:

**"** _The revolutionary movement in the advanced countries",_ he said **, "** _would actually be a sheer fraud if, in their struggle against capital, the workers of Europe and America were not closely and completely united with the hundreds upon hundreds of millions of 'colonial' slaves who are oppressed by capital_ _"_ (CW vol 31, p.271).

In the following year Lenin returned to this question at the Third Congress of the Comintern. Admonishing those who did not put much faith in the national liberation movement, he pointed out:

"... _Millions and hundreds of millions, in fact the overwhelming majority of the population of the globe, are now coming forward as independent, active and revolutionary factors. It is perfectly clear that in the impending decisive battles in the world revolution, the movement of the majority of the population of the globe, initially directed towards national liberation, will turn against capitalism and imperialism and will, perhaps, play a much more revolutionary part than we expect"_ (5 July 1921, CW vol. 32, pp.481-2).

In his preliminary draft theses on the national and colonial questions, Lenin dwelt on the national policy of the Communist International and he wrote that its " _... entire policy on the national and colonial questions should rest primarily on a closer union of the proletarians and the working masses of all nations and countries for a joint revolutionary struggle to overthrow the landowners and the bourgeoisie. This union alone will guarantee victory over capitalism, without which the abolition of national oppression and inequality is impossible"_ (June 1920, CW vol.31, p.146).

Lenin emphasised the world-historic significance of proper relations between the hitherto oppressed peoples of Central Asia and the young Russian Soviet Republic in these words:

" _It is no exaggeration to say that the establishment of proper relations with the peoples of Turkestan is now of immense, epochal importance for the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic._

_"The attitude of the Soviet Workers' and Peasants' Republic to the weak and hitherto oppressed nations is of very practical significance for the whole of Asia and for all the colonies of the world, for thousands and millions of people"_ (From Lenin's letter 'To the Communists of Turkestan', November 1919).

The Tenth Party Congress defined the tasks of the Party on the national question, giving the following description of the policy of tsarism in Russia's periphery:

" _The policy of tsarism, the policy of the landowners and the bourgeoisie with regard to these peoples was designed to stifle all rudiments of statehood, cripple their culture, check the development of their language, keep them in ignorance and, finally, Russify them as much as possible. This policy accounts for the undeveloped state and the political backwardness of these peoples"_ (CPSU in Resolutions, part 1).

Concerned with speeding up the development of the peoples of backward regions to the level of the advanced parts of the country, Lenin pointed out on 31 December 1922 that " _internationalism on the part of the oppressors or 'great' nations, as they are called (though they are great only in their violence, only great as bullies) must consist not only in the observance of the formal equality of nations but even in an inequality of the oppressor nation, the great nation, that must make up for the inequality which obtains in actual practice. Anybody who does not understand this has not grasped the real proletarian attitude to the national question, he is still essentially a petty bourgeois in his point of view... In one way or another, by one's attitude or by concessions, it is necessary to compensate the non-Russians for the lack of trust, for the suspicion and the insults to which the government of the 'dominant' nation subjected them in the past"_ (31 December 1922, 'The question of nationalities or "autonomisation"', CW vol.36 p.608).

The economic development of Central Asia had to take place at a faster pace than in the rest of the country. This necessitated a systematic, long-term, centralised redistribution of national income in favour of the backward border regions. The brunt of the burden was to be borne by those who produced a proportionately bigger share of the national income. This was true proletarian internationalism in action.

" _We are now exercising our main influence on the international revolution through our economic policy... The struggle in this field has become global",_ said Lenin (28 May 1921, speech at the closing of the Tenth All-Russia Conference of the RCP(B), CW vol.32 p.437).

Even bourgeois sources were obliged to admit the spectacular success of Soviet industrialisation:

" _The speed with which Russia achieved industrialisation is probably the Soviet system's most impressive accomplishment – without it, it's doubtful whether the Communist regime would have survived"._ So wrote _Business Week_ of 29 April, 1967, in an article on the 50th anniversary of the establishment of Soviet power.

We conclude with the following quotation from J V Stalin:

" _The October Revolution has shaken imperialism not only in the centres of its domination, not only in the 'metropolises'. It has also struck at the rear of imperialism, its periphery, having undermined the rule of imperialism in the colonial and dependent countries._

_"Having overthrown the landlords and the capitalists, the October Revolution broke the chains of national and colonial oppression and freed from it, without exception, all the oppressed peoples of a vast state. The proletariat cannot emancipate itself unless it emancipates the oppressed peoples. It is a characteristic feature of the October Revolution that it accomplished these national-colonial revolutions in the USSR not under the flag of national enmity and conflicts among nations, but under the flag of mutual confidence and fraternal rapprochement of the workers and peasants of the various peoples in the USSR, not in the name of_ **nationalism,** _but in the name of_ **internationalism.**

_"It is precisely because the national-colonial revolutions took place in our country under the leadership of the proletariat and under the banner of internationalism that pariah peoples, slave peoples, have_ **for the first time** _in the history of mankind risen to the position of peoples that are_ **really** _free and really equal, thereby setting a contagious example to the oppressed nations of the whole world._

_"This means that the October Revolution_ **has ushered in** _new era, the era of_ **colonial** _revolutions which are being carried out_ **in the oppressed countries** _of the world in alliance with the proletariat and under_ **the leadership** _of the proletariat._

_"It was formerly the 'accepted' idea that the world has been divided from time immemorial into inferior and superior races, into blacks and whites, of whom the former are unfit for civilisation and are doomed to be objects of exploitation, while the latter are the only bearers of civilisation, whose mission it is to exploit the former. This legend must now be regarded as shattered and discarded. One of the most important results of the October Revolution is that it dealt that legend a mortal blow, by demonstrating in practice that the liberated non-European peoples, drawn into the channel of Soviet development, are not one whit less capable of promoting a_ **really** _progressive culture and a_ **really** _progressive civilisation than are the European nations._

_"It was formerly the 'accepted' idea that the only method of liberating the oppressed peoples is the method of_ **bourgeois nationalism** _, the method of nations drawing apart from one another, the method of disuniting nations, the method of intensifying national enmity among the labouring masses of the various nations. This legend must now be regarded as disproved. One of the most important results of the October Revolution is that it dealt that legend a mortal blow, by demonstrating in practice the possibility and expediency of the_ **proletarian, internationalist** _method of liberating the oppressed peoples, as the only correct method; by demonstrating in practice the possibility and expediency of a_ **fraternal union** _of the workers and peasants of the most diverse nations based on the principles of_ **voluntariness and internationalism** _. The existence of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, which is the prototype of the future integration of the working people of all countries into a single world economic system, cannot but serve as direct proof of this._

_"It need hardly be said that these and similar results of the October Revolution could not and cannot fail to exert an important influence on the revolutionary movement in the colonial and dependent countries. Such facts as the growth of the revolutionary movement of the oppressed peoples in China, Indonesia, India, etc., and the growing sympathy of these peoples for the USSR, unquestionably bear this out"_ ('International character of the October Revolution', speech delivered on the 10th anniversary of the October Revolution).

11-THEME: BUILDING A DEMOCRATIC STATE BASED ON THE RULE OF LAW AND ESTABLISHING THE FOUNDATIONS OF CIVIL SOCIETY IN UZBEKISTAN

Plan:

  1. Independence of Uzbekistan

    1. ## Population and national holidays

  2. Tourism in Uzbekistan

  3. The sights

  1. INDEPENDENCE OF UZBEKISTAN

Uzbekistan gained independence on August 31, 1991 in the difficult political and socio- economic conditions. For over 130 years the colonial regime domination made it impossible for the independent development of the Republic.

Declaration of independence put to the people and the country's leadership task of fundamental reforms. As a result of internal and external policies pursued by the government led by Islam Karimov Uzbekistan has been recognized by the international community as an independent state. Within a very short time Uzbekistan has identified its own model of development.

"The Uzbek model" of development designed and implemented by the President Islam Karimov set the stage for social and economic development of the country. In a short time grain and oil independence was ensured. Uzbekistan had turned from agricultural and raw materials exporting country to rapidly growing, modern technology country. The global financial and economic crisis of 2008 has confirmed the correctness of the chosen path of Uzbekistan's development. "Uzbek model" successfully weathered the crisis, deservedly received high positive ratings from international financial organizations and experts.

Historical experience shows that no country can develop in isolation from the world community. As a result of a balanced foreign policy of Uzbekistan has been recognized by more than 180 countries, and 130 countries have established diplomatic relations with the republic. Uzbekistan is a member of such authoritative international organizations as the UN, CIS, SCO, etc.

Today, Uzbekistan has bilateral and mutually beneficial cooperation in the economic, political and cultural spheres with most of the countries of North and South America, Europe, Middle East and Asia.

In accordance with the Constitution of Uzbekistan equality of citizens regardless of their ethnic, linguistic and religious identity is ensured. Currently the country is inhabited by over a hundred nations and nationalities, for which all the necessary conditions are created.

##

  2. ## POPULATION AND NATIONAL HOLIDAYS

POPULATION OF UZBEKISTAN

The population of the Republic of Uzbekistan is about 30 million people (as of 1 February 2013), of which 51% live in urban settlements. The average population density 65.8/km 2. In terms of population of Uzbekistan is the third largest in the CIS after Russia and Ukraine.Uzbekistan is a multi-ethnic society: more than 100 ethnic groups live on its territory. The native inhabitants are Uzbeks, which consist of about 80% population.

NATIONAL HOLIDAYS

Day of defenders of the Native land (January, 14th)

This holiday in independent Uzbekistan is celebrated in honor of creation of own Armed forces. The parliament of the country on 14th January, 1992 has made a decision on transition of all parts and connections, military educational institutions and other military formations deployed in territory of the country, under jurisdiction of the Republic of Uzbekistan. So the beginning was necessary to creation of own Armed forces. On 29th December, 1993 January 14th has been declared by Day of defenders of the Native land.

Women's day (March, 8th)

In Uzbekistan this holiday is celebrated as a holiday of love, kindness and beauty, as well as is known as "Mothers' day".

Navruz (March, 21st)

The most ancient national holiday Navruz (in translation with Persian Navruz designates "new day") which is celebrated on March, 21st, is considered the beginning of new year. As is known, March 21st is a day a spring equinox. Day length and nights is identical - 12 hours. In the beginning of this holiday many Uzbek families prepare for national dishes such as Sumalak, Halim, Somsa from plant, Plov and others. These Uzbek dishes contain many vitamin substances which are useful to a human body.

With the obtaining of the country's independence ancient customs and traditions of Uzbek people have revived, holiday Navruz also has been restored, and celebrating has got new scope and depth. It became a national holiday of friendship, unification, brotherhood of all people. In the bright dramatized representations of philosophic and poetic judgment of Navruz, it places in national history reveals. Now Navruz is celebrating annually in a grand manner.

Day of memory and honor (May, 9th)

In 1999 majestic Square of Memory has been opened in capital of Uzbekistan on 9th May and since then Day of memory and honor on May, 9th is celebrated. This holiday in independent Uzbekistan is celebrated in honor of memory of our compatriots which during centuries heroically, self-denyingly protected our native territory, its freedom and independence, a peace life of our people. Also this holiday is considered as a day of honoring human being, in this day people check up on their relatives and friends, particularly the elderly are honored and visited.

Day of independence (September, 1st)

The main national holiday of the Republic of Uzbekistan is the Day Independence. This holiday is celebrated annually on the 1st September, is ceremonial and colorful. This national holiday personifies all dreams and expectations of all Uzbek people which lean on main principles friendliness, solidarity, charity, mutual respect.

Representatives of the various nations living in Uzbekistan, despite of a nationality, religion, the social status all actively celebrate a holiday in each street, the area and the people living in mahallas and in regions.

Day of teachers and educators (October, 1st)

Annually the Day of Teachers and Instructors is solemnly celebrated in Uzbekistan. The deep respect for the teacher has taken roots in our territory during old times. "Domlo", "Muallim", "Ustoz" - these words during many centuries with gratitude and respect the pupils received from the teachers not only knowledge on subject matters said, but also lessons about the valid attitude to people, love to the Native land, about high morals and spirituality.

Pupils of schools and educational institutions deeply esteem all those who have given them the first vital knowledge. This day pupils with gratitude give flowers and gifts.

The Constitution Day (December, 8th)

The constitution of the Republic of Uzbekistan is accepted by the Oliy Majlis (Parliament) on 8th December, 1992. This holiday is celebrated across all Uzbekistan.

Ramadan Hayit

This holiday is known as Ruza Hayit, it coincides with 9-th month (Hidjriy) on a Muslim calendar. This holiday includes religious practice as Ruza which lasts 30 days and it is considered a ceremony of spiritual and moral purification. Conditions of the ceremony is the following: from sunrise up to decline not to eat food and also water; will be kept from evil thoughts, assumptions; with all surrounding to be in respect and make whenever possible more than goods to associates.

After performance of this ceremony last day the holiday which lasts three days - Ramadan Hayit begins. The first day of a holiday «Ramadan Hayit» is considered not working day.

Qurbon Hayit

Religious holiday Qurbon Hayit this is the one of the greatest holidays in the World which is celebrated by Moslems. Sources of this holiday are ancient histories which are connected with prophet Ibrohim who in honor of the belief wished to sacrifice to "Allah" of the own son, but kind spirits have stopped his actions and instead of this have told to him to sacrifice animals such as sheep, camels, etc. The holiday lasts three days and these days all Moslems celebrate this holiday with their family with natives and close. Especially in these holidays people visit native and close, and also sick and requiring in the help. The first day of «Qurbon Hayit» is considered not off day.

## TOURISM

### USEFUL LINKS

Official tourist portal of Uzbekistan (www.uzbekistan.travel/en/)

State Committee on Development of Tourism (www.uzbektourism.uz/en/)

UzbekistanPass – National Tourist Service (www.uzbekistanpass.com/en/)

TOURISM IN UZBEKISTAN

Uzbekistan — a rich tapestry of architectural wonders, diverse natural reserves and modern booming development attracts the attention of the whole world.

For centuries, Uzbekistan sat at the intersection of the Great trade routes along which merchants and discoverers, geographers and missionaries, invaders and conquerors passed cross each other on their journeys to east or west. In modern times, Uzbekistan is top on travel agenda for adventurous people interested in culture and history, traditions, natured exotic destinations.

Heritage sites

Uzbekistan is gently proud of its traditionally classic architecture. The Ichan-Kala complex in Khiva, and the historical centers of Bukhara, Shakhrisabz and Samarkand are UNESCO World Heritage sites. Many unique monuments and architectural constructions in these towns still remain genuine and are samples of an era that played a significant role in history.

Tashkent

Tashkent is the Capital of the present-day Uzbekistan and one of the largest cities of Central Asia. An important international transport junction, both in ancient past and in the present, nowadays directly linked to many countries of the world by local carrier Uzbekistan Airways and international airlines.

Tashkent is one of the ancient cities of the world. In 2009 it celebrated its 2200th anniversary. No other Central Asian town has been studied so thoroughly by scientists as this modern capital of Uzbekistan. During the years of Independence more than 240 architectural and archeological monuments within the city boundary have been brought to light. Today the images of olden times such as mosques, madrassahs, and minarets stand in elegant grandeur among parks, museums, fountains, modern skyscrapers made of glass and metal, and highway flyovers.

Today in Uzbekistan there are about 100 museums with almost half of them being located in the capital of the country. Each of them reflects Uzbek land's rich cultural and spiritual heritage. In the center of the Uzbek capital, the building crowned with the huge blue dome, which reminds ancient domes of Samarkand structures, accommodates the State Museum of Temurids. Its exhibits testify to the formation in the Middle ages of statehood within the territory of Uzbekistan, and highlight the development of science, culture and art fr om the time of Amir Temur.

Samarkand

Over the centuries, Uzbekistan's cities played a major role in the life of the Great Silk Road, the ancient, transcontinental thoroughfare. But, one city stands out as being "the Heart of Great Silk Road"; that city is Samarkand.

"The Radiate Point of Globe", "The Jewel of Islamic Architecture", "The Mirror of the World" are oriental titles bestowed upon Samarkand fr om earliest times. A contemporary of Rome, Athens, and Babylon, this city has already celebrated its 2750th anniversary, who`s golden age occurred during the Temurid dynasty as this very city was chosen by Emir Temur, the greatest warlord and ruler of the Central Asia after Chingiz Khan, as the capital of his powerful Empire, Movarounnahr. Emir Temur carried out a vast program of town-planning during his rule. Here in Samarkand the great ruler gathered skillful architects and craftsmen whose works of art have outlasted the years. His grandson Ulughbek continued these construction traditions. Today the monuments of Samarkand are majestic and wonderful. In this town one can feel the breath of history itself. It can be traced in the ancient ruins as well as in the madrassahs, mausoleums, and minarets, which have been decorating the city until now.

The legendary Samarkand square of Reghistan ranks amongst the key architectural sights in Central Asia. Since ancient times, this square has been the trade and public center of Samarkand. Three grandiose madrassahs—Ulughbek madrassah, Sher Dor and Tillya Kari madrassahs—proudly dominate the square.

Gur-Emir Mausoleum – is another gem of ancient Samarkand. The remains of the Great sovereign, his two sons and two grandsons, including a prominent scientist and thinker of the East, Mirzo Ulughbek, rest in this mausoleum. Fr om a distance the dome of Gur Emir mausoleum looks like a blue tulip, with gently folded turquoise petals. The architectural décor of the monuments is grand, opulent and worthy of being the setting for any Scheherazade fairy tale.

Registan Square, Gur-Emir mausoleum, Bibi-Khanum Mosque, Shakhi-Zinda Ensemble, Ulugbek's Observatory, this is not the complete list of all those monuments that fascinate the visitors of the ancient city.

Noble Bukhara

Bukhara, the famous trading post on the Silk Road, stirs the romantic in many travelers.

With over 2500 years of history and a welcoming atmosphere, Bukhara is one of the tourists' favorites. More than 140 monuments of ancient architecture, and these sights are located within a compact area and are best seen on foot.

Ismail Samani Mausoleum, the 9th-century monument whose exterior is an intricate pattern of delicate masonry resembling the lace; majestic Ark fortress, once a fortified residence of the rulers of Bukhara; Kalyan Minaret whose vertical lines mark the city skyline at about 50 metres; a living maze of numerous mosques and madrassahs, caravanserais, baths and multi-domed market buildings - all these monuments are inimitable gems of Holy Bukhara.

Khiva

Khiva, "the museum in the open", is the only town along the Great Silk Road, which has remained intact through centuries andhas retained the exotic flavour of a medieval town which time has not destroyed but has just frozen. Today Ichan Kala, the nucleus of ancient Khiva offers the visitors the most stunning homogeneous collection of architecture of the late 18th century - the first half of the 19th century.

Khiva is crammed with historic buildings. City's ancient gates, a chain of minarets, including the 45-metre tall Islam-Hojja Minaret, the architectural complex of Pakhlavan-Makhmud, the patron saint of Khiva, congregational Juma Mosque with carved columns of astonishing beauty, the exquisite Tash-Hauli Palace built in the 19th century as a residence for the emir, his entourage and harem... You would need days rather than few hours to discover this 'museum in the open', to explore its tiny streets, to lose yourself hundreds of times and "find" yourself gazing at another splendour.

Termez

The multi-faceted history of Uzbekistan is undoubtedly a reflection of its geographical location particularly in the case of the city of Termez - the southernmost city of the country. Termez was founded on the right bank of the Amu Darya at the crossroads of Silk Road caravan routes, as a main port and for more than 2,500 years centuries it has retained this capacity.

At the beginning of our era, Termez acquired one more function, ideological, having become the main center of Buddhism in Central Asia from wh ere Buddhist spread to China and Japan. Such sites in the vicinity of modern Termez as Kara-Tepe rock-hewn Buddhist cave monastery, Fayaz-TepeBuddist temple, 16-meter-high brickZurmala Tower - the remnant of a large Buddhist stupa are very popular among tourists and Buddhist pilgrims.

But Termez is famous not only for its Buddhist antique relics. The historical monuments of early Middle Ages are no less fascinating. Among them we can name one of the greatly valued monuments of the Muslims world - the burial-vaultof Khakim at-Termezi, Sultan Saodat Ensemble (10th-17th centuries) and legendary Kyrk-Kyz fortress of the 9th century.

Karakalpakstan

Today Karakalpakistan is an alive communication between the contemporary and ancient world. With its wonderful and unique sites it is ready to share its legends and secrets with you.

The ancient castles of "Kyrkkyz-Kala", "Ayaz-Kala", "Djanbas-Kala", the mausoleums of "Ichan-Kala", a beautiful town of "Toprak-Kala" and other historical and archeological statues, located in the territory of Karakalpakistan, present a great intellectual and cultural interest that attire a number of tourists from the other regions of the country as well as the foreign countries.

Traditions

Traditions and customs of Uzbek people living on the crossroad of the Great Silk Road were taking shape within many centuries as a result of interaction of Zoroastrian rituals of the Sogdians and Bactrians and traditions of nomadic tribes, with certain impact of Islamic traditions and rites set by the Koran in later period.

Travelling in Uzbekistan tourists can both see the architectural gems of Uzbekistan and whenever possible take part in the celebration of the most cherished national and folk holiday of Uzbek people. (For example NAVRUZ- New Year festival of spring which falls on March 21st)

Each itinerary includes a visit to a national house wh ere tourists can learn about lifestyle of local people, taste the national Uzbek cuisine and enjoy the folklore show.

Uzbek national cuisine is rather delicious. Rich traditions and ancient culture of Uzbeks' cooking have a history of many centuries. A wide assortment of products is used and each dish reflects the lifestyle and culture of the Uzbek people. The delicious Uzbek national cuisine is unlikely to leave indifferent even the most pernickety gourmet.

Bazaars

The traditional idea of an oriental bazaar as a place of abundant merchandise, brightness of colours and lively bustle finds its embodiment in Uzbekistan.

At all seasons the fruit and vegetable stalls impress with an abundance and diversity of the produce. But in summer and autumn the oriental bazaar is particularly impressing.

The bazaar's active life starts early in the morning and ends when it gets dark. The unique atmosphere of the oriental bazaar is created by inviting shouts of the salespeople, automobile honks, sounds of national music, smells of spices and roasted meat, fruit and vegetables of all colors...

Hotels

Where in the past there were caravanserais modern hotels appeared. First-class hotels with internationally famous names and excellent world-class service are available in the major cities of Uzbekistan: Tashkent, Samarkand, Bukhara and Urgench. A number of B&Bs have sprung up over the past several years, each with a style and character of its own. Altogether there are about 350 hotels in Uzbekistan with total capacity of 9000 rooms.

Transport

Uzbekistan today has a developed tourism infrastructure which meets the international standards. You don't need to spend months in order to reach your destination, like it was in the times of the Silk Road.

Today Getting to Uzbekistan is quick and easy. As one of the main gateways to Asia, Uzbekistan has direct flights to the world's major cities.

Travelling on horses and camels is no longer a reality. Instead tourists can delight in beautiful landscapes of the country, while traveling by speedy, comfortable, air-conditioned cars or coaches.

Active tours

Uzbekistan is not only about history and fabled architecture. Enthusiasts of active tourism have always been very much attracted by Uzbekistan's exotic nature with its contrasts, diverse flora and fauna, abundance of sunny weather all the year round, and friendly climate.

Uzbekistan embraces as diverse types of the environment as deserts with their sand-dunes, blossoming oases and riverside tugai woods, alpine meadows and mountains topped with eternal snow.

Trekking

The charm of Uzbekistan's unrivalled nature can be experienced during the trekking tours in the Western Tien-Shan, the Celestial mountains. In search of extreme adventures there come to Chimgan valley numerous mountaineers, avid to surmount the peak of the Big Chimgan, which is 3309 meters high (10850 feet).

Horse-riding

Romantic appeal of horse riding attracts people of any age and temperament. Horseback ride tours are generally arranged in summertime, but Uzbekistan's unique climatic conditions make horse riding possible all the year round. One of the most popular alluring horseback riding travels are through Ugham-Chatkal National Wild Park well-known for its rich flora and fauna.In some eighty kilometers off Tashkent, the capital of Uzbekistan, at the foot of snow-covered spurs of the Western Tien Shan Mountains there exists"Chimghan Oromghohi" resort complex designed for horse ride enthusiasts. In the stables of the complex there are horses of local breeds, such as kurama and karabair, as well as akhal-teke breed and sturdy half-bred horses. From here the horseback tours head up through the wilderness areas of the National Park.

Impressions of your journey along the mountains wh ere fresh, clear air is filled with the superfine aroma of the numerous herbs and flowers, the squeak of a saddle, rhythmical clatter of hoofs and romantic evening meal round campfire under bottomless mountain sky with myriads of stars, will be long kept in your memory.

Camel safari

The ambience of the legendary Silk Road of our distant past can be experienced during camel safari through the Kyzyl-Kum Desert. Sand-dunes, merciless sun, sparse islands of saxaul, camel's-thorn (alhagi) and sand, sand, sand... In early spring, thanks to the life-giving rains, the desert is covered with purple poppies and an emerald carpet of grass – sadly, these colours fade quickly. At the camel farm tourists change their comfortable cars to camels- the only suitable form of transport in the desert and start their exotic journey. Unforgettable impressions of riding on camelback; watching the beautiful sunset, its colours bleeding into the horison's shimmering sands; overnight in yurtas (Kazakh collapsible tents); exotic national dishes and ceremonies — this is what makes this tour popular with tourists.

Heli-ski and snowboarding

Mountains of the Western Tien-Shan offer everything a snow enthusiast could ask for. Comparatively mild climate, almost windless weather, availability of three hundred sunny days a year, big choice of skiable terrain with tracks for cross-country skiing, slalom and downhill runs, create good conditions for winter recreation.

Over the last few years "Chimgan-Charvak-Beldersay" resort area has become a popular location for enthusiasts of heli-ski and free-ride, the youngest but fast developing types of extreme sports and recreation. Thus on the beautiful mountain slopes of Chimghan tract, located at the height of 1600 – 2400 meters above sea level, the blanket of snow lies from October till May and the local skiing routes meet the requirements of the International Mountain Skiing standards.

For the enthusiasts of heli-skiing many runs start from the heights up to 4000 m above sea level and finish in the valley. You can make up to 6 runs per day making the first tracks in virgin powder.

Rafting

'Asian Switzerland' as Uzbekistan is sometimes called, is especially attractive for those who fancy extreme traveling, who become ecstatic about rafting down the rapid local rivers.

Rafting along the rapid Chatkal River is the favorite activity of extreme travelers. They are interested in many-day rafting along the route rated as the route of the fifth category of complexity, as well as in diverse landscapes and natural obstacles. Not less than fifty serious obstacles await the travelers on the river. Among the hardest ones are waterfalls, cascades of rapids, stony shallow areas with rapid current, whirlpools, rocky gorges and sharp stone cogs sticking out of waves.

Golfing

Tashkent Lake Side Golf Club is a wonderfully organized golf club with first-rate golf fields. 108 hectares of land with 18 holes on evergreen lawns, with gently sloping hills and branchy crowns of trees, lakes and waterfalls that serve as natural barriers for the game, all this pertains to Tashkent Lake Side Golf Club. It also possesses a large recreational area with training lawns, tennis courts, swimming pool, sauna.

For all the flavours of its storied past, cultural mosaics and unique natural beauty, warmth, hospitality and enthusiasm of the people, Uzbekistan is the country to visit and marvel.

##

## 4. THE SIGHTS

### TASHKENT

Tashkent — is one of the most biggest ancient city in Central Asia — the capital of the Republic of Uzbekistan. The first information about Tashkent as a city settlings is kept in the ancient east chronicles of the II century B.C., in the Chinese sources it's called Yuni; in the inscriptions of 262 years B.C. of Pursian king Shapura I on «Kaabe Zoroastra» the oasis of Tashkent was called Chach. Chach was a crossroads on the way of gold export, precious stones, spices and splendid horses to another towns and states. Today Tashkent, in translation fr om uzbek standing for «Stone town» is a capital of modern Republic, keeping the evidence of future, the memory of many history events of Uzbekistan, — one of the biggest industrial center of Central Asia, with the population of over 2 million people.

Historical and architectural monuments of Tashkent:

· Medrese of Kukeldash (14th century).,

· Mausoleum of Kaffal-Shashi (15th century).,

· Architectural ensemble of Hazrati (Saint) Imom (16th century).,

· Medrese of Abul Kasim (19th century).,

· Medrese of Barak-han (16th century).

· The Mosque of Juma (Friday) (19th century).,

· The museum of Amir Temur — masterpiece of modern architecture,

· The Square of Amir Temur,

· The Square of Freedom,

· The Square of Friendship of Nations,

· The Monument of Courage,

· The Square of Hasti Imom,

· The Mosque of Tilla Sheyh,

· The Square of Hadra,

· МMausoleum of Sufi Ota.

###

### SAMARKAND

The history of Samarkand — numbers of about 2750 years, and architectural monuments referring to the time of governing dynasty of Timurids' has such as importance as architectural masterpiece of ancient Egypt, Chinese, India, Greece and Rim.

Historical and architectural monuments of Samarkand

· The ancient settling of Afrosiyab (8th century B.C.),

· The Observatory of Ulugbek (1428–1429),

· Architectural ensemble of Shohi Zinda,

· The Mosque of Hazrati (Saint) Hizr (in the middle of 19th century),

· The Mosque of Bibi — Hanum (1399–1404),

· Medres of Ulugbek (1417–1420),

· Medres of Sher -Dor (1619–1635/36),

· Medres of Tillya — Kori (1647–1659/60),

· Bazaar of Chorsu (four water)(end of 18th century),

· Mausoleum of Ruhabad (1380th),

· Mausoleum of Ak — Saray (white shed)(1470),

· Mausoleum of Gur — Emir (1404),

· The Mosque of Namozgoh (17th century),

· Mausoleum of Ishrat Xona (1464),

· Ensemble of Hoja Ahror (15–20 century),

· Mausoleum of Chulpan Ota (1430–1440),

· The Cemetery of Hoja Abdu Darun (15th -19th ctntury),

· Memorial complex of Imam Al'-Bukhari.

###

### BUKHARA

On Sanskrit the Bukhara means «abbey», which was a big commercial center on the Great Silk Road whenever. Bukhara -«The city of museum», proposes more than 140 the architectural monuments of the Middle Ages. Such ensembles as Poi — Kalan, Kosh Madras, mausoleum of Ismail Samoni, minaret of Kalyan and others built 2300 years ago, today they are attracting the great attention of tourists. The famous poets like Narshahi, Rudaki Dakiki and others have played the important role in development of Bukhara.

Historical and architectural monuments of Bukhara

· The Ark (11th -20th century),

· An Ensemble of Bola — Hauz (in the beginning of 18th -20th century),

· Mausoleum of Samani (9th -10th century),

· The Cemetery of Chashmoi — Ayub (1380 or 1384/85),

· Medres of Abdulla — han (1596/98),

· Medres of Madari — han (1556/57),

· The Mosque of Baland (High) (in the beginning of 16th century),

· An Ensemble of Gaukushon (the mosque, minaret, medrese (16th century)),

· Honaka of Zaynutdin Hodji (1555),

· An Ensemble of Poi — Kalon (12th — 14th century),

· An Ensemble of Labi -Houz (16th -17th century),

· Medres of Kukel'dash (1568/69),

· Hanaka of Nodir Divanbegi (1620),

· Medres of Ulugbek (1417),

· Medres of Abdulaziz Han (1652),

· The Mosque of Bola Hauz,

· Mausoleum of Sayfiddin Buharziy (the second half of 13th -14th century),

· Mausoleum of Buen Kuli Han (the second half of 14th -15th or 16th centuries),

· The Mosque of Namazgoh (12th -16th centuries),

· Hanaka of Fayzabad (1598/99),

· The Mosque of Chor-Minor (four column)(1807),

· The Palace of Emir of Bukhara «Sitorai Mohi Hossa» (in the end of 19th the beginning of 20th century),

· Chor-Bakr — the burial place of shih Jubaeri family (1560/63), .

###

### KHIVA

Mystical city Khiva succeeded to keeping its exotically shape of eastern city in the ancient parts of Ichan-Kala, wh ere disposed numerous of architectural monuments.

Historical and architectural monuments of Khiva

· Ichan-Kala: The Mosque and Medrese of Said-bay (end of 18th -beginning of 19th centuries),

· It's around the gate of Polvan Darboza,

· Medrese of Allakulihan (1834/35),

· Medrese of Kutlug-Murad-Inak (1804/12),

· Bridge and Caravansary of Allakulihan (19th century),

· Medres of Abdulla Han (1865),

· The Mosque and Palace of Anush Han (1657),

· Tosh-Hayli (the stone lot)(of Allakulihan) (1830/36),

· Ok mechet (the white mosque) (1832/42),

· The Mosque and Minaret of Juma (1788/89),

· Mausoleum of Said Alauddin (14th century),

· Medres of Muhammad Amin Han (1851/52),

· Minaret of Kalta Minor (1855),

· Kun'ya-Ark (1868/88),

· Minaret of Tura-Murat-Tur (1888),

· Medres of Muhammad Amin Han (1871),

· Medres of Shirgaziz han (1718/20),

· The Mosque of Boglandi (19th century),

· Medres of Arabhan (1838)

12-THEME: POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SPIRITUAL AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF UZBEKISTAN IN THE YEARS OF INDEPENDENCE. UZBEKISTAN AND THE WORLD COMMUNITY

Plan:

  1. Culture

  2. National clothes

  3. Cuisine

  4. Traditional Uzbek dance: arts and schools of uzbek dance

  5. Handicrafts

  6. # Uzbekistan visa

  1. ## CULTURE

Culture of Uzbekistan is one of the brightest and original cultures of East. It is inimitable national music, dances and painting, unique national kitchen and clothes. The Uzbek national music is characterized as variety of subjects and genres. The songs and tool plays according to their functions and forms of usage can be divided into two groups: performed in the certain time and under the certain circumstances and performed at any time. The songs connected with customs and traditions, labor processes, various ceremonies, dramatized entertainment representations and games belong to the first group.

The Uzbek people is well-known for its songs. Koshuk — household song with a small diapason melody, covering one or two rows of the poetic text. The dancing character of a melody of this genre provides their performance in support of comic dances. «Lapar» is a dialogue-song. In some areas the term — lapar is applied to wedding songs «Ulan» (which is performed as a dialogue of man and women). Genre «yalla» includes two kinds of songs: a melody of a narrow range, and solo simultaneously with dance. National and professional poems of the poets of East are used as the texts for the songs. The special place in the Uzbek musical heritage occupy «dastans» (epic legends with lyric-heroic content). Also «Makoms»- are the basic classical fund of professional music of oral tradition.

The dances of uzbeks distinguish softness, smoothness and expressiveness of movements, easy sliding step, original movements on a place and on a circle.

The development of national painting began many centuries ago. At 16–17 centuries art of the manuscript and binding in Bukhara and some other urban centers has achieved significant success. The decorating of manuscript included refined calligraphy, performance by water paints and thin ornaments on fields. In Samarkand and especially in Bukhara the Central Asian school of a miniature has achieved a great success and were developed many different style directions. One of them, for example is connected with traditions of Behzod, which characterized with its gentle style of writing the letter and architectural elements.

  2. NATIONAL CLOTHES

The Uzbek national clothes of the end of XX centuries remain constant up these days. The men in that time carried a direct cover shirts, bottom and top dressing gowns. The dressing gowns were very light and made from cotton wool. There were cuts on each side of dressing gown for convenience at walking. The trousers were made wide, of direct breed lent from top to bottom. Female clothes: dressing gowns, dress.

Uzbek men's clothing: The basis of national men's suit is a chapan, the quilted robe, tied with a kerchief. Traditional men's cap is tubeteika. Kuylak is the men's straight cut undershirt. Ishton is men's wide trousers, narrowed at ankles. Traditional footwear is high-boots, made of thin leather. Shirts were worn everywhere, but men from the Fergana Valley and Tashkent region wear a yakhtak, a wrap shirt. Both of these types were sewn from homespun cotton cloth and feature a moderate aesthetics in a form of a decorated miniature braiding- jiyak, stitched along the collar.

Belts for gala dresses were normally very smart, made of velvet or embroidered, with silver figured metal plates and buckles. Everyday shirts are tied with long sashes.

Women's Clothing:

Women's traditional dress consisted of a tunic, pants, a scarf, and a coat. The long, loose tunic had wide sleeves reaching to the wrists. Loose-cut pants were often made of the same fabric as the tunic, or out of complementary fabric. The bottom of the pants was gathered and decorated with embroidered braid. Women's coats were similar to men's khalat.

For centuries cotton has been used extensively for clothing in Uzbekistan. Home-woven striped and white cotton were the most common fabrics for everyday wear. Textile patterns often included up to six or seven different colors in the typical geometrical or stylized floral design. Fabrics were brightly colored, in shades of red, yellow, blue, green, violet, and orange. The color of the costume was an important signal of a person's age or social status. Red and pink were common for girls and young women; middle-aged women were supposed to wear shades of light blue and gray. White was the most popular color and appropriate for all ages, especially for the elderly. Black, dark blue, and violet were colors of mourning.

Women and Men's national headwear. Tubeteikas (Skull-caps):

Headdress is one of the main elements in the traditional Uzbek clothing. The national headwear in many countries of Central Asia, including Uzbekistan is a tubeteika (skull-cap). Tubeteika is derived from the Turkic word "tubé", which means "top, peak". Tubeteika is worn by everybody: men, women, and children. Only elder women do not wear tubeteikas.

Today it is uncommon to meet a man in the tubeteika in large cities, mainly it is an important element of holiday garments at family parties and religious celebrations. The common form of the Uzbek tubeteika is tetrahedral and slightly conical. Traditional men's tubeteika is black and embroidered with a inwrought white pattern in a form of four "paprikas" and 16 miniature arches. An everyday tubeteika, "kalampir", is one of the simplest and widely used cap, it's importance must not be underestimated. This tubeteika is an essential attribute for some events even in the environment of a country-wide influence of the European culture. There are smart tubeteikas enriched with bright and colorful embroideries and patterns for special festival occasions.

  3. CUISINE

Uzbek cuisine is one of the most colorful of Oriental Cuisines. You will get astounded to find some of Uzbek recipes to be centuries-old. They even have different traditional rituals and ways of cooking. There are about 1,000 different dishes including national drinks, cakes and confectionary products.

Uzbek «Pilaf» is a very solemn food. It can be considered as an everyday dish as well as a dish for solemn and great events like weddings, parties and holidays. Rice is the most important ingredient of pilaf and special spices, raisins, or peas will be added to give it extra flavor. However, locals believe that the best pilaf is always prepared by a man! Salads are also served along with pilaf.

Bread is holy for Uzbek people. This traditional belief started with a legend. As it goes, each new Governor would mint his own coins but the payment for local people who minted new coins were not the coins that were minted but...bread!

Traditionally Uzbek breads are baked inside the stoves made of clay called «Tandyr». These fragrant breads are known to be crispy and tasty. Even the greatest scientist of medicine, Avicenna used Uzbek bread to cure people of diseases.

A special importance is placed on soups. Uzbek soup is rich in vegetables and seasonings and contains lots of carrots, turnips, onions and greens. Two popular soups are Mastava and Shurpa.

  4. TRADITIONAL UZBEK DANCE: ARTS AND SCHOOLS OF UZBEK DANCE

National Uzbek dance is very expressive. It presents all the beauty of nation. The main difference of Uzbek dance from dances of other Eastern nations is the accent on complicated and expressive hand gestures and animated facial expressions. Uzbek dance includes two categories: classic traditional dance and folklore dance.

Classic traditional Uzbek dance is the art, studied in choreographic schools and demonstrated on a stage. There are three schools of Uzbek dance: Ferghana, Bukhara and Khorezm. Ferghana dances are differed with softness, smoothness and expressiveness of gestures, light sliding step, original motions. Bukhara dance is distinguished with sharpness of gestures, leaned back shoulders and very beautiful goldwork costumes. Khorezm style differs with original and distinctive motions.

Folk Uzbek dance includes traditions of almost any region and displays wonderful variety. People dance them on weddings and family holidays, rural and urban events. These dances are handed over from generation to generation and preserve ancient dance traditions as well as today and past lifestyles.

  5. HANDICRAFTS

Culture, handicrafts and tourism are rapidly becoming inseparable partners. Local crafts are important elements of culture, and people travel to see and experience other cultures, traditions and ways of living. Crafts products form an important element of the purchases made by tourists, providing an important economic input to the local economy.

Applied art of Uzbeks has a wealth of variety when it comes to style, materials and ornamentation. Silk, ceramics and cotton weaving, stone and wood carving, metal engraving, leather stamping, calligraphy and miniature painting are some genres passed down from ancient times. Back in the past, each region had its own cultural and ethnic traditions the unique features of which were established by local guilds that have strengthened these characteristics through their art.

Uzbek craftsmen nowadays still practice ancient jewellery making techniques for cutting gemstones, grain filigree, granular work, engraving and enameling, also they are trying to take into account fashion demands and styles.

Embroidery is one of the most popular trends of applied arts in Uzbekistan. Every city of Uzbekistan has its own unique features such as ornamentation, composition, color range and stitching. The finest kind of embroidery, gold embroidery is still practiced in Bukhara.

The art of carpet weaving is also a very ancient form of art throughout Asia and the East, and nowadays it can be found in some of the cities of Uzbekistan today. The art of wood carving is used and adapted in modern interior design. Carved and painted tables, stools, caskets, pencil boxes and bookstands are popular pieces of furniture among local people and tourists. The art of Miniature painting and calligraphy has been revived again in its traditional form as well as some modern variants. For example miniatures stamped on leather, painted on paper miniatures, small lacquered boxes, framed pictures, pencil boxes and many other ideas skillfully painted by masters can be found in Uzbekistan.

##

## FOREIGN POLICY

The Republic of Uzbekistan conducts an open, mutually beneficial and constructive foreign policy based on the national interests of the country. Current foreign policy of Uzbekistan is formed taking into account the dynamic changes in the world and the region as well as large-scale reforms within the country.

The main goal of the foreign policy of the Republic of Uzbekistan is strengthening of the independence and sovereignty of the state, further enhancing the role and place of the country in international arena, joining the ranks of the developed democratic states, creating security, stability and good neighborliness belt around Uzbekistan.

The principle position of the Republic's foreign policy is adherence to the policy of non-alignment with any military-political bloc, preventing the deployment of foreign military bases and facilities on its territory and the non-participation of the country's servicemen in peacekeeping operations abroad, and resolving all contradictions and conflicts only with peaceful means. By maintaining non-aligned status, Uzbekistan is open to dialogue and is interested in expanding cooperation with all partners for peace, progress and prosperity.

One of the main and primary tasks of the foreign policy is the effective implementation of the Strategy of Actions on five priority directions of development of Uzbekistan in 2017-2021.

The following tasks have been set for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to achieve this goal:

\- forming the most favorable foreign policy conditions for efficient implementation of the democratic reforms in the country and dynamic processes of modernization of society and economy;

\- preserving and strengthening peace and stability in Central Asia, turning the region into a zone of security and sustainable development;

\- forming balanced and multidimensional system of strategic partnership with the leading states of the world and international organizations;

\- promoting international initiatives of Uzbekistan on the most important areas of regional and international policy;

\- facilitating the increase of the volume and expanding the geography of exports of domestic products;

\- assisting attraction of foreign direct investments and high technologies to the priority sectors of national economy;

\- assisting in attraction of foreign tourists and development the tourist infrastructure of the republic;

\- rendering assistance in expansion and deepening of cooperation in the field of transport and transit, development of international transport communications and logistics infrastructure;

\- ensuring comprehensive protection of the rights and interests of citizens and legal entities of the Republic of Uzbekistan abroad;

\- strengthening the ties with the compatriots living abroad.

The main priority of Uzbekistan's foreign policy is the region of Central Asia. Uzbekistan's policy in Central Asia is aimed at ensuring peace and stability in the region, addressing the key problems of regional security, including contribution to the settlement of situation in Afghanistan. The Uzbek side will make every effort to strengthen regional trade and economic cooperation, develop regional transport and transit infrastructure, ensure fair and rational use of water resources of transboundary rivers in Central Asia and ecologic sustainability of the region, complete the process of the delimitation and demarcation of borders.

Uzbekistan is interested in strengthening friendly and good-neighborly relations with the countries of the region, developing scientific, technical, cultural and humanitarian cooperation with them, strengthening contacts between parliaments, border regions, NGOs and ordinary citizens.

Uzbekistan will further expand its relations with Afghanistan, actively participates in international efforts to peaceful settlement of situation in that country. The Uzbek side will continue to contribute to the economic reconstruction of Afghanistan, the development of its transport, industry, energy and social infrastructure. A stable and prosperous Afghanistan is a guarantee of the regional security in Central Asia.

Another priority direction of the foreign policy of Uzbekistan is the CIS member states, with which the country has historically formed political, economic, transport-communication and other ties. Uzbekistan builds bilateral relations of cooperation with CIS countries on the basis of equality, mutual benefit, respect and consideration of interests of each other.

Consistent development and comprehensive strengthening of friendly ties with Russia on the basis of the Treaty on Strategic Partnership (June 16, 2004), the Treaty on Allied Relations (November 14, 2005), and the Declaration on the Deepening of the Strategic Partnership between the Republic of Uzbekistan and the Russian Federation (June 4, 2012) meet the interests of both countries and serve to enhance stability and security in the region. The most important task in bilateral relations is the full implementation of the agreements reached during the state visit of President of Uzbekistan Shavkat Mirziyoyev to Russia on April 4-5, 2017.

The Republic of Uzbekistan is interested in further strengthening the strategic partnership with China as a close regional neighbor and the state, which plays one of the key roles in solving global issues. The development of relations with China is based on the Joint Declaration on the Establishment of a Strategic Partnership (June 6, 2012) and the Joint Declaration on the Further Development and Deepening Bilateral Relations of the Strategic Partnership (September 9, 2013). Both countries are interested in the practical implementation of the decisions and agreements reached during the state visit of the President of Uzbekistan Shavkat Mirziyoyev to Beijing on May 11-13, 2017, as well as in the framework of participation in the international forum «One Belt, One Road» on May 14-15, 2017.

One of the priorities of the foreign policy of Uzbekistan is the development of comprehensive, mutually beneficial and constructive cooperation with the United States of America on the basis of the Declaration on Strategic Partnership and Cooperation Framework between the Republic of Uzbekistan and the United States of America (March 12, 2002). Uzbekistan is interested in further enhancing cooperation with the United States in political, trade, economic, investment, technological, cultural and humanitarian spheres in order to support the ongoing modernization and reforms in the country aimed at strengthening the foundations of civil society and improving the living standards of the population. Important areas of bilateral cooperation are the promotion of peace and stability in Afghanistan, the fight against transnational threats and challenges.

Uzbekistan attaches great importance to the development of mutually beneficial cooperation with the EU and European states. The key areas of cooperation with European countries are development of trade, investment and financial cooperation, transfer of high technologies, partnership in science, education, ecology, health and culture, as well as strengthening of regional security. At the same time, special attention will be paid to the promotion of a higher level of bilateral relations with the leading states of Europe, in particular Germany, France, Great Britain, Belgium, Italy, Spain, Latvia and other countries.

Uzbekistan will continue its consistent policy of strengthening friendship and cooperation with Turkey, with which the country is linked by a centuries-old history, common language, religion, values, similar customs and traditions. The Republic will further develop mutually beneficial relations with Turkey in various areas, in particular in the spheres of trade, investment and tourism.

The priority direction of the foreign policy is the improvement of cooperation with the developed countries of the Asia Pacific region, in particular with the Republic of Korea and Japan. Uzbekistan will continue full-scale practical cooperation with these countries in the fields of investment, trade, high technologies and cultural-humanitarian cooperation.

Uzbekistan will actively enhance cooperation with partner countries in Southeast Asia - Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Vietnam and other countries.

The Republic of Uzbekistan supports the development of comprehensive and mutually beneficial relations with the countries of South Asia, in particular, with India and Pakistan, in trade and economy, transport, communication, tourism and other spheres.

Uzbekistan is interested in active development and strengthening of mutually beneficial relations with the states of the Muslim world in the spheres of economy, transport communications, finance, investments and tourism, including within the framework of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and the Islamic Development Bank.

Uzbekistan will continue to participate actively in the work of the United Nations, considering it as the only universal organization responsible for maintaining international peace and security, as well as for promoting the sustainable development of states in the context of the rapid processes of globalization.

The Republic stands for the further development of partnership with the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization and the Commonwealth of Independent States and will effectively use the mechanisms of these structures to develop multilateral cooperation to counteract modern challenges and threats.

Uzbekistan will make every effort to intensify cooperation with international financial institutions such as the Asian Development Bank, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the Asian Bank for Infrastructure Investments and the European Investment Bank for the realization of the new projects in the spheres of energy, transport, agriculture, housing construction, small business development and private entrepreneurship.

For reference: Today, the Republic of Uzbekistan has established diplomatic relations with more than 130 countries around the world. There are 45 embassies of foreign countries, 8 honorary consuls, 19 missions of international organizations, 18 representations of international intergovernmental and governmental organizations of foreign states, 1 trade mission with diplomatic status are operating in Tashkent.

47 diplomatic and consular missions of the Republic of Uzbekistan are accreditated in foreign countries and international organizations . Uzbekistan is a member of more than 100 international organizations and develops interaction with various structures of multilateral cooperation.

#

  6. # UZBEKISTAN VISA

Visiting Uzbekistan is much easier now. Depending on your citizenship, you may enjoy visa-free regime, apply for electronic entry visas online or get visa through Uzbek Embassies or Consular Offices in your country.

## **Visa-free regime**

There are more than 60 nationalities, including all European Union citizens, that can enjoy a visa-free regime for 30 days period in Uzbekistan. The updated list of the visa-free nationalities is available at the website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Uzbekistan

But what if your country is not in the list?

## **You may apply online for e-visa of Uzbekistan**

More than 70 nationalities can apply for electronic tourist visas. Сheck out the list of countries whose citizens have the opportunity to obtain an electronic entry visa. After making sure that your country is in the list, you can apply online on the official website of the portal.

## **How to get an Uzbekistan visa through the embassy?**

If you are not from one of the above countries, you will need to go to the Embassy or Consular Office of Uzbekistan, and apply for a visa to Uzbekistan. You may need Visa support (Letter of Invitation) from inviting organization, company and persons who are permanently or temporarily residing in Uzbekistan.

## **Travelling with Uzbekistan Airways transit flight?**

Citizens of more than 100 countries are permitted to transit Uzbekistan for up to 5 days without a visa. To be eligible for visa-free transit, you must arrive in and depart from Uzbekistan by Uzbekistan Airways, and present your airline ticket on arrival at the airport.

LIST OF COUNTRIES for citizens from February 1, 2019 a visa-free regime had been established for a period of 30 days

1. Australia  
2. Austria  
3. Argentina  
4. Bosnia and Herzegovina  
5. Vatican  
6. Grand Duchy of Luxembourg  
7. Hungary  
8. The state of Brunei Darussalam  
9. Hellenic Republic  
10. Ireland  
11. Iceland  
12. Italian Republic  
13. Canada  
14. Principality of Andorra  
15. Principality of Liechtenstein  
16. Principality of Monaco  
17. Kingdom of Belgium  
18. Kingdom of Denmark  
19. Kingdom of Spain  
20. Kingdom of the Netherlands  
21. Kingdom of Norway  
22. Kingdom of Sweden  
23. Republic of Latvia  
24. Republic of Lithuania  
25. Mongolia  
26. New Zealand  
27. Portugal  
28. Republic of Bulgaria  
29. Republic of Cyprus  
30. Republic of Malta  
31. Republic of Poland  
32. Republic of San Marino  
33. Republic of Serbia  
34. Republic of Slovenia  
35. Republic of Croatia  
36. Republic of Chile  
37. Romania  
38. Slovak Republic  
39. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland  
40. Federative Republic of Brazil  
41. Finland  
42. Montenegro  
43. Czech Republic  
44. Swiss Confederation  
45. Republic of Estonia

**LIST OF COUNTRIES, whose citizens from February 1, 2019 have the opportunity to receive an electronic entry visa**

  1. 
|

People`s Democratic Republic of Algeria

---|---

  2. 
|

Antigua and Barbuda

  3. 
|

Arab Republic of Egypt

  4. 
|

Barbados

  5. 
|

Belize

  6. 
|

Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela

  7. 
|

Commonwealth of Dominica

  8. 
|

Commonwealth of the Bahamas

  9. 
|

Cooperative Republic of Guyana

  10. 
|

Côte d'Ivoire

  11. 
|

Democratic People's Republic of Korea

  12. 
|

Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka

  13. 
|

Dominican Republic

  14. 
|

Eastern Republic of Uruguay

  15. 
|

Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal

  16. 
|

Federated States of Micronesia

  17. 
|

Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis

  18. 
|

Gabonese Republic

  19. 
|

Grenada

  20. 
|

Islamic Republic of Iran

  21. 
|

Jamaica

  22. 
|

Jordanian Hashemite Kingdom

  23. 
|

Kingdom of Bahrain

  24. 
|

Kingdom of Bhutan

  25. 
|

Kingdom of Cambodia

  26. 
|

Kingdom of Morocco

  27. 
|

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

  28. 
|

Kingdom of Thailand

  29. 
|

Kingdom of Tonga

  30. 
|

Lao People's Democratic Republic

  31. 
|

Lebanese Republic

  32. 
|

United Mexican States

  33. 
|

People's Republic of Bangladesh

  34. 
|

Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China

  35. 
|

Plurinational State of Bolivia

  36. 
|

Republic of Albania

  37. 
|

Republic of Angola

  38. 
|

Republic of Cameroon

  39. 
|

Republic of Cape Verde

  40. 
|

Republic of Colombia

  41. 
|

Republic of Costa Rica

  42. 
|

Republic of Cuba

  43. 
|

Republic of Ecuador

  44. 
|

Republic of El Salvador

  45. 
|

Republic of Fiji

  46. 
|

Republic of Ghana

  47. 
|

Republic of Guatemala

  48. 
|

Republic of Honduras

  49. 
|

Republic of India

  50. 
|

Republic of Kiribati

  51. 
|

Republic of Macedonia

  52. 
|

Republic of Maldives

  53. 
|

Republic of Mauritius

  54. 
|

Republic of Nauru

  55. 
|

Republic of Nicaragua

  56. 
|

Republic of Palau

  57. 
|

Republic of Panama

  58. 
|

Republic of Paraguay

  59. 
|

Republic of Peru

  60. 
|

Republic of Senegal

  61. 
|

Republic of Seychelles

  62. 
|

Republic of Suriname

  63. 
|

Republic of the Marshall Islands

  64. 
|

Republic of the Philippines

  65. 
|

Republic of Trinidad and Tobago

  66. 
|

Republic of Vanuatu

  67. 
|

Saint Lucia

  68. 
|

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

  69. 
|

Samoa Independent State

  70. 
|

Socialist Republic of Vietnam

  71. 
|

Solomon islands

  72. 
|

South Africa

  73. 
|

State of Kuwait

  74. 
|

State of Qatar

  75. 
|

Sultanate of Oman

  76. 
|

Tunisian Republic

  77. 
|

USA

134

