Applied psychology is the use of psychological
methods and findings of scientific psychology
to solve practical problems of human and animal
behavior and experience.
Mental health, organizational psychology,
business management, education, health, product
design, ergonomics, and law are just a few
of the areas that have been influenced by
the application of psychological principles
and findings.
Some of the areas of applied psychology include
clinical psychology, counseling psychology,
evolutionary psychology, industrial and organizational
psychology, legal psychology, neuropsychology,
occupational health psychology, human factors,
forensic psychology, engineering psychology,
school psychology, sports psychology, traffic
psychology, community psychology, and medical
psychology.
In addition, a number of specialized areas
in the general field of psychology have applied
branches (e.g., applied social psychology,
applied cognitive psychology).
However, the lines between sub-branch specializations
and major applied psychology categories are
often blurred.
For example, a human factors psychologist
might use a cognitive psychology theory.
This could be described as human factor psychology
or as applied cognitive psychology.
== History ==
The founder of applied psychology was Hugo
Münsterberg.
He came to America (Harvard) from Germany
(Berlin, Laboratory of Stern), invited by
William James, and, like many aspiring psychologists
during the late 19th century, originally studied
philosophy.
Münsterberg had many interests in the field
of psychology such as purposive psychology,
social psychology and forensic psychology.
In 1907 he wrote several magazine articles
concerning legal aspects of testimony, confessions
and courtroom procedures, which eventually
developed into his book, On the Witness Stand.
The following year the Division of Applied
Psychology was adjoined to the Harvard Psychological
Laboratory.
Within 9 years he had contributed eight books
in English, applying psychology to education,
industrial efficiency, business and teaching.
Eventually Hugo Münsterberg and his contributions
would define him as the creator of applied
psychology.
In 1920, the International Association of
Applied Psychology (IAAP) was founded, as
the first international scholarly society
within the field of psychology.
Most professional psychologists in the U.S.
worked in an academic setting until World
War II.
But during the war, the armed forces and the
Office of Strategic Services hired psychologists
in droves to work on issues such as troop
morale and propaganda design.
After the war, psychologists found an expanding
range of jobs outside of the academy.
Since 1970, the number of college graduates
with degrees in psychology has more than doubled,
from 33,679 to 76,671 in 2002.
The annual numbers of masters' and PhD degrees
have also increased dramatically over the
same period.
All the while, degrees in the related fields
of economics, sociology, and political science
have remained constant.Professional organizations
have organized special events and meetings
to promote the idea of applied psychology.
In 1990, the American Psychological Society
held a Behavioral Science Summit and formed
the "Human Capital Initiative", spanning schools,
workplace productivity, drugs, violence, and
community health.
The American Psychological Association declared
2000–2010 the Decade of Behavior, with a
similarly broad scope.
Psychological methods are considered applicable
to all aspects of human life and society.
== Advertising ==
Business advertisers have long consulted psychologists
in assessing what types of messages will most
effectively induce a person to buy a particular
product.
Using the psychological research methods and
the findings in human's cognition, motivation,
attitudes and decision making, those can help
to design more persuasive advertisement.
Their research includes the study of unconscious
influences and brand loyalty.
However, the effect of unconscious influences
was controversial
== 
Clinical psychology ==
Clinical psychology includes the study and
application of psychology for the purpose
of understanding, preventing, and relieving
psychologically-based distress or dysfunction
and to promote subjective well-being and personal
development.
Central to its practice are psychological
assessment and psychotherapy, although clinical
psychologists may also engage in research,
teaching, consultation, forensic testimony,
and program development and administration.
Some clinical psychologists may focus on the
clinical management of patients with brain
injury—this area is known as clinical neuropsychology.
In many countries clinical psychology is a
regulated mental health profession.
The work performed by clinical psychologists
tends to be done inside various therapy models,
all of which involve a formal relationship
between professional and client—usually
an individual, couple, family, or small group—that
employs a set of procedures intended to form
a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature
of psychological problems, and encourage new
ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving.
The four major perspectives are psychodynamic,
cognitive behavioral, existential-humanistic,
and systems or family therapy.
There has been a growing movement to integrate
these various therapeutic approaches, especially
with an increased understanding of issues
regarding ethnicity, gender, spirituality,
and sexual-orientation.
With the advent of more robust research findings
regarding psychotherapy, there is growing
evidence that most of the major therapies
are about of equal effectiveness, with the
key common element being a strong therapeutic
alliance.
Because of this, more training programs and
psychologists are now adopting an eclectic
therapeutic orientation.
Clinical psychologists do not usually prescribe
medication, although there is a growing number
of psychologists who do have prescribing privileges,
in the field of medical psychology.
In general, however, when medication is warranted
many psychologists will work in cooperation
with psychiatrists so that clients get all
their therapeutic needs met.
Clinical psychologists may also work as part
of a team with other professionals, such as
social workers and nutritionists.
== Counseling psychology ==
Counseling psychology is an applied specialization
within psychology, that involves both research
and practice in a number of different areas
or domains.
According to Gelso and Fretz (2001), there
are some central unifying themes among counseling
psychologists.
These include a focus on an individual's strengths,
relationships, their educational and career
development, as well as a focus on normal
personalities.
Counseling psychologists help people improve
their well-being, reduce and manage stress,
and improve overall functioning in their lives.
The interventions used by Counseling Psychologists
may be either brief or long-term in duration.
Often they are problem focused and goal-directed.
There is a guiding philosophy which places
a value on individual differences and an emphasis
on "prevention, development, and adjustment
across the life-span."
== 
Educational psychology ==
Educational psychology is devoted to the study
of how humans learn in educational settings,
especially schools.
Psychologists assess the effects of specific
educational interventions: e.g., phonics versus
whole language instruction in early reading
attainment.
They also study the question of why learning
occurs differently in different situations.Another
domain of educational psychology is the psychology
of teaching.
In some colleges, educational psychology courses
are called "the psychology of learning and
teaching".
Educational psychology derives a great deal
from basic-science disciplines within psychology
including cognitive science and behaviorially-oriented
research on learning.
== Environmental psychology ==
Environmental psychology is the psychological
study of humans and their interactions with
their environments.
The types of environments studied are limitless,
ranging from homes, offices, classrooms, factories,
nature, and so on.
However, across these different environments,
there are several common themes of study that
emerge within each one.
Noise level and ambient temperature are clearly
present in all environments and often subjects
of discussion for environmental psychologists.
Crowding and stressors are a few other aspects
of environments studied by this sub-discipline
of psychology.
When examining a particular environment, environmental
psychology looks at the goals and purposes
of the people in the using the environment,
and tries to determine how well the environment
is suiting the needs of the people using it.
For example, a quiet environment is necessary
for a classroom of students taking a test,
but would not be needed or expected on a farm
full of animals.
The concepts and trends learned through environmental
psychology can be used when setting up or
rearranging spaces so that the space will
best perform its intended function.
The top common, more well known areas of psychology
that drive this applied field include: cognitive,
perception, learning, and social psychology.
== Forensic psychology and legal psychology
==
Forensic psychology and legal psychology are
the area concerned with the application of
psychological methods and principles to legal
questions and issues.
Most typically, forensic psychology involves
a clinical analysis of a particular individual
and an assessment of some specific psycho-legal
question.
The psycho-legal question does not have to
be criminal in nature.
In fact, the forensic psychologist rarely
gets involved in the actual criminal investigations.
Custody cases are a great example of non-criminal
evaluations by forensic psychologists.
The validity and upholding of eyewitness testimony
is an area of forensic psychology that does
veer closer to criminal investigations, though
does not directly involve the psychologist
in the investigation process.
Psychologists are often called to testify
as expert witnesses on issues such as the
accuracy of memory, the reliability of police
interrogation, and the appropriate course
of action in child custody cases.Legal psychology
refers to any application of psychological
principles, methods or understanding to legal
questions or issues.
In addition to the applied practices, legal
psychology also includes academic or empirical
research on topics involving the relationship
of law to human mental processes and behavior.
However, inherent differences that arise when
placing psychology in the legal context.
Psychology rarely makes absolute statements.
Instead, psychologists traffic in the terms
like level of confidence, percentages, and
significance.
Legal matters, on the other hand, look for
absolutes: guilty or not guilty.
This makes for a sticky union between psychology
and the legal system.
Some universities operate dual JD/PhD programs
focusing on the intersection of these two
areas.The Committee on Legal Issues of the
American Psychological Association is known
to file amicus curae briefs, as applications
of psychological knowledge to high-profile
court cases.A related field, police psychology,
involves consultation with police departments
and participation in police training.
== Health and medicine ==
Health psychology concerns itself with understanding
how biology, behavior, and social context
influence health and illness.
Health psychologists generally work alongside
other medical professionals in clinical settings,
although many also teach and conduct research.
Although its early beginnings can be traced
to the kindred field of clinical psychology,
four different approaches to health psychology
have been defined: clinical, public health,
community and critical health psychology.Health
psychologists aim to change health behaviors
for the dual purpose of helping people stay
healthy and helping patients adhere to disease
treatment regimens.
The focus of health psychologists tend to
center on the health crisis facing the western
world particularly in the US.
Cognitive behavioral therapy and behavior
modification are techniques often employed
by health psychologists.
Psychologists also study patients' compliance
with their doctors' orders.Health psychologists
view a person's mental condition as heavily
related to their physical condition.
An important concept in this field is stress,
a mental phenomenon with well-known consequences
for physical health.
=== Medical ===
Medical psychology involves the application
of a range of psychological principles, theories
and findings applied to the effective management
of physical and mental disorders to improve
the psychological and physical health of the
patient.
The American Psychological Association (APA)
defines medical psychology as the branch of
psychology that integrates somatic and psychotherapeutic
modalities, into the management of mental
illness, health rehabilitation and emotional,
cognitive, behavioural and substance use disorders.
According to Muse and Moore (2012), the medical
psychologist's contributions in the areas
of psychopharmacology which sets it apart
from other of psychotherapy and psychotherpists.
=== Occupational health psychology ===
Occupational health psychology (OHP) is a
relatively new discipline that emerged from
the confluence of health psychology, industrial
and organizational psychology, and occupational
health.
OHP has its own journals and professional
organizations.
The field is concerned with identifying psychosocial
characteristics of workplaces that give rise
to health-related problems in people who work.
These problems can involve physical health
(e.g., cardiovascular disease) or mental health
(e.g., depression).
Examples of psychosocial characteristics of
workplaces that OHP has investigated include
amount of decision latitude a worker can exercise
and the supportiveness of supervisors.
OHP is also concerned with the development
and implementation of interventions that can
prevent or ameliorate work-related health
problems.
In addition, OHP research has important implications
for the economic success of organizations.
Other research areas of concern to OHP include
workplace incivility and violence, work-home
carryover, unemployment and downsizing, and
workplace safety and accident prevention.
Two important OHP journals are the Journal
of Occupational Health Psychology and Work
& Stress.
Three important organizations closely associated
with OHP are the International Commission
on Occupational Health's Scientific Committee
on Work Organisation and Psychosocial Factors
(ICOH-WOPS), the Society for Occupational
Health Psychology, and the European Academy
of Occupational Health Psychology.
== Human factors and ergonomics ==
Human factors and ergonomics (HF&E) is the
study of how cognitive and psychological processes
affect our interaction with tools, machines,
and objects in the environment.
Many branches of psychology attempt to create
models of and understand human behavior.
These models are usually based on data collected
from experiments.
Human Factor psychologists however, take the
same data and use it to design or adapt processes
and objects that will compliment the human
component of the equation.
Rather than humans learning how to use and
manipulate a piece of technology, human factors
strives to design technology to be inline
with the human behavior models designed by
general psychology.
This could be accounting for physical limitations
of humans, as in ergonomics, or designing
systems, especially computer systems, that
work intuitively with humans, as does engineering
psychology.
Ergonomics is applied primarily through office
work and the transportation industry.
Psychologists here take into account the physical
limitations of the human body and attempt
to reduce fatigue and stress by designing
products and systems that work within the
natural limitations of the human body.
From simple things like the size of buttons
and design of office chairs to layout of airplane
cockpits, human factor psychologists, specializing
in ergonomics, attempt to de-stress our everyday
lives and sometimes even save them.
Human factor psychologists specializing in
engineering psychology tend to take on slightly
different projects than their ergonomic centered
counterparts.
These psychologists look at how a human and
a process interact.
Often engineering psychology may be centered
on computers.
However at the base level, a process is simply
a series of inputs and outputs between a human
and a machine.
The human must have a clear method to input
data and be able to easily access the information
in output.
The inability of rapid and accurate corrections
can sometimes lead to drastic consequences,
as summed up by many stories in Set Phasers
on Stun.
The engineering psychologists wants to make
the process of inputs and outputs as intuitive
as possible for the user.
The goal of research in human factors is to
understand the limitations and biases of human
mental processes and behavior, and design
items and systems that will interact accordingly
with the limitations.
Some may see human factors as intuitive or
a list of dos and don'ts, but in reality,
human factor research strives to make sense
of large piles of data to bring precise applications
to product designs and systems to help people
work more naturally, intuitively with the
items of their surroundings.
== Industrial and organizational psychology
==
Industrial and organizational psychology,
or I-O psychology, focuses on the psychology
of the workforce, customer, and consumer,
including issues such as the psychology of
recruitment, selecting employees from an applicant
pool, training, performance appraisal, job
satisfaction, work motivation.
work behavior, stress at work and management.
In short, I-O psychology is the application
of psychology to the workplace.
A core aspect of this field is job analysis,
the detailed study of which behaviors a given
job entails.Though the name of the title "Industrial
Organizational Psychology" implies 2 split
disciplines being chained together, it is
near impossible to have one half without the
other.
If asked to generally define the differences,
Industrial psychology focuses more on the
Human Resources aspects of the field, and
Organizational psychology focuses more on
the personal interactions of the employees.
When applying these principles however, they
are not easily broken apart.
For example, when developing requirements
for a new job position, the recruiters are
looking for an applicant with strong communication
skills in multiple areas.
The developing of the position requirements
falls under the industrial psychology, human
resource type work. and the requirement of
communication skills is related to how the
employee with interacts with co-workers.
As seen here, it is hard to separate task
of developing a qualifications list from the
types of qualifications on the list.
This is parallel to how the I and O are nearly
inseparable in practice.
Therefore, I-O psychologists are generally
rounded in both industrial and organizational
psychology though they will have some specialization.
Other topics of interest for I-O psychologists
include performance evaluation, training,
and much more.
Military psychology includes research into
the classification, training, and performance
of soldiers.
== School psychology ==
School psychology is a field that applies
principles of clinical psychology and educational
psychology to the diagnosis and treatment
of students' behavioral and learning problems.
School psychologists are educated in child
and adolescent development, learning theories,
psychological and psycho-educational assessment,
personality theories, therapeutic interventions,
special education, psychology, consultation,
child and adolescent psychopathology, and
the ethical, legal and administrative codes
of their profession.
According to Division 16 (Division of School
Psychology) of the American Psychological
Association (APA), school psychologists operate
according to a scientific framework.
They work to promote effectiveness and efficiency
in the field.
School psychologists conduct psychological
assessments, provide brief interventions,
and develop or help develop prevention programs.
Additionally, they evaluate services with
special focus on developmental processes of
children within the school system, and other
systems, such as families.
School psychologists consult with teachers,
parents, and school personnel about learning,
behavioral, social, and emotional problems.
They may teach lessons on parenting skills
(like school counselors), learning strategies,
and other skills related to school mental
health.
In addition, they explain test results to
parents and students.
They provide individual, group, and in some
cases family counseling (State Board of Education
2003; National Clearinghouse for Professions
in Special Education, n.d.).
School psychologists are actively involved
in district and school crisis intervention
teams.
They also supervise graduate students in school
psychology.
School psychologists in many districts provide
professional development to teachers and other
school personnel on topics such as positive
behavior intervention plans and achievement
tests.
One salient application for school psychology
in today's world is responding to the unique
challenges of increasingly multicultural classrooms.
For example, psychologists can contribute
insight about the differences between individualistic
and collectivistic cultures.School psychologists
are influential within the school system and
are frequently consulted to solve problems.
Practitioners should be able to provide consultation
and collaborate with other members of the
educational community and confidently make
decisions based on empirical research.
== Social change ==
Psychologists have been employed to promote
"green" behavior, i.e. sustainable development.
In this case, their goal is behavior modification,
through strategies such as social marketing.
Tactics include education, disseminating information,
organizing social movements, passing laws,
and altering taxes to influence decisions.Psychology
has been applied on a world scale with the
aim of population control.
For example, one strategy towards television
programming combines social models in a soap
opera with informational messages during advertising
time.
This strategy successfully increased women's
enrollment at family planning clinics in Mexico.
The programming—which has been deployed
around the world by Population Communications
International and the Population Media Center—combines
family planning messages with representations
of female education and literacy.
== Sport psychology ==
Sport psychology is a specialization within
psychology that seeks to understand psychological/mental
factors that affect performance in sports,
physical activity and exercise and apply these
to enhance individual and team performance.
The sport psychology approach differs from
the coaches and players perspective.
Coaches tend to narrow their focus and energy
towards the end-goal.
They are concerned with the actions that lead
to the win, as opposed to the sport psychologist
who tries to focus the players thoughts on
just achieving the win.
Sport psychology trains players mentally to
prepare them, whereas coaches tend to focus
mostly on physical training.
Sport psychology deals with increasing performance
by managing emotions and minimizing the psychological
effects of injury and poor performance.
Some of the most important skills taught are
goal setting, relaxation, visualization, self-talk
awareness and control, concentration, using
rituals, attribution training, and periodization.
The principles and theories may be applied
to any human movement or performance tasks
(e.g., playing a musical instrument, acting
in a play, public speaking, motor skills).
Usually, experts recommend that students be
trained in both kinesiology (i.e., sport and
exercise sciences, physical education) and
counseling.
== Traffic psychology ==
Traffic psychology is an applied discipline
within psychology that looks at the relationship
between psychological processes and cognitions
and the actual behavior of road users.
In general, traffic psychologists attempt
to apply these principles and research findings,
in order to provide solutions to problems
such as traffic mobility and congestion, road
accidents, speeding.
Research psychologists also are involved with
the education and the motivation of road users.
== Additional areas ==
Community psychology
Counseling psychology
Ecological psychology
Media psychology
Operational psychology
Peace psychology
Traffic psychology
== 
See also ==
List of important publications in psychology
Linguistics
Neuroscience
Social work
Outline of psychology
