Io is one of the most curious objects in our
solar system.
The innermost of Jupiter’s big moons, it
has plenty of features that set it apart from
anything else that we have ever seen, including
volcanoes, aurora and a sulphur atmosphere.
I’m Alex McColgan and you’re watching
Astrum, and together we will go through everything
you could want to know about the hellish world
of Io.
Let’s get to know the context of Io a little
better.
Jupiter has 79 moons that we know of so far.
There’s a few that orbit close to the planet,
in and around the planet’s rings.
Beyond that are four large moons, known as
the Galilean moons, named after Galileo who
discovered them in 1610.
From innermost to outermost, these moons are
Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto.
Beyond them are the irregular moons of Jupiter,
all of which are much further out than the
previous moons.
Io orbits very closely to Jupiter, only 350,000km
above Jupiter’s cloud tops.
This means from Io’s surface, Jupiter would
appear 39 times bigger in the sky than our
moon.
Io orbits Jupiter in only 42.5 hours compared
to our moons monthly orbit.
Its orbit is actually in sync with two of
the other Galilean moons.
It orbits twice for every orbit of Europa,
and four times for every orbit of Ganymede.
This is what we call an orbital resonance.
Orbital resonances greatly enhance the mutual
gravitational influence of the moons, which
means the gravitational forces from the other
moons cause the orbit of Io to have a little
more eccentricity than it otherwise would
have.
This is likely the primary heat source for
all its geological activity, as Jupiter’s
gravity pulls and tugs on Io, causing tidal
heating.
At some points in its orbit, the tidal bulge
on Io is thought to be up to 100m.
This affect is similar to what we see on Earth,
with the oceans tides being caused by the
moon, although on Earth the effect is much
more minimal, the tides only usually shifting
about 2m from high to low.
Io is getting 300% more tidal force exerted
on it in comparison to our moon on us because
of its close proximity to the biggest planet
in the solar system, Jupiter, and the other
big moons in the system don’t allow the
moon’s orbit to be less eccentric, meaning
Io isn’t going to get any respite anytime
soon.
A day on Io is the same as its orbital rotation,
which means that Io is tidally locked to Jupiter.
Just like we can only see one face of our
moon from Earth, only one face of Io can ever
be seen from Jupiter.
Io is a pretty big moon, although it is the
second smallest out of the Galilean moons.
It is comparable in size to Earth’s moon
and shares a similar density, meaning it has
a similar amount of gravity.
Interestingly, it has the highest density
of any other moon in the solar system, one
of its many unique features.
Another is that is it composed of mainly silicate
rock and iron, similar to the terrestrial
planets and our moon, in comparison to most
other big moons in the solar system which
are made of water ice and silicates.
Io in fact has the least amount of water of
any known body in the Solar System.
Its core is likely is be made of iron or iron
sulphides, surrounded by a silicate rich mantle
and crust.
The core is not thought to be convecting though,
as no magnetosphere has been detected around
the moon.
The mantle is thought to be liquid near the
crust, and is at least 50km thick.
This is where all the volcanism originates.
Which brings us to perhaps the most interesting
part about Io, the hundreds of huge volcanoes
all over its surface.
Before the 1970s, we didn’t know much about
Io at all, although telescopes were starting
to pick up hints that the moon was devoid
of water, and that it may have a surface of
sulphur.
The first mission to see Io in any kind of
detail was Pioneer 11, although the quality
was still not so great.
What it did detect, however, is that Io was
made of silicate rock and not water ice, and
that it has a thin atmosphere.
Pioneer 10 was also meant to take some close
up shots of Io, but this was lost due to Jupiter’s
radiation interfering with the on-board command
system.
The radiation Pioneer 10 went through was
10,000 times stronger than maximum radiation
around the Earth.
The next missions to Jupiter were the Voyager
I and II missions in 1979.
Voyager I flew by at a distance of only 20,000km,
and was able to take some impressive close
ups of Io’s surface.
What it saw was a remarkable landscape, full
of vibrant colours and a total absence of
impact craters.
It found mountains taller than Everest, as
well as volcanic pits hundreds of kilometres
wide, and what looked to be lava flows.
Most notable however, was the presence of
plumes coming from the surface.
This proved that Io is volcanically active,
and it is still the first and only place this
has been visibly seen beyond Earth (not including
cryovolcanoes).
Voyager I also confirmed that the surface
of Io is covered in different sulphur frosts.
This is what gives Io its many spectacular
colours.
It found that it is these sulphur compounds
that dominate the atmosphere.
Voyager II also saw Io in July of 1979, but
was much further away at 1,000,000 km, although
it still saw 7 of the nine plumes Voyager
I saw in March, which meant those volcanoes
had likely remained active throughout those
4 months.
The really interesting images came about with
the Galileo spacecraft that arrived at Jupiter
in 1995.
The spacecraft wasn’t especially designed
to only study Io, but it was able to acquire
some of the highest resolution images we now
have of its surface.
Sadly though, Galileo never worked at full
capacity as it had quite a few mechanical
malfunctions, which means we could have had
even better images, had it been fully operational.
What it was able to see though were plumes
from many volcanoes, as well as confirming
the volcanoes were erupting sulphur and silicate
magmas, similar to what we have on earth,
except the magma on Io is also rich in magnesium.
The surface of Io is spectacularly colourful.
The yellow plains are composed of mainly sulphur;
the white areas are mainly fresh sulphur dioxide
frosts.
Towards the poles, the sulphur is damaged
by radiation, which can be seen as the poles
appear redder than the rest of the planet.
In other places, the colour of red are the
deposits left by volcanic plumes that reached
hundreds of kilometres above Io.
The most obvious deposit is from the volcano
Pele, sadly an inactive volcano when Galileo
was around.
Voyager I was able to see a massive plume
when it passed by, in this image the plume
is 300km tall and 1,200km wide, in other words,
roughly the size of Alaska.
Interestingly though, the source of lava flows
on Earth are typically the depression you
would normally see at the top of volcanoes,
but these depressions are not found on high
on peaks on Io.
Instead you have these lava lakes with high
walls along the outside.
Here is Loki, the largest volcanic depression
on Io, 200km in diameter.
These lakes are directly connected to the
lava reservoir below, but usually have a thin
layer of solidified crust on top.
On average, Loki produces 25% of the average
heat output of Io, but sometimes the crust
on the lava lake sinks back into the lava,
causing Loki to produce 10 times more heat
than normal.
This can especially be seen in one of Io’s
other big volcanoes, Tvashtar.
Normally this area looks like this, but here
the crust is seen falling into the lava lake.
In this image where there is just white, the
radiant energy from the lava curtain was so
intense that the camera only registered white.
In 2007, New Horizons used Jupiter as a gravity
assist on its way to Pluto.
It also used the opportunity to test its equipment.
It focused its lens on Io during its flyby
and what it saw was amazing.
Tvashtar, the volcano I just mentioned, was
in full eruption, and the plume could be seen
hundreds of kilometres above Io’s surface.
You can also see other small eruptions around
the moon.
I must admit, this is one of the most impressive
things I’ve seen of space.
Even though the volcanoes tend to be flat,
it also has some extremely tall mountains,
the highest one reaching 18km tall.
These mountains tend to be completely by themselves,
not as part of a ridge or range.
Although most are not volcanoes, lava lakes
are often found near them, indicting there
are faults in the crust near these mountains.
Another of the unique aspects of Io is its
interaction with the magnetic field of Jupiter.
Jupiter has an extremely large and strong
magnetic field, and Io orbits within some
of the strongest sections.
The unusual thing about this interaction is
that when particles from some of Io’s thin
atmosphere and eruptions are lost to space,
these particles float in orbit around Jupiter
in what is known as a neutral cloud.
This cloud can extend far beyond and behind
the orbit of Io.
But also surrounding Jupiter is something
known as a plasma torus, a doughnut of ionised
particles that follows the rotation of Jupiter’s
magnetic field.
The plasma torus rotates a lot faster than
Io orbits, at 70km/s compared to Io’s 17km/s
orbital velocity.
Io orbits right through the middle of it,
with the particles from the torus bombarding
the particles in the neutral cloud, exciting
them to higher energies.
These newly ionised particles feed into the
torus, attracted by the magnetic field lines
of the magnetosphere.
These particles are lost from the neutral
cloud into the plasma torus at a rate of about
1 tonne of matter per second, which greatly
increases the size of Jupiter’s magnetic
field.
In fact, if it was visible, Jupiter’s magnetosphere
would be about the same size as the moon in
the sky.
Io’s interaction with Jupiter doesn’t
end there.
Jupiter's magnetic field lines, which Io crosses,
couple Io's atmosphere and neutral cloud to
Jupiter's polar upper atmosphere by generating
an electric current known as the Io flux tube.
A flux tube is basically a concentration of
magnetic field lines.
The sun has these between sunspots, and it
is very visible on the Sun because of the
charged plasma that flows between them.
Io’s flux tube causes an aurora trail around
Jupiter’s poles.
This point here is the flux tube from Io striking
the upper atmosphere of Jupiter.
Aurorae are also visible on Io, although they
are not just limited to the poles.
The different colours represent the different
particles being ionised, green is sodium,
red is oxygen, and blue from sulphur.
And there is everything you could want to
know about Io.
Learning about the plasma torus of Jupiter
made me realise that there is a lot more to
matter, electromagnetic fields and energy
than I thought.
Thankfully I don’t need to be ignorant of
the facts for long, as Brilliant.org has some
great courses on some of these subjects as
well as the astronomy topics I’ve mentioned
before.
I’ve come to understand that for astronomy
to be truly comprehended, physics and chemistry
are also very important subjects.
Brilliant already has a course on matter to
get you started, and energy, forces and waves
will be coming soon!
So why not give it a go?
If you go to brilliant.org/Astrum, you can
sign up for free to have a sample of their
courses, and by using that link, the first
200 people will get 20% off the annual Brilliant
premium subscription.
If you want to support my channel and also
expand on your own knowledge, I highly recommend
this website.
I hope you found this video interesting!
Personally, Io has always captured my imagination
as it is so unique in our solar system, so
I’m very happy to have the chance to do
a video on it.
Also happy to have passed 100k subscribers!
Stay tuned next week for my 100K special video
I will be making.
Don’t forget to like, subscribe and share,
or even donate if you are feeling generous.
All the best and see you next time.
