

#### Table of Contents

### A Brief History of Western Philosophy

Socrates

Plato

Aristotle

Plotinus

The Medieval Period

The Renaissance

The Enlightenment: Locke, Rousseau, Descartes, Hume, Kant, Hegel, Popper, Whitehead

### Psychology of the 20th Century

Sigmund Freud

Carl Jung

Wilhelm Reich

Roberto Assagioli

Ivan Pavlov

BF Skinner

Albert Ellis

Carl Rogers

Abraham Maslow

Howard Gardner

Psychopathology

### Philosophy of the East

Yoga, Siddhartha Gautama, The Naturalists, Traditional Chinese Medicine

### Brain Networks & Electroencephalography (EEG)

The Central Nervous System

The Brain's Default Mode Network

The Brain's Task Positive Network

Brainwaves

EEG Biofeedback

Polyvagal Theory & Heart Rate Variability (HRV)

HRV Biofeedback

### Modern Theories on Psychological Development

Holarchy

Stanislav Grof & Prenatal Development

Piaget's Stages of Development

Post-Formal Operations & Ken Wilber's Integral Theory

Perspectives

### Practical Applications

Overview: The Three Major States

Fear: Fight, Flight, and Freeze (Anger, Anxiety, and Depression)

Center: Awareness, Safety, & Connection

High-Value

### Physiology

Musculoskeletal System

Circulatory-Respiratory System

Central Nervous System

### Thoughts

General Types of Thought: Empowering and Disempowering

Language

Images

### Focus

Single Pointed

Open & Expansive

### Reality: Three Aspects

Subjective

Intersubjective

Objective

### Human Needs

Physiology

Safety

Relationship

Significance

Meaning/Knowledge & Understanding

Higher Values

Self-Transcendence

### Cognitive Dissonance

Resolving Inner Conflict and Creating a Compelling Future

Paradoxical Needs

The Empowerment of the Past

### Review of Methodology

State

Human Needs

### Supplement

Methods of Observation

Constructs of Cognition and Personality

### Preface

The primary purpose of this work is to briefly review the philosophical, psychological, neuroscientific, and methodological frameworks that have been developed throughout the history of the West (Europe, Americas, and Middle East) and East (China and India) in order to promote self-inquiry and self-regulation. The primary emphasis of this work is upon theories developed by the West.

The subjects that we will cover in the first section of this work include the history of modern thought, which will range from Socrates to Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus, the Medieval Ages of Europe, the Renaissance, Machiavelli, Locke, Rousseau, Descartes, Hume, Kant, Hegel, Popper, and Whitehead. Next, we will address the origin of the field of 20th century psychology, which includes Freud, Jung, Reich, Assagioli, Pavlov, Skinner, Rogers, Maslow, and Gardner. Once a brief review of these Western thinkers has been completed, we will explore a brief history of the philosophies of the East: Yoga, Buddhist philosophy of mind, The Naturalists, and Traditional Chinese Medicine. Next, we will review modern applied neuroscience and biofeedback for self-regulation, which incorporates modern research on the biological and psychological impact of sustained executive attention. Next, we will explore Piaget's model of psychological development and a theorized post-formal operational stage of development, which will be integrated into Ken Wilber's Integral framework. Finally, the practical applications of these theories will provide the reader with an overview of strategic interventions, which may promote self-inquiry and self-regulation.

The reader should also note that some of the concepts presented in this work represent a variety of theories and hypotheses that have not yet been subject to experimentation. Therefore, when encountering sections that refer to known research and hypotheses that "may" be the case, I encourage the reader to approach the proposed theory with a critical mind. What follows must be regarded as a combination of historical review, contemporary research, and new theories about the nature of the brain and mind.

Melissa Lavery holds an M.S. in Psychology with an emphasis in Child and Adolescent Development. Mrs. Lavery is responsible for a significant amount of proofing and editing, which has assisted with refining the work that follows.

R. Y. Langham holds a PhD in Psychology, and she will provide a brief review of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) in order to describe the deregulated physiological and psychological system. The Myers Briggs and DSM represent models of human personality, perception, and behavior that have not yet been subjected to rigorous experimental testing. Rather, they are naturally biased in favor of subjective interpretations of a variety of traits and behaviors. Therefore, these sections must be regarded as a tentative way of describing personality and behavior.

To those contemporary publishers, researchers, and authors who have been referenced throughout the work that follows, this work has been cross-referenced with published content through Authenticate, a system used by journals, such as _Elsevier, Nature_ , the _National Science Foundation_ , and others in order to verify that all content is attributed to sources accurately. This platform is designed to compare the content of this work with approximately 44 million journal articles, 98 million online and offline content resources, and over 56 billion total indexed pages on the internet. However, there is always the possibility that a work has been inaccurately represented or referenced. If we have made any errors that you believe require remedy, please submit your responses to e.Lenderman33@gmail.com.

Thank you,

Erik Lenderman

# A Brief Review of Philosophy

## Philosophy & Forms of Knowledge

Philosophy has constituted the root of systematic inquiry upon which all interior and exterior forms of knowledge have been developed throughout the West (Russell, 1972). Therefore, a review of philosophy may serve as a means by which to prepare for a study of the mind and body via 20th- and 21st-century physiological and psychological frameworks.

Philosophy's two principle methods of acquiring knowledge have included a priori and a posteriori inquiry. A priori reasoning has consisted in the knowledge of reality, which has been ascertained primarily through interior, logical analysis of a thing without direct experience of that thing: i.e. mathematics, tautological statements (i.e. all women are not men), and deduction from pure reason, which does not require external observation. A posteriori reasoning has consisted in knowledge that is acquired through empirical observation of objects in one's environment: i.e performing experiments on the mechanics of physical objects or observing the brain activity of a mammal. The process of addressing a priori realities and a posteriori realities has served as a means by which philosophers and psychologists have engaged with two primary faculties of human perception and established some of the most influential fields for studying the nature of mind and reality.

### Socrates

Socrates was most well-known for his development of the Socratic Method, which made use of a dialogical interrogatory designed to cause an individual to deeply explore the veracity of his or her stated thesis (400s BCE). Socrates traditionally applied this method to abstract concepts such as morality and virtue, where an individual's beliefs may or may not have been founded upon logically consistent arguments. Although the mind was capable of conceiving of logical concepts, each concept may have been shown to hold some degree of logical inconsistency.

This could result in an evolving dialog that would develop the capacity for the speaker to abandon his or her most sacred tenets during the process of discovering the truth. The Socratic Method was persistent in challenging theories so that one could recognize logical inconsistencies, integrate the new data, and formulate a new and more logical premise from which to proceed. However, the ultimate result of this process frequently involved the acknowledgement of one's state of unknowingness about a particular thing. That is, rather than an increasingly sturdy theory, one would repeatedly discover the paradoxes inherent in conceiving of truth. This would, in-turn, stimulate further creative inquiry and synthesis that could produce ever higher-order systems of logic.

The question of whether such a process ultimately ended in a stable theorem that was logically consistent may not yet have an answer. One may argue that a definitive theory of the nature of reality is possible, and one may also argue that the process of open inquiry is continuous. The Socratic Method may simply serve to continuously increase the capacity for interpreting the nature of the universe through ever increasing levels of complexity. Meanwhile, each level of increasingly sophisticated theorem may be subject to the Socratic Method once more. The following example may illustrate the manner in which a Socratic Dialog may have unfolded.

**Platonist:** Morality comes from Goodness, and knowing Goodness provides one with a sense of morality. Therefore, one who does not know Goodness cannot act in a moral manner.

**Socrates:** What is morality?

**Platonist:** Morality is a human behavior that is based upon right and wrong.

**Socrates:** If a despotic ruler suddenly developed an awareness of Goodness, would he develop the capacity to perform surgery on a patient without any medical training?

**Platonist:** No.

**Socrates:** Therefore, knowing Goodness does not give laypersons knowledge of right and wrong, and hence, knowing the Good does not provide one with a sense of morality?

**Platonist:** Well . . . (The Platonist's position has been shown to be logically inconsistent, so he must re-state his position more accurately).

## Plato, Aristotle, and Plotinus

Plato's principle philosophical method consisted in applying the Socratic Method of open-questioning, because he was a close student of Socrates (400s BCE). Plato also developed theories about the nature of love and a model of the ideal society. For Plato, the highest form of love was the love of the intellect of a friend with whom one could participate in discovering knowledge of the Good, the True, and the Beautiful (Morality, Truth, and Aesthetics). The sensory stimulation of sexual attraction was therefore a more superficial form of love, which was ephemeral. Hence, the phrase Platonic Love was developed in order to describe this higher form of love.

Plato's model of the ideal society involved rule by philosopher kings. Philosopher kings were educated individuals who knew how to consistently question their own cognitive frameworks in the service of mental development and to the benefit of the state. For Plato, the ideal society included formal training in language, mathematics, and physical development at the "academie", which became the foundation for the modern Western education. Plato proposed that philosopher kings were obligated to promulgate religious myths that provided the general population with moral guidelines through which to govern society. He was also an active proponent of the submission of the individual's lifeto the service of the state, where all members would enlist in a state-wide military for group preservation. However, Plato also emphasized the importance of personal happiness and personal development through the practice of Platonic philosophy, which Plotinus would later describe in more detail. For Plato, a priori reasoning was the primary method for determining the nature of reality, where interior inquiry represented the purest form of reason and knowledge of the world of Universals and Particulars.

Plato believed that reality was comprised of two distinct aspects, which included the world of Universals, or Forms, and the world of Matter, or Particulars. The Universals represented the supreme structural templates from which the world of Particulars drew its qualities. Therefore, a higher, Universal human body existed within the realm of Forms, and the human bodies that populated the earth were less perfect versions of the original template. Consequently, the objective of philosophy was to develop the capacity to actualize these higher Forms in order to stimulate happiness and fulfillment within the human character. Such was the purpose of education for the philosopher-- To become ever more aligned with the Universals of Goodness, Beauty, and Truth. Modern research has continued to refer to Plato, wherein the _European Journal of Clinical Nutrition_ has featured Skiadas's work in order to suggest that Plato's original conception of the ideal diet could serve as a guide for modern clinical nutrition research, which has yet to reach maturity (Skiadas & Lascaratos).

Aristotle's work addressed questions on causality, which included his propositions on the material, formal, efficient, and final causes (300s BCE) (Russell, 1972). The material cause represented the nature of an object's material structure (i.e. a thing is comprised of metal, wood, water, etc.), while the formal cause referred to the arrangement of the material, which conformed with a universal form, exemplar, or archetype -- Similar to the Platonic Forms. The efficient cause represented the causes of change that could act upon materials and their forms, and the final cause referred to the purpose of objects and their functions. Aristotle also suggested that coincidence could be regarded as an intermittent cause, which could act upon these primary causes. Plato proposed that Forms could exist as Universals, which existed unto themselves and without any necessary or contingent relationship with other objects as Particulars. However, Aristotle believed that all objects existed in relation to others, where the nature of higher level Universals could only be established through a contingent relationship with Particulars (i.e. interdependence of being among objects).

Aristotle's work extended far beyond the a priori and metaphysical inquiries of Socrates and Plato. He sought to extend philosophy in order to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the exterior physical world, which positioned Aristotle as one of the progenitors of Western biology, physics, geology, experimental optics, zoology, and more. Although Aristotle's work in these fields ranged from highly accurate to surprisingly inaccurate, he has been noted for his pioneering work in systematically classifying physical properties, logical processes, and life on earth. _Inquiry: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Philosophy_ has suggested that Aristotelian logic has and may continue to serve as a viable approach to considering ethical questions regarding the genetic modification of living organisms (Hauskellar, 2005). Meanwhile, Plotinus has also been referred to as an authority within the field of philosophy due to his role in contributing to Platonic thought.

Plotinus's work may be best described as an elucidation of Platonic thought, and so his work is often referred to as Neo-Platonism (200s BCE) (Russell, 1972). Plotinus's philosophical cosmology included the principle of The One, the Emanation from the One into the Many, the realm of the Forms, and the Return to the One. The One was a supreme and totally transcendent, indivisible source of reality, which was equivalent with the sum of the Good, the True, and the Beautiful, and the One existed prior to the manifest world. For Plotinus, the One emanated its transcendent being into the dualistic world of the Many in order to create the world of the Forms and a universe that was populated by humans. The One was beyond all being and non-being and did not possess any attributes or non-attributes, nor did it possess any inherent self-awareness or intentionality as with many theological conceptions of a personal God figure.

For Plotinus, as with Plato, the Forms represented a world of perfected templates from which all material objects drew their properties. According to Plotinus, the principle objective of human existence was to recognize that humans were all emanations of the One, and through philosophy, humans could develop the wisdom necessary to return their consciousness to the One.

Dr. Otto Doerr of the Department of Psychiatry at the Institute of Psychiatry, University of Chile, proposed that Plotinus's philosophical conception of the human experience of divinity could serve as a means by which to better understand the spiritual experiences of schizophrenic and epileptic patients. Through Doerr's research, Plotinus has continued to serve as a significant authority on the nature of spiritual experience, where he has been reviewed alongside traditional Judeo-Christian texts regarding the phenomenological quality of spiritual realities (Doerr & Velasquez, 2007). Plotinus's work was strongly influential in Judeo-Christian, Gnostic, and Arab thought, and his work has continued to serve as a guide for modern research into the nature of mystical experience.

## Philosophy and Science of the Arab World

Platonic thought heavily influenced philosophy throughout the Arab world, but the unique scientific developments achieved by this culture included significant contributions to the fields of astronomy, physics, and mathematics. During the European Middle Ages (Medieval/Dark Ages), the Arab world underwent a "Golden Age", which stretched from Spain to Pakistan and included the development of the first degree-granting universities, formal training and licensing of physicians, and the flourishing of art and architecture. Alhazen has been regarded as one of the first true modern scientists and one of the first to rigorously develop a systematic approach to a posteriori research via the scientific method--200 years prior to its prominent adoption by Europeans (Steffens, 2007). Alhazen focused principally upon studying the physical world, wherein he became known for contributing to the field of astronomy, mathematics, geometry, optics, refraction, and mechanics. Meanwhile, Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi was another thinker who was principally responsible for developing the foundations for the field of algebra and trigonometry (Allard, 1992). The Latin version of his name, _Algoritmi,_ and the title from one of his publications, _ (T _he Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing_ ) formed the origins for the terms algorithm and algebra _, respectively. Meanwhile, in Europe, a Dark Age of philosophy and science was underway.

## The Medieval Ages of Europe

The Medieval Ages (Dark Ages) (5th century to 15th century, est.) began after the collapse of the Roman Empire and has been roughly divided into the Early, Middle, and Late periods (Russell, 1972). The philosophy of the medieval age was primarily concerned with utilizing Plato and Aristotle as the foundation upon which Catholic Theology could be interpreted and developed. Deference to the authority of Plato and Aristotle, in addition to the authority of God, was primary, so philosophy did not develop new theories that challenged convention. Rather, philosophy was applied to the support and development of Catholic belief systems. This period has been widely regarded as a "dark age" for intellectual development due to the Catholic Church's practice of limiting philosophy as a means for discovering truth wherever the truth would go. Deferring to authority held primacy over the Socratic form of inquiry that challenged established structures of religious thought and culture. Augustine and Boethius were the most influential thinkers of the time.

Marking the beginning of the end of the Dark Ages, the European Renaissance was largely colored by a back-drop of Catholicism, where many great works of art were placed in Cathedrals (Bauer, 2010). Theologues commissioned master painters to generate great works of art with powerful imagery and religious themes _(i.e. The Last Supper and God Creates Man)_. The Protestant Reformation represented one of the most significant events in European history, where the politically powerful Catholic Church was challenged by Martin Luther, John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and others (Hillerbrand, 1968). This movement was principally concerned with challenging corruption and hypocrisy within the Catholic Church, where the Pope and his organization were often engaged in the practice of selling spiritual salvation (indulgences) and powerful offices (simony). Popes and priests were also engaged with what were considered to be immoral sexual behaviors that were contrary to church doctrine. Theological divisions emerged, where the Protestants held that individuals could commune with God personally, and the Catholic Church maintained that Priests must act as intermediaries between humans and God. The loyal Catholic, Thomas More campaigned against the Protestant Reformation, but the works of Luther, Calvin, and others produced a schism in the Catholic Church that resulted in the formation of independent Protestant Christian religions that have continued to develop and multiply for centuries.

The Protestant Reformation also stimulated Desederius Erasmus and others to lead the Catholic Church's interior transformation. The "Counter-Reformation" was initiated at the Council of Trent in order to address the legitimate criticisms that were levied against the Catholic Church. The Counter-Reformation resulted in a return to moral consistency and a more organized system of theological training for priests, which addressed undereducated spiritual leaders in rural areas. Bishops were no longer appointed for political reasons, and the new Catholic order of the Jesuits was formed. Saint Teresa of Avila and John of the Cross were two significant figures in the Carmelite order who were active in developing the interior spiritual practices used to transform their personal consciousnesses into that which mirrored the mind and heart of Christ (North, 2010; Teresa, 1957). These two figures were persecuted by their own communities, which had become a common characteristic of this large, politically savvy multi-national organization (Russell, 1972).

## The Renaissance

The European Renaissance coincided with the Reformation (16th century), which was a period of significant cultural transformation (Bauer, 2013). During the Renaissance, Humanism, art, science, religion, and economics underwent radical transformations beginning in Italy. The shifts in thinking, art, and economics were stimulated by the development of the printing press, which has been regarded by historians as one of the most significant technological inventions in recorded history. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to Northern Europe, England, France, Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Croatia, and Scotland.

Renaissance Humanism represented a shift from the medieval educational systems that focused upon Scholasticism (preparation to serve as a doctor, lawyer, or professional theologian). Scholasticism focused upon text-books that were designed to prepare students for practical professional vocations, which were highly scripted. The Humanists emphasized the study of classical thought through the humanities: grammar, poetry, rhetoric, history, and moral philosophy. The Humanists' objective was to create a society that could exercise critical thinking, moral integrity, and prudence as a means by which to lead the good life. Renaissance art represented another shift in the ways that artists worked with space, where linear perspective was developed and heavily utilized as a means by which to render more realistic, emotional, and life-like works. As a result, artwork became more vivid and meaningful. Meanwhile, new architecture reflected a revival of the ancient Roman and Greek styles of building, where symmetry, proportion, geometry, and large columns were re-introduced as a means by which to revive the past "Golden Age" of culture.

Leonardo DaVinci and Michelangelo Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni were well-known figures of the European Renaissance regarded as "Renaissance men"--people who developed deep relationships with multiple fields of inquiry and became innovators in those fields.

Leonardo DaVinci was most well-known for the artistic works of _The Last Supper, Mona Lisa_ , and _The Virgin of the Rocks_ , which earned him regard as one of the most talented painters of the Renaissance period. DaVinci was also well known for his empirical observations, scientific studies, and invention designs. DaVinci's 13,000 unpublished manuscripts and his study and rendering of anatomy provided significant insights into the human body. These manuscripts would have served as significant contributions to the field of medicine during his time, if they had been discovered. DaVinci was also responsible for the development of new theoretical technologies that included flying machines, musical instruments, bridges, ships, and weapons. He has been regarded as a master artist and master inventor, where some of his advanced engineering concepts were built in the modern era and recognized as effective.

Michelangelo was also held to be one of the greatest artists of his lifetime and perhaps the greatest artist in the world, during his career. Due to his span of interest and depth of knowledge in multiple subjects, Michelangelo has ranked closely with DaVinci in terms of his status as a "Renaissance man". Michelangelo's greatest works included that of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, _David_ , and others. Michelangelo also became known for writing openly homosexual love poems to poet and devoted lover, Tommaso dei Cavalieri. Later generations were uncomfortable with these poems, but the message was clear: Homosexual men could also be titans of progressive change and provide the sexually repressive Church with its most esteemed art.

## Niccolo Machiavelli

Niccolo Machiavelli (16th century) was a well-known Renaissance-era politician, diplomat, historian, playwright, and philosopher. Machiavelli's treatise _The Prince_ was primarily concerned with describing the means by which a princely ruler should govern society--through the deliberate use of deceit, violence, and other immoral actions when necessary. Machiavelli was known for establishing a philosophical orientation of "the ends justifying the means", where he contrasted with Plato's and Aristotle's theories that leaders should strive for an ideal moral society. Rather, leaders should strive to maintain their power by any means necessary in order to succeed as rulers. Machiavelli was both criticized for his suggestion that rulers should strategically utilize immoral methods as a means by which to maintain their regimes, and he was praised for his empirical approach to the study of politics. The term Machiavellianism has been used with reference to despotic leaders who maintain or realize their power through manipulation and abuse.

Scientific development has been regarded as somewhat slow during the early Renaissance, where Humanism and art were the primary creative products of this period. However, the experimentation with and observation of the natural world began to increase in frequency during the emergence during the late Renaissance. Nicolaus Copernicus was one of the most notable figures in the field of science, where his proofs for a heliocentric universe were crystallized. The age of science truly began to emerge at the conclusion of the Renaissance, where the "Western Enlightenment" or "Age of Reason" began to dawn in the 17th century. During this time, philosophy experienced a resurgence, and Europe was introduced to the scientific method.

## Thomas Hobbes

Thomas Hobbes (17th century) has been mostwell known for _Leviathan_ , his treatise on the nature and function of the state and social contracts as an alternative to anarchy. _Leviathan_ suggested that the natural state of human beings was a state of anarchy, where there were no rules other than to acquire all resources for oneself (Russell, 1972).

However, this presented a problem, where all living beings would be in perpetual competition in a generally violent and brutal society. According to Hobbes, "In such condition, there is no place for industry, because the fruit thereof is uncertain: and consequently no culture of the earth; no navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by sea; no commodious building; no instruments of moving, and removing, such things as require much force; no knowledge of the face of the earth; no account of time; no arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short" (Hobbes, 1996).

However, individuals in this natural state would next voluntarily choose to enter into social contracts based upon mutually beneficial exchanges, and a sovereign state authority would be required in order to enforce these contracts. Therefore, each individual would need to willingly relinquish some of his or her power to the sovereign authority in order to receive the benefit of the state's protection and the enforcement of the rule of law.

## Rene Descartes

Rene Descartes (17th century) has been regarded as one of the founders of modern philosophy, which preceded the Enlightenment-era philosophers David Hume and Immanuel Kant (Russell, 1972). Rene Descartes' most significant contributions to the field of modern philosophy included his Methodological Skepticism, wherein he rejected all premises that could be subject to even the subtlest of doubts.

Descartes applied his method of skepticism to such a degree as to conclude that his sensory perceptions could have deceived him entirely (Descartes, 1998). Therefore, perhaps everything Descartes could see, touch, hear, taste, and smell were simply an elaborate illusion of the senses. After all, how else could he have provided sufficient evidence that his senses were in any way real if the only evidence provided was from the realm of sensory experience? Through doubting even that his perceptions were real, Descartes proceeded to assume that this was the case, and the final component of reality with which he was faced was the experience of doubting. That is, if all of his doubts were accurate, and he could trust nothing that he perceived, the one thing of which he could be certain was that there was a "Thing" that was "Doubting". Such an obvious reality suggested that whatever he was, he was at the very least, a "Thinking Thing".

From here, he considered the senses through his famous wax experiment, wherein he held a block of wax to a flame. His senses indicated that the wax was changing shape and dripping into a non-waxy liquid. However, his mind was the only constant that could continuously apprehend that the wax was still wax. Therefore, the realm of the mind was the only aspect of his being that could be truly trusted, even as external perceptions rendered reality inaccurately. Induction would become Descartes' preferred means by which to establish knowledge of reality.

Descartes eventually went on to presuppose that his sensory apparatus was supplied by a benevolent God that would not deceive him, and he re-incorporated sensory experience into his portfolio of resources from which he could derive information about reality. However, he insisted that induction and experimentation must be applied in order to verify the reality of data provided by the senses.

Descartes also believed that the Mind and Body were two distinct entities, which interacted with each other in a bi-directional manner. Here, the Mind controlled the Body through intentionality and will, which caused the Body to act, and the Body often controlled the Mind, such as when the passions of intense emotion consumed the Mind and hijacked the Mind's intentionality.

Descartes was also known for his philosophical interpretation of the function of mathematics in the rational mind, where he developed Cartesian/Analytic Geometry, developed the practice of representing unknown quantities as x, y, z, etc., and implemented the use of standard notation, which made use of superscripts and exponents in order to describe quantities (Russell, 1972). Descartes also influenced Isaac Newton,who later came to articulate and popularize advanced algebraic concepts and calculus in Europe (although Leibniz developed calculus about 20 years ahead of Newton's rise to prominence) (Hall, 1980). Descartes believed that mathematics was a central function of reason in one of its purest forms.

## John Locke

John Locke (17th century) was an influential thinker who assisted with laying the foundation for a philosophy of the separation of church and state within governments, the observance of religious tolerance, the problem of economic inequality, and theories on the nature of self (Russell, 1972). Locke believed that church and state must remain separate so as to ensure that religious tolerance was the cornerstone of a government's institutional structure.

Through the separation of church and state, spiritual beliefs could be observed in private and without interference with the fundamental responsibilities of the government--to enforce the social contract. He also suggested that the practice of holding unused assets that depreciated in value with time (i.e. food spoilage) was unethical, and the invention of monetary exchange (gold, silver, etc.) served to remedy the problem of resource degradation.

Although he acknowledged that wealth inequality could occur through the unchecked accumulation of wealth, he did not strongly advocate for any single particular method to remedy the situation. Meanwhile, his theories of the self generally suggested that the individual was born tabula rasa, where sensations and reflections contributed to the development of the individual through the accumulation of experience. Locke also suggested that early childhood experiences served as the foundation for the development of the conscious mind, and he suggested that great care be taken so as to avoid forming negative associations in the infant mind.

## Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (18th century) has been noted for his contribution to early theories on human development, the social contract, and the general will. Rousseau suggested that human beings progressed through a variety of stages of development, and he looked fondly upon the aboriginal cultures that had not been corrupted by the development of property ownership and the other "problems" of civilized society.

According to Rousseau, children progressed through individual stages of development that mirrored the stages of collective development within civilization. Through the careful guidance of a tutor, children could be safely led through a variety of common experiences, wherein they could learn from their mistakes rather than risk the punishment of their mentors. Stage-appropriate education would therefore be of preeminent importance for Rousseau, where the first stage would be principally concerned with developing educational strategies that addressed the emotive aspects of children; the adolescent stage would address the cultivation of a skilled trade, and the young adult stage would address logic, reason, and philosophy (Ellingson, 2001).

## David Hume

David Hume (18th century) has been regarded as one of the most significant philosophers of the "Western Enlightenment", where his work was primarily concerned with establishing Empiricism as the primary means by which to discover knowledge of reality (Russell, 1972). Whereas many of his ancestors and contemporaries were interested in describing those aspects of reality that were by definition unknowable through the practice of metaphysics, Hume sought to introduce a more practical form of observation and objective scientific inquiry (Hume, 1964). The practice of metaphysics involved the investigation of aspects of reality that were by definition unknowable, but this did not deter many individuals from attempting to engage with this process. For example, one could affirm that God was unknowable by nature as a first premise, and one could subsequently attempt to develop an understanding of God through a priori or a posteriori reason. Thereafter, one could infer that God was compassionate, because pleasant events occur, or wrathful, because unpleasant events occur. However, the very act of developing a rationale for either premise (that God is compassionate or wrathful) would contradict the first premise--that God is unknowable. According to Hume, therefore, this practice of "metaphysics" was a fundamentally flawed means by which to acquire knowledge of reality, and so Hume proposed an alternative form of inquiry--Radical Empiricism.

Hume's Radical Empiricism required that one only establish a premise based upon that which was objectively observable through human perception--right here and right now (Russell, 1972). To illustrate this method, Hume suggested that if an individual dropped a ball, and the ball fell to the earth, one could not assume that the ball would fall to the earth again, in the future. That is, one could only empirically describe what one observed, but one could not infer universal laws that were necessarily inaccessible to human perception. That is, if one could not observe the ball dropping in the future but claimed to know its future behavior then one had engaged in metaphysics, which was speculative, not empirical. For Hume, this form of empiricism would form the foundation for all modern thought and modern science, where one's description of reality would need to be firmly anchored in observation in order to be regarded as valid knowledge.

Hume also believed that the human mind was born tabula rasa at birth, where any human mental experience would be the result of sensory data from the exterior world. That is, there was not an inherent structure to the human mind that was independent of exterior perceptual experiences. The color "red" could only be perceived within the mind once the color red had been perceived by the eyes. For Hume, this principle was extended to include all mental experiences such as the concept of up and down, pain and pleasure, mother and father, good and evil, the concept of God, and so on. Hume's proposition was such that the fundamental quality of human experience was dependent upon stimulation from the exterior environment, and lacking any of this environmental stimulation, the mind would have no way in which to coalesce any meaningful information about reality. Therefore, no a priori reasoning could be regarded as truly independent from a posteriori reasoning.

When Plato originally described his approach to philosophy, he regarded a priori reasoning as an effective means by which to establish knowledge of reality: That through the internal logical processes of the mind, one could understand what which one had not yet observed a posteriori. However, Hume's position stood in strong opposition to Plato's a priori method, where only a posteriori observation was to be regarded as a valid means by which to achieve knowledge of reality. David Hume also served as a mentor to Immanuel Kant, an individual who has also been regarded as one of the most influential philosophers of the Western Enlightenment.

## Immanuel Kant

Immanuel Kant (18th century) studied with David Hume, and Kant developed a system of "critical philosophy" in order to establish the fundamental premise for how he believed philosophy must be conducted (Russell, 1972). Kant believed that the individual should be responsible for his own thoughts and analysis of the world, and the philosopher should be responsible for _testing_ the validity of hypothesis rather than _advancing_ theories about reality, much as Socrates practiced (Kant, 2007). That is, the principle objective of a philosopher was to develop the capacity to subject one's own theories and the theories of others to critical review, and the degree to which an argument withstood such critical analysis may, for the moment, determine its validity.

Kant applied his Critical Philosophy to subjects that could not be irrefutably proven or disproven, such as the subject of "God". Kant explained that "If one cannot prove that a thing is, he may try to prove that it is not. If he fails to do neither (as often occurs), he may still ask whether it is in his interest to accept one or the other of the alternatives hypothetically, from the theoretical or the practical point of view. Hence the question no longer is as to whether perpetual peace is a real thing or not a real thing, or as to whether we may not be deceiving ourselves when we adopt the former alternative, but we must act on the supposition of its being real" (Kant, 2007).

Here, Kant explained the difference between the value of establishing that which was objectively real versus the practical value of believing whether such a thing is real or unreal. Therefore, if one did not accept the existence of God but was capable of continuing to behave in a moral and reasonable manner, the question of God's reality was not essential. However, if one did not accept the existence of God, and this resulted in their interminable immorality and irrationality, a belief in the existence of God would be practical, insofar as this belief resulted in virtuous and rational behavior.

Kant's views on perception included his belief that the mind contained an inherent structure that was distinct from the perceptual inputs of one's environment (Kant, 2007). Whereas David Hume proposed that the human mind was fundamentally blank until perception began to shape the mind, Kant argued that both the mind and the objective world shaped the human experience (Russell, 1972). Therefore, objective reality was fundamentally unknowable in and of itself. Rather, objective reality was known primarily through a combination of the mind's perceptual structure and the exterior content of perception.

Kant also contributed to the field of moral philosophy, where he claimed that moral behavior was not caused by an ephemeral emotive sensation (Hume believed that a sense of morality was primarily linked with emotions). Kant believed that morality originated from rational thought, and this suggested the potential for a logical formula that could determine whether an action was moral or immoral, based upon the facts--not emotional sentiment (Russell, 1972). Subsequently, he formulated the categorical imperative, which stated that all rational agents were morally obligated to behave in a moral manner, and this did not apply to non-rational agents. That is, a rational agent must act in accord with moral law as a matter of duty to that law. Therefore, moral action required a Will that acted in accordance with the Duty to do "good" as an end to itself. Therefore, Kant's morality was a morality that required the intention to perform a moral action. This action would be executed for the purpose of fulfilling the "good" or "moral law" rather than as a means to achieve another end. Therefore, one must not behave in a manner that others would simply perceive to be moral as a means by which to generate support for political rise to power. Once power became the end, and morality became the means, the behavior was no longer moral. To be truly just, one would need to act out of a sense of duty and responsibility to fulfill one's obligation to the moral law--as its own end.

A behavior may have passed Kant's moral test when it contributed to or did not interfere with the operations of a coherent society. However, a behavior was regarded as immoral when it resulted in the destruction of society, when willed as a universal. For example, the act of robbing a bank would not be regarded as immoral, because it _felt_ wrong. Rather, the act of robbing a bank would be immoral because if willed as a universal (i.e. if everybody robbed a bank at once), nobody would trust banks, and the entire system of banking would collapse. Thereafter, the economic and social systems that depended upon banks would regress. Here, the act of robbing banks would be immoral because of its objective impact on the operations of society rather than due to a sentiment or feeling that individuals experienced in response to contemplating the act.

### George Hegel, Alfred Whitehead, and Karl Popper

George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (19th century) contributed to the field of philosophy through his theory that philosophy was a means by which God (the thing that gave rise to the universe) evolved into an ever more self-aware being through the simultaneous unfolding of the universe and the human mind (Hegel, 2010). Through the human engagement with contemplation of the nature of self and reality, greater understanding would develop through transcending the contradictions and negations of earlier stages of intellectual development.

Hegel's objective was to review the progress of philosophy, which represented a plurality of perspectives that contradicted each other. These contradictory logics could be synthesized in order to form an "absolute knowledge" of a higher order. Through transcending and including contradiction within expanding conceptual contexts, one may have achieved ever greater levels of knowledge and insight, which would operate at higher levels of unity. Through this process, God could be perceived and understood as an evolving process that unfolded within the philosopher's interior awareness. Therefore, God would be knowable as an infinite progression from ignorance into higher levels of knowledge and insight about the nature of self and reality. Hegel was therefore an early proponent of what would later be referred to as "process philosophy", which was further expounded upon by Alfred Whitehead (19th century) (Whitehead, 1978).

Whitehead's views on knowledge as process would expand upon Hegel's in order to move from a Cartesian view of matter as fixed bits in motion into a view of matter as a transitional process unto itself, in constant change. However, Whitehead's views on process philosophy differed from those of Hegel, where Hegel's categories of objects were built upon each other, ascending the ladder of self-awareness until a complete unity of God-knowledge was achieved. Conversely, Whitehead categorized all objects according to their empirical emergence within experience, which would be tested through logic and experimentation. Moreover, he did not expound upon the coherence of knowledge processes as related with knowledge of God, but he did emphasize their importance in terms of the learning process of the human mind.

Alfred Whitehead has also been known for his works on _A Treatise on a Universal Algebra, Principia Mathematissin_ , and an Introduction to Mathematics in collaboration with Betrand Russell. Whitehead and Russell focused upon the structure of numeric and algebraic systems themselves rather than the content of those structures. That is, these works were focused upon describing the nature of the fundamental logic systems and their principle relationships with symbolic cognition -- The way in which the analytical mind could know reality through symbolic representation, categorization, and operations. This would form the foundation for a Universal Algebra, which could be applied to all observable and measurable things.

Karl Popper has been regarded as one of the most significant philosophers of the 20th century, and he has been most well known for his contributions to the scientific method (Russell, 1972). Popper proposed that scientific theories could not be proven, but they could be disproven through experimentation. Therefore, theories and models of the universe that could not be subjected to rigorous scientific experimentation would be regarded as non-scientific. The following claim would be non-falsifiable: "God exists, but God's nature and existence cannot be proven to exist, because that is the nature of God." This claim would be non-falsifiable, because there is no way in which to disprove this theory--the model protects itself from experimental falsification. Therefore, this would be a non-scientific claim. However, the claim that "God exists, can be proven to exist, and can be proven to exist through performing experiment X" would indeed be a scientific claim, because this claim would be subject to testing and falsification. Theories that failed to conform to experimental data would therefore require modification in order to accommodate the data. That is - Popper was responsible for formally establishing the principle of falsification as a means by which to determine the scientific validity of a premise.

Through reviewing some of the most influential philosophers of the West, one may next prepare for a modern interpretation of the nature of the mind. Dr. Sigmund Freud has been regarded as the founder of the modern field of psychology, which was concerned with understanding the structure and function of the psyche. Moreover, Dr. CarlJung, Dr. Wilhelm Reich, Dr. Roberto Assagioli, Dr. Ivan Pavlov, Dr. BF Skinner, Dr. Abraham Maslow, and many others have contributed to the further development of this field of study. The sections that follow will address these theorists and many more in order to continue with a brief review of the globe's historic study of the mind and the practical applications that have followed.

# A Brief Review of Modern Psychology

## Sigmund Freud

Dr. Sigmund Freud (19th to 20th century) has been regarded as the founder of the modern field of psychology, where he was responsible for developing the theory that human beings display conscious and unconscious aspects of their psyches (Freud, 2012). Freud's theories have been described through the iceberg model, where consciousness and the ego rested on top of the water, and the unconscious aspects of the human mind rested beneath the water, where the majority of the ice in the iceberg was held. For Freud, there were three aspects of consciousness, which consisted in the id, ego, and the superego. The id was the first structure of consciousness to develop in an infant's mind, and this was the impulsive aspect of consciousness that simply sought pleasure and avoided pain. The id would not differentiate betweengood and bad, right or wrong--it would simply want what it wanted when it wanted it. The next structure to develop, according to Freud, was the superego. The superego was that aspect of consciousness that was socially conditioned through introjection and served as the unconscious system of beliefs that repressed the unacceptable impulsive thoughts and behaviors of the id. The third structure to develop was the ego, which would enable the individual to balance the conflicting demands of the id and the superego.

The theories that would follow were controversial. Freud's theories were developed during a time when people used long tablecloths in order to cover their table-legs, which were considered to be too sexually suggestive. Freud lived in a social world in which human beings were not allowed to talk about sex, so he began to develop the theory that sexual repression was the fundamental cause for all human neurosis.

### The Oedipus and Electra Complexes

The repression of sexual energy, which he referred to as libido, and the id's impulses resulted in psychological and physiological tension that would need to be released. The id's urges could be released through sublimation, where sexual energy could be expressed directly or diverted, redirected, and channeled into constructive and creative activities. Freud believed that the process of sublimation may have resulted in the development of civilization, art, morals, science, and other domains of human productivity.

For Freud, the key to psychoanalysis was to recognize that sexual repression may have been damaging in certain circumstances. For example, Freud proposed that once a child was born, he or she could develop a reflexive and primitive desire to mate. The first people with whom an infant made contact were the parents, so this sexual energy may have been directed toward the parents as a matter of reflex. For a male, the first possible object of sexual attraction was the mother, which would result in the Oedipus complex. This complex was characterized by the boy's unconscious competition with the father and the emergence of a primitive and biological impulse to dominate and kill his opponent in order to mate with the mother. Once this desire to kill his father emerged, this instinct would cause the child to consciously or unconsciously believe that he was in a _real_ conflict over the mother. However, this would be a conflict that the child could never win, because the father was physically superior. As a result of the father's physical superiority, the child would next develop castration anxiety. Carljung would later refer to the opposite reaction of girls' attraction to their fathers as the Electra complex.

Freud believed that these biological impulses would create a lasting conflict within the psyche of a child, because the ego would not be able to reconcile the demands of the id and superego's need for conformity with social norms (i.e. do not express these sexual and aggressive urges within the family system). This ongoing tension, if unresolved, would result in neurosis and eventually a split in the mind. Provided that such a split was severe and protracted, the neurosis could progress into a psychosis, where an individual would completely regress into an infantile state of confusion, emotional reactivity, and a complete loss of self-control. Psychosis represented the dominance of the id within one's psyche.

### Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud also theorized that children progressed through a variety of psychosexual stages of development as they matured. Children were not born complete; they evolved over time. The psychosexual development of a human consisted of the following stages, in order: the oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. If one did not reconcile the respective urges of the id with the expected behavioral norms of the superego at each stage of development, he or she would fail to fully develop into the subsequent stage. These unresolved conflicts would later lead to "fixations" at a particular stage of development until they were able to achieve emotional catharsis and resolve their intrapsychic conflicts.

### The Oral Stage of Development

The oral stage of development described a child's initial capacity for erogenous stimulation. The mouth was the first erogenous zone to come online for an infant, and his or her exploration of the environment would involve touching objects to the mouth. This stimulation would also occur while feeding from the mother's nipple, and for the infant, this was an enjoyable and sensually stimulating experience. Moreover, breastfeeding served as an experience of bonding and connection with the mother, so this erogenous pleasure would lead to a conflict between the sexually impulsive id and the socially conditioned superego once self-awareness emerged into consciousness.

### The Anal Stage of Development

The anal stage of development generally occurred when children underwent potty training. This was the period of time when children learned how to control their bowel movements. The ways in which the parents interacted with their children during this time would shape the way in which they developed their personality structure and character throughout the rest of their lives. If their parents were excessively firm, abusive, and tight with the child each time they failed to hold a bowel movement, this would result in an anal retentive neurosis later in life. If they were truly anal retentive as adults, for Freud, these individuals would tend to be controlling, uptight, and generally rigid. The individual would need to reconcile the trauma that occurred during the anal stage of development through psychoanalysis.

### The Phallic Stage of Development

At the phallic stage of development, children would discover that stimulating their genitals felt good, and they would begin exploring the sensations associated with their genitals - Both privately and publically. Therefore, this would be a time when children received messages that stimulating their genitals and exposing them in public was not appropriate. For some, this repression would continue after the anal stage of development and into the phallic stage. Children would then begin unconsciously accepting introjects, or socially conditioned beliefs, into their belief systems, which would inform them that it was unacceptable for them to experience sexual pleasure and sexual gratification - Privately or publically. For Freud, inadequately reconciling the tension between their sexual desires and social expectations during this stage of development would result in a sexual neurosis, such as impotence or sexual identity confusion in later life.

### The Latency Stage of Development

The latency stage of development represented the stage in pre- adolescence when the libido went underground and prepared for a powerful re-emergence through adolescent sexuality. During the subsequent period of adolescent sexuality, the id would be superchaiged by hormones that were released by the brain and into the body, causing a massive uprising of libidinal energy. When the libido was fully re¬activated, the superego would react according to its design and attempt to repress those sexual urges.

### The Genital Stage of Development

At the genital stage of development, one would begin to regulate one's sexual urges and experience a form of healthy sexual expression. During this stage of development, the ego would be capable of reconciling the competing demands of the id and the superego in a reasonable and mature fashion. Sublimation would become a powerful tool for channeling the libido into creative activities that could contribute to society as a whole. Meanwhile this was also the period of time in which a mate was selected. Therefore, libido would be expressed sexually within a healthy and socially accepted context; during Freud's time, this expression occurred during marriage.

### Psychoanalysis

Freud believed that it was important for people to develop cognitive insight into the operations of their own minds to develop knowledge of how their childhood experiences may have contributed to their present day problems. In Freud's view, developing insight was the first step to resolving intrapsychic conflict. The second step was developing the capacity for catharsis. Catharsis was, for Freud, the time when an individual experienced an upwelling of feelings, thoughts, memories, and experiences that he or she had repressed, denied, and relegated to the realm of the unconscious.

### Free Association

During the process of psychoanalysis, Freud would ask his clients to enter a private treatment room, take a seat on a couch, and face away from him and his other analysts. The purpose of facing away from the analyst was to ensure that the physician maintained a sense of scientific, rational, and medical objectivity, which would enable the analyst to diagnose and treat the patient. Next, the patient would be encouraged to begin free association. Free association was the process by which the patient was instructed to allow all the content of his or her consciousness to emerge unimpeded through verbal expression. The patient was encouraged to talk about whatever came to mind regardless of whether it made sense or _appeared_ to be connected to his or her problems. The key to free association, for Freud, was that free association would allow the superego to relax its control over the id and permit repressed impulses and memories to flow into conscious awareness. This process was exemplified through the "Freudian slip", which was the expression of an unconscious desire. During free association, one could begin discussing memories of smoking tobacco, wherein they could mistakenly say the word "penis" rather than "cigar".

According to Freud, if an individual made a slip, the analyst would pause, interrupt, and provide the individual with an interpretation of their word-choice. If a male said penis while talking about his mother and father's trip to a tobacco shop, this would serve as an indication that the Oedipus complex was present. Freud would then describe to the patient the ways in which he believed his unique family history was shaped by the Oedipus complex, and he would assist the client with experiencing insight into this problem.

### Catharsis

Freud acknowledged that insight alone was not enough, and catharsis was required for full psychological integration to occur. Catharsis was the process by which an individual suddenly experienced an upwelling of tears, anger, sadness, or whatever experience was locked in the unconscious and denied for years. The key to the cathartic event was to directly re-experience the incident that was previously denied an opportunity to emerge into awareness. Next, one would need to re- experience the impulse and feelings of shame during a time when no shame would be inserted into the individual's mind (i.e. a safe place to re-experience the event, such as the analyst's office).

### Stage Progression & Fixation Behavior

For Freud, his patients would progress through a variety of stages of development during psychoanalysis, which was directly correlated with their childhood stages of oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital development. For example, Freud showed interest if an individual was obsessed with thoughts or behaviors connected with the mouth. If a patient came into his office with an over-eating problem, Freud would likely suggest that this individual was locked at an oral stage of development. Here, the individual was not able to fully complete all the processes necessary to achieve the full gratification of oral needs during infancy. For example, if the individual was never breastfed and only given a bottle, he or she could develop an oral "fixation". To Freud, it would be reasonable for the individual to develop an eating disorder, whereby he or she would constantly seek to stimulate the mouth in some way. Thereafter, patients would need to develop a rational insight-based understanding of what was going on in their minds and directly re-experience the pain and trauma of their early childhood experiences in a safe environment in order to achieve catharsis.

### Transference

Transference represented a critical stage during the psychoanalytic process, wherein the individual re-experienced the content of a previous childhood relationship with the analyst. For example, transference could occur when a patient suddenly felt that the analyst was just like his or her mother or father, which could cause the patient to develop a murderous rage that was directed toward the analyst. This would be regarded as a highly sensitive stage of psychoanalysis, wherein the analyst would need to remain objective, impartial, and uninvolved with the emotional life of the patient in order to ensure that countertransference did not occur. For Freud, countertransference would be a risk to the patient and analyst, whereby the analyst could begin reciprocating similar feelings and believe that the patient was just like his or her son or daughter. This example of countertransference, according to Freud, would interfere with the psychoanalytic process. However, Freud considered it a positive development for the _patient_ to experience transference, because it provided the analyst more material with which to work.

### Defense Mechanism

Another significant contribution of Freud's was his recognition that human beings developed defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms consisted in those strategies that people used in order to prevent themselves from experiencing painful unconscious material. For example, the defense mechanism of intellectualization would occur when an individual understood, cognitively, what appeared to have occurred during childhood to cause his or her pain. The individual could spend hours, days, weeks, and months cognitively re-capitulating memories of what occurred when he or she was younger. Although the individual may have had a legitimate desire to cognitively understand the subject, the patient would not re-experience the emotions connected with the memory. Catharsis could not occur if an individual was over- intellectualizing and living in the realm of conceptual thought.

Another defense mechanism that Freud described was displacement. Displacement could have been exemplified by a patient who accidentally slammed his or her hand into a car door on the way to the office. Next, the patient would walk into the office and could express anger with the analyst for not making sufficient therapeutic progress. Here, the patient's anger was caused by the car door injury, but the feeling was misdirected to an unrelated object (the analyst).

Denial was another defense mechanism that Freud described, whereby an individual could reject the interpretations of the analyst. Denial may become tricky, because, in some cases, the analyst could be wrong and the patient could reject the analyst's interpretation on legitimate grounds. However, in the case where the analyst was correct, this behavior was regarded as a defense mechanism.

One of the key contributions that Freud made was in proposing that the human mind had a conscious and unconscious aspect, sexual energy played an important role in human development, and that human bangs progress or fail to progress through a variety of developmental stages due to their experiences. Freud introduced the proposition that human beings could experience childhood trauma that may be healed through re-examining and re-experiencing that pain in a safe environment. Freud's theories represented a significant contribution to psychology that continued to influence the field throughout the 20th and 21st centuries.

## Carl Gustav Jung

Dr. Carljung was, for many years, a student of Sigmund Freud and for all intents and purposes, the heir to the psychoanalytic kingdom (19thto 20th century) (Jung & Franz, 1964). Freud regarded Jung as a son and one of the noblest of his students who would carry on his father's legacy of psychoanalysis. However, Jung and Freud eventually shared a fairly significant break with each other due to theoretical and methodological differences. The tensions built throughout their relationship until Jung once asked Freud to share one of his recent dreams for analysis, and Freud decided to hold back. Freud did not want to share his most personal secrets with Jung, because he was frightened that he could lose authority in his relationship with Jung.

Although Freud's theories were groundbreaking and served as the bedrock for the nascent field of psychology, Jung believed that there was still more to be discovered. Jung believed that human beings were capable of not only being motivated by what happened to them in the past but also by what they could become in the future. Jung was interested in what human beings could become in potential, which formed the foundation for his analytic psychology.

### Jung's Exploration of the Psyche

To discover the vast wealth of information about how the human psyche worked, Jung went through what his wife, Anna Jung, referred to as a creative illness. Jung described this as his confrontation with the unconscious, which occurred after his split with Freud. Jung began to develop the _sense_ that something within his psyche required expression, and he believed that if he did not deeply explore his unconscious, a neurosis would develop and eventually result in psychosis. For Jung, neurosis itself was not the problem. Rather, the neurosis was a signal from the unconscious that something was out of balance. These signs suggested that something deep within the psyche would need to emerge into the light of awareness and be integrated with the ego. Jung's period of deep introspection pushed his mind to the limits and allowed a vast quantity of psychic content to flood into his awareness. During this period, Jung spent the majority of his time engaging with introverted activities such as drawing mandalas, working with sand art, exploring mythology, and dialoging with a variety of aspects of his unconscious through active imagination. The result of this deeply introspective process assisted Jung with clarifying what would become his life's work.

### The Persona, Ego, Unconscious, and Collective Unconscious

Jung preserved many aspects Freud's basic theories about the conscious and unconscious mind, wherein the iceberg model still applied. However, Jung took this model several steps further and incorporated several new components. Jung believed that the psyche was comprised of a persona, ego, a personal unconscious, and a symbolic collective unconscious. The theory of the symbolic collective unconscious was one of Jung's most significant contributions to the field of psychology to date. The collective unconscious was a repository of archetypes and powerful symbols that drove human beings to think, dream, create, and behave as individuals and groups.

Meanwhile, the persona was a social mask, which served to represent one's selected identity to the rest of the world in order to illustrate how one wanted to be perceived. The persona was not the authentic Self, which was located in a deeper level of the mind. Meanwhile, the ego served as the psychic organ for consciousness, which transmitted information from the unconscious mind into conscious awareness. The ego was the reason that human beings were capable of experiencing anything at all. Beneath egoic awareness was the realm of the unconscious, which consisted in the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious. The personal unconscious consisted in everything that Freud had described: personal memories, traumas, and childhood events that produced a direct impact on how human beings construed their lives. Meanwhile, the collective unconscious included archetypes, which were structures and patterns of thoughts and behaviors that were shared across all cultures around the world.

### Archetypes

The collective unconscious was the region of the psyche that all human beings shared and which was largely responsible for storing and activating the archetypes, which were universal patterns of thoughts, feelings, and actions in the human species (Hopke, 1999). The archetypes were generally regarded as orienting patterns for psychological material. The archetypes _did not_ constitute the content of the psyche (symbols, imagery, thoughts, etc), but rather they served as organizing forces for otherwise inert psychic material.

The effect of archetypes could be compared to a loadstone that produced subtle magnetic fields that when placed beneath a container of metal filings would guide the alignment of the magnetic dust to reveal a pattern that operated invisibly. Just as the field of the loadstone provided motion and structure to the otherwise unorganized iron filings, the archetypes organized psychic material in accord with their unique manifestation patterns. Jung explained that the archetypes were to be acknowledged as inseparable components of the psyche and would therefore be integrated into one's psychic life rather than regarded as intrusive forces to be overcome.

The father archetype was an example of a driving force that has influenced human behavior for centuries. The father archetype could manifest in a positive manner as the strong, stoic man who supported his family. Conversely, the father archetype could manifest in a negative manner as a wrathful, oppressive, rigid, and controlling person. Meanwhile, the archetype of the mother could manifest as the woman who assumed a maternal, loving, and compassionate role toward a child. Alternatively, this archetype could be exemplified by a woman who manifested as an oppressive, controlling, and stifling person. She could constantly attempt to draw her offspring back into an earlier stage of infantile development--drawing them back into the womb of unconsciousness.

Two additional archetypes that were important for Jung were the anima and the animus. The anima archetype represented the aspect within males, which manifested as feminine thought and behavior when a male individual experienced his feminine nature. Conversely, the animus existed within women and could be encountered when they experienced a highly directive, domineering, and masculine aspect of their own consciousnesses. For Jung, the psyche always consisted in a balance of these two archetypes, and these forces could express themselves with varying levels of intensity. For example, a typical heterosexual male may have manifested the male archetype in a strong and potent manner, wherein he was conventionally "straight". This male would be strongly interested the thoughts and behaviors that were of interest to other "masculine" men, and he would tend to avoid activities that he associated with women.

The archetypes of the Self, hero, death/rebirth, and individuation patterns were connected with important psychological events. The archetype of the Self represented the deepest and most relevant element of the psyche that connected the ego with a sense of ultimate identity in relationship with divinity (Hopke, 1999). In fact, the ego was connected directly to the Self archetype, which imbued the ego with its characteristic sense of self. That sense was a direct perception of the Self archetype, and encounter s with divinity or God were attributable to deeper contact with that formation. The hero archetype has been heavily investigated in Joseph Campbell's Hero _With a Thousand Faces_ , where this principle was suggested to govern all expressions of heroism in human endeavors (Campbell, 2008). The death/rebirth archetype produced patterns of transformation in human experience and was particularly relevant for mystical and shamanic practices (Jung, 1964). The shaman's descent to the underworld and return to the tribe, or the Christian's baptism and rebirth in the Holy Spirit were each examples of the death/rebirth archetype causing deep transformations within the human psyche. The individuation archetype resulted in the path of actualizing the personality and fulfilling one's deepest potentials (Goldbrunner, 1964). Each of these major archetypes was deeply connected with the Self archetype and none could manifest in complete isolation of the Self, which was the object of expression for the hero, the death/rebirth, and individuation processes. Indeed one could continue exploring archetypes and would likely discover that each pattern was intimately connected with the Self, which abided at the very heart of one's nature as an existent being. Jung was decidedly interested in discovering the nature of the psyche insofar as he could facilitate the psychological development of his patients. Jung was particularly interested in discovering how analysis could trigger healing for the wounded hearts and minds that visited his practice and to promote the individuation Process.

### The Balance of Forces

For Jung, when happiness occurred, sadness would also occur in order to balance the psyche. Likewise, when goodness occurred, evil occurred, and the key was in reconciling these opposites within the psyche. One who denied or rejected one half of this polarity, in any situation, relegated that content of the psyche into what Jung referred to as the personal shadow. The personal shadow was the realm of one's unconscious, where individuals placed repressed material that they refused to accept or were simply not aware of. The shadow was at the core of Jung's analytic work.

### Shadow

The personal unconscious often stored repressed psychic material that was considered to be unacceptable by the conscious mind and therefore constituted the personal shadow. The personal shadow was the unexplored region of the personality that received limited exposure to awareness; therefore it operated covertly and could hijack the ego in order to satisfy repressed drives (Zweig, 1991). Regions of the soul that were considered to be vile, evil, shameful, or otherwise threatening to the ego's integrity became split-off from the conscious mind and abided as splinter psyches that needed to be restored to consciousness in order to achieve healing. Jungian analysis was deeply concerned with the process of discovering the personal shadow and exposing those dark regions of the psyche to the light of awareness for re-integration.

For Jung, human beings needed to get in touch with those aspects of their minds, which they had denied and repressed. They needed to plumb the depths of their shadows and draw out a potentially painful experience, discovering an aspect of themselves that was difficult to recognize. The individual who considered herself to be the most wonderful mother in the world would need to recognize the ways in which she is actually not the best, the ways in which she was falling short. Conversely, the mother who considered herself the worst mother in the world would need to learn to recognize the ways in which she was excellent. For Jung, every time somebody experienced a positive aspect of the psyche, he or she would need to also acknowledge a negative element in order to generate balanced awareness of the psychic system. Therefore, the individual who was devoted to becoming pure, good, and compassionate may have found themselves causing harm to others without possessing awareness of their own behavior. If an individual wanted to be good, compassionate, and loving, he or she would need to recognize and authentically connect with one's feelings of anger, hatred, fear, and revulsion, in addition to feelings of righteousness, compassion, and love. If people could truly connect with these feelings within their psyches, they could learn to transform them under the light of consciousness.

## Mandalas

Jung's process of analysis frequently included the creation of a mandala in order to visually represent the activity of the personal and collective unconscious within his patients, which facilitated the re-integration of shadow material with the ego. Jung borrowed the mandala from other cultures, such as the Native American and Buddhist traditions, and he regarded the creation of a mandala as a means by which to focus the mind and bring the psyche back into balance. Symmetry was one of the core components of the mandala, where highly geometrical patterns served to stimulate the transcendent function and reveal the Self. Mandalas were useful geometrical tools, which engaged with the projective aspects of the psyche, enabling unstructured unconscious content to emerge and form an association with the symmetrical visual images. The mandalas frequently included color, symbol, and other imagery that was associated with the individual's dreams and visions.

[Images Available In Paid Version]

The transcendent function was intimately involved with this process, where the discovery of repressed material led to a mysterious transformational process that integrated unconscious information with the ego (Miller, 2004). The transcendent function served as the processing component of the psyche that enabled the ego to access previously unconscious regions of the mind and integrate the material. Persistent shadow work would therefore strengthen the transcendent function and diminish repressive functions as the ego's capacity to conduct unconscious energies into awareness expanded through analysis. The transcendent function was key to changing the fundamental structure of the ego toward a more healthy and vibrant relationship with the deep psyche.

### Individuation

For Jung, it was critical that a patient begin individuating - the process of manifesting his or her highest potentials. The key process by which people began to individuate was through exploring their personal shadows, working with the ways in which archetypes manifested in their own lives, and looking truthfully at who they were, what they were doing, and why it was they wanted to become the kind of person they wanted to become. For Jung, individuation was not about imagining the ideal Self but about discovering what the true Self wanted in a genuine, open, and curious manner. This was not the process of manufacturing an identity or manufacturing a self but Discovering the Self. For Jung, this was the work. Exploring the soul was the key endeavor.

### Dreamwork

Like Freud, Jung was interested in dream interpretation, because he believed that the dream world was the gateway to the unconscious. This was the place where people released control, and their minds freely generated content from the unconscious mind. Dreams could produce symbols, images, and stories that could hold deep meaning for the dreamer. Therefore, Jung made certain that his patients developed a clear understanding of what their dreams meant to them and how the messages from their deep psyche were communicating the deepest and most unique expressions of their Self. Through developing a clear understanding of how their Self was unfolding, individuals could engage with the process of individuation and begin expressing their true nature.

### Psychological Types

Jung was one of the first psychologists to develop a comprehensive framework from which personality types could be explored (Jung, 1976). Jung introduced the conceptualization of introversion and extraversion as psychological functions that were present within all individuals, but which manifested at varying degrees of preference. Those with a dominant introverted function tended to regenerate personal energies through solitary activities: learning, reading, reflecting and journaling. Meanwhile, those with a dominant extraverted function tended to regenerate their energies through reaching out and engaging with the world and other people. The psyche was consistently moving toward balance, where extraversion was balanced by introversion within every human being. Therefore, introverts would need to engage with extraverted activities, and extraverts would need to engage with introspective practices. The Myers-Briggs personality typology has clarified and formalized Jung's system, which is reviewed in more detail through a later section on the subject.

### Synchronicity

Carl Jung was also interested in the subjective experience of synchronicity, wherein psychological transformation could be linked with the perception that the external environment reflected one's interior development. Jung believed that one's projection of interior psychological content onto the exterior mandala of the world could serve as one explanation for the perception of synchronicity. However, he also believed that the interior world of the individual was somehow linked with the exterior world in a physical manner. That is, the physical environment served as an extension of the psyche, where the interior and exterior worlds were comprised of a single substance. Hence, the interior transformation of mind may coincide with exterior events, which were meaningful to the individual who underwent those transformations. One example included one of Jung's patients who dreamt of a golden scarab the previous night only to discover that same insect within Jung's office the next day upon the precise moment that she told the story.

### Jung described the event:

"My example concerns a young woman patient who, in spite of efforts made on both sides, proved to be psychologically inaccessible. The difficulty lay in the fact that she always knew better about everything. Her excellent education had provided her with a weapon ideally suited to this purpose, namely a highly polished Cartesian rationalism with an impeccably "geometrical" idea of reality. After several fruitless attempts to sweeten her rationalism with a somewhat more human understanding, I had to confine myself to the hope that something unexpected and irrational would turn up, something that would burst the intellectual retort into which she had sealed herself.

Well, I was sitting opposite her one day, with my back to the window, listening to her flow of rhetoric. She had an impressive dream the night before, in which someone had given her a golden scarab--a costly piece of jewelry. While she was still telling me this dream, I heard something behind me gently tapping on the window. I turned round and saw that it was a fairly large flying insect that was knocking against the window- pane from outside in the obvious effort to get into the dark room. This seemed to me very strange.

I opened the window immediately and caught the insect in the air as it flew in. It was a scarabaeid beetle, or common rose-chafer ( _Cetonia aurata_ ), whose gold-green colour most nearly resembles that of a golden scarab. I handed the beetle to my patient with the words, "Here is your scarab." This experience punctured the desired hole in her rationalism and broke the ice of her intellectual resistance. The treatment could now be continued with satisfactory results" (Jung, 1976).

## Wilhelm Reich

Dr. Wilhelm Reich (19th to 20th century) was an early psychoanalyst who also worked closely with Sigmund Freud but eventually made a decisive split with the community when he decided that psychoanalysis's techniques were not sufficient for addressing the physical aspect of the psyche (Reich, 1976). Reich was regarded as the founder of modern somatic psychology (body psychology), wherein the musculoskeletal system served as a regulator and transmitter of psychological energy and experience. Reich clarified the way in which the human body repressed the fundamental energetic forces that moved through the universe and eventually through the human body. For Reich, libido, superego, and ego were great concepts, and he more or less left these generally unchanged. However, Reich added to the field of psychology the notion that _orgone_ energy, or the sexual energy that drove human behavior, was not just limited to sexual energy; it was the cosmic energy that animated all activity in the physical universe. This cosmic energy was the same energy that had flowed through the universe since the big bang. During the moments following the big bang, an explosion of energy resulted in the creation of the universe, galaxies, nebulae, stars, planets, and biological organisms.

According to Reich, human beings were biologically designed to allow this cosmic energy to flow through their bodies and minds without inhibition. The free flow of this cosmic energy was linked with freedom of thought, expression, social endeavors, creativity, and orgasm. During orgasm, the head bent forward and contracted toward the pelvis, which in-turn contracted toward the head. However, the pathological contraction of the musculoskeletal system typically occurred during childhood and adolescent biological development as a result of socially conditioned behaviors, which served to propagate repressive muscular patterns throughout social systems. The inhibition of free flowing energies throughout the organism's musculoskeletal system subsequently resulted in constraints on thoughts, expressions, social endeavors, creativities, and orgasms. Reich's theories developed during a time when Europe was on the precipice of a world war, and Nazi Germany was beginning to dominate the entire eastern area of Europe. Consequently, Reich's theories also suggested that pathological musculoskeletal contractions were related to oppressive government policies and social institutions.

### Character Types and Character Armor

For Reich, pathological musculoskeletal contractions, or muscular armor, could be categorized as a variety of "character types", and the pathological contractions were referred to as character armor. Several examples of character types included the controlling individual: the person who was stiff, rigid, puffed out his or her chest, and generally tended to exert control over others. Another type was the unwanted type: the individual who tended to collapse the chest inward and made oneself as small as possible. These two types could later develop a master-slave relationship in overt or subtle forms of social oppression.

### Interventions

One of the key therapeutic treatments that Reich used included asking his patients to sit in front of him, face to face, sometimes naked, in order to confront their sexual shame inhibitions. During this time, they would recollect their experiences, talk about their feelings, and physically release the energetic muscular blocks and contractions in their bodies that prevented the free flow of cosmic energy through their biological systems. Reich frequently used manual, physical interventions in order to press, pull, and generally manipulate the muscular tissue in order to cause the individual to release muscular armor (i.e. muscular catharsis). This was often a painful release which was, for Reich, the key catharsis that triggered psychosomatic healing.

### The Body Emotion Heat Map

The nature of somatosensation was further evidenced by Lauri Nummenmaaet al. through their research on how human subjects experienced a series of emotions within their own bodies. 701 subjects participated were presented with a series of silhouettes of human bodies alongside a stimulus (words, stories, and facial expressions designed to elicit emotional responses). The subjects were then asked to sketch-in the regions of the human form where they experienced the highest levels of physical sensation during their experience of processing an emotion. The results demonstrated that the subjects consistently reported a similar series of physical sensations that were associated with the emotional stimulus (Nummenmaa, Gleranet al., 2014).

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## Roberto Assagioli

Dr. Roberto Assagioli's work (19th to 20th century) traced through Freud, Reich, and Jung, resulting in a more integrated therapy called psychosynthesis. Assagioli's theories of the subpersonalities, "I" and the self, mirrored Jung's ideas about complexes, ego, and Self (Firman & Gila, 2002). Both Assagioli and Jung perceived the existence of personality splits (complexes) which occurred in response to traumatic events, and which later became unconscious to the individual, thereby triggering neurotic patterns. The character of the "I"/ego would therefore need to be strengthened in order to gain authority over these subpersonalities/complexes to prepare for spiritual growth. The Self was therefore the aspect of personality that exercised the spiritual faculties of the patient in the form of deeply meaningful altered emotional, sensory, and cognitive states. Although Jung used a similar conceptual framework of the psyche, Assagioli's therapy was distinctly his own.

Assagioli emphasized an integrated approach to psychic self-healing, which was most clearly illustrated in his classic "egg-diagram" of the psyche (see diagram). In this diagram, he drew distinctions between the lower, middle, upper, and collective unconscious domains, as well as the personal domain of the "I". The "I" was the governing will center, wherein experience was processed in present moment awareness, and the will was the center from which all psychological work proceeded. The lower unconscious domain was the Freudian realm of deep psychological wounding, which was repressed or split off from the normal stream of awareness. This domain of the unconscious was best addressed through bringing traumatic experiences to the surface and processing them with the therapist. The middle unconscious domain was the realm of world functionality and was responsible for acquiring and utilizing the automatic skills of motor activity, language acquisition, and securing a place in society. If new skills need to be learned or old ones improved in order to facilitate the therapeutic process, the middle unconscious was the database from which these skills were drawn and modified. The upper unconscious domain was the realm of the transpersonal or spiritual, and it was one of Assagioli's goals to bring the energies of this realm into the functioning of everyday life. Image: (Kiritsis, 2013)Before the patient could explore the spiritually potent aspects of the upper unconscious, Assagioli urged adequate "I"/will/ego strength asa prerequisite, much as did Jung (Scotton, Chinen, & Battista, 1996). Assuming the role of guru, Assagioli explained to his patients the structure and function of the various realms of the unconscious and their subpersonalities. The patient would then be guided through the various realms of his or her subpersonalities through the Jungian active imagination technique, and through detachedly witnessing the subpersonality's activity, one gradually disidentified from them, much like in meditation. Authority over the subpersonalities gradually increased simultaneous with the strength of the "I"/will/ego. As the traumas of the subpersonalities were reconciled and accepted, bodywork was encouraged for the patient to adequately integrate with the somatic self, a realm which Reichian-based therapies may have proved very useful. Once the "I" was adequately strengthened, the patient was then ready to undergo spiritual psychosynthesis, which opened up experiences of cosmic unity, universal love, and ecstasy.

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## Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov

The psychological principle of conditioning has been divided into the principles of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning was discovered by Dr. Ivan Pavlov (20th century). This Russian physiologist was most known for his clarification of the principle of classical conditioning in biological organisms (Carley). His research consisted in recognizing that dogs, who he was studying for salivary research, were conditioned to salivate at the ringing of a food bell or the clanging of dishes when they expected those sounds to precede the provision of food. Pavlov went on to replicate this observation through a controlled experiment, wherein he rang the bell, fed the dog, and then removed the food and rang the bell once more, which resulted in the reflexive release of saliva. He dubbed this principle "classical conditioning". This described the way in which animals and human beings could become conditioned to form associations between two stimuli in their environments. This principle was important, because it illustrated the way in which complex organisms formed associations and learned new behaviors.

## Operant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner

Dr. B. F. Skinner developed the principle of operant conditioning during his work at Harvard University, where he established the field of behaviorist psychology (20th century) (Skinner, 1953). This field was primarily concerned with the ways in which the experiences and behaviors of biological organisms could be shaped through the process of what he referred to as "operant conditioning." The processes of operant conditioning involved the strategic use of pleasurable or painful stimuli, and the principles of reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. These were fundamental to installing new behavior patterns and removing old ones in biological systems.

Skinner believed that human free-will was illusory and that decisions were based primarily upon the degree to which an action was rewarded with a pleasurable stimulus or inhibited with a painful stimulus. His philosophy was self-described as a form of "radical behaviorism", because the interior thoughts, feelings, and perceptions of the individual were considered to be unobservable by objective measurements. Therefore, they were regarded as irrelevant factors that did not contribute to human behavior. Rather, Skinner's focus for psychotherapy was upon shifting behavior in order to shift internal states rather than engaging in introspection.

Skinner's own words summed up his philosophy; "What is felt or introspectively observed is not some non-physical world of consciousness, mind or mental life. But the observer's own body. This does not mean that introspection is a kind of psychological research. Nor does it mean, and this is the heart of the argument, that what is introspectively observed or felt are the causes of behavior. An organism behaves as it does because of its current structure, but most of this is out of reach of introspection. The methodological behaviorist insists that the external environment is the foundation for individual behavior" (Skinner, 1953).

Skinner was strongly opposed to corporal punishment in schools, preferring a positive reinforcement model, and one of his letters to the California Senate helped to abolish spanking in the state's schools (Bjork, 1999). Skinner was also a strong advocate of the utility of behaviorist psychology to develop a society that enjoyed health, enriching relationships, a balance of leisure and work, contribution to society, and the flourishing of art. Skinner's book _Walden Two_ was one of the key novels that described the practical applications of behaviorism for the purpose of governing a Utopian society. The book served to describe his philosophy and the study of reinforcement for the purpose of illustrating both a thought-experiment and a call to action for leaders to reduce the use of punitive measures within their societies. Skinner was an advocate of a reward-focused system of governance, rather than a punitive system of corrective action.

### Reinforcement, Punishment, and Extinction

The principle of reinforcement was central to Skinner's theory of operant conditioning (Skinner, 1953). He believed that target behaviors were reinforced through the provision of a stimulus or through the removal of a stimulus. These two methods were positive and negative reinforcement, respectively. The next principle was what Skinner called extinction, which was broadly described as the disappearance of a specific behavior, which could be achieved through punishment. Punishment could assume the form of the introduction of a painful stimulus or the removal of a pleasurable stimulus, wherein a selected behavior would become _extinct_ through the proper application of these strategies. These painful or pleasurable stimuli could be applied through a variety of different reinforcement schedules.

Continuous reinforcement represented the constant delivery of a form of reinforcement immediately upon the completion of a target behavior and each time the behavior was completed. However, continuous reinforcement was regarded as impractical, because the individual was not always present to receive the positive or negative reinforcement. Moreover, behavior conditioned through continuous reinforcement was regarded as more vulnerable to extinction, because the organism became habituated to the reward stimulus (i.e. the reward stimulus lost its impact over time).

Partial reinforcement schedules constituted the more practical alternatives. Fixed-interval schedules served as a partial reinforcement alternative, where reinforcements were provided at fixed time periods if the target behaviors were completed. The variable ratio schedule was also utilized as a means by which to enhance responding, where the positive reinforcement was provided once a target number of behaviors occurred but variable in a manner that was unpredictable by the subject Meanwhile, a variable-interval schedule provided reinforcements based upon the average length of time that elapsed since the previous reinforcement. Fixed-ratio schedules consisted in the provision of reinforcements once a certain number of target behaviors were completed.

Skinner also believed that maintenance was important, where reinforcing target behaviors would assist with sustaining that behavior over time. For Skinner, it was important to recognize that positive reinforcement was considered to be much more effective than punishment, where rewards and affirmations were more effective at shaping behavior than punishment. Ultimately, Skinner's work pointed to the notion that pleasure was more effective at driving change than was pain.

## Cognitive Behavioral Strategies

The principle objective of psychologists' use of cognitive behavioral therapy models and cognitive behavioral strategies was to recognize that human beings engaged in cognitive mental processes that shaped their emotional experiences (Beck, 2011). The fundamental premise of these strategies was that thought shaped emotional states, and non-rational thinking that debased an individual's identity such as, "I am worthless, I am poor, I am a loser", resulted in an emotional state of worthlessness, poverty, and low self-worth.

Therefore, developing strategies to recognize, interrupt, and reshape automatic thought patterns was the primary method by which cognitive behavioral strategies were applied. For example, an individual could awake and think, "I do not want to get out of bed. I feel too tired. This day is going to be hard, and I am not going to succeed at achieving my goals. Life is miserable." As a result, this individual may begin to feel sluggish, tired, unsuccessful, incompetent, and miserable, because the individual engaged in a self-debasing thought pattern. However, this thought pattern could be corrected on the spot with an interruption. For example, "I do not want to get out of bed today. _But wait, I can do this._ I am tired, but I have goals to achieve and challenges to meet. I am moving forward in my life." This interruption would constitute a shift in thought pattern, which would subsequently shift emotional states.

## Albert Ellis

Dr. Albert Ellis (20th century) was a significant contributor to the field of cognitive behavioral thought and psychology, and his rational emotive therapy was primarily inspired by the ancient Stoic Greek philosophers (Ellis, 1962). Ellis developed what was referred to as the ABC model, where adversity, belief, and consequential emotional state represented the means by which an environmental event would result in an emotional state that was experienced as either positive or negative (Neenan & Dryden, 2000). Therefore, adversities did not necessarily result in an emotional pain, but beliefs about the adversities were the primary causes for emotional states.

Shifting beliefs about the adversity from disempowering to empowering were therefore the primary means by which an individual could therefore Experience freedom from psychological pain. Beliefs could therefore result in positive life-affirming thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, or negative ones. For Ellis, shifting thought patterns resulted in a shift in internal emotional states. Through focusing consistently upon returning to core limiting beliefs that caused psychological suffering, those beliefs could be changed and corrected through simple pen and paper exercises, where an individual recorded the thought that was causing an emotional disturbance and interrupted this pattern by selecting a new, more empowering belief.

The fundamentals of core beliefs included the concept of a "must", or something that an individual truly believed _must_ or _must not_ occur, with absolute conviction, lest a terrible consequence resulted (Ellis, 2003). Ellis referred to these "must"-based beliefs as a blueprint, where an individual held a rigid demand such as, "I absolutely must, under practically all conditions and at all times, perform well or outstandingly well and win the approval or complete love of every significant other." The consequence is, "If I fail in these important and sacred respects, this is awful. And I'm a bad, incompetent, unworthy person, who will probably always fail and deserves to suffer." These quotes, directly taken from Ellis's work, demonstrate the influence thoughts had over emotion.

The resulting psychological states from these blueprints and thought patterns would be feelings of badness, unworthiness, and incompetence during any time when these impossible conditions were met. Through reshaping these thoughts and reshaping these blueprints, an individual could transform his or her thoughts to be more reasonable and empowering. Ellis believed that these blueprints/core beliefs could be reshaped into more empowering systems of thought and belief that would subsequently shape human emotion and eventually human behavior.

An individual could take those same thoughts and think, _Actually, it would be great, if under all conditions and at all times, I could perform well and win the approval of others, but it is also valuable that I make mistakes and learn through my behaviors. I can be very good at something and make a mistake, but that is okay. I am continuing to grow and develop, to learn and evolve. I am constantly adapting and consistently improving and developing_." This would result in more empowering feelings that would then drive behavior and result in a self- fulfilling prophecy. That is, through holding a particular empowering belief, one would tend to behave in ways that matched those beliefs and brought them into being in one's own life.

Ellis highlighted how most people tended to over-generalize, magnify, and exaggerate. Through reshaping thoughts and selecting new patterns of thinking, one could shape his or her psychological state and transform the way in which one experienced the world. According to Ellis human beings were the subjective interpreters of their realities, and they could choose to accept or reject certain ways of thinking. Those ways of thinking would shape the way they felt and subsequently impacted their future actions. Therefore, Ellis's key contribution was in recognizing that one could identify core limiting beliefs, reshape them, and replace them with more empowering core beliefs.

## Carl Rogers

Dr. Carl Rogers (20th century) contributed a unique approach to psychotherapy, where human nature, therapeutic process, therapeutic relationship, motivational interviewing, and stages of change constituted the principle components of his methodological framework (Rogers, 2003).

Rogers developed a person-centered approach to psychotherapy, which emphasized that human beings were fundamentally trustworthy, resourceful, and capable of self-understanding and self-direction, which enabled them to make changes and lead productive lives. Clients were viewed as intrinsically capable of discovering the solutions to their personal problems, while pathology and diagnosis were deemphasized in favor of a humanistic (health-focused) attitude toward therapeutic activity. Rogerian therapy strongly encouraged therapists to display congruence, where congruence referred to a counselor's personal level of mental health and authenticity. Rogers also emphasized the importance of unconditional positive regard (non-judgmental and loving attitudes toward the client) and empathy (a counselor's capacity to deeply connect with his or her client's perspective). According to Rogers, these therapeutic elements would enable clients to develop a strong and trustworthy relationship with their therapists, which enabled them to move through their naturally unfolding healing processes with limited direct intervention from the therapist. Therapists engaged in reflective listening that demonstrated their deep empathic understanding and unbiased interpretation of the client's personal experience of the world. Therapeutic intervention was limited to the introduction of a healthy, unconditionally loving, and empathic listener. Through extended interaction with such an individual, the client would learn to develop congruence, unconditional positive regard (for self and others), and empathic capacities that were eventually integrated into his or her personality. The acquisition of these traits would be one example of a positive result of this therapeutic approach.

Motivational Interviewing (MI) was one technique that emerged from Rogerian therapy in order to move into a goal-oriented therapeutic alliance that promoted the will to change one's life in order to resolve personal problems (Westra, 2012). Therapists guided clients through their personal processes with a consistent intention to focus upon topics that could lead to intrinsic interest in moving forward with activities that may have resulted in increased client autonomy and positive action in the world. However, they did not command authority over a client's evolving attitudes. MI integrated unconditional positive regard, empathy, and congruence with a therapeutic intention to encourage clients to move through five stages of change that would lead to greater health and autonomy in the world.

These five stages were Pre-contemplation (no intention to change), Contemplation (considering change), Preparation (preparing for experiments), Action (implementing ideas that led to change), and Maintenance (sustaining new behaviors). Client resistance was viewed with respect, and psychotherapists would not ask clients to change when they had not yet reached a sufficient level of interest in progressing from the pre-contemplative and into the contemplative or later stages.

Carl Rogers developed a clear set of principles that have strongly influenced how psychotherapists approach their clients, where empathy, unconditional positive regard, and authenticity have become valuable tools for developing a strong therapeutic relationship.

## Abraham Maslow & Human Potential

Dr. Abraham Maslow (20th century) developed a comprehensive model describing self-actualization, which could be applied to both individuals and social systems to support their human resources.

### The Hierarchy of Needs

In the wake of Dr. Sigmund Freud's contribution to the diagnosis and treatment of psychopathology, Maslow chose to investigate the phenomenon of peak performers--people of exceptional mental health and psychosocial activity (Conley, 2007). Although Freud successfully developed a theoretical framework for describing mental illness, he did not adequately address exceptional performance in humans. Maslow has been credited with creating a pyramidal model, which described the human being's hierarchy of needs (Simons, Irwin, & Drinnien, 1987). This pyramid organized human needs into physiological, safety, social/belonging, esteem, self-actualization, and self-transcendence needs. This model has provided a framework with which to conceptualize the escalating nature of human needs that have led to exemplary lifestyles.

In order to begin satisfying the highest needs for self-actualization and self-transcendence, the individual would need to first satisfy his or her physiological, safety, social/belonging, and esteem needs (Maslow, 1993). Physiological needs included the fundamental foodstuffs, liquids, excretion, breathing, sexual, sleep and homeostatic requirements of the human organism. Upon satisfying these basic functions, the individual would begin seeking safety through the acquisition of shelter, employment and supplies of life-sustaining resources. Afterward, social/belonging needs would emerge and the individual would seek friendship, family, and sexual intimacy. This would support budding esteem needs that could be met through achievement, social affirmation, and status. The need to self-actualize is often illustrated as the capstone of Maslow's hierarchy, which was eventually dwarfed by the need for self-transcendence (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). The various needs have been defined as either deficiency or metaneeds (also known as being needs).

### Deficiency vs. Metaneeds: Motivation, Love and Cognition

Deficiency needs (d-needs) included the physiological, safety, social/belonging, and esteem needs. Without supplying the individual with these necessities, the deficiency motive (d-motive) would guide the individual's behavior until deficiencies had been satisfied (Maslow, 1993). Driven by the d-motive, an individual would intensely focus upon satisfying the fundamental prerequisites for physical and social survival until he or she had acquired sufficient quantities of resources. Likewise, those in whom the d-motive was strong would be necessarily bound to deficiency cognition and deficiency love (d-cognition and d- love). D-cognition was characterized by the perception of separateness and the judgment of others, while d-love was marked by the need to receive affection from others; both were extremely limiting and ego-centric, as they aimed at satiating the personal desires that marked unsatisfied d-needs. Upon satisfying d-needs, the metaneeds would emerge and begin driving behavior.

As the d-motive successfully drove the individual towards securing the first four needs, metaneeds would be revealed as the individual would be free to progress to the higher stages of self-actualization and self- transcendence in order to satisfy them (Maslow, 1993). Self- actualization and self-transcendence would give rise to being motives, being cognition, and being love (b-motives, b-cognition, and b-love, respectively) (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). B-motives reflected the drive to fulfill those lofty endeavors to which the newly actualizing or transcending self aspired, which were marked by the capacity for b- cognition and b-love (Maslow, 1993). B-cognition was characterized by an accurate and non-judgmental perception of reality, while b-love was marked by the desire to give love selflessly. The capacity to engage in these forms of thinking and loving enabled the self-actualizing and self- transcending person to accomplish their goals and satisfy metaneeds.

### Self-Actualization and Self-Transcendence

Maslow described self-actualization as the capacity to fully realize one's potentials, and this was classified as a being-need (b-need). The self- actualizing individual was concerned with creative endeavors that were not used for the gratification of personal deficiencies; instead, they strived for growth (Maslow, 1993). For example, an individual who began to self-actualize could begin learning a new skill such as computer programming in order to challenge themselves rather than to acquire material goods or win praise. Likewise, the self-actualizing individual could not continue to do so if his or her deficiency needs were not satisfied. If the aforementioned individual successfully learned the science of computer programming but suddenly lost assets due to an economic recession, the individual's intrinsic drive to develop new skills (b-motive) would be transformed into a d-motive as he or she applied the growing knowledge toward the satisfaction of lower needs. Sustained self-actualization could lead to encounters with self- transcendence, the highest human need (Koltko-Rivera, 2006).

Self-transcendence began to emerge when the individual successfully met his or her need to self-actualize and sensed that one's energies could be used to benefit the greater good (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). Due to their commitment to their service-oriented vocations, self- transcending persons would excel at finding meaning and joy in their work. For example, a self-transcending Catholic clergyman could work tirelessly for his church in order to ensure their wellbeing, regardless of financial or social reward--successful altruism would be intrinsically rewarding. The self-transcending individual would hold such being values (b-values) as truth, beauty, goodness, love, and others in high regard. As these values transcended the self, the clergyman could risk his collar and defy his church for the sake of ensuring that these values were upheld, as he would no longer require its security or approval. Self-transcending individuals would also often encounter frequent peak experiences and a sense of deepening spirituality.

### Peak-Experiences and Spirituality

Peak-experiences were generally described as pleasurable and deeply transformative encounters with universal Truth (Maslow, 1994). Peak- experiences have been qualified as sacred, timeless, awe-inspiring, liberating, humbling, and unifying. These experiences have often resulted in profound attitudinal shifts resulting in increased wisdom and compassion in accord with b-cognition and b-love, respectively. The individual who encountered a peak-experience could recognize these states as self-authenticating, as they required no justification to skeptics who may have claimed that the experiences were unimportant or delusional. Due to the deeply pleasurable nature of these experiences, individuals would potentially seek them with increasing fervor until they had successfully learned how to do so. Thereafter, they would share their ecstatic states with others. Peak experiences could have been limited to sensitive populations who were predisposed toward the encounters, while others could have had have difficulty understanding them.

Although they were present at the lower stages of need, peak experiences were most frequently encountered as a consequence of self- transcendence (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). Individuals could be classified as "peakers" or "non-peakers", depending upon the propensity for an individual to encounter and recognize a peak experience (Maslow, 1994). Non-peakers could have been excessively rational and in conflict with non-rational states of consciousness. Therefore, they could repress potential peak experiences or dismissed the ones they encountered as unimportant. Peakers, however, were prone to frequent and intense peak-experiences that were readily accessible and easily integrated into their understanding of reality. Peakers may have often experienced great difficulty when attempting to translate their experiences into linguistic equivalents, often resorting to the construction of symbol and metaphor as their most effective means of communication. The tenuous relationship between peakers and non-peakers could also be explored within the context of religious institutions.

Religious institutions were an excellent example wherein the relationship between peakers and non-peakers could be illustrated (Maslow, 1994). Those ecstatic visionaries who established the foundations of religion were invariably individuals who encountered peak-experiences and attempted to make those same states accessible to others. Those who experienced the aforementioned qualities of peak- experiences were often depicted as encountering a great syntactic struggle as they guided their followers into "The Kingdom of Heaven" (Maslow, 1994). Upon the founder's death, non-peakers were often left with the ever-difficult task of guiding members of a religion into those ecstatic states through the use of ritual, symbol, and theological inquiry. Unfortunately, these non-peakers were often unfamiliar with ecstatic states, rendering them unable to facilitate the emergence of peak- experiences or offer helpful guidance to those who sought such ecstasy.

### Health and Pathology

Health and pathology varied along a spectrum from the foundation of the hierarchy to its apex. Health could be defined as the degree to which the individual had satisfied any one of his or her needs (Maslow, 1993). Thus, the individual who satisfied his or her physiological needs would exhibit more signs of health than those who did not, and the degree to which a person was healthy increases as he or she satisfied the safety, social/belonging, esteem, self-actualization, and self- transcendence needs. As discussed previously, each need must have been addressed in turn, thereby unlocking the potential for greater health and wellbeing as the hierarchy was scaled. Therefore, health must have been realized at ever-increasing levels until self- transcendence was unlocked and satisfied in perpetuity. If this fundamental pattern of increasing need satisfaction and realization of health was stymied, pathology would ensue.

The inability to satisfy the physiological, safety, social/belonging and esteem needs resulted in lower pathologies, whereas the frustration of self-actualization and self-transcendence needs resulted in met pathology (Maslow, 1993). The failure to satisfy the fundamental physiological and safety needs would result in sickness and death to the organism, while the failure to meet social/belonging and esteem needs would result in a neurosis. A neurosis could be described as the individual's inability to attend to "inner signals", which resulted in excessive reliance upon the external environment in order to guide the individual toward appropriate decision-making (Maslow, 1993). This reliance upon external cues for environmental navigation would have resulted in behavioral automation and a diminished capacity to encounter a personally meaningful experience of life resulting in the absence of insight and inspiration. How ever, when the fundamental d- needs were satisfied and the individual refused to progress to the pursuit of b-needs, metapathology resulted (Maslow, 1993).

Metapathology described the failure of an individual to satisfy his or her need for self-actualization and self-transcendence (Maslow, 1993). Although peak-experiences could have suggested the nature of one's vocation or life-purpose, people would often retract from these encounter s with personal truth in favor of metapathology. Often, such metapathology resulted from the common fear of realizing that very potential, which one would need to actualize. Many individuals suffering from metapathology would cower before their mission due to a fear of their own potential hubris. Likewise, the emphasis that a given society would place upon material reward rather than those intrinsic to self- actualization and self-transcendence would support that cowardice.

### Howard Gardner

According to Howard Gardner, IQ (psychometric intelligence quotient) did not necessarily represent an ultimate form of intelligence metric (Gardner, 2006). IQ simply did not measure the general intelligence of an individual, but rather, IQ measured a specific _type_ of intelligence. For Gardner, there were a variety of intelligences that could not be addressed through an IQ test. For example, musical, rhythmic, and harmonic skills were connected with a specific intelligence that was musical in nature. These skills could be observed through the degree to which an individual was capable of perceiving pitch and tone, reproducing melody, and playing a musical instrument.

Another type of intelligence was verbal or linguistic, which represented the degree to which an individual was capable of interpreting and describing an experience or other events through language. This intelligence highlighted verbal, analytic, and linguistic skills. An individual who was a prolific author or a persuasive speaker could be said to have high levels of verbal and linguistic intelligence, but he or she may not have had high levels of musical intelligence. The logical, mathematical intelligence was another intelligence, which highlighted the individual's ability to perform complex computations, rapidly and with high levels of precision. Here, the individual could also excel at solving puzzles and performing complex tasks that required a clear understanding of formulaic rules and principles such as in chemistry and physics.

Yet another form of intelligence was the bodily/kinesthetic intelligence, where one could have a well-developed capacity to use one's body as does an Olympic athlete in gymnastics or swimming. This high level of natural intelligence is manifested through a precise control over the physical body and the capacity to harness its power in physical space.

Meanwhile, _interpersonal_ intelligence represented the ability to work with people, which was essentially emotional intelligence. Someone who was skilled with developing rapport, connecting with others, and developing awareness of another person's interior experience could have been naturally more capable of serving as a psychotherapist or a spiritual leader. _Intra_ personal intelligence was another, which described the degree to which an individual could understand and describe his or her interior states to another person. People with high intrapersonal intelligence would know how to explore a variety of interior states of awareness, emotion, and physiological arousal, as well as reflect upon their thoughts. These people could also have served as effective psychologists or spiritual leaders.

Existential intelligence represented the capacity to understand and recognize the degree to which abstract concepts and thoughts impacted human live s. Existential theories would describe _why_ the universe came to be and how humans may discover meaning in their lives in lieu of brief physical life that appeared within a vastly ancient universe. These individuals could also serve as spiritual guides, psychologists, and philosophers who explore deeply meaningful questions about the nature of one's self in relation with the universe.

Finally, the degree to which a person recognized, naturally connected with, and adapted to the physical world--the natural environment-- represented naturalistic intelligence. This intelligence highlighted a capacity to deeply understand ecology, the environment, and the natural world, which could predispose some individuals toward fields of work that engaged with ecological systems.

These different intelligences could manifest as strengths in a variety of domains either individually or simultaneously. Although Gardner acknowledged that his theory was not well researched and validated with scientific, peer-reviewed double-blind studies, he continued to propose his theory as an effective way to describe the manner in which individuals display different capacities across a variety of skill domains.

## Modern Theories on Psychopathology  
R. Y. Langham, PhD

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - Fifth Edition (DSM-5) was developed to help mental health professionals (i.e. counselors, psychiatrists, psychologists, therapists, and clinical social workers) classify the wide-range of mental disorders currently affecting millions of Americans (APA, 2015).

The primary goal of this mental health manual is to provide clinicians from a variety of theoretical orientations with the tools and guidelines needed to accurately assess, diagnose, and treat those with mental health conditions. The current intention is for it to be used not only by mental health profession and clinicians, but also by health professionals, ranging from nurses and physicians to occupational/rehabilitation/physical therapists and home health workers.

The DSM-5, the current edition of the manual, is also used for clinical, community, and general mental health research. In addition, it is essential for collating and distributing a wide-range of important health statistics. The criteria used in the DSM-5, along with all of the previous editions of the manual are not only succinct and specific, but also needed to assist in an independent assessment of current symptoms exhibited in a variety of clinical settings, such as: private practices, skilled nursing facilities, inpatient and outpatient rehabilitation centers, mental health/substance abuse treatment centers, hospitals, and physician offices. The DSM-5 consists of three important parts: diagnostic classification, diagnostic criteria sets, and descriptive texts (Bower, 2013).

### History

The American Psychiatric Association (APA) first released the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) in 1952, but it has undertaken numerous revisions since that time.The latest revision occurred on May 18, 2013, resulting in the DSM- 5. The DSM was created to set a universal standard (criteria) when classifying mental health disorders. A variety of professionals such as clinicians, health insurance companies, clinical nurses, clinical social workers, researchers, the court system (i.e. lawyers), policy makers (i.e. congressman), and pharmaceutical companies still rely heavily on this manual to distribute accurate information to those who assess, diagnose, and treat people with mental health disorders.

The World Health Organization's development of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) helps health professionals code the various mental health conditions. The ICD is the most common diagnostic tool used today to code mental health disorders. It differs from the DSM because it covers health in its entirety.

Although the DSM is the official diagnostic system in the United States, the ICD is more widely used in other parts of the world. In addition, the DSM has significantly evolved from being used solely to collect census and psychiatric statistics, primarily found in United States Army manuals, to being the most important manual when assessing, diagnosing, and treating a myriad of mental health conditions. It is important to note that although the DSM has garnered considerable praise for standardizing psychiatric diagnostic categories and creating universal criteria, it has also sparked controversy and disapproval (WHO).

Critics, including the National Institute of Mental Health, have argued that the criteria and categories in the DSM represent a bias and highly unscientific system. In other words, the Institute asserts that the DSM's criteria are not universal and that the categories and symptoms listed in it are not always accurate or true. Moreover, critics complain that the DSM's classification system maybe influenced by cultural prejudices and/or the popularity of medication protocols when it comes to treating patients with mental health conditions (Nguyen & Bornheimer, 2014).

### DSM: Axis I, II, HI and IV

Axis I, II, III and IV are branches of the DSM-IV's multi-axial system for evaluation. This system was created to provide an all- encompassing diagnosis that not only consists of a comprehensive representation of acute symptoms, but also the complete range of factors that may and can attribute to a patient's overall mental health and well-being (Katstrup & Mezzich, 2001).

### Axis I: Clinical Disorders

Axis I is at the top level of the multi-axial system of evaluation and diagnosis. This axis represents acute mental health symptoms that require treatment. The most common diagnoses (i.e. Panic Attacks, Schizophrenic Events, and Major Depressive Episodes) are found in this axis. Moreover, diagnoses found in this axis are typically classified as V-codes, primarily to aid in the billing process (Lobbestelet al., 2011).

### Commonly Diagnosed Axis I Disorders:

  * Adjustment Disorders
  * Anxiety Disorders
  * Cognitive Disorders (i.e. Delirium, Dementia, and Amnesiac)
  * Dissociative Disorders
  * Eating Disorders
  * Factitious Disorders
  * Impulse-Control Disorders (i.e. Not Classified Elsewhere)
  * Mental Disorders Due to a General Medical Condition
  * Mood Disorders
  * Schizophrenia and other Psychotic Disorders
  * Sexual and Gender Identity Disorders
  * Sleep Disorders
  * Somatoform Disorders
  * Substance-Related Disorders

### Axis II: Personality Disorders and Intellectual Disabilities

The purpose of Axis II is to evaluate personality disorders and intellectual disabilities. These disorders are usually chronic problems that originally presented during childhood (Maestro et al., 2014). It is important to note that Axis II disorders differ from Axis I disorders in that Axis I disorders tend to be symptomatic of Axis II disorders. For instance, a male patient in his late 20s may have depression (an Axis I disorder) that is essentially the result of a borderline personality disorder (an Axis II disorder). It is also important to note that these disorders are often attached to social stigmas, causing those who have been diagnosed with one or more of them to experience a wide-range of negative social stigmas (i.e. shunning, social isolation, bullying, etc.). In other words, these individuals tend to have a hard time assimilating into society. In addition, Axis II disorders can be quite difficult to accurately diagnose and treat. Moreover, mental health professionals often differ on whether Axis II disorders are the result of environmental factors or genetic influences. Ultimately, these disorders are considered to be more chronic and less responsive to treatments than Axis I disorders (Maestro et al., 2014; Lopez et al., 2006).

### Commonly Diagnosed Axis II Disorders:

  * Antisocial Personality Disorder
  * Avoidant Personality Disorder
  * Borderline Personality Disorder
  * Dependent Personality Disorder
  * Histrionic Personality Disorder
  * Mental Retardation
  * Narcissistic Personality Disorder
  * Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder
  * Paranoid Personality Disorder
  * Personality Disorder Not Otherwise Specified
  * Schizoid Personality Disorder
  * Schizotypal Personality Disorder

### Axis III: General Medical Conditions

Axis III depicts physical health problems that may be pertinent when assessing, diagnosing, and treating mental health disorders. Consider a female patient in her mid-20s with an Axis I diagnosis of a mood disorder (i.e. depression) who also has chronic migraine headaches: The migraine headaches classified as an Axis I disorder because the severe pain associated with the headaches could be a possible factor in the depression. More specifically, general medical conditions are viewed in three ways -- (1) as being directly influenced or related to mental health disorders, (2) as being essential to the total diagnostic picture, and (3) as not have an adequate relationship (Lopez et al., 2006).

### Axis IV: Psychosocial and Environmental Problems

Axis IV is used to report psychosocial and environmental stressors that may affect the assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of mental health disorders. In addition, they are rather easy to diagnose, especially if the patient's mental health problems are related to life events (i.e. getting married, death of loved one or pet, a new job, a loss of a job, etc.). Basically, these disorders occur as a result of a life event -- positive or negative. These life events affect a patient's mental health, diagnosis, and treatment.

For instance, consider a middle-age patient who was recently fired from his job and presented to his doctor with depression: Here, "unemployment" or "loss of job" and the depression would be classified on Axis IV. It is important to note that only "stressors" from the past year (12 months) are classified within Axis IV. Therefore, mental health professionals are encouraged to only document problems and/or symptoms that directly affect the patient's current situation. Furthermore, in some cases severe environmental and psychosocial problems such as sexual abuse may be classified as an Axis I disorder (Ramirez et al., 2013).

### Single Axis System

In the past DSM clinical assessments were organized into five axes or parts, each addressing the various aspects of mental health disorders. It is important to remember that the multi-axial system was first developed as away to solve existing problems. However, those problems have now disappeared. In fact, some of the mental health disorders (i.e. personality disorders), found in previous DSM editions, have been altered or removed because they did not garner sufficient clinical and research results. As a consequence, personality disorders were categorized as Axis II disorders in an effort to ensure that they received more attention.

Conversely, some clinicians view a multi-axial system as time- consuming and troublesome. Although there is no significant difference between DSM-4's Axis I and II disorders, DSM-5 has moved to a single axis system. This new single axis system combines Axis I, II, & III (as referenced in the earlier DSM editions) into one axis complete with all of the medical and mental diagnoses and disorders. As a result, vague and faulty distinctions have been removed in an effort to strengthen the DSM for clinical and research purposes (Kress et al., 2014).

### Personality Disorders (A, B, & Q Cluster "A" Personality Disorders

Cluster "A" personality disorders consist of the following personality disorders: Schizoid, Paranoid and Schizotypal. Individuals who have one or more of the "A" personality disorders typically distrust and are highly suspicious of the motives of others. This cluster is often referred to as peculiar and unconventional, because its common features include social isolation and social awkwardness. In addition, individuals who have one or more of these disorders tend to be consumed by distorted/hazy thinking (Skodol et al., 2014).

###  _Paranoid Personality Disorder_

Paranoid Personality Disorder is distinguished by an all- encompassing distrust of others, including co-workers, acquaintances, strangers, friends, family members, and even romantic partners.

As a result, this individual is highly guarded and constantly searching for hidden clues that validate his fears and suspicions. In addition, this person falsely assumes that someone is out to harm, kill, embarrass, humiliate, or at the very least take advantage of him. Moreover, he goes out of his way to protect and distance himself from the prying eyes of others. Personal rights are extremely important to a person with this disorder, and as a result, he tends to be hypersensitive to criticism, rejection, and obstacles. If someone humiliates or embarrasses this individual, he is likely to bear a grudge for a long amount of time. If he feels threatened, he is most likely to attack others before they can attack him. As can be expected, he is quick to withdraw from others and he struggles with developing healthy relationships. He is prone to jealous fits and unclear thinking. Lastly, this individual's perception of his environment is riddled with thoughts and beliefs that people have evil intentions towards him, even though most people's comments and actions are genuinely harmless. It is not uncommon for a person with Paranoid Personality Disorder to dwell endlessly on past snubs, which is why this person rarely, if ever, confides in the people around him.

###  _Schizoid Personality Disorder_

Schizoid Personality Disorder is characterized by a persistent pattern of social indifference and a limited range of emotional expressions (i.e. language and words). This individual tends to be socially withdrawn and isolated. He doesn't seek out the companionship or warmth of others or enjoy close relationships with friends, family, or romantic partners. In other words, a person with this disorder is most likely to always choose activities that do not include other people. In addition, he receives little, if any, pleasure from living. This individual is often called a "loner" because of his preference to be alone (without human interaction) most, if not all of the time.He may also appear unresponsive to both praise and criticism. This person may appear distant, unfriendly, and unfeeling to others. In addition, he may genuinely be oblivious to social gestures and cues, causing him to appear incompetent and/or phony to those around him. As a result of his limited emotional expressions (failure to reciprocate gestures such as smiles and nods), others may view him as boring, monotonous, and inconsiderate. This personality disorder appears to be quite rare (Skodol et al., 2014; Coccaro et al., 2005).

###  _Schizotypal Personality Disorder_

Schizotypal Personality Disorder is characterized by a pattern of personal and social restrictions. A person with this disorder tends to become highly uncomfortable in social settings. In addition, he more than likely finds it difficult to develop and maintain close, healthy relationships with others. And, as a result, this person is typically reserved, socially awkward, isolated, and distant.

He may also have problems distinguishing between reality and fantasy, resulting in perceptual and cognitive distortions and/or abnormal behaviors. Some perceptual distortions may include the following: flashing lights, seeing objects, people, and images that no one else sees, and/or constantly noticing dark shadows in the corner of their eyes, only to realize later that nothing was there (Coccaro et al., 2005).

A person with Schizotypal Personality Disorder also tends to have unusual beliefs. For instance, a person with this disorder may truly believe that he can read the thoughts of others, or that other people can read his thoughts -- when in actuality they cannot. These fanciful and superstitious beliefs are considered odd or peculiar because they do not fit with cultural norms. It is important to note that Schizotypal Personality Disorder is commonly found in families in which one or more members suffer from Schizophrenia -- a severe mental disorder characterized by a loss of contact with reality (psychosis). Current research suggests that Schizotypal Personality Disorder and Schizophrenia share a common genetic link.

### Cluster "B" Personality Disorders

Cluster "B" personality disorders are considered intense, emotional, and unpredictable. This cluster is linked to emotional regulation and impulse control. It includes the following personality disorders: Borderline, Narcissistic, Histrionic, and Antisocial (Yuping et al., 2013).

###  _Antisocial Personality Disorder_

Antisocial Personality Disorder is characterized by a persistent pattern of anger and/or hostility stemming from a blatant disregard for the rights of others. A person with this disorder maybe deceitful and manipulative.

His extreme aggression probably first manifested during childhood and persisted into adulthood. A child with an Antisocial Personality Disorder may deliberately hurt or kill people and/or animals. He may also perform hostile acts such as bullying, attacking, or intimidating others. In addition, this person may deliberately set fires or destroy the property of others without regard to the impact it will have on the victims. Moreover, this individual may steal and/or violate rules, guidelines, and standard rules of conduct. It is not uncommon for a person with this disorder to place themselves in unsafe and/or dangerous situations.

He may also be impulsive, acting on impulses without fully considering the effects and/or consequences. Therefore, this individual most likely does not have impulse control, which can, and often does, affect his ability to retain a job or a healthy long-term romantic relationship. This lack of impulse control and inability to regulate emotions can also lead to incarcerations, lawsuits, and/or serious accidents.

Moreover, this individual will most likely not feel remorse or regret from his hurtful actions, although he may become quite inept at feigning remorse, if it is in his best interest (i.e. when pleading a case in front of a judge). Furthermore, it is common for a person with Antisocial Personality Disorder to blame others for his actions and quality of life.

###  _Histrionic Personality Disorder_

Histrionic Personality Disorder is characterized by a pattern of extreme emotional fits and excessive attention-seeking behaviors. A person with this disorder is often called a "drama queen" because his life is full of chaos and drama.

This person loves being the center of attention and when that does not occur he feels depressed, out-of-place and/or uncomfortable. Others may view him as overly flirtatious, seductive, and/or hypersexual. He may dress in away that entices others and draws attention to himself. This individual is probably dramatic, flashy, and exciting, especially when it comes to physically expressing himself. Although this person may come across as flamboyant, his ability to express genuine emotions may be lacking, ambiguous, and/or shallow, which, as a result, causes others to view him as phony, dishonest, and/or insincere (Hatchett, 2015).

Moreover, this individual's melodrama often embarrasses friends, family, co-workers, romantic partners, and even strangers, which results in fleeting relationships and friendships. Those close to this person maybe taken aback by his excessive displays of emotions. For instance, this individual may sob uncontrollably for no reason or for a trivial reason, and/or he may invade the personal space of others, while talking or greeting them. As a result this person may come across as erratic and unreliable.

When it comes to romantic relationships, this individual may believe that he is in a relationship, even though his intended paramour may not see things the same way. Lastly, a person with this disorder tends to be highly impressionable and easily influenced by the beliefs, opinions, and actions of others (Morey, 2012).

###  _Narcissistic Personality Disorder_

Narcissistic Personality Disorder is characterized by a need to feel important. This individual bases his self-worth, self-esteem, and self- confidence on how others perceive him. He also has a powerful sense of entitlement believing that he should be afforded special treatment because of who he is.This individual also believes that he is extremely brilliant, talented, attractive, and/or special. It is not uncommon for this person to believe he has super powers and can see into the minds and souls of others. He most likely is so obsessed with being powerful, beautiful, intelligent, and successful that he may really believe that he possesses those attributes, when in reality he does not (Hatchett, 2015; Morey, 2012).

In addition, this individual may be so caught up in his own personal fantasies that he neglects to perform daily routines, such as taking a bath or shower, working, going to school, grocery shopping and running errands, and/or taking care of children and pets. In other words, this individual does not feel the need to put effort into accomplishing his goals because in his mind he has already accomplished them. Because he feels that he is special, he may come across to others as conceited, stuck-up, and arrogant.

This attitude becomes a problem when other people feel as though he has exploited, manipulated, or treated them in a condescending way. Truth-be-told, a person with Narcissistic Personality Disorder may feel shattered once he realizes that he is simply average. In other words, it is common for someone with this disorder to become despondent when it becomes apparent that he is not as special, unique, beautiful, intelligent or all around wonderful as he previously thought (Mayo Clinic, 2015).

Also, if this person does not feel as though others admire him, he will fall into a depressive state. This realization tends to provoke feelings of anger, rage, embarrassment, and/or shame. A person with this disorder needs to feel admired, loved, adored, powerful, beautiful, and/or successful at all times; therefore, he has a difficult time sustaining long-term, meaningful relationships.

This person lacks empathy and understanding, which usually causes problems in romantic relationships and friendships. It is important to understand that "status" is very important to this individual. He needs to feel important at all times.

As a result, this person will most likely seek out friendships, associations, and romantic relationships with those he deems as powerful, beautiful, famous, and/or successful. It is also common for someone with this personality disorder to devalue others while hyping up his own qualities and traits. Truthfully, this individual alternates between feeling as if he has unlimited powers/abilities and feeling dejected, worthless, useless, ordinary, and depressed, which occurs after he realizes that he is only human.

Lastly, this individual needs constant attention and admiration in order to feel confident, and as a result, will resort to manipulation in order to achieve this objective.

###  _Borderline Personality Disorder_

Borderline Personality Disorder is characterized by rapidly shifting extreme and unstable moods, behaviors, and emotions. It is also one of the most widely researched personality disorders. An individual with this disorder tends to have a difficult time relaxing once he becomes agitated. As a result, he is prone to violent, angry outbursts and reckless, impulsive behaviors (i.e. promiscuity, substance abuse/addiction, gambling, self-harm, overspending, and/or overeating). This person engages in such behaviors as a way to temporarily calm himself, however, the agitation that stimulates these behaviors only returns later at a higher level.

An individual with Borderline Personality Disorder typically views the world through conflicting lenses, in other words, in all-or-nothing terms. He most likely associates his values, morals, and beliefs with the thoughts and behaviors of others, therefore judging them harshly if their ideas do not conform to his own.

More specifically, this person fluctuates between seeing the world and people as "good" or "bad." There are no in-between or grey areas. And, as a result, he often finds it challenging to "stay on track" or be consistent. It is common for this person to change partners, friends, goals, residences, and careers on a frequent basis.

### Cluster "C" Personality Disorders

Cluster "C" personality disorders are considered anxious, apprehensive, and fearful. It consists of the following personality disorders: Avoidant, Dependent, and Obsessive-Compulsive Personality. One thing that all three personality disorders share in common is extreme anxiety (Laajasalo et al., 2013).

###  _Avoidant Personality Disorder_

Avoidant Personality Disorder is characterized by a persistent pattern of self-consciousness, feelings of incompetence, and an extreme sensitivity to criticism. An individual with this personality disorder is extremely afraid that others will criticize, belittle, reject, ridicule, and embarrass him. As a result, this person goes out of his or her way to avoid social situations. These fears restrict his ability to develop healthy social skills. In addition, an individual with an Avoidant Personality Disorder is most likely to keep a small group of close friends around him. Other than that his social life is barely existent, if it is existent at all.

This individual truly believes that he is not worthy of friends, love, power, and/or success, and that others do not like him for those reasons. He also believes that he is unattractive and socially awkward, leading others to avoid and/or shun him. This person experiences a high level of anxiety and emotional pain at the thought of being mocked, ridiculed, and/or rejected. Those around this individual may view him as shy, distant, stiff, and/or reserved, which often interferes with his ability to make and retain friends and romantic partners. It can also interfere with his ability to bond with co-workers.

###  _Dependent Personality Disorder_

Dependent Personality Disorder is characterized by a powerful need to be taken care of. This individual fears the loss of support -- emotionally, physically, and financially. Others, including friends, family members, and romantic partners, view this individual as "'clingy."

A person with a Dependent Personality Disorder may have a hard time standing up for himself. He may also go out of his way to avoid conflicts and confrontations. His extreme fear of losing someone makes him susceptible to physical, sexual, and mental abuse and/or emotional manipulation. In addition, this person will most likely have a hard time disagreeing with others (even when he is right) and/or making difficult decisions. He may also find it challenging to start new tasks without assistance.

Truth-be-told, being alone is extremely difficult for a person with this personality disorder. As a result, he will immediately seek the comfort of another person once a relationship ends (Cleveland Clinic, 2013).

###  _Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder_

Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder is characterized as a preoccupation with rules, standards, regulations, principles, guidelines, and organization. This preoccupation with being in control and perfect all of the time hinders this individual's ability to be flexible, adaptable, efficient, and open. Truthfully, a person with this personality disorder is excellent at making to-do lists and developing schedules. In fact, he is so devoted to work that his friendships and romantic relationships often suffer. Because he is a perfectionist, he is driven to make sure everything is perfect before signing off on a task. If everything is not perfect, he will continue to work on it, hours at a time sometimes, until it is (Gordon et al., 2013).

Small details may often get lostwhen a person with Obsessive- Compulsive Personality Disorder is working on a task. Moreover, this individual's approach to life, work, and relationships tends to be rather inflexible. It simply isn't possible for this person to do "sub- standard" work, regardless of how long it takes to complete it. In addition, this person usually has a very hard time delegating tasks for fear that others will not "do the work as he would" or "get it right." Lastly, this individual may be extremely "tight" with money, needing to control every dollar for fear that something will happen, and he will not have enough money to cover it. Others often view this person as dominating, controlling, and stubborn.

*** *It is important to note that it is normal to exhibit some of these personality traits from time-to-time. In fact, most people do at some time in their lives. To meet the diagnostic requirements of a personality disorder, one must exhibit the traits repeatedly, without regard to place, circumstances, or time. They must cause the individual significant functional impairment, anxiety, and/or stress for a sustained period of time (Mayo Clinic, 2015).

# A Brief Review of Eastern Philosophies

## The East

During the roughly 2,500-plus years in which the West was developing its philosophy of mind, morals, science, and civilization, the Far East also continued to refine its approach to life's most fundamental questions. The schools of Yoga and Buddhism dominated much of India, while, the Naturalists, Taoism, and Confucianism dominated China (Feuerstein, 2001). Although interactions with the West have occurred throughout antiquity, the yogic school of Buddhism's most recent relationship with the West has been documented through philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer's work during the 19th century (App, 2010). Yoga and Buddhism began to more significantly influence Western philosophy and psychology during the late 20th century as neuroscience began to study yogic and Buddhist techniques for modulating activity within the central nervous system (UC Mindful Health & Safety, 2014).

## Yoga

The founder or founders and the date of publication of the original philosophical school of yoga are unknown, but the primary text from which the majority of their traditions is referred to as the Upanishads (Feuerstein, 2001) (2,500 to 1,500 BCE). Yoga has been primarily divided into a variety of schools, which include Buddhism, Ashtanga yoga, Hatha yoga, Shaivism, and Jainism, and classical yoga. The common elements that have joined these schools included the practice of training attention through meditation; developing an altruistic and compassionate attitude toward others; behaving in a moral manner; and engaging in physical exercises that reduce physical and mental stress, and enhance general well-being.

The fundamental objective of each school has been to achieve mental, spiritual, moral, and physical enlightenment, which generally consisted in realizing one's true nature as a _non-dual_ being that emanated its consciousness into the world of form through the _duality_ , or the appearance of separateness. Therefore, one's essential nature was non- dual. This model is similar to Plotinus's propositions on The One, the Emanation from The One into The Many, and the Return to the One.

Through engaging with meditation, intellectual development, positive moral conduct, physical exercise, and other practices, one could develop insight into the nature of reality. Through these practices one could also reduce one's suffering while cultivating awareness, happiness, and virtue. Image: (Tai Chi Association, 2015)

Traditional yogic meditation was primarily focused upon an eyes-closed single-pointed attention, wherein the individual allowed sensory information from the exterior environment to subside. Through focusing upon an eyes-closed single-pointed sustained attention practice, the individual could strongly enhance the sense of self- awareness, spaciousness, peace, quiescence, and relaxation. Meanwhile, the physical stretching exercises, referred to as Asanas, were designed to relax muscle and connective tissues while emphasizing spinal strength, flexibility, and health for the purpose of clearing energy pathways and opening the chakras and nadis.

[Images Available In Paid Version]

The chakras and nadis were energy centers throughout the body that yoga purported to support the individual's consciousness within the physical body. This energy could either flow with strength and vitality or flow in a limited manner.

Through stretching the body and strengthening the spine, one could prepare the nerve plexus at the root of the spine to send charged energy toward the top of the skull, where the energy of the lower spine (Kundalini) would exit through the crown of the head and return to the base of the spine, forming a circuit of energy flow referred to as the macrocosmic orbit. Meanwhile, through practicing controlled breathing exercises one could also move energy from the base of the spine through a narrower pathway through the chakras, which was referred to as the microcosmic orbit. Through strengthening single pointed attention, strengthening the body and spine, and producing an increase in base spine energy that flowed upward toward the brain, one could develop sufficient energy for enhanced mental clarity, compassion, and perhaps full enlightenment.

The correlation between the purported energies of the Kundalini, chakras, nadis and modern Western measurements of known energies have not yet been fully refuted or supported. However, the polyvagal theory put forth by Dr. Stephen Porges could serve as a potential bridge with the yogic practices, which are strongly focused upon breathing as a means by which to regulate the central nervous system, heart-rate, digestive, musculoskeletal, and other body functions. This would not be to suggest a 1:1 correlation but simply one of many potential intersections with modern physiological research.

The energies that yogic practitioners have purported to exist could have indeed been legitimate physical forces that have yet to be measured with sufficiently sensitive instrumentation, as with Traditional Chinese Medicine. The proposition that a subtle energy of the mind exists in a discrete domain that is distinct from the energies of the physical body may be evidenced as true. However, one must also consider that this represents an out-dated interpretation of physiological sensations - Just as outdated as the West's interpretation of biles, humors, and the value of blood-letting. To date, Western empirical research has neither sufficiently refuted nor supported the claims in either case. Regardless, the health benefits of yogic practices upon the immune system, emotional regulation, vital organ health, brain performance, and subjective experience have been well established (Ross & Thomas, 2010). Meanwhile, Siddhartha Gautama's school of yoga and meditation strongly influenced the philosophies of the East for the past 2,500 years.

## Siddhartha Gautama

Siddhartha Gautama (500s BCE) was a philosopher and scholar who lived and taught in India, and the fundamental components of this philosophical school have come to pervade many of the geographically local Eastern philosophical schools and religious systems (Lopez, 2001). Siddhartha Gautama would have been regarded as a prominent yogic philosopher during his time, and his platform became so influential that it was eventually regarded as a school of its own. Throughout the centuries, Buddhism drew upon and influenced the other schools of yoga, as well as Shinto, Neo-Confucianism, Taoism, and many others, which will not receive an equally extensive treatment. The reader is therefore encouraged to conduct independent research on these other traditions if one seeks a more extensive review.

Siddhartha engaged with traditional yogic practices for many months and years, studying with the best scholars and philosophers of his period, and he excelled. However, the principle methodology of which Siddhartha was critical was the manner in which the Hindu ascetics rejected the world, rejected food, rejected pleasure, and withdrew into the practice of meditation. Siddhartha was interested in these techniques, because they were different from how he had been trained as a prince (i.e. obtain sensual pleasure and gratification to enhance quality of life). However, after becoming one of the best students in these practices and appearing as though he would assume a teaching role at some point in the near future, he decided that he was not satisfied with the theories and techniques that he was taught.

Siddhartha decided to exit these schools of thought and go to the forest to practice meditation on his own. At one point, during deep meditation, a woman approached and offered him a bowl of food. Although he was accustomed to rejecting and denying these offers of nutrition and self-satisfaction, he decided to accept the bowl of food. Through this moment of insight, he recognized that the extreme of asceticism did not relieve his suffering and certainly did not cause its end. Rather, perhaps he needed to introduce balance into his life. Through accepting the small offering of food, a few of his students were disgusted and repulsed by his behavior, so they left him. However, at the time, he was beginning to recognize a key insight that would define the rest of his philosophical orientation practical strategies for years to come.

### The Principle of Balance

Balance was the principle of what he would eventually refer to as the middle way. Humans needed a balance of meditation and discipline with compassion and self-nourishment, not just in the form of food, but emotional experience, laughter, play, and so on. Siddhartha was beginning to recognize that rejecting the sensory aspects of experience would not result in the relief of suffering that he sought; instead, this could exacerbate suffering. Indeed, the key was finding a way to balance and integrate all aspects of life into a single, central path of disciplined meditative practice that would define his career.

### Meditation

Siddartha often rested in a state of meditation. Meditation was the practice of placing attention on a single point and sustaining that attention for long periods of time: 20 minutes, an hour, or in the case of monks and nuns, for many hours at a time. This practice was designed to strengthen attention, awareness, and the capacity to rest one's mind where one wanted it to rest, rather than being driven by the constant flood of thoughts and images that typically move through people's minds on a day to day basis. Siddhartha believed that suffering was caused by the unconscious, automatic psychological processes of grasping and rejecting thoughts and sensations. Therefore, the ability to harness the power of one's own attention and unify it at will was important for reducing the experience of suffering.

Through meditation, Siddhartha learned that one must cultivate a sense of equanimity: the ability to simply watch and observe one's experience without doing anything at all. For the Siddartha, completely and genuinely experiencing everything that is good and everything that is bad was the key to happiness and freedom from suffering.

### Attraction

Attraction/grasping would occur when an individual looked at a beautiful flower and for a moment recognized the sensation of a spark of beauty. One would have a direct experience of beauty and the vivid sensation that this was a good thing. Attracted to the sensation, which was pleasurable, one would next attempt to increase the sensation of beauty through merging one's sense of self with the sensation of beauty - unifying with it. For the Siddartha, this was a reflexive psychological activity that was common for human beings, but it ultimately caused suffering, because as soon as grasping occurred, one would have snuffed out the sensation of beauty and have begun reinforcing a false sense of a solid self that could fuse with the beauty in the first place. Through grasping for something that could never be grasped, one would ultimately experience suffering and a form of inner hell.

### Aversion

The next action with which an individual could engage was aversion, or rejecting something. Through rejecting and distancing oneself from a painful or unpleasant experience, that thought or sensation would become more intensely painful than it was before.

### The Four Noble Truths

Siddartha developed what he referred to as the Four Noble Truths, or the four basic facts, of which individuals would need to be aware of in order to mitigate their suffering and promote compassion, clarity of mind, and a general sense of well-being.

The first noble truth was the truth of suffering. All self-aware beings had a mind and would experience, at some point, suffering, so the first noble truth was that life included suffering. The second noble truth was that suffering had a cause. Suffering existed for a reason, and there was a way in which to understand how suffering began. The third noble truth was the truth of the cessation of suffering. This philosophy was essentially the "goodnews". For the Siddartha, it was very important to underscore the fact that while human beings suffered and there was a cause for suffering, there was also a solution. There was an antidote to suffering, which led to the fourth noble truth. The fourth noble truth was that there was a clear strategy to apply in order to reduce suffering and transform pain into liberation.

This was the truth of what he called "the path that leads to the end of suffering" or the strategy that was used in order to end suffering. This strategy was what Siddhartha referred to as the Noble Eightfold Path - Eightfold because there were eight principle tenets to this strategy.

### The Noble Eightfold Path

The first tenet of the strategy was the right view, also known as holding the correct _perspective_ or the correct _understanding_ of what was actually going on in reality, moment to moment, as it was occurring. For the Siddartha, it was critical that individuals would first develop a clear and accurate cognitive understanding of both what was occurring in their own minds, their own psychological processes, and in the world around them.

Next, one would need to develop the intention to begin implementing new strategies and following the methodology that he advised as the best means by which to transform the causes of suffering into an opportunity for liberation, psychological health, and well-being. The third principle was right speech, where one would need to speak in an honest and truthful manner. One needed to avoid being deceitful and obscuring the truth in order to speak in an honest and straightforward manner while sustaining kindness and compassion. The fourth principle was right action, wherein one would need to understand the ways in which their actions impacted others. Individuals needed to take moral action in the world in order for them to be truly happy and feel as though they are able to liberate their own suffering. The fifth principle was right livelihood: that people should choose to do with their lives something that was non-harmful, or even better, that was positive and contributes to society at large. The sixth principle was right effort. This principle required consistently choosing to take action in order to develop one's mind and heart and to contribute to the world in a consistent and meaningful way. The seventh principle was right mindfulness. Mindfulness, for the Siddartha was the practice of meditation and contemplation, which allowed people to rest their minds in a way that would enable them to relax and let go of the internal psychological processes that generally contributed to their own suffering and to the suffering of others.

This practice led to the individual's development of the capacity to remain alert, attentive, and aware, while resting the mind in a way that relaxed cravings and aversions. It was also important to recognize that the core cause of suffering in an individual's psychological makeup was attraction and aversion: wanting to either grasp and control an experience or eliminate an experience. These were regarded as the principle causes of suffering.

The eighth principle was right concentration. Right concentration consisted in the development of the capacity to meditate correctly--the ability for focus and clarity of mind--which was the type of attention that was required in order to break old patterns and liberate the individual from his or her self-inflicted suffering.

These were the eight principle strategies that the Siddhartha recommended to implement as means by which to eliminate suffering. It should be fairly clear that the principle components of the Siddhartha's philosophy were neither metaphysical nor religious claims. Rather, this was a study of the human mind and the applications designed to reduce psychological pain and enhance clarity of mind.

### The Three Jewels

The three jewels were the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha. "The Buddha" was essentially a term that represented one's own innate nature as a conscious being, which consisted in the universal human trait of self-awareness. The conceptualization of "The Buddha" was _not_ related to _him_ as a _person_ but was rather focused upon the fundamental element of human self-awareness upon which one could reflect. For Descartes, this was the "Thinking Thing". Through following the strategies that the Siddartha prescribed, one could become aware of one's own Buddha nature, or the Buddha within--one's own fundamental self- awareness--which was at the heart of this theory.

The conceptualization of the "Dharma" was _not_ equivalent with the religious term _dogma_. Rather, this term referred to the "theory" and it's "methodology": the postulates about reality, perception, and the methodology for adjusting behavior in order to reduce suffering and enhance clarity of mind, altruism, and compassion.

The conceptualization of the "Sangha" was a term that referred to the "community" of people who worked together and applied Siddhartha's proposed theoretical framework and methodologies as individuals and in groups in order support each other in their processes of self- development.

### Balance & The 4 Aspects of the Middle Way

There were four key aspects of the Middle Way. The first consisted in the Siddhartha's emphasis upon the practice of balance and non- extremism in all things, or the importance of practicing temperance in all things. For the Buddha, this practice was particularly relevant to those participating in extreme asceticism: abstaining from food, social contact, and general sensory experience.

### Philosophy: What is Real?

The second aspect of the Middle Way for Siddhartha was more philosophical. This had to do with addressing people's longstanding metaphysical questions about what was onto logically real. How was the universe constructed, and what was ultimately true? At the time, many people vacillated between the extremes of absolutism and nihilism.

Absolutism affirmed that reality was objectively real; everything that we touched and experienced was absolutely true and _was, in actuality_ , exactly the way that we experienced it. The other extreme, nihilism, claimed that all things were ultimately illusory and completely artificial. They were constructed by our minds, and everything was absolutely lacking in true, genuine existence. This was a philosophical question that had been entertained for thousands of years by many different minds, and Siddhartha indicated that it was important to recognize that individuals need to learn how to hold the paradox of both views simultaneously in order to end up with a balanced and moderate perspective. This was, again, a philosophical and conceptual question. Siddhartha encouraged people to recognize that the world displayed both qualities of appearing absolutely real and qualities of appearing somewhat illusory and imagined.

### Enlightenment

The next aspect of the Middle Way is what the Siddhartha referred to as Nirvana, or perfect enlightenment. According to tradition, Siddhartha actualized enlightenment and was therefore referred to as The Buddha (The Awakened One). Here, enlightenment was defined as complete awakening and liberation from suffering, where clarity of mind, compassion, and general psychological health and well-being were fully actualized to their maximum potential. This was an experience of the world where duality was no longer present, and things are not considered to be simply black and white. Through awakening to Nirvana, one became aware of the true nature of reality.

### Emptiness: Reality is a Process, Always Changing, and Never Fixed

The next aspect of the Middle Way described a key concept that was often challenging to understand--Emptiness. Emptiness described the manner in which the things that humans experienced lack inherent permanent existence. Emptiness could be directly experienced by simply closing one's eyes and imagining an apple. Go ahead and see the apple. Sense the apple. Smell the apple. Taste the apple. Go through this entire process, and make the apple seem vividly clear and real. Now that one directly perceives something, one may also recognize that he or she has generated this experience, and it does not have an objective reality. It is not objectively solid. Although one may touch it, smell it, taste it, and so on, one may also simultaneously recognize that this apple is not real. People may also link emptiness with modern physics research, where it has been discovered that over 99 percent of what was considered at one time to be the smallest most fundamental particle, the atom, is actually comprised of empty space, and the sub-atomic particles are constantly in motion, never permanently located in a "fixed" position.

The apple and atom analogies may describe the way in which the Buddha indicated that the things humans encounter day-to-day are fundamentally empty in nature. That is, objects are changing, in process, never "solid" and "fixed". They do not have a core or absolute, unshakable form. This was what the Buddha meant when he said that reality is fundamentally empty.

One of the challenges that the Buddha recognized was the manner in which many people misapprehended the concept and became completely nihilistic. They may have thought to themselves, " _Everything in the world is fundamentally empty. It is fundamentally without existence, and therefore, I do not need to connect with anything. I do not need to acknowledge anything. It is ultimately meaningless_." However, this was regarded as a nihilistic perspective. The objective was to come into balance through recognizing that experiences of one's thoughts, feelings, and the world both demonstrated the quality of existence, and they demonstrated the quality of transience, or an illusory nature. Persons, places, and things were somewhat transient and never fixed or stable.

### The Three Marks of Existence: Impermanence, Suffering, and Not-Self

The Buddha also described what he referred to as the three marks of existence (qualities of things in reality), where the first mark of existence was the mark of impermanence. Whether it was the life-span of the universe, galaxy, star, planet, an apple falling from a tree or simply the apple that was imagined, all things either evolved or dissolved. The next mark of existence was the mark of suffering; so long as a sentient being or a self-aware being existed, he or she would experience some form of suffering. This was a natural part of life that could be addressed through using the strategies of the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. The third mark of existence was the mark of "not self'. Neither individuals nor objects in one's environment held a fixed identity of _being as such_. The Buddha stressed that so long as one could perceive an identity, one was not that identity. Why? The individual was the one _perceiving those_ identities. Therefore, if an individual were the one perceiving those identities, then one would obviously not be one of those things, because the individual would be the thing that was looking at those identities.

The Buddha asked people to constantly look into their own minds and their own hearts in order to validate whether or not they believed that what he described is true. He strongly emphasized that this is not to be taken as a dogma or any kind of absolute reality, but rather as an invitation for people to test his propositions against the truth of their own experiences.

### Three Phases

Buddhism has undergone three significant transformations over a period of about 2,500 years. Once the Buddha died, everything that he had shared was orally transmitted for several generations. _Hinayana_ , translated into "small path" or "small vehicle", was the first development in the field of the Buddha's work. This was a time when strict, introverted monasticism was upheld, and the primary focus was on an individual's personal liberation, psychological development, fulfillment, and happiness.

The second development, also referred to as the second turning of the wheel of Dharma/theory, was to create what was called the _Mahayana_ , or the "great vehicle". The great vehicle, or the great path, was designed to include extraverted activity: incorporating connection with other human beings within one's process of self-development. The key here is for human beings to cultivate their personal liberation for the purpose of being of benefit to others. The practice was no longer just about one's ownpersonal liberation but about the liberation of all beings. The next evolution was Vajrayana Buddhism.

Vajrayana Buddhism translated into the "indestructible vehicle" or the "indestructible path". This was where the Hinayana and the Mahayana, the first and the second periods of Buddhist thought, were incorporated and further developed into a new system. They were developed further to incorporate evenmore aspects of experience where physical energies in the body--sexuality and social governance--were incorporated into the Buddhist techniques and strategies.

### Shamatha and Vipassana Meditations

In all three forms of Buddhism, the primary techniques and strategies were Shamatha and Vipassana Meditation (Hahn, 1987). Shamatha meditation involved resting the mind and placing attention and awareness upon the breath as a single point of focus to cultivate attention and a calm mind. Vipassana meditation required an individual to take that calm and attentive mind, and direct it upon the question of who the individual was, in reality (i.e. the direct experience of the self- referencing process). Vipassana focused the mind upon the process of solid identity formation and dissolution. The result was the recognition that the sense of self was dream-like, unstable, and transitory, but _awareness as such_ persisted.

### Visualizations

Other forms of meditation involved the use of visualizations (English, 2002). Through these visualizations, one could imagine a candle flame. Here, an individual would cultivate the capacity to sustain attention upon an internal image in order to develop one's capacity to continue to establish influence over one's own attention and thoughts. The more sophisticated forms of visualization were typically used in Vajrayana Buddhism, whereby an individual would imagine oneself as an enlightened being as described in some of the mythological texts. One could call to mind the image of a particular meditation master and imagine oneself as that person, radiating light and compassion in a vivid environment of hills, trees, meadows, mountains, and so on. The objective was to create a powerful and vivid mental image of the psychological state that one intended to cultivate. That state was one of clarity of mind, compassion, and the radiation of love and kindness.

### The Sambhogakaya, the Nirmanakaya and the Dharmakaya

Vajrayana Buddhism incorporated sexual union into meditation practice, which strongly drew from traditional Hindu yogic philosophies, where the human body was considered to contain an energy system that operated on three distinct levels (Wilber, 2000).

The first level was referred to as the Sambhogakaya or the physical, gross body, which was the physical matter that humans experienced as the body that eventually became a corpse. The second level was the Nirmanakaya, which was the subtle body. This was the body of subtle energy - a psychic energy that comprised the mind of an individual that would, upon death, continue to exist and pass into a dream-like post-mortem state referred to in Vajrayana Buddhism, as the Bardo. The third body was referred to as the Dharmakaya. The Dharmakaya was the highest level, the non-dual, formless body. It was the fundamental primordial consciousness that radiated the Nirmanakaya and the Sambhogakaya. Itwas a concept that described the fundamental nature of human consciousness as not a physical reality but rather a formless thing that emanated and embraced the mental worlds and physical world.

During sexual union, the physical bodies came together and copulated, while the subtle bodies interacted on a subtle energetic level. This was the realm of the chakras (Mullin, 2006). Here, the standard yogic anatomy was incorporated. Although the Buddhist system utilized a slightly different perspective on how the chakras worked, their total number, and their locations, the chakras were essentially subtle-energy centers that were correlated with a variety of physical nerve plexuses within the human body. When two human bodies came into contact, these nerve plexuses and their correlated subtle energy centers would interact in order to produce loving, compassionate energetic fields that could be harnessed and used for one's personal development.

The Dharmakaya may be represented by two formless, primordial, non- dual consciousnesses interacting as both two and one. Here, one gave of one's self, body, mind, and spirit to another and received the body, mind, and spirit of another as well. This was sexual tantra, sexual union, and a sexual form of meditation that was used in some advanced Buddhist techniques.

### The Cosmology of Buddhism

Another aspect of Buddhism was the cosmology of Buddhism (Lopez, 2001). Buddhism incorporated what some referred to as a religious or metaphysical element: the multiple "realms" of existence. These realms were regarded as representations of both things that were ontologically real -if an individual held that religious belief - or they were regarded as metaphors.

The animal realm represented a state of consciousness that a person could experience, where one was focused upon self-centered needs or their spirits were actually living in an animal body. The hell realm represented a mental state in which one suffered on a day to day basis due to their obsessive attractions and aversions, or their spirits were actually residing in a metaphysical hell, temporarily.

The human realm represented the realm in which an individual was aware of one's personal suffering, aware of one's self-centeredness, and aware of the ways in which one could engage with self-development processes (or in a human body). The realm of the gods and goddesses could be construed to be the experience of sustained pleasure, where it appeared as though suffering did not exist (or a mystical realm of gods and goddesses).

The realm of the Buddha was correlated with an individual who actualized his or her fullest potential within the Buddha's philosophical and methodological framework. Here, the individual would have intellectually and experientially realized the nature of his or her self- referencing identity formation process. Moreover, this realization would enable the individual to perceive reality clearly, and he or she would have developed the capacity to stop engaging with one's reflexive attraction and aversion behaviors. The animal, hell, human, and god realms were each regarded as transient, and the realm of the Buddha Nature, or Self-Awareness, was regarded as beyond time and space and not subject to either manifestation or dissolution.

### The Bardo

The Bardo, elucidated by the Tibetan Buddhists, described a proposed transition state between when an individual moves from human life into his or her next incarnation (Rinpoche, 2002). According to the Buddhist philosophy and cosmology, once a human being's physical body died, he or she would experience the persistence of consciousness beyond the physical body's death. The individual would begin moving into what was the world of the mind. This in-between state, or the Bardo state, was where an individual entered into a dreamscape in which one began to experience the projections of one's own mind.

When this happened, humans could experience the positive and luminous qualities of their minds, and they could also experience the negative and terrifying aspects of their minds. During this transition state, or Bardo state, the Tibetan Buddhists, in particular, developed a technique whereby upon an individual's death experts would read to the deceased a shamanic scripture called _The Tibetan Book of living and Dying_ , which was also referred to as "Bardo Thodol" and 'The Tibetan Book of the Dead." This was where the trained meditation master would read to the deceased individual a guide-book that would walk the deceased's consciousness through a variety of specifically constructed dream states.

These descriptions consisted of ways in which the deceased would experience the light of one's own consciousness, which provided the individual with an opportunity to directly realize who they really were at a spiritual and cosmic level. The guide-book also consisted of instructions regarding what to do if one did not recognize their spiritual nature and how to respond when confronted with the more terrifying projections of one's own mind.

The general instructions were to respond with dispassionate awareness and equanimity of mind (no attraction and no aversion). Eventually, if an individual did not realize enlightenment during the Bardo state, the instructions would guide the individual into an ideal birth, away from the more terrifying aspects of the mind. Moreover, one would be guided into their next opportunity to incarnate into a healthy life where they would be exposed to beneficial philosophies that could provide them with another opportunity to become enlightened.

Buddhism ranged from a simple and straightforward psychological system of perceptual theories and strategies designed to relieve suffering and cultivate clarity of mind, compassion, and general psychological well-being, to a metaphysical religious system that engaged with the shamanic aspects of human experience.

### Research

Dr. Richard Davidson of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, has conducted extensive research into the biological responses to traditional Buddhist meditation practices (Davidson, 2008). According to Davidson's research at Madison's Waismon Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior, neuroplasticity describes the brain's capacity to change over time.

Davidson's neuroplasticity publication, which investigated "focused Attention (FA)" meditation and "open monitoring (OM)" meditation, described these two constructs as follows: The FA condition instructed subjects to engage with the intentional placement of sustained focused attention upon a selected object (Shamatha). Meanwhile, the OM condition instructed subjects to engage with a practice of monitoring the content of internal and external experience, moment-to-moment, without focusing upon any one object of awareness over another (Vipassana). Davidson explained that the objective of FA meditation was to first establish the capacity for OM, which was a more challenging attentional task.

Davidson's research suggested that through practicing these forms of meditation, the brains of subjects demonstrated significant alterationsin stimulus processing capability and cross-cortical synchronization. The functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) observations suggested that FA meditation was associated with "activation in multiple brain regions implicated in monitoring (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex), engaging attention (visual cortex), and attentional orienting (e.g., the superior frontal sulcus, the supplementary motor area, and the intraparietal sulcus)", and experienced meditators displayed reduced activity in the amygdala.

Meanwhile, the OM meditation condition demonstrated increased gamma-wave synchronization among multiple regions of cortex, which may be involved with integrating multiple regions of cortex during complex cognitive and expressive functions.

### Confucianism, the School of Naturalists, and Taoism

Confucianism developed in China to address the more practical questions of family, social harmony, and virtue while emphasizing that a human's basic nature was good, compassionate, and capable of self- development (400s BCE) (Wong, 2012).

The principles of Confucianism included the principles of Ren, Reason, Loyalty, Filial Piety, Social Role, and Excellence. "Ren" referred to the positive feeling of intrinsically rewarding altruism, while "Reason" referred to the cosmic order of nature, which when contemplated, resulted in insight and virtuous social behavior. Meanwhile, "Loyalty" referred to one's dutiful attachment to one's political group, and "Filial Piety" referred to one's dutiful reverence of one's ancestors and parents these two sometimes conflicted with one another. "Social Role" referred to the dutiful fulfillment of one's position within society, which implied a quasi caste-like system. This was frequently critiqued by those who practiced within the Naturalist/Taoist schools. "Excellence", which was literally, the "superior person", referred to the self-actualizing individual who had achieved wisdom, nobility, and the fulfillment of virtuous conduct.

Zou Yan, located in the Chinese state of "Qi" was regarded as the founder of the School of Naturalists, also known as the School of Yin Yang (200s BCE) (Schwartz, 1985). This Chinese middle-period philosophy suggested that the principles of Yin/Yang and The Five Elements governed the universe. Here, the Yin principle was regarded as a feminine, receptive principle, and Yang was associated with a masculine, or active and penetrating principle. The alternation of these two forces in nature therefore represented the constant motion of polarized forces, the nature of which were simultaneously opposed and complimentary.

The Five Elements complimented the Yin/Yang theory, and they were associated with the principles of wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. The theories of Yin/Yang and the Five Elements were incorporated into Laozi's practice of Taoism and the later development of Traditional Chinese Medicine.

These elements were associated with natural cycles as follows:

|   
---|---

  * Wood (Spring):

| Growth

  * Fire (Summer):

| Swelling, flowering, energy

  * Earth:

| Transition period between cycles

  * Metal (Autumn):

| Period of harvesting and collecting

  * Water (Winter):

| Period of retreat/storage

## Traditional Chinese Medicine

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) represented a large variety of methods for diagnosing and treating psychological and physiological dysfunction, and the first official documentation has been dated to the 100s, but its origins may be dated as far back as 6,000 BCE (White & Earnst, 2004). The core elements of TCM included the perspective that Yin/Yang and the principles of The Five Elements may be subjectively measured within the human body through a trained professional in order to diagnose an imbalance of these forces. Diagnosis typically occurred through measuring six unique pulses in the wrist, observing the color of the tongue, and detecting pressure abnormalities throughout the skin. Meanwhile, treatments included the application of acupuncture and herbal medicines, which were purported to correct imbalances of Yin/Yangand Five Elements processes through directing the movement and activity of a subtle energy referred to as Qi throughout the body.

The practice relied upon the theory that the human body possessed a series of subtle energy circuits throughout the body, which were referred to as meridians. These meridians connected through small junctions/treatment locations throughout the body, which were referred to as acupuncture points. Through inserting very fine metal needles, bee venom, or mechanical pressure to these points in a strategic manner, TCM purported to re-direct biophysical energies that may have become blocked, over-active, or underactive.

Modern empirical research has produced approximately 1,500 peer- reviewed published studies on the efficacy of acupuncture, but more double-blind research has been required in order to verify the efficacy of this treatment methodology (Hempel, 2014)

One study has applied the use of computerized axial tomography (CT Scans), which demonstrated that the meridian junctions or "points" strongly correlated with highly dense microvascular penetration (New CT Scans, 2014). Another double-blind trial demonstrated that stimulation of these points resulted in activation in the somatosensory cortex as well as the frontal areas of the brain when compared with the needling of non-acupuncture points under blinded conditions (Kringset al., 2004). Meanwhile, a systematic review of the literature has revealed that five out of nine studies measuring points and seven out of nine studies measuring meridians have demonstrated the presence of reduced electrical impedance at these sites (Ahn et al., 2008).

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Although the evidence has not been conclusive, Robert Becker, MD, and Gary Seldon have suggested that the human body is comprised of trillions of _microscopic_ electrochemical processes (cellular membranes, Krebs cycle, etc.) (this is conventional medical knowledge), and so the existence of series of _macroscopic_ direct current (DC) electrical pathways throughout the body may be well within reason (more evidence required) (Becker & Seldon, 1985). Therefore, the most likely validation of TCM may first occur through the study of capillary penetration, brain activation, and the measurement of DC electrical activity on or beneath the surface of the skin.

# The Human Central Nervous System

## The Central Nervous System

The human brain and central nervous system (CNS) have evolved primarily for the purposes of sustaining life and reproducing, but more recently, the function of the nervous system has included the support of complex conscious experience and cognitive processing (Woolsey et al, 2003). The human central nervous system consists in the brain and the spinal cord, which could be sub-divided into the brain's white and grey matter; the brain's brainstem, cerebellum, diencephalon, cerebrum, the spinal cord and its cranial nerves; and the peripheral nervous system.

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The brain's white matter is comprised of axons and oligodendrocytes, and the grey matter is primarily comprised of neurons. Both white matter and grey matter contain glial cells, which perform a variety of supportive roles designed to facilitate nerve signal transmission.

### Nerve Cells

The central nervous system is comprised of neurons, which transmit signals from one nerve cell to another through chemical messengers, which are released by the nerve cell's axons. The nerve cell's axons extend outward from nerve cells in order to transmit chemical signals to the dendrites of nearby receiving neurons in order to create a cascade of signals that propagate through extensive nerve pathways throughout the brain and body.

The transmitting nerve cell must release a sufficient quantity of chemical messengers (often dopamine, serotonin, nor-epinephrine, epinephrine, acetylcholine, GABA, etc) into the synapse (the gap between each axon terminal and dendrite) in order for the receiving nerve cell to undergo a polarity change. Polarity change occurs when the nerve cell's ion pump, which is embedded within its cellular membrane, rapidly alters polarity and produces an electrochemical gradient. Once an electrochemical gradient is achieved, the nerve cell triggers the release of chemical messengers, which are subsequently released from its axon into yet another synapse. Through repeatedly transmitting these electrochemical signals across multiple down-chain neurons, awareness, thought, sensation, and action are generated. The process by which consciousness is generated has not yet been universally agreed upon, and researchers are still investigating this question.

## Measuring Brain Activity & Major Brain Networks

The metabolic activity of these nerve cells requires oxygen, which is transported to the brain by blood. Therefore, the level of activity in a variety of brain regions may be measured through observing real-time changes in brain blood flow through functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Through monitoring brain region blood flow, one may determine correlations between activity within various cortical networks (dense regions of related nerve cells) and subjective states of experience. Image: (Raichle, 2006)

The Default Mode Network (DMN) represents a significant resting state network, which may be correlated with daydreaming, inattentive states, and thinking about the past and future (medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate, medial prefrontal, and lateral parietal cortex) (Broyd et al, 2009).

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The DMN appears to be inversely related with the Task Positive- Network (TPN) of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior insula, inferior parietal cortex, and anterior cingulated cortex. The engagement of executive attention and focus upon exterior visual objects results in the suppression of DMN activity and enhancement of activity in the task-positive network (Woolsey et al., 2003).

Consequently, Low-Value energy states as described in the section entitled "Practical Applications" that follows may be correlated with activation of the DMN, because the prefrontal cortex is dis-engaged, and the amygdale may be more prepared to react fearfully to interior and external stimuli (negative thoughts/memory, unexpected external events, etc.). Center-Value and High-Value states may be correlated with the activation of the TPN. Here, prefrontal activation serves to orient the brain toward the internal and external environment in an alert, relaxed, attentive state, which naturally suppresses activity in the amygdala.

The image renders a TPN that is active during a mental task (yellow and red), which is inversely correlated with DMN deactivation (green and blue). The activity of these networks may be voluntarily modulated through the application of a variety of unique strategies, which include biofeedback-facilitated physiological self-regulation and other methods. Image: (Focus and Mind Wandering, 2015)

### Morality, Truth, and Aesthetics

Plato's original conception of The Good, The True, and The Beautiful may also be correlated with the cortical networks responsible for processing these and related constructs. Dr. Mendez of Departments of Neurology and Psychiatry & Bio behavioral Sciences at the David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California has published research that suggests that morality construct processing may be measurable within the human brain (Mendez, 2009). Dr. Mendez's research has suggested that the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) may be correlated with the subjective processing of morality.

Meanwhile, the brain's behavior may also be observed during truth- telling and deception tasks, where researchers have observed that "During the deception process, specific areas of the frontal lobe (left medial and left inferior frontal lobes), temporal lobe (right hippocampus and right middle temporal gyrus), occipital lobe (left lingual gyrus), anterior cingulate, right fusiform gyrus, and right sublobar insula were significantly active. During the truth telling process, specific areas of the frontal (left subcallosal gyrus or lentiform nucleus) and temporal (left inferior temporal gyrus) lobes were significantly active" (Mohamed et al., 2006). Here, brain activity may be correlated with reporting what one believes to be true, but the research does not suggest what is true -- Simply what one reports to be their personal perspective on the truth vs. deliberately withholding that perspective on truth.

The human capacity to perceive beauty has also been observed through brain imaging research, where the left prefrontal dorsolateral cortex has been associated with visual aesthetic perception (Cela-Conde et al., 2004). Additional research has also suggested that the ventral medial prefrontal cortex is also involved with the perception of beauty (Pegors et al., 2015). As indicated previously, the vmPFC has likewise been correlated with moral processing. Each of these functions appear to involve the pre-frontal cortex, which represents the most recent evolutionary development in human brain structure.

## Brainwaves & Correlated Qualities of Awareness

Nerve cells must constantly transmit electrochemical signals in order to sustain life, and the transmission of these signals results in a small, measurable electromagnetic field, which is produced as nerve cells communicate with each other (Libenson, 2010).

These tiny electromagnetic fields may be measured through electroencephalography (EEG). The application of EEG results in the measured frequency of nerve cell discharge in the brain, also known as "brainwave" activity, which ranges from delta to theta, alpha, beta, and gamma. Through applying the use of EEG and computer generated feedback, one may develop an understanding of the ways in which related brain regions may be voluntarily activated and deactivated in order to produce a variety of beneficial effects.

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According to Paul Swingle, The brainwave states of humans range from delta to theta, alpha, Sensory Motor Rhythm (SMR), beta, and gamma (Swingle, 2008). Each brainwave state has an associated state of mind, which can be healthy and balanced as well as a state that is unhealthy and indicative of pathology. An excess or deficiency of any brainwave state is possible, and the result of either condition is proposed to point to specific neurological conditions. Depression, traumatic brain injury, ADD, autism, anxiety, and many other disorders have been linked with specific brainwave states. Therefore, the treatment of these conditions is possible through the use of technologies, which correct imbalances in brainwave patterns.

Delta is the lowest detectable frequency in the human brain, oscillating between approximately 0.5 and 2 Hz. Delta waves are considered healthy when they are dominant as drowsiness sets in as well as in the deeper stages of sleep. However, if an individual is producing an excess of delta waves while they are awake and alert, this could be a sign of pathology. An excess of delta in the frontal region of the brain during a waking state could result in the experience of mental fog or fatigue. An excess of delta in the frontal area can also result in chronic pain such as fibromyalgia. Theta waves are the next lowest frequency of detectable brainwaves.

Theta brainwaves oscillate between 3 and 7 Hz and are the second lowest detectable frequency in the human brain. Advanced meditators are often skilled at producing high amplitude theta at will, a state which is associated with hypnotic trance, introspection, contemplation, quietness of mind, and metacognition. Theta plays a very important role in quieting the nervous system and relaxing attention. Deficiencies in theta waves at the occipital region of the brain are associated with anxiety, "sleep disturbance, low stress tolerance, and a predisposition to addiction" (Swingle, 2008 p. 45). Likewise, injured brain tissue is often unable to produce any amplitude higher than theta, compromising its capacity to communicate with surrounding tissue, which can also result in the aforementioned symptoms. Alpha brainwave patterns fall in a higher band of frequency.

Alpha waves oscillate from 8 to 12 Hz, and are typically present while awake. Alpha brainwaves are associated with relaxed attentiveness while awake, and can be measured to assess the potential for a patient to increase their cognitive flexibility. When there is more high frequency alpha (10 to 12 Hz) relative to the amount of low frequency alpha (8 to 10 Hz), an individual is likely to exhibit higher intelligence and faster mental processing than if the ratio were reversed. When alpha presents as pathological, it can interfere with sleep patterns through a process known as "Alpha Wave Intrusion" in which the brain requires delta brainwave patterns during sleep, but alpha is produced in its place. This has been linked with chronic pain disorders such as fibromyalgia (Germanowicz, Lumertz, Martinez, & Margarites, 2006).

The Sensory Motor Rhythm (SMR) brainwaves oscillate between 13 and 15 Hz, a narrow range sometimes associated with high alpha and low beta activity. Healthy SMR is associated with bodily presence, relaxation, and attention. Unhealthy SMR activity is associated with depression, various forms of seizure, chronic pain, body tremors, and dystonia. Beta waves oscillate between 16 and 25 Hz and are associated with increases in mental work, especially when involving arithmetic problem solving. Beta can be unhealthy when the brain is unable to increase and decrease its production fluidly, as well as when the brain produces excessive beta, which is associated with emotional volatility, anxiety, and chronic fatigue. Beta immediately precedes the higher frequency brainwave patterns called gamma.

Gamma brainwaves occur between the frequencies of 28 and 40 Hz. Healthy gamma is associated with focus, the integration of disparate brain regions, high mental processing speed, and cognitive engagement Gamma is often targeted for improving cognitive and physical performance when memory or attention declines are present. Unhealthy gamma is associated with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD), poor memory, and a hyperactive cingulate gyrus. Children with autism often exhibit symptoms of unhealthy gamma, and so neurofeedback is used to attenuate an overactive cingulate gyrus. With a general understanding of brainwaves and their corresponding subjective mental states, there is enough information to begin exploring some detailed clinical reports regarding the use of neurofeedback.

## Neurofeedback & Brain State Training

Neurofeedback is a form of biofeedback, which is used clinically to treat the neurological component of mental disorders. Biofeedback is a general term, which refers to the act of providing feedback to an organism regarding that organism's own physiological states (such as heart rate, blood pressure, etc.). Biofeedback is designed to provide the user with information that represents a particular physiological state in such a manner as to provide more volitional control over those states. "EEG -- biofeedback" refers to the detection of particular brainwave patterns by an electroencephalogram (EEG) and the communication of that activity to the organism in order to gain more control over particular brainwave states. Because mental disorders often have a neurological component, neurofeedback has been increasingly sought after for the treatment of psychological illness. Beginning in 1958, neurofeedback has been increasingly used in the latter part of the 20th and the early 21 st centuries as an effective clinical tool for the treatment of serious mental disorders.

### A History of Neurofeedback

According to _A Symphony in the Brain_ , modern neurofeedback owes its clinical power to the pioneering work of the earliest experimenters of the 19th and 20th centuries (Robbins, 2008). Richard Caton, in the 1870s, was the first English physician to record brainwaves by attaching the electrodes of a reflecting galvanometer to the exposed brains of rabbits and monkeys. His primitive tool was able to detect variations in the electrical current of exposed brain tissue and was eventually able to measure signals through the skull. In 1924, Hans Berger, a German psychologist, was the first scientist to ever record brainwave frequencies through the scalp of a living human. After conducting a number experiments with electrically sensitive nodes attached to the inside of the skull on patients who were missing bone, he acquired the technology which would enable him to publish _On the Electroencephalogram of Man_ , in which 10 Hz was labeled the "Berger rhythm". He later discovered a number of other frequencies and was the first to observe electrical brain death in a dying dog. His research was largely an end of its own until joe Kamiya conducted the first ever neurofeedback experiment in America (Robbins, 2008).

In 1958, Joe Kamiya, a psychologist at the University of Chicago, conducted the first neurofeedback experiment in which a subject was able to manipulate his own brainwaves. Kamiya's pilot study used a single-subject repeated measures design in which the subject, Richard Bach, was given instruction to report whether or not he was experiencing a dominant alpha brainwave state when he heard an audible tone. Kamiya observed Bach's brainwave patterns as they were represented to him on an EEG in a separate room, and he told Bach whether or not he was correct in his assessment. The first trial was conducted in a single day and consisted of 60 tones followed by 60 guesses (yes or no, this is an alpha state). The results of the trial indicated that Bach could not distinguish between an alpha brainwave state and any other state better than chance. By the second day, he had reached a 65% accuracy rate, by the third day he could assess whether or not he was producing alpha 85% of the time, and by the fourth day his recognition was still growing. The second part of the study no longer asked Bach to merely recognize his brainwave state but to control it (Robbins, 2000).

By the time Bach had reached the second part of the study, he was proficient at recognizing his own brainwave states and was ready to begin producing alpha at will. Bach was instructed to enter into an alpha brainwave state when he heard a bell ring once and to exit the state when he heard a bell ring twice. His prior familiarization with the alpha state apparently prepared him to demonstrate competence at entering and exiting the state with ease. When asked how he was able to produce alpha, he reported that an absence of visual images reflected his subjective experience of the state, "When I imagine music from an orchestra, I'm in alpha but when I imagine a visual image of the orchestra it seems to cause an absence of alpha." Kamiya's experiments were eventually published in _Psychology Today_ in 1968 and brought forth the field of neurofeedback (Robbins, 2008).

By the 1970s, neurofeedback had become a clinical tool used for treating emotional and neurological disorders. Margaret Ayers founded the first neurofeedback clinic, and in 1978, began treating closed head injuries, seizures, ADD, and depression. By teaching patients how to control their brainwaves, she believed, they could reduce their symptoms in a manner that medication could not. By this time, it had been discovered that brainwaves lie on a spectrum from low to high frequencies categorized as delta, theta, alpha, beta, and gamma. These Greek letters were eventually subdivided into more nuanced versions of high, low, and mid-frequency brainwaves as the technology was refined and more anecdotal reports were collected. When the technology in the field of complementary medicine began to proliferate, organized bodies of professionals were established in order to regulate the burgeoning industry (Larsen, 2006).

With the formation of these organizations, neurofeedback has had an opportunity to build a substantial reputation as a viable treatment modality for many conditions. The Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback was founded as a non-profit organization in 1969, and in its life-time, produced two scientific journals: _Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback as well as Biofeedback: A.Clinical Journal_. The Biofeedback Certification Institution of America was founded in 1981 and has become the standard by which certifications for biofeedback are administered. In 1995, the International Society for Neurofeedback and Research became the umbrella organization through which all other organizations and individual neurofeedback and biofeedback specialists could communicate, and this organization created the peer-reviewed _Journal of Neurotherapy_ ("Helping the brain," 2010). Before an overview of treatments is conducted, it is important to review how the current neurofeedback technology works, as well as a summary of brainwave patterns as they correlate to mental states in accord with science's current understanding.

### The Current Technology

Although there are dozens of variations of software applications as well as hardware manufacturers for neurofeedback equipment, there are currently two main categories of neurofeedback. Traditional neurofeedback is subdivided into the monopolar and bipolar coherence training approaches, while stimulation-driven neurofeedback (SDN) is primarily dominated by the Roshi and low-energy neurofeedback system (LENS) approaches. These two approaches represent the major types of clinical neurofeedback technology ("Neurorehabilitation & neuropsychological," 2010).

### Monopolar and Bipolar Neurofeedback

Neurofeedback follows the general principle that desirable brainwaves are rewarded and undesirable ones are inhibited. Neurofeedback functions first by detecting the frequency with which electrical signals are being discharged in the brain through the use of electrodes attached to the scalp of a user and connected to an EEG device. A computer then interprets the electrical information and digitally provides either positive or negative feedback to the user, indicating his or her brainwaves as beneficial or pathological. The user may be provided with a visual or auditory feedback element, such as an image or a tone, which indicates whether the patient is producing brainwave patterns indicative of health or sickness. By consistently receiving feedback regarding which brainwave patterns they are producing, patients learn what it feels like to produce those frequencies, and they eventually learn how to freely move from one state to the other. Professionals who use neurofeedback as a clinical tool, focus on either monopolar or bipolar coherence training for their patients ("Neurorehabilitation & neuropsychological," 2010).

Monopolar and bipolar coherence training are two forms of neurofeedback that use different treatment strategies. The monopolar treatment strategy employs the use of a single electrode attached to one of 19 clinically significant locations on the scalp, and two electrodes on neutral sites that emit no brainwaves (such as the earlobes). The monopolar technique enables the user to increase or inhibit brainwave patterns at one targeted brain region at a time. The bipolar coherence training strategy uses the same 19 clinical sites but instead makes use of two electrodes placed in a number of possible combinations with one electrode attached to a neutral site. The purpose behind using two electrodes is to enable the patient to develop the capacity to synchronize disparate brain regions in order to achieve greater neurological coherence. While monopolar and bipolar neurofeedback techniques are powerful tools for developing control over brainwave states, the SDN techniques are purported to have improved upon this technology through the addition of brainwave entrainment.?

### Brainwave Entrainment

Brainwave entrainment describes the brain's tendency to follow a rhythmic stimulus and to reproduce that stimulus internally as brainwave patterns (Larsen, S., 2006). The usage of Audio-Visual Stimulation (AVS) has been employed since the 1970s in order to induce altered states of consciousness through the use of flashing light goggles and rhythmic audio harmonics. By simultaneously pulsing Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) in the eyes and an audio harmonic in the ears at a rate of 10 Hz, the brain of the recipient will begin to generate a 10- Hz-dominant brainwave frequency.

This technology has been considered to be effective at modulating brainwave frequencies in order to achieve altered states of consciousness, which increase the release of mood-elevating chemicals. Brainwave entrainment was then adopted by the neurofeedback community, which combined the technologies into SDN.

### Stimulation-Driven Neurofeedback

The Roshi is an SDN technique that does not require that the patient learn how to control his or her brainwaves but allows the brain to regulate itself through the use of entrainment (Oleson, 2004). Instead of using a fixed-form brainwave entrainment protocol, as most AVS equipment does, the Roshi system is dynamic. Roshi operates by detecting brainwave patterns and are then fed into an AVS device worn by the patient. The AVS output is actively shifted in tandem with the brainwave states of the patient, giving the patient a veritable dose of his or her own brain. It is posited that when the brain receives an AVS input of its own activity, that activity is disentrained and therefore made easier to "drive" to a target frequency. Because there is no volition involved in the Roshi, it is thought to be helpful for the patient to experience the automatic unfolding of change, more so then with traditional systems that require learning and volition. The Roshi is currently using the older technology that the LENS eventually abandoned in exchange for another version of SDN.

LENS is a form of neurofeedback, which utilizes very low frequency radio waves in order to drive brainwave patterns into a target range of frequency (Larsen, 2006). The LENS technique operates under the supposition that by merely disrupting brainwave patterns, which are causing electrical incoherence in the brain, the brain will naturally reorganize itself. Because the dysregulated brain produces patches of electrical activity that act as electrical snags, LENS aims at releasing those snags in order to allow the brain to bring itself into a regulated state. By interpreting the brainwave states of various regions of the brain, the LENS software recognizes when a region is producing abnormal electrical activity, and in response, emits a 15- to 100-mHz signal at an intensity of 10 to 18 watts/sq. cm.

Through interrupting these electrical snags, the brain then automatically reorganizes its electrical activity to a more coherent and well-regulated system (Larsen, 2006). In order to better understand the clinical application of neurofeedback technologies, it is important to a have a basic understanding of brainwave states and their correlated subjective states of awareness.

### The Open Focus Brain (Dr. Les Fehmi)

Dr. Les Fehmi of the Princeton Biofeedback Centre was a post- doctorate graduate fellow at the UCLA Brain Research Institute, and he has devoted the majority of his professional career to the development of Open-Focus states of consciousness in the human mind (Fehmi & Robbins, 2007). These states are primarily concerned with sustained attention that encompasses all aspects of experience equally and which is correlated with enhanced alpha brainwave amplitude and coherenceat select sites. Fehmi trains his clients to develop control over their mental attention with neurofeedback and guided visualization exercises that are each designed to evoke high amplitude coherent alpha brainwave activity. These exercises are primarily focused upon developing an awareness of physical "space", where he may ask an individual to "imagine the space in between your eyes", "between your ears", "inside your skull", "inside your chest", "inside your arms and legs", etc. Fehmi has observed that placing attention upon space causes attention to move from "narrow-focus" to "Open-Focus",where thoughts, feelings, and sensations may more easily flow through awareness, which enables depressive, anxious, and stressful feelings, and physically painful sensations to simply dissolve once awareness is intentionally brought into those regions of the body where such sensations are present. The Open-Focus state is likewise associated with increased alpha power and coherence.

This is similar to "Focusing", which is a somatic awareness discipline in which an individual is instructed to place his or her attention on a disturbing thought, feeling, and accompanying somatic sensation, which results in the transformation of that disturbance into something more positive. Eugene Gendlin of the Focusing Institute studied psychotherapy for 15 years beginning at the University of Chicago and eventually determined that a client's subtle awareness of interior state changes was the single-most important factor that contributed to breakthrough and transformation in psychotherapy.

### Alpha Training & Psychological Transformation

A Canadian neurofeedback training center located in British Columbia is currently applying a revolutionary approach to psycho spiritual transformation through the use of alpha brainwave training in order to enhance awareness and promote forgiveness (Hardt, 2007). The Biocybernaut Institute is led by Dr. James Hardt, who founded the organization and has shaped its philosophy and training practices since 1983. Hardt has focused upon the importance of training coherent alpha brainwave patterns in those who wish to participate in the program, because enhancing alpha patterns in the brains of human beings may result in spontaneous forgiveness and consequently, enhanced emotional well-being, focus, and cognition.

Attaching electrodes to the scalp of a participant who enters the training room enables a computer to detect the level of coherent alpha-wave activity in the brain, which is correlated with an interior state of consciousness that may be experienced by the trainee directly. Through auditory feedback that is produced by the computer, participants may receive a clear indication of their successful activation of coherent alpha-wave activity and monitor their errors.

Trainees also have access to a visually represented numerical score of their alpha performance, which gradually increases as they learn to respond to the auditory feedback and adjust their techniques. Each trainee may develop an entirely unique approach to enhancing alpha feedback, but the state is generally enhanced by relaxation of the body and the release of conceptual thought.

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The key to the success of the Biocybernaut process may very well be the early observations of a Zen master and his 30 students. Hardt measured the electrical activity in the brains of these experienced meditators at the Langley Porter Neuropsychiatric Institute at the University of California at San Fransisco in order to chart coherence measures and EEG amplitude, which eventually resulted in a detailed power and spectral analysis.

The analysis revealed a unique pattern of brainwave activity that was present in only two of the participants: the master and his closest student. The unique brainwave activity observed in the Zen master consisted of bimodal coherence patterns in the alpha and theta spectrum at the occipitals (between O1 and 02), temporals (T3 and T4), and between the occipitals and temporals (O1 and T3 + 02 and 04); whereas his closest student displayed these coherence patterns at only O1 and 02, and the others displayed little or no coherence whatsoever. Image: (NR Sign Inc., 2015)

Later, Hardt's conversations with Dr. Arnold Mandel resulted in a sudden realization that such coherence patterns were also correlated with the appearance of a torus pattern over the head of the advanced meditators, which was later depicted as a halo by their disciples. Due to the traditional significance of halos and their association with realized spiritual masters, this further drew Hardt into the investigation of applied neuroscience and its capacity to promote enlightened states in those who undergo Biocybernaut training; the process has been a success. According to Hardt, "Thirty minutes of that feedback was enough to rocket me into the Peace That Passeth All Understanding so that I was feeling ... outrageously happy for months thereafter" (Hardt, 2007).

During his field research, Hardt also discovered that many of the Biocybernaut participants were experiencing tremendous difficulty with producing alpha-wave activity when they encountered formerly repressed psychological material, but their scores increased significantly upon exercising forgiveness. This discovery has led to a general orientation toward rigorous forgiveness training and active release work that promotes the production of target alpha. The presence of forgiveness proved critical to the release of emotional trauma that may have accumulated through years of painful interactions with one's environment due to personal, familial, cultural, or other forms of conflict, and it is one of the critical skills trainees must acquire in order to successfully walk the path to a joyful and abundant life. Therefore, the institute promotes the practice of "Extreme Forgiveness" as described in Hardt's _The Art of Smart Thinking._

Once the process of awakening through forgiveness begins to unfold, the trainee's direct link to their Higher Self (Jung would simply refer to this as the "Self') becomes of preeminent importance. The Higher Self naturally emerges during these states of high alpha coherence, and it guides the transformational process that results in ongoing ego dissolution/death. However, working through painful memories and defense mechanisms that may otherwise prevent the emergence of a higher spiritual reality is of great importance. Therefore, the Biocybernaut Institute provides extensive human support that includes highly empathic coaches who work closely with trainees in order to facilitate psychological transformation and direct linking with the trainee's higher self. Hardt refers to these trainers as "assistant coaches" to the Higher Self, which serves as the "head coach"; this is as an opportunity to abandon the practice of submitting to a spiritual leader in favor of promoting the autonomy of the individual. The Biocybernaut Institute is a pioneering organization that has worked at the leading edge of applied consciousness and neuroscientific research for the past three decades. As our civilization identifies solutions to human problems, these developments may represent the next stage in the human race's social and spiritual evolution.

### Gamma Training

Erik Hoffman, PhD, is Research Director at Spindler Mental Fitness and Research Centre at Symbion-Science-Park and researcher at Copenhagen.

Hoffman has developed new neurofeedback methodologies that focus upon gamma-range amplitude training that is primarily concerned with activating the left-parietal pre-frontal cortex's gamma wave amplitude in the 40-Hz range (Hoffman, 2012). Hoffman hypothesizes that the traditional yogic philosophy on "Kundalini awakening" produces an experience of profound mental clarity, focus, and increases in intelligence through shifting brain function from the parietal cortex into the prefrontal cortex. Although his research has not undergone major double-blind clinical control trials, he has conducted interesting preliminary pilot studies that demonstrate a correlation between the subjective report of activating Kundalini through a traditional yogic practice called Deeksha and the enhancement of gamma wave activity in the prefrontal cortex. He took his hypothesis one step further and began conducting gamma neurofeedback on the same site in which he observed increased gamma activity during the yoga practice. This was accompanied by the client's subjective report that she had entered into the same state as with the original practice. The client reported that the feedback signal may have actually enhanced the clarity and consistency of her state shift and so posited that gamma-range neurofeedback on this site may be beneficial for developing her spiritual practice (Kundalini awakening). Hoffman reports that this region of cortex is responsible for the experience of will power, focus and attention, and the experience of oneness.

Hoffman's research is inspired by Andrew Newberg's SPECT-scan studies that report increased blood-flow to the left-parietal prefrontal cortex while advanced Tibetan meditators are deeply engaged with their practices. Newberg's theory is that when focus is shifted to a single point (God, Guru, or breath), the Attention Association Area (AAA) of the brain is activated, and the Orientation Association Area (OAA) (relationship to physical space and time) is deactivated. The activation of the AAA is hypothesized to shift awareness away from the OAA, which results in a loss of a sense of boundaries (experience that all things are one) and time (experience of timelessness). This may be one potential explanation for why deeply engaged meditators experience "nowness" and "oneness" during their practices, where a permanent shift in brain function may be correlated with a sustained ability to experience this state, which may be a form of classical enlightenment.

Richard Davidson has likewise conducted research on advanced Tibetan meditators at the University of Wisconsin, Madison. Davidson is most well-known for his research partnership with the Dalai Lama, where eight of the Lama's most advanced meditators (40-years of meditation for 12-hours each day) were found to exhibit extremely high levels of gamma-wave activity in the left region of the pre-frontal cortex, which has since been associated with feelings of love, joy, and compassion.

Hoffman's clinic also focuses upon providing alpha neurofeedback for deep meditation and gamma training for mental "sharpness and determination, deep peace combined with intense alertness, clear and sharp imagery when needed, [and] intuition and high performance" (Hoffman, 2012).

## Topical EEG and Ayahuasca Research

Ayahuasca is a traditional Amazonian beverage comprised of a mixture of two plants, one of which contains dimethyltryptamine (DMT), and the other which contains a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI). The DMT is a powerfully psychoactive chemical, which is easily destroyed upon oral ingestion, so a limited quantity of the active compound successfully crosses the blood-brain barrier in order to induce changes in neurological function. Therefore, the consumption of an MAOI is required in order to potentiate the limited quantity of DMT that reaches the brain. The two plants undergo a boiling and mixture process, which results in the final beverage known as ayahuasca.

Traditionally, the plant is consumed for medicinal purposes in aboriginal Amazonian cultures as a means by which to induce nausea, purging, and deeply altered neurological and psychological states. The alteration of physiological and psychological activity is purported to result in the repair of mental and physical disturbances. Ayahuasca research constitutes an important step forward in the field of neuroscience is due to the broad and significant changes that occur within both the brain and a human subject's subjective experience after consumption. The strong and easily measurable physiological effects include vomiting and brainwave changes. Meanwhile, the subjective effects reported by users include an enhanced sense of self-awareness, focused inward attention, and meaningful vivid visual imagery duringan eyes-closed state. Moreover, subjects have reported achieving emotional catharsis and psychological re-integration after experiencing these physical and mental changes.

Research has suggested that individuals who consume ayahuasca produce enhanced broad-brain gamma brainwave coherence in the 36- to 44-Hz and 50- to 64-Hz bands as well as enhanced theta and alpha amplitude brainwave activity, specifically at 10/20 sites, O1 and 02 (visual cortex) (Hoffman, 2012) (Riba etal., 2002). Image: (Hoffman, 2012)

The production of strong perturbations in topical EEG activity may provide researchers with clear correlates between powerful brainwave state changes and subjective perceptual and sensory alterations. The enhanced hyper-coherent gamma brainwaves that were observed in Stuckey's research suggest support for Dr. Erik Hoffman's research on gamma brainwaves and their relationship with enhanced cognitive processing within the neocortex (Hoffman, 2012). Gamma brainwaves are increasingly believed to play a key role in transmitting information across multiple regions of cortex through a process referred to as gamma binding. The relationship between ayahuasca gamma brainwave activation subjective reports of powerful synesthesia experiences (hearing sights, smelling visions, touching sounds, etc.) may provide information that is of benefit to gamma binding research (Stuckey, 2005). This research may provide further data with which to inform the development of new gamma cortical binding theories.

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Additionally, enhanced alpha brainwave activity at O1 and 02 may correspond with Dr. Hoffman and Dr. Hardt's independent research on neurofeedback training and the induction of meditative states (Hoffman, 2012) (Hardt, 2007). Hoffman's research on alpha and theta brainwave amplitude enhancements at O1 and 02 during primal therapy also suggests a link between these alpha/theta brainwave states and the post-session release of emotional trauma, which ayahuasca users frequently report (Hoffman, 2012).

### Relationship: Alpha/Theta and Gamma Waves

Alpha and theta waves are typically correlated with edge-of-sleep states. Consequently, standard meditation and neurofeedback trainings that enhance alpha and theta brainwaves are often challenging due to the simultaneous onset of drowsiness that occurs during these states. Therefore, the optimal effect of enhanced alpha and theta brainwave activity appears to be achieved when a waking state is sustained during deep-state induction.

The active MAOI enhances DMT and serotonin levels within the synapse during ayahuasca administration, but the MAOI also increases dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine levels. These neurotransmitters act as central nervous system stimulants, which promote a waking state. The use of the MAOIs may produce a strong stimulant effect (beta/gamma waves) that may be distinct from and potentially synergistic with the DMT's induced deep-state (alpha/theta waves).

MAOIs appear to exert their stimulant effect _simultaneous_ with the induction of deep-state brainwaves. Therefore, the beneficial psychological effects of ayahuasca may be linked with the simultaneous enhancement of deep-state brainwaves (DMT) and waking-state brainwaves (MAOI). This may promote a broad-based re-integration of unconscious material into conscious awareness.

Here, dream-like imagery and symbolic psychic content (latent in unconscious), which has been regarded by Jung and Freud as valuable for integrating unconscious material into conscious awareness, suddenly becomes a part of a stimulated, alert, and wakeful consciousness (ego) and so becomes subjected to egoic awareness. The strong activation of the cortical processes that unearth latent dream-like symbolic information within the Freudian/Jungian unconscious, coupled with the MAOI's stimulation of a strong waking state (ego) may suggest a unique integrative bridge.

More research into the distinct relationship between alpha/theta wave production and gammawave activity may be achieved through studying the topical EEG effects of separately administered MAOI and DMT in order to isolate the effects of each compound in relation to beta/gamma and alpha/theta enhancement, respectively. However, it may also be possible that the combination of these chemicals also produces a unique synergistic physiological effect that cannot be determined through separate administration. More research on ayahuasca may provide additional clarity on the relationship between MAOIs, DMT, waking states, and edge-of-sleep states, beta/gamma waves, and alpha/theta waves.

### Catharsis & Musculoskeletal Contraction

Moreover, the fact that ayahuasca consumption often results in physical nausea and vomiting is a core element of the biophysical perturbation, where the gut's role in emotional processing must be acknowledged. The gut has been demonstrated to serve as a core component of the emotional processing system in human subjects, where the solar-plexus region of the body may be strongly correlated with powerful emotions of negative or positive valence (Mayer, 2011). The purging effect strongly contracts abdominal muscles: From a Reichian somatosensation perspective, this may suggest a link with the biophysical release of muscular tension and therefore the cathartic release of emotions that are mechanically repressed in the musculoskeletal system.

The study of ayahuasca's strong perturbations of EEG, strong alterations in subjective interior experience, powerful musculoskeletal contraction, and its long-term psychological and physiological health impact may represent a significant tool for better understanding the relationship between the brain, body, and interior states of psychological dysfunction, healing, and well-being. Due to the variety of formulations available, each unique effect must be isolated and measured independently. Through studying formulations that preferentially activate alpha/theta EEG, gamma EEG, or musculoskeletal contractions (purging), and corresponding subjective effects, experimentation may reveal the relationship between these physiological and psychological processes.

The measurement of heart rate variability (HRV) may also serve as a core component of any physiological monitoring protocol or neurofeedback training due to its strong link with general CNS and brain functioning.

## The Polyvagal Theory & HRV Biofeedback

Dr. Stephen Porges of the Brain-Body Center at the University of Chicago was the first person to measure heart rate variability (HRV), and he developed the Polyvagal Theory, which has been focused upon the 10th cranial nerve, the vagus (Porges, 2011). HRV represents the length of time that elapses between heart beats and the degree to which these spaces in time are variable within an optimum range defined by physiological studies on the optimal HRV (Shaffer et al., 2014). Very subtle changes in HRV have been purported to correlate with immediate moment-to-moment changes in cognitive and emotional state. Here, _good_ HRV / _good vagal tone_ has been correlated with positive emotional states (love, compassion, social bonding, gratitude, freedom, etc.), and _poor_ HRV / _poor vagal tone_ has been correlated with negative emotional states (anger, anxiety, depression, etc.). The premise of Porges's theory has rested upon the observation that the human nervous system is comprised of a phylogenetic hierarchy of more recent evolutionary brain structures (i.e. prefrontal cortex) and more primitive/ancient brain structures (i.e. the brainstem) (Porges, 2011).

The dorsal vagal complex (DVC) is a region of unmyelinated nerve liber that stimulates the immobilization response, which is a standard reptilian or amphibian response to stress. Meanwhile, the ventral vagal complex (VVC) is a region of myelinated nerve fiber that is linked with mammalian adaptations to an increasingly complex environment, which is linked with social behavior. Porges refers to this region of tissue as the "smart vagus", because it responds to social stimulus and regulates the fight and flight responses when a threat is perceived. The activity of these vagal systems may be measured through observing the HRV, and adjustments in breathing pattern and attention may, in turn, adjust activity within these systems.

Specifically, the WC maybe stimulated through slow exhalations, such as with a long sigh or a slow and steady out-breath (vagal breaking triggers a parasympathetic/relaxation response). Conversely, the WC may be de-activated through inhalation and quick exhalation, each of which allows the heart rate to rise (vagal breaking is disabled, which allows sympathetic/activation response). This may suggest that the WC (smart vagus) serves as a common mechanism that is triggered through extended vocalizations, such as those used in the Catholic Gregorian traditions, where long exhalations are designed to promote a sense of safety, connection, love, and mental clarity in order to cultivate prayer or meditative states (vocalizations include Ahhli, Ohhh, Eeee, Oooo, etc.).

Moreover, the WC is also activated through detecting visual and auditory cues from other mammals. For example, the WC may be activated through observing another mammalian face that is smiling softly with gently resting eye-lids. Here, the affective regulation of the sending mammal's facial expression is mediated through the sender's "smart vagus", which triggers a response in the receiver's "smart vagus", and a sense of mutual relaxation is achieved. Similarly, the auditory perception of another mammal's release of a slow exhalation, or a soft and slow vocalization, may trigger a relaxation response due to the socially attuned nature of this nerve and its integration with the nerves of the inner ear.

### Practical HRV Applications

The HeartMath Institute has applied the use of measuring HRV and developing unique biofeedback units that record the time-intervals between each heartbeat (Chile & Martin, 2000). This is linked with a breath-pacing strategy that increases vagal tone. Research suggests that HRV may be trained through biofeedback, and positive emotions are correlated with a balanced interaction between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The HeartMath Institute's research and applications are founded upon the premise that training for a good vagal tone through the use of their methodology may enhance heart- health and psychological well-being. Respiration is regarded as a regulator of heart rate activity, and heart rate may directly influence respiration. Therefore, breath control may result in the capacity to influence HRV and therefore the interaction between the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems.

### Neurocardiology

The HeartMath Institute strongly advocates for regarding the heart as a central organ that is responsible for physiological and psychological health and well-being. The institute has explained that the heart is the first organ to form in utero, and this is followed by the brain-stem, amygdala, thalamus, and cortex (Chile & Martin, 2000). The heart includes 40,000 neurons, which is comparable to other discrete cortical sites within the brain. The heart is the principle location for the psychosomatic experience of love, compassion, gratitude, and other positive feelings. The heart is also the area to which individuals point when referring to themselves or "I", so subjective experience and subsequent identity formation maybe strongly linked to the neural hub of the heart.

Meanwhile, Dr. J. Andrew Armour of Dalhousie University in Halifax, Canada, was one of the first pioneers on neurocardiology. He demonstrated that a localized nervous system within the heart may be sufficiently sophisticated to constitute a small brain (Chidre & Martin, 2000). Here, sensory neuritis and local circuit neurons detect and process information from the exterior environment, which may then be transmitted to the brain (note: the heart also continues to beat after the connection to the brain is severed, which indicates that the heart may self-regulate its beats rather than being subordinate to the brain).

Armour has demonstrated that the several varieties of neuron, neurotransmitter, protein, and support cells imbued the heart with the capacity to learn, remember, feel, and perceive, while detecting hormonal levels, heart-rate, and pressure information. Moreover, each heartbeat relays an electrical signal to the brain via the vagus nerve and medulla in order to submit information that may ultimately influence or direct behavior, depending upon the circumstance. Neuronal impulses from the heart may directly impact neurological activity in both lower and higher cortical regions of the brain, where it may impact complex cognition. This information may provide evidence for the proposition that the heart's activity may directly influence emotions and interact with conscious thought.

This strengthens the case for HRV biofeedback as a core component of any neurofeedback program that strives to enhance CNS and brain health.

### Chemistry, Blood Pressure, and Electrical Fields

The heart was formally reclassified as a part of the hormonal system in 1982 when researchers discovered that a powerful hormone named atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) or atrial peptide was secreted by the atria of the heart (Napier et al., 1984). This hormone is responsible for regulating blood pressure, body-fluid retention, and electrolyte balance.

This hormone exerts effects upon the kidneys, adrenal glands, and various regulatory systems in the brain. Further research has demonstrated that ANF inhibits the release of stress hormones, may interact with other hormonal systems that influence the growth and operation of reproductive organs, and may interact with the immune system. The heart has also been demonstrated to produce noradrenaline and dopamine, but the effects of these chemicals have not yet been determined. Therefore, the heart may be regarded as a vital organ that is responsible for both the circulation of blood and regulation of CNS activity, as well as a hormone regulator.

The heart also produces an electromagnetic field with each pump (Burleson & Schwartz, 2005). This electromagnetic (EM) field is reportedly the most powerful in the body and approximately 5,000 times the strength of the field produced by the human brain (Chile & Martin, 2000). HeartMath has reported that experiments conducted by Gary Schwartz and colleagues at the University of Arizona have demonstrated that "complex patterns of cardiac activity in our brain waves could not be fully explained by neurological or other established communication pathways". As a result, their data has been interpreted by some to suggest that presence of an electromagnetic (EM) interaction between the heart's EM field and the brain's EM field. Once more, this suggests that training HRV may be critical for supporting general CNS and brain health, particularly if the EM fields of each organ are either unidirectional or bidirectionally interactive.

### Energy Efficiency

The HeartMath Institute also emphasizes the importance of re-training the nervous system in order to ensure that stress is reduced and coherent HRV is elevated (Childre & Martin, 2000). The key principle of this orientation is underscored by research conducted by Psychologist Janice Kiecolt-Glaser and Immunologist Ronald Glaserof The Ohio State University, with married couples. Their research on the effects of mental and physiological stress on the human biological system--where frustration, aggression, and other behaviors that express hostility to another person--are linked with elevated heart-rate, suppressed immune response, and increases in stress hormones that inhibit neurological development. Individuals who are chronically stressed will tax their energy reserves by consistently returning to a high- energy consumption state. Here, the "fight or flight" response is associated with adrenaline release, where blood vessels constrict in order to move blood away from the brain and other vital organs and then into the muscles in preparation for surviving a dangerous event.

These basic stress responses are deeply linked with a "fear of death" response, where the prefrontal cortex (responsible for complex reasoning and focused attention) is temporarily deactivated, and the amygdala becomes hyperactive, thereby producing an experience of fear. These stress responses are designed specifically for responding to life-threatening situations but are often repeatedly initiated throughout an individual's daily life as he or she experiences challenges that are non-life-threatening. As a result, energy resources are directed away from creative, restorative, and healthful psychological and physiological activities, and provided for expenditure on stress responses that are unnecessary and produce no value to the biological system. Survival becomes the body's goal, which causes the system to utilize a tremendous amount of physiological energy on ensuring that this goalis achieved.

However, there was no real threat to warrant the consumption of these resources, which results in energy depletion with little value added to the body system. Therefore, training for a high HRV may be an effective means by which to achieve heightened energy efficiency within the human body system.

# Modern Theories on Stages of Human Development

## The Nested Hierarchy: Holarchy and Holons

Holarchy is a theoretical descriptor for the means by which singular components of a given hierarchical system are nested vertically in order to support the emergence of more complex structures (Wilber, 2000a). The biological and psychological sciences each describe instances of holarchy and their concomitant parts, the holons. This section will prepare the reader for an introduction into the evolving nature of Spirit as it gives rise to the universe's simple structures, which increase in complexity and evolve into forms of human consciousness that are capable of realizing their True Nature and Ultimate Identity.

Within a holarchy, the holon functions simultaneously as a whole and a part, or a "whole-part", which transcends and includes (i.e. goes beyond but retains) the more rudimentary units of a complex system (Wilber, 2000a). As demonstrated in the biological sciences, a holarchy is formed when a group of atoms bond, such that a molecule is formed, eventually attaching with a cluster of additional molecules to form an organelle within a skin-cell.

Molecules transcend and include atoms, the organelle transcends and includes both the molecules and its atoms, and the whole skin-cell transcends and includes the organelles, molecules, and atoms, only to abide by the same principle with the very skin-tissue of which it is a part. Each discrete unit is functionally autonomous as that unit (molecules are wholly molecules, and organelles are wholly organelles), but within the complex cellular system, they are also partial structures (although molecules are whole, they are parts of organelles), a property that connotes their status as whole-parts, or holons. In this way the holons of a complex biological system both embrace their rudimentary structures and surpass their level of complexity. Whereas the biological sciences focus primarily upon the investigation of exterior phenomena that are available for analysis through exterior lenses, theorists in the psychological and sociological sciences have successfully mapped a range of interior stages of development that human beings move through, which are also holarchical in nature.

Ken Wilber's Four Quadrant model differentiates between observable phenomena that are investigated through external and internal modesof perception.

### Four Quadrants: Interiors and Exteriors

Ken Wilber's discovery and explication of the Four Quadrants was a revolution in integral thinking that led to a cogent system through which holarchies from disparate fields of inquiry could be methodically organized (Wilber, 2000a).

Wilber discovered that human beings are capable of interpreting reality through a combination of interior and exterior lenses, which are divided into singular and plural components (see image below). The singular interiors ("I") are perceived by first-person subjective experience as represented by the Upper-Left quadrant (UL), whereas plural interiors ("We") are perceived in relationship as two sentient personalities engaged in some form of communication, resulting in intersubjective perception as represented by the Lower-Left quadrant (LL).

A singular exterior ("It") is perceived when atoms, molecules, and organelles are examined independently of each other, represented by the Upper-Right quadrant (UR), whereas plural exteriors ("Its") are observable when an objective analysis is applied to the relationship between those atoms, molecules and organelles (systems theories), represented by the Lower-Right quadrant (LR). The result is a comprehensive approach to interpreting reality that is condensed into four fundamental domains of perception: I, We, It and Its, which may be simplified into I, We, and It.

As illustrated in the diagram, holarchies are present as ascending systems of ever-increasing complexity.

Interior holarchies (UL) are available to the individual in the form of unfolding stages of psychological and spiritual development that vary in scope depending upon the theorist, an example of which will be provided in the following section on developmental psychology. Interior holarchies are also available to groups of individuals (LL) as cultural worldview evolves to higher and wider embraces of social cognition, which will be explored in a later section on Spiral Dynamics.

Exterior holarchies (UR) are present as described in the earlier section's exploration of a skin-cell, and while a systems theory may also be explored through that example, the diagram instead points to a more comprehensive social holarchy that stretches from planetary to galactic systems (LR). In each quadrant, appropriate theories and varying levels of detail may be supplemented for the selections made in this diagram, when a specific topic is under investigation.

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### Stages of Development

Drs. Stanislav Grof and Jean Piaget described unique developmental models of human cognition that explore interior stages of psychological development, which progress sequentially from prenatal into childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.

Stanislav Grof, MD, PhD, was a mid 20th-century psychiatrist who initiated and conducted a record number of 5-HT2A agonist lysergic - acid-diethylamide (LSD)-assisted psychotherapy sessions (1,000 est), which eventually led to the development of prenatal theories of human development (Grof, 1993). The psychological and pharmacological effects of LSD have been well documented, and over 1,000 peer reviewed publications on similar psycholytic compounds have been published (Grinspoon & Bakalar, 1997).

Grof first encountered LSD as a medical student at Johns Hopkins University during his training to become a psychoanalyst. Sandoz pharmaceuticals provided samples of the newly discovered synthetic chemical to Johns Hopkins University as an experimental compound. This compound was thought to be useful for stimulating transitory psychosis, thereby providing young psychiatrists with an opportunity to learn more about the minds of their patients (Grof, 2001). Grofs personal experiences with the chemical resulted in a profound expansion of awareness that he described as "Cosmic Consciousness".

Recognizing that LSD was not merely a chemical that produced psychotic states, Grof began using the compound in conjunction with psychotherapy, where sessions of 12 hours or more could be repeated less than 10 times in order to evoke persistent and positive psychological healing and transformation (Compare with 5 to 10 years of traditional psychoanalysis 3 to 5 times per week). While some of his most challenging patients were deemed untreatable, LSD-assisted psychotherapy proved to be a catalyst for deeply effective psychotherapy. One of Grofs seminal contributions to the field was the discovery of systems of Condensed Experience (COEXs) that were associated with a series of prenatal events, which he referred to as the Basic Perinatal Matrices (BPMs).

The COEXs were similar to standard psychoanalytic theory of the complex, where thoughts, emotions, and experiences were stored as clusters of psychic activity that are centered on a particularly powerful psychic object. Jung's archetypes were typically the centers of his theorized complexes (Hall, 1999). Grof acknowledged that Jungian archetypes and COEXs often shared a very important relationship. However, his primary contribution to complex theories resulted from his clinical observation of pre-birth, birth, and post-birth traumas.

During LSD-assisted psychotherapy, Grof discovered that many of his patients experienced a series of distinct stages of prenatal regression that were followed by the emergence of spiritual states of awareness. Psychosomatic memories of pre-birth/amniotic immersion and gestation (BPMI), labor/uterine contractions (BPMII), movement through the birth canal (BPMIII), and post-labor/successful exit from the uterus (BPMIV) were the primary characteristics of these regressive experiences (Grof, 1993). Once Grof recognized that his patients often experienced life-long neuroses that resulted from unresolved prenatal trauma, he encouraged these regressive experiences as the primary means by which to trigger a transformational healing process while accessing an LSD-induced non-ordinary or Holotropic state of consciousness (i.e. states of consciousness that advance toward psychic wholeness). Successfully moving through early prenatal traumas often resulted in powerful transpersonal experiences of unconditional love, encounters with loving beings, and other forms of expanded awareness (Grof, 2006). Grof was an important contributor to the field of prenatal developmental trauma research. This provided a framework with which to interpret both discrete psychological and physiological stages of prenatal development and the impact of LSD as a psychotherapeutic agent. Image: (Grof, 2001)

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### Jean Piaget: Stages of Development

Jean Piaget was a 20th-century psychological theorist who described four basic post-birth stages of cognitive growth through which human beings progress (Beilin, & Pufall, 1992). Provided that optimal genetic and environmental circumstances are present, individuals may progress through the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages of development in that sequence from birth through adolescence and adulthood.

At the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years) the organism differentiates its self from the environment and recognizes that it is able to interact with objects in the environment through sensory stimulation and motor coordination (Beilin, & Pufall, 1992). Immediately after birth, the infant is unable to use their eyes and may have little or no spatial awareness. Spatial reasoning tends to grow from non-dimensional into a two dimensional topological understanding of the world. However, spatial awareness may rapidly expand in order to accommodate 2-dimensional representations of the world, where proximity of objects, sequence, separation, and enclosure within other objects are available to visual reasoning, but depth and distance are not yet understood. Egocentricity marks this stage of development as the individual is primarily driven by organismic impulses to eat, drink, breathe, and excrete waste, regardless of the demands of the environment or the needs of other organisms.

At the preoperational stage of development (2 to 7 years) the individual develops linguistic capacities, but egocentricity persists. Although the child has developed early capacities for language and symbol, they are cognitively incapable of assuming the perspective of another individual and continue to move about the environment with little regard for other organisms. Spatial reasoning continues to be limited to topologies, and children are unable to imagine how the other side of an object may appear, but enclosure is stabilized.

Once concrete operations (7 to 11 years) emerge, ridged forms of systematic logic become available, and the child is able to assume the perspective of others and navigate a social world. Spatial reasoning expands to include 3-dimensional objects, and projective geometry becomes available. Children are now capable of inferring the nature of objects that have become hidden from view. However, concrete operations may not yet demonstrate the capacity to deal with spatial relationships that exist within abstract spaces such as those explored in advanced geometry.

Formal operations (11 years to adulthood) enable the individual to think abstractly, test a hypothesis through flexible systems of internal logic, assume multiple perspectives, and consider future events. Spatial reasoning is now capable of addressing both concrete geometry and abstract spaces in 4-dimensions +, which may only be known through inference.

Moreover, the post-formal operational stage of development may be responsible for increasingly sophisticated forms of cognition and social engagement that are not addressed in Piaget's conventional model. The post-formal operational stage of development may be related to Maslow's self-actualization and self-transcending needs, wherein higher moral values and more complex forms of reasoning become available. During these later stages, spatial reasoning may become highly integrated with symbolic cognition, where multidimensional synthetic geometry may serve to integrate with the projective aspects of the symbolic psyche.

The below image may correlate with the level of spatial complexity that may be processed through the mind of an individual at the stages of sensorimotor (2-d points and lines), preoperational (2-d points, lines, and enclosures), concrete operations (3-d objects), and formal operations (abstract spaces such as 4-d objects).

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In accord with holarchy, each stage reflects greater cognitive complexity than the former such that individuals must first develop competency at earlier stages before they are able to progress to the next level of development (Beilin, & Pufall, 1992). Although growth through the stages may be accelerated through the skillful application of event- appropriate challenges to cognition, nobody can reach a later stage without first proceeding through those earlier, more rudimentary stages: that is, stages cannot be skipped.

An individual at the sensorimotor stage of development must develop competency at pre-, concrete, and formal operations, transcending and including the prior stages in order to gain access to the sum cognitive capacities of each stage. Because an adequate degree of mastery has been achieved at the prior stages, the individual who has reached formal operations is able to recruit the capacities made available at the previous stages, resulting in a complex variety of skills that can be applied as the environment demands them. Hence, each stage represents a single holon that transcends and includes its prior within the holarchy of cognitive development described by Piaget (Piaget himself did not explicitly describe his system as holarchical, but it is functionally so).

### Stage Appropriate Challenges to Cognition

Through presenting stage-appropriate challenges to cognition, one may stimulate development from one stage to another. Conventional stage- appropriate challenges to cognition may include providing a child with increasingly complex physical activities with which to engage during the sensorimotor stage (encouraging physical crawling, walking, climbing, etc.), the preoperational stage (encouraging language acquisition and vocabulary development), the concrete operational stage of development (encouraging social engagement and engaging with multiple perspectives), and the formal operational stage of development (practicing moral philosophy, philosophy of mind, and philosophy of being, etc.). Moreover, it is here proposed that training executive attention may provide the child with a universally appropriate challenge to cognition.

Through training executive attention, it is here suggested that prayer and meditation may simultaneously stimulate the underlying operational functions and physiological tissues, which are required for developing into higher stages of development--at any stage.

### Stimulating Development & Executive Attention

Throughout history the practice of prayer and meditation has been regarded as both a psychological operation and physical exercise that has been designed to foster psychological growth and development. These practices were believed to stimulate growth from an initial stage of ego-centricity or ethno-centricity into a more expansive stage characterized by greater cognitive insight and pro-social behavior (i.e. developmental maturity).

These practices have been known to stimulate activity in regions of the brain, which are critical for psychological development. These brain regions include the prefrontal/task positive network, visual cortex, corpus callosum, and others. Therefore, this form of executive attention training may serve to stimulate a common operational and neural pathway that may form the foundation for growth through each Piagetian stage. That is, prayer/meditation may serve as one _universally appropriate stage-related challenge_ that may foster stage-related psychological growth.

The potential benefit of training executive attention through traditional meditative practices has been noted by Diamond and Lee through their publication on childhood development years 4 to 12, which was published in _Science_ (Diamond & Lee, 2011). Baijal et al. have also published research, which demonstrated that training sustained executive attention via traditional meditation "may bolster attentional alerting, conflict monitoring and reactive control" among children due to its impact on task-positive networks during adolescent development (Baijal et al., 2011). Therefore, prayer and meditation may also serve as a central practice that could stimulate psychological development into yet higher stages of development that extend beyond formal operations.

### Post-Formal Operations I, II, III, and IV

Post-formal operations as such have not yet been rigorously described or studied, perhaps because a comprehensive theory and instrument for measuring the traits of physiological and psychological activity for such a stage have not yet been fully explored. Michael Commons, of Harvard Medical School's Department of Psychiatry, and Sara Ross, of the DARE Institute and ARINA Inc., have published a paper describing post-formal operations in _World Futures: The Journal of New Paradigm Research_ (Commons & Ross, 2008). Commons and Ross have proposed that post-formal thought may be measured within four distinct stages: Systematic, Metasystematic, Paradigmatic, and Cross- Paradigmatic. For simplicity, these may be referred to as post-formal operations I, II, III, and IV, which will be described in more detail through the next section, which will integrate Piaget, Commons and Ross, and Ken Wilber and Don Beck's social worldviews. Commons and Ross have suggested that post-formal operations I may be reached by approximately 20% of the population, post-formal operations II by about 1-2%, post-formal operations III by 0.5%, and post-formal operations IV may be regarded as challenging to analyze due to its rarity.

Image: The brain development image is designed to illustrate the manner in which brain development progresses over time, where the series of red- blue brains represent growth from earlier stages of development (red) into later stages of development (blue).

The image of baseline and meditation conditions utilize an alternative color scheme, where red represents higher levels of brain activity in the prefrontal and visual cortex (red = cortex in use).

These images are an artist's unique interpretations of (NIMH, 2014) and (Newberg, 2015), which are not representative of original publisher's view.

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This image has been re-constructed by hand by an original artist, so these are not actual brain scans. The purpose of this image is for illustrative purposes only, and the renderings differ slightly from the original brain scans.

## Ken Wilber & Don Beck's Model & Post-Formal Operations I, II, III, and IV

Ken Wilber and Dr. Don Beck's model of psychological development may suggest a framework within which Piaget's model maybe extended to include the four levels of post-formal operations proposed by Commons and Ross.

The basic characteristics of post formal operations may include enhanced capacity for considering multiple perspectives, enhanced compassion, enhanced executive attention, and a variety of other subjective states that are correlated with these traits (i.e. spiritual experiences such as feelings of empathy, oneness, spaciousness, insight, self-awareness, interior luminosity, awe, ecstasy, etc). These psychological phenomena may broadly correlate with enhanced gamma activity within the left parietal pre-frontal cortex (enhanced compassion/perspectives), general activation of the task-positive network (enhanced attention), reduced activation of the default-mode network (enhanced attention), reduced activity within the orientation association area (reduced sense of spatial boundaries), enhanced brainwave coherence between brain hemispheres (corpus callosum),and enhanced coherent alpha/theta brainwaves at the visual cortex (visual processing).

Although more rigorous neurological research on the relationship between a new post-formal stage sequence and neurological correlatesis needed, Wilber and Beck's theory of human development may provide a frame work with which to characterize post-formal operational stages of development.

### Ken Wilber: Consciousness in Evolution

Piaget's stages of development and post-formal operations I-IV may correlate with Wilber and Beck's model of Spiral Dynamics. Beck dedicated his research to developing a model of social consciousness called Spiral Dynamics, which uses the principle of holarchy in order to reflect the manner in which human beings evolve through increasingly complex stages of social cognition or worldviews (see Figure 2) (Beck, & Cowan, 1996). These worldviews are divided into Wilber's first-tier (archaic, magic, egocentric, mythic, rational, pluralistic) and second-tier (integral and holistic) modes of cognition, which ascend the spiral. As development progresses, each worldview increases in cognitive complexity, transcending and including its junior holon.

Due to the vastly complex nature of the universe and the myriad forms of human cognition and perception, a fundamental understanding of Wilber's Integral Model is essential in order to understand psychological and sociological development, spiritual experience, and the origins of consciousness within a single unified theory. This unified theory may then inform scientific, psychological, sociological, and spiritual studies in order to support the exchange of knowledge and reduce conflicts of worldview.

### Sensorimotor: Archaic

The sensorimotor/archaic level of consciousness describes the human impulse toward satisfying basic survival-needs at any cost (beginning 100,000 years ago) (Wilber, 2000b). At this primary stage of development, the acquisition of nourishment, procreation, and the safety of the individual organism supersede all other interests. This form of cognition is present in the first human societies, newborn infants, and individuals who have psychologically regressed due to unfavorable biological or environmental circumstances such as the contraction of Alzheimer's disease or internment in a concentration camp. Spirituality is generally neglected as the organism pursues basic survival-needs, however, the onset of spontaneous spiritual experience is altogether unpredictable, and operating from the archaic stage of development does not preclude spirituality (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). Upon satisfying the fundamental organismic needs, the individual may begin unlocking higher capacities and emerge into the magic structure of social cognition.

_The sun rises and I feel the hot morning breeze sweep course particles over my bare skin -- I hunger. My new mate rouses herself and I realise that she too will need to consume food and water this morning but there are not enough resources for each of us. Quickly, I grab a large rock and smack her skull so that she may never wake, and I begin the hunt. Three days pass and I am unable to find food or water. My body becomes weak, my vision blurred, and a whirring vertigo rushes toward my head with each heartbeat until I trip over a buried stone and collapse into a hot sand dune. Suddenly a brilliant white light fills my vision and I am pulled away from the fading sensations of my body -- I sense another. My thirst, hunger; and exhaustion begin to dissolve as I drift deeper and deeper into the light. Who or what is this?_

### Preoperational: Magic

At the preoperational/magic level of consciousness, the impulse to satisfy individual needs is sublimated into the need to provide resources for one's ethnic tribe (beginning 50,000 years ago) (Wilber, 2000b). Families and traveling bands offer the protection of living within larger groups, which are capable of defending themselves against competing tribes, and undisturbed American Indians and aboriginals from all parts of the world typically operate with this level of social cognition. These tribes often lack the education available to those individuals living in developed countries, and, consequently, they are unable to fully participate in the governance of those societies, which often impinge upon their resources, culture, and property. These are the victims of modernity who are protected largely by compassionate advocates at a pluralistic stage of development, which will come forth much later. Authentic spirituality first emerges as a highly animistic relationship with the natural world with rich tapestries of myth that are used to describe the origins and destination of the phenomenal world.

Magic peoples contend that spirits govern the forces of the universe and work with the priests or shamans of their tribes in order to influence natural events. Plant medicines, rituals, and a variety of tribe-specific tools are used in order to induce altered states of consciousness that bring participants into closer relationship with spiritual worlds (Goodman, 1992). Upon consultation with benevolent spirits, the exorcism of those of nefarious origin, and through the use of telepathy, miraculous acts of healing may occur at the hands of an appointed priest or shaman. These tribes often work directly with the archetypal formations of the human psyche in order to effect changes in both their minds and their environment. These ancient forms of psychological transformation are either lost at the later stages of development or reintegrated at a higher level.

_My tribe has traveled formally days and we must find a place to make camp. We have no water for our crops and our neighboring tribe has a superior weapon supply that has prevented us from reaching the nearest river. Our elder spirits have guided me to lead our tribe deep into the forest so that we may conduct our ceremony on the sacred ground of our ancestors. Tonight we will ask the spirits to bring rain to our land, which will both provide us with water for our spring seed and a flood to the river who will kill our neighbors. Tonight we will beat the drum and I will enter into trances that will unlock the inner doors to our ancestors, and they will permit me to make this request. I must protect my people_.

### Preoperational: Egocentric

The preoperational / egocentric stage of development emerges when individual members of a tribe assert their distinct selfhood and begin seeking power to satisfy their impulses (beginning 10,000 years ago) (Wilber, 2000b). Once this occurs, powerful men may usurp the tribal social order in order to develop feudal empires of which only the most powerful are the supreme commanders. Egocentricity may drive rulers to build monumental kingdoms, religions, and imposing edifices that reflect their power over the planet. All subjects of feudal order worship under the ruler's chosen religion, and these religions may be the result of genuine spirituality (health) or a tool used to control a population and fuel the leader's megalomania (pathology). Spirituality may emphasize human-like gods and goddesses who rule the manifest universe in much the same way an egocentric human would, accepting obedience and sacrifice in exchange for favors (i.e. Greek gods). Magic spirituality persists, and priests are granted authority over spiritual matters, petitioning the gods and goddesses for material or spiritual benefit, but allying with their supreme ruler and obeying his commands.

_I show generous favor to those who do my bidding serve my kingdom, and adopt my religion. My empire has grown to such might and majesty that my people will obey my every command in exchange for protection, food, and entertainment. Because my power has begun to rival that of the gods, they have sent famine and disease to my region, I will send my priests to tend their ills, but if they do not relent I will disgrace their temples and wage war against their heavenly kingdom by building a tower to the sky. I will never bow to any god, but thy will bow to me as the glory of my courageous inner light outshines the highest heavens and brings warmth to those who serve me with obedience_.

### Concrete Operations: Mythic/Ethnocentric

The concrete operational/mythic/ethnocentric stage of development provides a cohesive social structure, which offers its loyal members physical protection, spiritual salvation, economic advantage, or all of the above (hence this is sometimes referred to as the mythic-membership stage) (beginning 50,000 years ago) (Wilber, 2000b). No longer limited to tribal bloodlines, membership may expand to include the global population, which need only accept its belief-system through conversion in order to become respected members of the community. Mythic-membership is primarily governed by an ethnocentric belief structure to which all members are bound, and any deviation from the established creed is met with excommunication or death. Mythic worldviews are often accompanied by dogmatism, social conformity, and fundamentalism. These traits may present themselves within religious groups such as fundamentalist Christianity or secular institutions such as those present within communism. Spirituality continues evolving into a relationship with an agreed-upon deity, which must be addressed through ridged and formulaic protocols.

Transcending and including its junior holons, the mythic worldview will continue to embrace the magic and egocentric spiritualities, interpreting spiritual experiences through its uniform belief structure. Priests claim sovereign powers, which are imparted unto them through a divine transmission from their chosen deity, and they continue to heal physical maladies and psychological wounds, and exorcize spirits. Spirits continue to rule the natural world, and physical phenomena (meteor showers, appearances of comets, etc) reflect the displeasure or satiation of their Higher Power's demands. Egocentric rulers are permitted to reign insofar as they bow to the Higher Power, which bestows a divine right to rule upon the faithful.

_Although my heart longs to provide this man with the salvation offered by our generous savior, and a great flood of sorrow fills my veins, he has chosen to bind himself to the pursuits of evil.Tomorrow at dawn we will begin the trial that will reveal the nature of this man 's mathematical possession, and we will determine how his devil must be exorcized. May God have Mercy on this man and free him of the Evil One who tempts him to defy our Most High. As an instrument of the Divine Will, I am bound to cease the insidious work of this man who falsely claims to be a "seeker of Truth". Using strange and devilish mathematical formulae, he has undermined the tenets of our community's unshakable faith, threatening the salvation of every man, woman, and child, who has heard him speak. I am bound to obey the commandments we have received to protect the Kingdom of our God, and I must stop those who would defy his words. Should I fail to cure this man while he lives, I will certainly ensure that his devil is evicted from Earth through the execution of this poor, cursed man. May God have Mercy on his soul._

Formal Operations: Rational

The formal operational/rational worldview emerges in the wake of mythic-membership cultures as a world-centric perspective that emphasizes the universal freedom of the human being to pursue truth without mandates from a higher authority, thus giving birth to humanism and early democracies (beginning 300 years ago) (Wilber, 2000b). Subsequent to extensive investigation, the world is perceived as reducible to orderly principles and natural laws, which are established through empirical observation, the scientific method, and mathematical proofs. The rational worldview dismantles mythic belief systems in its pursuit of verifiable knowledge and challenges the mythic's claim to absolute truth, despite the risks of excommunication and death. The Western Enlightenment reflected a significant departure from the mythic worldview and has continued to rely upon scientific evidence and methodology as a means for deducing truth throughout modernity. The developed world has been significantly shaped by these scientific principles, which have produced many of the advanced technologies and medicines that are available today. As the human being becomes the fashioner of his or her life and destiny, traditional forms of spirituality become reducible to superstitious and irrational beliefs.

Spirituality at the rational stage of development tends toward material reductionism and this rejects the interior states of consciousness that accompany spiritual experience as a consequence of rejecting the mythic worldview and each of its junior holons. Transcending and repressing its junior holons, reason attempts to dismantle the mythic, egocentric, and magical spiritualities, because they appear to represent an immature and logically flawed interpretation of reality. Reducing spiritual ecstasy to the result of abnormal neuronal activity and the perception of deities and spirits to a primitive fantasy, the rational worldview tends to neglect spirituality altogether. When considering interior experiences, spirituality may appear to be the result of psychological regression into a pre-birth state of oceanic oneness or the result of epilepsy (Wilber, 1996a). However, it should be noted that reason does not preclude spirituality, and many committed scientists posit that God exists in some abstract form that is not bound by mythic interpretations. However, in response to the protracted neglect of interior states of consciousness at this stage of development, pluralism emerges and attempts to embrace each of its junior holons.

_Seekers of Truth, today we remember the maddening cruelties that were inflicted upon brave scientists - punishments that were performed by religious zealots who still claim to know an as-yet unproven and conveniently incorporeal god. We celebrate the cultural triumph of reason over fallacious logic, an event that has led to advanced medicines, technology, and a deeper knowledge of the physical universe. Although our civilization may have once immersed itself within childish fantasies and superstitions, the education of human intellect and improved scientific measurements have disproven many of the strange beliefs held by medieval and primitive cultures, and we may proudly wave the banner of enlightenment. Should any god exist, it most certainly would not appear human as many have attempted to claim, but perhaps as an energy field that gives rise to and supports the existence of matter and life. Perhaps quantum physics will reveal more mysteries of our universal origins and the mechanisms of life_.

### Post Formal Operations I: Pluralistic (Early Vision Logic)

The following stage of development may be correlated with the post- formal operations I, which Ross and Commons describe as featuring multivariate problem-solving capabilities (20% of population) (Commons & Ross, 1998). For Wilber and Beck, the pluralistic (also post-modern) worldview emphasizes an egalitarian approach to relationship, academic research, and politics (beginning 150 years ago) (Wilber, 2000b). As the "sensitive self" emerges, the individual recognizes the radical subjectivity of truth and subsequently insists upon the right for varied perspectives to coexist peacefully. Therefore, pluralistic academia will emphasize the importance of interpreting divergent perspectives within the context of their origins, refusing to rank and order those views. Pluralism rejects claims to absolute truth and encourages the facilitation of dialogue amongst scientific, religious, and other disciplines. Individuals holding this worldview typically embrace political policies that support equality amongst all members of the population and often advocate for the rights of marginalized peoples. Because of its radical acceptance of all perspectives, pluralism may often appear soft or noncommittal when confronted with the unreasonable demands of egocentric power drives, the piercing truth claims of mythic-membership societies, or the rational insistence that spiritual experience is simply the result of mismanaged neuronal activity. Pluralistic spirituality embraces each of the previously held forms of worship, honoring all paths as equal and sacrosanct.

Pluralistic spiritualities may be highly eclectic and scoff at the ethnocentric stranglehold on spiritual salvation, asserting that no single tradition contains the ultimate truth. Capable of recognizing the apparently unlimited expressions of the Good, the True, and the Beautiful, the pluralistic worldview is no longer capable of living within exclusionary communities--mythic is too small. Likewise, materialistic reductionism no longer convinces the sensitive self that spiritual worlds are the result of psychological regression, as it is capable of intuiting the Great Mystery and discovering a pluralistic Spirit that manifests the divine through many forms. With a pluralistic spirituality, magic, myth, and reason commingle in order to create a great variety of unique alternatives to earlier forms of religion. Fusions of Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, and other traditions bring the insights and transformational practices of each religion into a melting pot of spirituality that provides solace for many. Although strictly mythic interpretations of the world are no longer tenable at the pluralistic stage of development, overlooking the mythic's unique manifestation of consciousness results in a profound loss of spiritual heritage.

_We are one human family that must learn to live in harmony with one-another. These were the teachings of the great masters of every religious tradition, and scientific and economic analyses have begun to provide objective evidence that supports this claim. We are interconnected, and to injure a single organism on this planet is to damage Gaia, our global organismic consciousness. Those who would claim that one religion is better than another must learn to communicate more effectively -- we must recognize that we are all connected with one universal God or Goddess, and everybody is acceptable in the yes of the Creator. Men must learn to honor the wisdom of their mothers, sisters, and wives, while women must learn to honor their male companions without subjecting themselves to codependence or domination, and advanced civilizations must begin acquiring the wisdom of indigenous societies that have preserved the precious knowledge of transcendence and interconnecting. Everybody must awaken to this global consciousness that promises the advent of a new age of harmony and understandings because without this awakening we will perish_.

### Summary

In accord with holarchy, each stage reflects greater cognitive complexity than the former, such that individuals must first develop competency at earlier stages before they are able to progress to the next level of development. Achieving an adequate degree of mastery at the prior stages, the individual who has reached pluralism is able to recruit the capacities made available at the previous stages, resulting in a complex variety of skills that can be applied as the environment demands them-- to a limited degree. Hence, as each stage represents a single holon that transcends and includes its prior within the holarchy of cognitive development, pluralism contains the capacity for rational, ethnocentric, egocentric, magical, and archaic modes of cognition. As a consequence of the variable access to psychological health and pathology of each prior stage, conflict inevitably arises amongst (interpersonally) and within (intrapersonally) members from any of the first-tier stage of development.

### Spiral Dynamics: Social Holons and Conflict at First Tier

In perpetual competition for perspectival dominance, no worldview within a first-tier society is comfortable with another level of consciousness (Beck, & Cowan, 1993). While pluralism demands that everybody begin thinking pluralistically (a mythic trait), rationality simply explains that pre-modern beliefs are logically flawed and demonstrably untrue, and the members of mythic structures are acutely aware of the double threat to their salvation while they build their mission for the archaic and magic thinkers who were previously competing for resources and seeking refuge from the local egocentric dictatorship. Just as the mythic crusade for global conversion continues indefinitely and scientific evidence is unable to dissuade those societies from observing their beliefs, pluralistic inclusion has not managed to pull the world into a peaceful never-ending dialogue as egocentric rulers continue to pursue the acquisition of nuclear weapons. That is, persons at each stage tend to reject the claims, attitudes, and behaviors of those at prior or later stages, and bringing all parties together for dialogue often results in archaic, magic, mythic, rational, and pluralistic participants' feeling altogether "unheard and unappreciated" (Wilber, 2000b, p. 14).

Despite the challenges of first-tier relations, pluralism represents the highest stage of development within the first tier of Spiral Dynamics, which prepares the individual for a "momentous leap" to second-tier cognition where "a chasm of unbelievable depth and meaning is crossed" (Graves, 1961). Second-tier cognition emerges in spite of tremendous resistance from first-tier worldviews, and as Wilber notes, "Scientific materialism [rational] is aggressively reductionistic toward second-tier constructs, attempting to reduce all interior stages to neuronal fireworks. Mythic fundamentalism ... is often outraged by what it sees as attempts to unseat its given Order. Egocentrism . . . ignores second tier altogether. Magic . .. puts a hex on it. [Pluralistic] accuses second-tier consciousness of being authoritarian, rigidly hierarchical, [etc.] . .." (Wilber, 2000b, p. 14). However, second-tier thinking enables the individual to become more inclusive and cognitively flexible than any of those within its junior holons.

### Spiral Dynamics: Second Tier Consciousness in Evolution

The second-tier worldviews include the integral and holistic modes of cognition, which reflect a tremendous capacity for perspectival flexibility and an inexorably rich spiritual life. Whereas pluralistic cognition can often become excessively relativistic and unable or unwilling to differentiate between greater and lesser truth-claims, second-tier consciousness is accompanied by increased capacity for organization, differentiation, and discernment.

### Post Formal Operations II: Integral (Mid Vision Logic)

The following stage of development maybe correlated with post-formal operations II, which Commons and Ross describe as featuring the synthesis of and action upon systems as described in the previous stage of development (1-2% of the population) (Commons & Ross, 1998). Integral cognition is capable of perceiving the value of within each of its junior holons, whilst retaining the capacity to differentiate between greater and lesser truth (beginning 50 years ago) (Wilber, 2000b). The individual with an integral world view recognizes the variety of divergent perspectives and understands the relative value of each view without hesitating to note the difference between limited and expanded worldviews. He or she understands that the whole spiral is contained within his or her own psyche, thereby recognizing personal health and pathology at each level and addressing pathologies through deep interior transformation (psychotherapy, meditation, breathwork, etc). The integral spiritual view is inclusive but always unique, and with an intuitive understanding of how each perspective is organized within the holarchy, the individual is able to engage with members of any tradition and continues to discriminate between greater and lesser truth.

### Post Formal Operations III: Holistic (Late Vision Logic)

The following stage of development maybe correlated with post-formal operations III, which may involve the synthesis of earlier stages of cognition and the creation of new paradigms, or ways of thinking (0.5% of the population) (Commons & Ross, 1998). Commons and Ross explain: "People create new paradigms out of multiple metasystems. Or they show the impossibility of doing so. Thus, the objects of paradigmatic task actions are metasystems. A paradigm is a systematized set of relations among metasystems that reflects a coherent set of assumptions. In a domain, sometimes the highest stage development is to show that metasystems that are incomplete and that adding to them would create inconsistencies."

Meanwhile, Wilber and Beck describe holistic cognition as deeply embracing each substructure and continuing the interior transformation begun at the integral stage of development (beginning 30 years ago) (Wilber, 2000b). The individual works with intuitive knowing and restores the joy, awe, and ritual made available at the magic and mythic stages of development with profound cognitive insights, which emerge spontaneously and without the need for meticulous rational investigation, although it is certainly capable of doing so (an instance of spontaneous vision-logic that reveals the patterns within a given structure). Maslow's plateau experiences dominate this mode of consciousness, and the individual follows his or her unique path of self- transcendence (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). Only at the holistic stage of development is the individual capable of truly appreciating the spiritual gifts made available at each former stage. Holism enables the individual to actively participate in ecstatic ritual through activating the unique psychic symbols communicated through select mystical traditions. This can be accomplished while continuing to pursue an inclusive world- spirituality that does not attempt to dismantle mythic structures with rational or pluralistic fervor. Rather, the psyche of a holistic individual flows through these structures without any sense of separation, which denotes a high level of spiritual realization that is addressed in a later section on the multiple forms of mysticism.

### Post Formal Operations IV: Unitive Self

The next stage of development, post-formal operations IV may involve the synthesis of earlier stages of cognition, the creation of new paradigms, and the action upon new paradigms through the creation of new fields (Commons & Ross, 2008). Ross and Commons suggest that interdisciplinary studies that strive to integrate multiple fields of inquiry into a synthesis with already existing fields _is not_ descriptive of post- formal operations IV. Rather, the synthesis of multiple fields and the _creation of new fields_ is the primary characteristic of this stage of development, which represents the emergence of an _entirely new form of thinking_. Wilber's "Integral Theory" may represent a product of this stage of development, where his work initially served to expand upon the field of psychology, but he later chose to re-frame his theories in order to introduce an entirely new field of inquiry--the "Integral" field (Fisher, 2010). This stage of development may be characterized by the persistent experience of Maslow's plateau experiences (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). Moreover, the sustained awareness of non-dual consciousness, where all things may be regarded as simultaneously one and two (Wilber, 2000b). Here, paradoxes that may have been challenging to resolve at earlier stages of development may become increasingly available for cognitive synthesis and re-integration.

# Plato's One & Wilber's Spirit

## Plato's 'One' and Wilber's Transcendent Act of Self-Knowledge

Thoroughly investigating a holarchical model of consciousness that moves from extremely simple structures into immensely complex systems of perceptual interpretation will inevitably invite the perennial questions: Where did this come from, and why is this here? The answer of these questions will require an extensive exploration of the fundamental Source of reality (Plato's 'One' & Wilber's 'Spirit'). This includes the nature of its continued evolution, which progresses from emptiness to matter and eventually into the human being. The following sections will investigate Plato's Source of manifestation and the interaction of that One with its creation. These sections will explore the process by which the One may involve itself and enter into a self-constructed and dualistic reality whereupon it begins evolving.

Plato's 'One' and Wilber's 'Spirit' may be regarded as synonymous and defined as the transcendent and unmanifest source of creation that becomes manifest through each of the four quadrants as described in an earlier section entitled "Four Quadrants: Interiors and Exteriors" (interiors and exteriors; consciousness and matter). Spirit is prior to the creation of reality insofar as it gives rise to that manifestation, which is ultimately driven by Spirifs impulse to evolve into increasingly complex structures with a variety of interior and exterior artifacts (Wilber, 1996). Because Spirit precedes, becomes, and transcends manifestation, it is simultaneously transcendent of and immanent to creation (prior to, beyond and within creation), which allows Spirit to perpetually empty itself into manifestation without adding or subtracting anything from its original nature as it drives that manifestation into increasingly complex expressions of the Ultimate. Spirit is both the transcendent initiator and source of the manifest universe as well as the climax and summit of holarchical evolution in each quadrant--Spirit is the Alpha and Omega. Spirit in manifestation is therefore holarchical in nature as it initiates the inception and evolution of manifestation into ever-increasing levels of complexity. Through the process of involution and evolution, Spirit launches manifestation into an apparent duality that drives the structures of each quadrant to evolve into more complex expressions of and unions with Spirit.

Although Spirit and manifestation are themselves inseparable and therefore non-dual, the act of involution causes Spirit to descend sequentially through the Non-Dual, Causal, Subtle, and Gross manifestations of reality (explored in a later section entitled, "Wilber- Combs Lattice . . ."), embedding itself within an apparently dualistic universe (see Figure 4) (Wilber, 2006b). Through this act of involution, Spirit is able to begin the process of evolution that gives rise to structures of manifestation in each of the four quadrants, which yields innumerable perspectives through which Spirit may know itself. Spirit therefore occupies the perspectives of molecules, amoebae, plants, animals, and human beings, all of which perceive the universe with unique modes of sensation and cognition (or lack thereof), but most of which are unconscious of their True Nature. However, those sentient structures that possess a self-reflexive awareness may become structures of consciousness that are able to know themselves as Spirit in evolution, consequently ascending into higher states (Gross, Subtle, Causal, and Non-Dual) and stages (Spiral Dynamics) of consciousness, resulting in state and stage realizations. These realizations may require a structure of consciousness that exhibits a degree of complexity that is thus far only observable in the human bang (when observed by human beings), because it is considered to be the most holarchically complex manifestation of Spirit to-date.

## Stages of Spiritual Experience

Spiritual experience may spontaneously strike any individual at any time, with or without applying techniques that are designed to evoke such experiences (prayer, meditation, fasting, breathwork, psychedelics, etc.) (Walsh, & Vaughan, 1993). Spiritual experiences, or peak- experiences, are more likely to occur once subsistence needs are met. Hence, although these individuals are not precluded from such experiences, those at the archaic stage of development produce few, if any, spiritual artifacts (Maslow, 1994). The peak-experience may produce a deep sense of meaning, purpose, interior illumination (via mental imagery), compassion, a unity experience in which the boundaries of self and others dissolve, and others that are detailed in the following section. Upon learning how to evoke these peak- experiences with ever-increasing frequency, the individual may begin to encounter a plateau-experience. The plateau-experience may result when a spiritual experience persists for weeks, months, years, or a lifetime as one integrates transcendent states of consciousness.

Ken Wilber and Allan Combs developed a sophisticated holarchical model of peak and plateau experiences, which supplement the Spiral Dynamics model and describe the four fundamental states of consciousness, which initiate key forms of spiritual experience.

### The Wilber-Combs Lattice: The Four Mysticisms in Evolution

The Wilber-Combs Lattice organizes Nature Mysticism, Deity Mysticism, Formless Mysticism, and Nondual Mysticism into the Gross, Subtle, Causal, and Nondual states of consciousness, respectively (see Figure 3) (Wilber, 2006b). The Lattice is aligned with Beck's model of Spiral Dynamics, which indicates that each mystical state of consciousness is available to individuals at any spiral stage of development. Although each state of consciousness is available to individuals at archaic, magic, mythic, rational, pluralistic, integral, and holistic stages of development, persons at each stage will interpret their state experiences through the stage at which they function. Peak-experiences are transient states of consciousness, which may be installed as enduring traits through the diligent application of techniques that are designed to repeatedly induce such experiences. This results in the actualization of a state-stage of consciousness or plateau- experience, which may continue evolving in depth and complexity in a holarchical fashion. Using Christian Mystics as exemplars for spiritual transformation, it is evident that humans may develop proficiency at contacting the Divine, and their understanding of Spirit will progress through Gross, Subtle, Causal, and Nondual state-stages of consciousness.

### Nature Mysticism (Gross)

Nature Mysticism (Gross) describes a profound realization that the physical world is a Divine manifestation of Spirit. Christian Mystics may recognize God (i.e. Spirit) as transcendent of and immanent to creation, and to touch nature is to touch a manifestation of Divinity (Wilber, 2000a). God transcends the physical world, and is therefore not reducible to it but is also inseparable from the physical world and therefore includes it (immanence). No less, the individual deeply realizes the transcendent and immanent nature of himself or herself as the personal organism is simultaneously composed of the natural world (immanence/inclusion) and capable of witnessing it (transcendence): The physical universe examines itself through human perception (Macy, 1991). This is not a regression into a prerational and undifferentiated union with nature, but rather the transrational prehension of the organism's truly unified relationship with manifestation and therefore Divinity. Nature Mysticism is therefore primarily concerned with recognizing the True Nature of the relationship between self and environment.

_As I stand upon this great planet, which through eons of evolution has given birth to these eyes, I study myself. Indeed these are the eyes of the universe, and as I witness the Earth, I witness myself with awe_.

### Deity Mysticism (Subtle)

Deity Mysticism (Subtle) refers to the transcendent subtle perceptions that are holarchically superior to the physical manifestation of Spirit, and it is encountered as a brilliant interior illumination of the mind and heart (i.e. perception of subtle energies) (Wilber, 2000a). Whereas the Gross realm is a limited and finite manifestation of Spirit, the Subtle is an infinitely radiant and interminable expression of one's True Nature. The Subtle stage is marked by magnificent displays of psych spiritual activity that may include the activation of archetypal energies, intuitions of symbolic motifs, and interactions with other autonomous forms of sentient consciousness that were otherwise invisible during the previous stage. Christian mystics refer to an encounter with the Subtle realm as a transformational process that invites a tremendous influx of ecstatic spiritual energies, which progress sequentially from zero activity to God-absorption, and transformation next climaxes with the unification with God (this relationship with God is explored in greater detail in a later section entitled "Three Faces of Spirit: I, We, and It").

_A beam of subtle light emerges from the corner of my vision. Quickly, it intensifies and exacts its point-of focus upon my brow. A shock, and it penetrates my skull, the light now liqufies the concrete in my head and blows my brain full of crystal white light. God is in my mind and the beam widens its focal point to embrace my entire body. Without time to consider the implications, a second point of concentration and my chest nearly ruptures with another infux of the superfluid light steam. Ipulse with Godhead and launch into ecstasy. My body is luminous, and I am Awake_.

### Formless Mysticism (Causal)

Progressing from a mystical revelation that is bound by matter or subtle energetic forms, the Causal stage of development is marked by the capacity to abide as the transcendent witness, which is beyond all Gross or Subtle forms (Wilber, 2000a). Whereas the Subtle stage climaxes at the realization that Self and God are unified as one, the Causal stage is initiated from this realization and progresses further into transcendent territory. The Causal reveals an identity that is utterly beyond the activity of involution or evolution, and it rests as the Supreme Identity or Original Face that is beyond time and manifestation. Never entering the stream of time, this identity is aware of but not affected by the process of creation, as it is the formless predecessor of and successor to everything that arises.

_I have crossed the stream of time and rest safely upon the farthest shores of infinity. Manifestation passes before my eyes and I witness the strange calamity that befalls the human species -- thy have forgotten their transcendent nature and grasp for a finite world. I am at peace, and the suffering of ignorance no longer grips my vast and liberated mind_.

### Nondual Mysticism

Continuing to evolve through the realization of one's True Nature, the Nondual arises in order to embrace the manifest reality that Causal awakening has so utterly transcended (Wilber, 2000a). The Nondual realization is accompanied by the awareness that one's ultimate identity is simultaneously arising as the manifest world, and this liberates the individual to reenter the stream of time without binding himself or herself to the illusory separation between the finite and the infinite. Samsara is Nirvana.

_My Zen master has initiated me into the ancient practice of koan, and I have awakened to my True Nature. The once-exciting energies of transcendence are of no consequence to me, for I have remembered that which was already the case -- I am. The world is illusory and Awakened Mind alone is real. Our world is the Awakened Mind. Touch this and you have touched me. Meditate daily and contemplate the question, "How does the yellow chicken dance?"_

In addition to these forms of self-knowledge, Spirit is capable of knowing itself through the human being's combination of first-person, second-person, and third-person perspectives: Wilber's I, We, and It.

### Three Faces of Spirit: I, We, and It

As described previously, the individual is capable of perceiving reality through three fundamental perspectives: I (first-person subjective), We (second-person intersubjective), and It (third-person objective). These three perspectives describe the primary manners in which a human may perceive the presence of Spirit: "I Am", "Thou Art", and "That Is" (Wilber, 2006). Although many traditions concerned with the investigation of reality tend to emphasize one or another, any truly integral approach to the acquisition of knowledge will include all three.

[Images Available In Paid Version]

### I Am Spirit: The First-Person Realization

The first-person realization of Spirit manifests as a recognition that one's very nature, "I Am", is the Source, Process, and Summit of Spirit in evolution, and this may be realized prior to, subsequent to, or simultaneous of the second-person and third-person realizations of Spirit (Wilber, 2006b). Once one has realized his or her True Nature and Ultimate Identity as Spirit, the second- and third person perspectives are still available to the awakened individual, and he or she may also realize that these unique manifestations of reality are each expressions of the same Source. Subsequent to this recognition one may affirm the intrinsic value of the Tri-Jeweled perspectives of the Buddha (I Am Spirit), Sangha (We Are Spirit), and Dharma (That is Spirit) (Narada, 1988). One can see that these three perspectives are not exclusive to Buddhism but simply the product of a realization that human beings are capable of perceiving the manifestation of reality through these three fundamental perspectives. This includes the subjective (I), intersubjective (We), and objective (It) modes of perception.

### Thou Art Spirit: The Second-Person Realization

Spirit may be able to detect itself through the sentient consciousness of a human being who has the capacity to perceive Spirit's manifestation as any object in the environment (interior or exterior). These objects may include matter (the American Indian's grandfather rock), animals (spirit animals), human beings, and or the direct intuition of the Ultimate (God). The manner in which one perceives a 'God' may vary depending upon the conditioning of the individual who perceives. Considering that many have claimed to detect and interact with forms of sentience within apparently inert matter, plants, animals, and humans (with the exception of those with autistic disorders), one may affirm that this _perception_ does indeed exist in the human population to a greater or lesser degree) (Goodman, 1992).

Although Spirit is always one and inseparable from its own True Nature, its capacity to differentiate into more complex structures enables it to manifest as a human being that can reflect upon the Ultimate as an object in its environment. Whereas Spirit emerges as the large majority of the population, which is capable of participating in an inter subjective activity merely through their interaction with Spirit's manifestation as another human being or social group, when Spirit emerges as a particularly adept contemplative practitioner, he or she may pursue intersubjective knowledge of himself or herself as the Ultimate. As Spirit views manifestation through the eyes of the human organism, it is capable of detecting itself through Divine Intersubjectivity, and the Christian tradition provides an excellent example of this activity.

When Spirit emerges as a Christian mystic, it reports that it is possible to commune with an unseen Other (God / Spirit) whose contact with human beings yields an ecstatic transformation of consciousness through the process of communion and theosis (human union with God / Spirit) (Iiturgiam, 2002). This is quite simply the result of Spirit using its dual nature to begin realizing itself through its capacity for intersubjectivity: I and Thou, Self and Other. Forming a unique and personal relationship with an expression of itself (hence the personal relationship with God), the involved and differentiated manifestationof Spirit (as human) is initially ignorant (e.g. unconscious) of this process, and the recognition of itself (Spirit as God) within an intersubjective space results in the ecstatic perception of the Ultimate Who. The ecstasy that accompanies the recognition of this deep Truth has led many Christian mystics to pursue this form of Ultimate Self-Knowledge through Divine Intersubjectivity. Because Christian contemplative practice is oriented toward investigating the second-person manifestation of Spirit as God, the first-person realization of Self as Spirit naturally arises after entering deeply into that intersubjective space.

### I Am Spirit: Intersubjectivity and the First-Person Realization

First-person experiences of Spirit may occur when the individual has become so immersed in his or her relationship with God that through the realization of theosis, his or her personal identity is subsumed into that of God, resulting in the first-person experience of Self as God. Henceforth the individual and God no longer manifest as separate beings but as a single, unified consciousness, as St. John of The Cross noted, "... so great a union is caused that all the things of both God and the soul become one in participant transformation... [the soul] is God by participation" (John of the Cross, 1992, p. 91). Meister Eckhart further illustrates the first-person experience of Self as God when he explains, "The eye with which I see God is the same with which God sees me. My eye and God's eye is one eye, and one sight, and one knowledge, and one love" (Meister, 1909, p.32). However, it should be noted that St. John of The Cross continues to explain that "Yet truly, [the human's] being (even though transformed) is naturally as distinct from God's as it was before", a statement that reflects the persistent state of Spirit's differentiation into an apparently separate and unique consciousness that is capable of communing with itself (John of the Cross, 1992, p. 92). Because the perception of Self as God is realized subsequent to the unification between two apparent beings (an intersubjective space), the expression of Spirit as the consciousness of a human being and that of God remain distinct: From this initial duality, the mutual experience of communion becomes possible. While this ecstatic joining of opposites unfolds, the two continue to share a common ground from which they differentiated (see Figure 4).

Spirit's simultaneously unified (nondual) and differentiated (multiple) nature reflects a tremendous paradox that is fundamentally conceivable only insofar as the process of Self-Realization unfolds. Given the tremendous degree of paradox that belies Spirit's capacity to triple - perceive itself, this process has been historically difficult to describe accurately, and True Knowledge of this process must be derived through engaging with the transformative process of communion as illustrated by the Christian and other theistic traditions (Augustine, 2010).

### That is Spirit: The Objective Investigation

Objective manifestations of Spirit appeal to the impersonal and dispassionate capacities of the mind insofar as reality becomes an endless display of emergent properties that govern the forces of the universe (Wilber, 2000a). Perceiving Spirit objectively results in descriptions of reality's forms and processes, wherein the subjective experiences of Spirit maybe interpreted logically, mapped formulaically, and described linguistically. With an objective perspective, Spirit is understood to follow unique patterns and organizing principles that reflect its behavior and the nature of its evolution, which may result in sophisticated maps such as Spiral Dynamics (Spirit's behavior as the human species), Jean Piaget's model of individual development (Spirit's development as a single psychic organism), biology (Spirit's functioning as atomic elements and organismic holons), or Wilber's four quadrants (Spirit's behavior in each quadrant of manifestation). The majority of this work serves to exemplify an objective approach to knowing reality, because it depends upon a third-person perspective that describes qualities of Spirit as it evolves through multiple forms of expression. Just as subjective and inter subjective perspectives are capable of knowing reality through altogether unique modes of perception (introspection and exteroception, respectively), the objective is also able to reveal additional information through its unique modes of inquiry.

### Global Summary

Upon descending through the Nondual, Causal, Subtle, and Gross domains of reality (each of which may be examined through any of the four quadrants), Plato's One (Wilber's 'Spirit') initiates a process of evolution that enables it to gain limitless forms of multiperspectival insight into its own nature. Through this process of evolution, Spirit slowly emerges into structures that grow in consciousness from inert matter into the human being, which is capable of ascending the dynamic Spiral of a human's psychosocial evolution. Once Spirit has reached a threshold level of development within a human being (archaic), spiritual experiences may begin to emerge spontaneously. These spiritual experiences evolve in complexity, such that Gross, Subtle, Causal, and Nondual awareness may reemerge holarchically, and Spirit may ultimately rest as the Nondual consciousness of a self-aware human being--the pinnacle of sentient evolution as we know it. Furthermore, Spirit is capable of reflecting upon itself through the human's capacity to triple - perceive reality through the "I", "We", and "It" functions, creating a tremendous variety of perspectives through which Spirit may know itself.

Through an exhaustive investigation of the evolution of human consciousness through Ken Wilber's four quadrants, Stanislav Grofs prenatal research, Jean Piaget's developmental psychology, Dr. Don Beck's theory of Spiral Dynamics, and an integration and affirmation of the various forms of spiritual experience that reveal the evolving nature of Spirit, an Integral Theory of reality is now available for application.

The information that is revealed through an integral model creates unparalleled opportunities to enhance cultural studies, deepen spiritual knowledge, and improve the capacity for human beings to understand their origins and contemplate their destinations. Scientific, psychological, sociological, and spiritual disciplines may each be informed through the acquisition of a comprehensive map of reality that organizes information from disparate fields of study and provides a space for each theme to interface with one another.

## Vision Logic

Piaget's stages of development correlate with the capacity to visualize progressively complex spatial relationships among geometric forms. Therefore, one must develop a basic understanding of the way in which visual-spatial cognition operates in order to experiment with one's capacity to engage with coherent visual cognition, or vision logic.

Euclid of Alexandria was a Greek mathematician who was primarily noted for his compilation of the _Elements of Geometry_ , which summarized the fundamental principles that underlie synthetic geometry as a form of algebraic reasoning (Heiburg & Fitzpatrick, 2008). During Euclid's time, Geometry was regarded as the principle method par excellence for developing a system of pure logic, and its primary method of logical analysis was through the use of a straight-edge and a compass. Through these two tools, one could perform algebraic operations through the mind's visual system, wherein lines and circles served as the building blocks for discovering unknown lengths and proportions. These tools were used in order to both develop an understanding of pure logic as an end unto itself as well as for industrial applications as with the construction of cities and monuments. Euclid's first proposition is listed below, where one may learn how to construct an equilateral triangle (all sides of equal length).

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Given that AB is a finite line and one wishes to construct an equilateral triangle on the straight-line, one must use a compass in order to construct circle BCD with center A and radius AB. This is the crux of the process: Through establishing point A as the pivot point for the compass, one may draw a circle, which establishes AB as the circle's radius. Next, one must draw a second circle ACE with point B as it's center, and AB as if s radius.

Here, each circle utilizes the original line segment in order to establish visual balance within the system. Once this has been achieved, a new point is created at the intersection of circle BCD and ACE. The new point, C, serves as the third point of the triangle, which may now be traced.

This is a critical step toward formulating a basic understanding of how spatial reasoning operates within the human mind. Through developing awareness of two known quantities, one may determine the value of an unknown quantity. Here, synthetic geometry forms the foundation for basic algebraic equations, which utilize a primarily linguistic form of notation-based problem solving (i.e. 1, 2, 3; x, y, z; and (+) and (--) as in 1 + 1 =x, etc.). The visual perception of geometry is, in many respects, the core cognitive process that is responsible for the development of later linguistic mathematical reasoning through notation.

### Synthetic Geometry & Numeric Organization

The value of visual spatial reasoning is also evident in Blaise Pascal's triangular rubric, which displays a vast number of mathematical symmetries inherent within the visual-spatial processing system of the human mind (Green & Hamburg, 1986).

The triangle appears to contain an infinite number of increasing quantities, which are algorithmically related through their spatial relationships and their additions, multiplications, squares, primes, odd-even positions, binomial coefficients, the Fibonacci sequence, and more. The importance of this development is relevant for psychological processing. Here, the capacity to work with synthetic geometry is fundamental to organizing notations through visual- spatial logics, which self-organize highly coherent mathematical notations.

Pascal integrated analytic mathematics with visual-spatial reasoning in order to create a synergy between symbolic notation and synthetic figures. Therefore, one need not engage with written notation in order to appreciate the value of pure visual-spatial logic -- Balanced synthetic figures invite the logical organization of numerical data. Through the visual representation of logical relationships among notation-based symbols, synthetic geometry may serve as a core form of cognition that allows the mind to both represent spatial domains and organize symbolic information in an efficient manner.

Pascal's triangle is comprised through creating a series of expanding rows, beginning with 0, 1, 0 at R1 and followed by 0, 1, 1,0 on R2. The zeros do not appear on the below chart, so the blank space represents the zero quantity.

Through adding 0+1, and 1+0, on Rl, the sums 1 and 1 are noted to the diagonal of these quantities. Next, add 0+1, 1+1, and 1+0 for the numbers that will appear on the second row, which produces 1, 2, 1. Repeat this process and the numbers grow algorithmically and infinitely.

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These numbers highlight the "counting" numbers, which continue in finitely.

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These diagonal numbers contain the sum of the sides for increasingly complex polygons, infinitely.

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Color the cubes that contain only odd numbers, and a visual triangular pattern appears algorithmically and infinitely. These patterns may eventually become mandala-like and so serve a projective function for the psyche, where synthetic geometry serves to allow unconscious content to emerge from the deep psyche for projection onto the figure. This may assist with integrating the conscious and unconscious mind.

## The Vision System is 2D

Images are central to cognition for the vast majority of the human population, and the visual cortex is directly responsible for both visual perception as well as initiating cognition in response to visual percepts (Super, 2002). Human beings do not physically perceive visual information in 3-d, contrary to popular belief. The reason for this is that human eyes are only built to see in 2-d, where color gradient, relative size, and reification (filling in the gaps to predict the shape and structure of an object in space) are the means by which one constructs the illusory perception of depth and three-dimensions. The process of rotating mental objects typically occurs for most individuals within a 2- d spectrum of imagination, because the visual processing system is accustomed to processing information in 2-d format. However, the human spatial and visual processing systems are, in fact, capable of processing and rotating objects within a larger spectrum of dimensionality, which may range from 2-d to 3-d, 4-d, and perhaps higher dimensions in space.

For example, if one physically perceives a cube head-on, one will only see the flat surface that faces the perceiver, which is a 2-d rendering of a 3- d object. Meanwhile, if one tilts the cube slightly and looks at one of its intersecting vertices head-on, the perceiver will see three of its six sides, which may lead most people to believe that they are seeing a 3-d image. In-fact, the object is still rendered as a 2-d image, and the illusion of depth is generated by the brain. Meanwhile, the reverse sides of the cube that are physically obscured to the naked eye continue to remain "invisible". That is, one is not able to see through to the opposite sides of the cube, which are facing away from the perceiver. Hence, without perceiving all sides of a 3-d cube or any 3-d object, one only perceives a 2 dimensional "slice" of the object's sides, which are oriented toward the eyes.

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### Mental Rotation of 3D and 4D Objects

Only through fully rendering all sides of the object simultaneously (approximated below) does one achieve the perception of a three- dimensional object. The human eye is not built to render such a 3-d image without the aid of a mirror that appears behind the object and a periscopic view that relays visual data about all interior sides of the object simultaneously. The periscopic view in the below image is not present. Even through the aid of a mirror, the interior of the cube remains invisible, and therefore still not yet perceived according to all of its interior and exterior sides. This cubic image is _nearly_ perceived as _3-d_. Therefore, the perception of 3-d objects may only be possible via mental form construction and rotation.

One may deliberately generate and rotate a 3-d mental object within the mind's eye, which includes a view of all exterior sides and interior sides simultaneously. This formal/post-formal task may be psychologically and physiologically challenging, because multidimensional spatial processing is typically not consciously utilized by the brain in order to navigate the standard physical environment (2-d processing is sufficient for survival). However, the mind appears to be capable of rendering the perception of multiple dimensions in space, and interior visualization is a principle method for achieving this objective.

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T.N. Aflalo and M.S.A. Graziano's visuo-spatial perception experiments have demonstrated the manner in which subjects may learn to navigate 4 dimensional spaces (Alflalo & Graziano, 2008). Their research required that subjects navigate three mazes across 2, 3, and 4 dimensional spaces. Through providing the subjects with sufficient time in which to experiment with each navigational task, a statistically significant number of subjects were capable of solving the problem. These researchers were the first to publish a perception experiment suggesting that humans are capable of navigating a 4 dimensional environment. This discovery was interesting, because abstract 4 dimensional spaces are not considered a evolutionarily essential tasks for navigating a 3 dimensional planet. The below image represents the mental transformation of a multidimensional cube from 3-d space (left) into 4-d space (right). These higher dimensional objects may also appear in a mandala-like manner, which allows these objects to integrate with the projective aspects of the deep psyche.

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Buckminster Fuller was a 20th century innovator who emphasized the importance of developing visual-spatial capacities that were associated with triangular and tetrahedral objects (3-d triangles) (Edmonson, 2007). Fuller advocated the use of triangles for industrial purposes due to their capacity to distribute weight in an efficient manner, but he was also interested in shifting the way in which individuals used geometry as a cognitive process. He referred to this form of cognition as "Synergetics", which was characterized by the application of a novel geometrical vision logic as a means by which to stimulate holistic thinking.

The geometrical structures that Fuller and others have come to love due to their mathematical and visual symmetry may form a projective relationship with the deep psyche. The geometrical structures that inspired Fuller are inherently mandala-like, and Jung believed that the practice of drawing and observing mandalas served to balance the psyche and integrate information within the conscious and unconscious mind. This process occurred through the psyche's natural tendency to project it's content onto beautiful and symmetrical images, and Fuller's chosen image was the triangle/tetrahedron that could be molded into a sphere, referred to as a geodesic sphere.

Through integrating the rigour of geometrical vision logic with the more ephemeral process of psychological projection via observation of the mandala-like symmetry of these objects, two modes of cognition may be integrated. The precision of synthetic geometry coupled with the psyche's ever-emerging mysterium tremend um may serve as a unique post-formal cognitive process, whereby once- divergent systems converge in order to produce a more efficient psychic system. Image: Buckminster, August 1965

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Meanwhile, the visual perception of multidimensional synthetic geometries may also occur as a byproduct of energy exchange between multiple domains of space, where Spirit, Mind, and Matter interact in order to produce spontaneous visual artifacts during peak- experiences.

## William Tiller's Fourier Transform

Like Wilber, Dr. William Tiller, Chair Emeritus of the Stanford University Department of Materials Science & Engineering, has proposed that reality is comprised of multiple dimensions that interact through involution and evolution (Tiller, 1997). For Tiller, Spirit is an object that occupies a mathematically higher dimension of space (11-d and higher), which unfolds into mental (10-d), emotional (9-d), conjugate-physical, and physical spaces (8-d), each of which occupy successively lower dimensions of space. The objects that occupy higher dimensional and lower dimensional space may interpenetrate and interact with each-other through electromagnetic-wave coupling, which may be linked with Wilber's theory on Spirit's movement through the Gross, Subtle, Causal, and Non-Dual stages of development. Note: Tiller's model utilizes a unique form of dimensionality, which does not correlate 1-to-l with the Euclidian 2-d and 3-d spatial domains discussed previously.

According to Tiller, Spirit (source of reality) abides within a high spatial dimension and propagates into the electromagnetic-wave aspects of reality (Matter, Conjugate Matter, Emotion, Mind, Spirit = Gross, Subtle, Causal, Non-Dual) and interpenetrates with the physical aspects of material reality (lowest dimensions). Through this process, _Spirit and matter may interpenetrate_ each other but not interact, which represents an _uncoupled state_.

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Alternatively, these aspects of reality may interpenetrate and become interactive with each other during a _coupled state_. Tiller suggests that the shift from an uncoupled state into a coupled state may serve to describe the interaction between Spirit and matter. Moreover, Tiller believes that this process is mediated by physical particles that operate at speeds faster than c (speed of light) - He refers to these particles as deltrons. Through the activity of these new theoretical particles, multiple spatial dimensions may interact across multiple domains.

Consequently, the higher dimensions of Spirit and the mind are not bound by the lower dimensions of the physical objects with which a conscious organism typically identifies (i.e. its body). Rather, the higher dimensions of the Spirit and mind are capable of interpenetrating and interacting with _all things_ within the lower spatial dimensions (not just one's personal organismic object, but all physical objects). Therefore, the action of Spirit and mind upon objects at a distance may be possible through a simple electromagnetic-wave coupling process mediated by deltron action. The coupling of domains may be accomplished through intentionality (top-down/involution) and physical sensory stimulation (bottom-up/evolution) (Image: Tiller & Dibble, 2009).

Theoretically, one may cause a strongly coupled state to occur through simply synchronizing Spirit/mind and body. Synchronizing Spirit/mind and body may be achieved through any activity that requires the interaction of a higher dimensional intentionality with lower dimensional receiving objects (i.e. top-down or bottom-up energy exchange). Top-down energy exchange may be accomplished through Spirit directing a strong intention through the body in a sustained manner (i.e. sustained executive attention etc.). Bottom-up stimulation may be accomplished through causing the body to transmit signals to the higher dimensional domains of Spirit/mind. This stimulation could be achieved through strongly perturbing perceptual circuits via 5HT2A agonists (or other forms of sensory excitation such as prolonged fasting, dehydration, oxygen deprivation and neuron apoptosis, intense pain, rhythmic sound and light stimulation, intense heat and cold, a combination therein, etc.). The common element for top-down and bottom-up stimulation is high levels of energy exchange between the seat of Spirit (higher dimensional domain) and the physical perceiving apparatus of the body (lower dimensional domain) in either direction.

The observation of higher spatial dimensions may be achieved via mentation as Piaget's stages of development progress. That is, although the body's sensory apparatus is largely confined to processing information in two dimensions as with vision and touch, the mind may be capable of participating in and observing the behavior of objects that exist in domains of greater spatial complexity than are typically perceived with the body's physical perceiving apparatus (i.e. higher spatial domains).

### Cross-Domain Energy Exchange

The interior perception and rotation of multidimensional images (form- constants) may sometimes occur spontaneously during intensive and sustained executive-attention concentration practices and deliberate visualization (top-down). However, this may also occur during the administration of some serotonin 5-HT2A agonists and other forms of intense sensory stimulation (bottom-up) (Bresslof et al., 2002). Regardless of the directionality of energy exchange, these spontaneously generated form-constants may consist in the visual representation of a multidimensional closed or open polygon or spiral pattern. Form constants may include cubic, tetrahedral, spherical, merging polygons, and others, each of which challenge attention to remain simultaneously focused and open (coherent).

### Visual Artifacts & Cross-Domain Energy Exchange

If these multidimensional form constants emerge during a binding event among multiple spatial dimensions as Tiller's model may suggest, the energy exchange between multiple spatial domains that intersect with perceiving organisms may result in the conscious perception of a visual artifact. Here, the visual artifact may represent the visual-spatial interpretation of a higher dimensional space.

That is, one may spontaneously process the visual information that is associated with 3-d, 4-d, or higher spatial dimensions during energy exchange from lower spatial domains and into higher spatial domains. This may be triggered through top-down (intentional) or bottom-up (sensory stimulation) processes.

The reader is encouraged to experiment with their capacity for top- down multidimensional form rotation through visualizing all sides of a cube simultaneously. This requires sustained executive attention and visualization, and the result is the perception of an object that resides in a higher spatial dimension than is typically perceived. Through mentation, higher dimensions do not require a posteriori instrumentation in order to observe and interact with objects residing within higher spatial domains. Rather, a priori faculties may be capable of engaging with these domains through conforming the cognitive faculties of the mind with the spatial properties of these domains.

### Spatial Processing, Brain Activity, and the Self Sense

The subjective experience of the geometrical visual artifact is not necessarily confined to visual perception. Rather, these form constants maybe subjectively experienced as yoked with all aspects of self sense and intermittent synesthesia (Luke & Terhune, 2013). The rendering of these images may correlate with enhanced activity in the prefrontal cortex (attention/focus), orientation association area (spatial reasoning), and visual cortex (visualization). This may produce enhanced gamma binding activity across these regions of the cortex. The subjective experience of interior multidimensional form rotation may be linked with the manner in which one processes one's _sense_ of self in various regions of the prefrontal and parietal cortex (Pfeifer, 2007).

Through linking these multiple regions of cortex together during a single gamma binding event, one may experience correlated peak-states that _feel_ as though one is in contact with aspects of one's _Self / God_ (i.e. for Jung, Self archetype and experiences of God are linked). Mapping the cortical activity of these processes may result in a greater understanding of the relationship between the participating brain networks, the Self archetype, and visual-spatial processing.

### Integrating Frameworks

The following diagram describes a potential relationship between multiple stages of interior psychological development, the awareness of multiple spatial dimensions, and William Tiller's Fourier transform. Stages of development may progress sequentially from BPM I through post-formal operations IV, where increasing levels of psychological development may be correlated with an increasing capacity to perceive multiple dimensions of a priori and a posteriori reality. The BPM stages are primarily focused upon physical, conjugate physical, and emotional capacities for psychological/reality processing. Meanwhile, the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, and formal operational stages of development transcend and include those earlier capacities and move into territory that may be perceived a priori and a posteriori as brain tissue develops to assimilate and accommodate more complex psychological, sensory, and spatial processing tasks.

Developing through post-formal I, II, III, and IV, one may further develop the capacity to perceive a priori and a posteriori realities through greater levels of cognitive complexity and spatial perception, which may correlate with Tiller's model of the "Spirit" domain. The relationship between cognitive development (y) and perception (x) may be bi-directional, where increasing levels of cognitive development may enhance the capacity for both a priori and a posteriori multidimensional reality processing. Likewise, the perception of multiple spatial dimensions may, in turn, enhance cognitive development. Here, through integrating visual-spatial reasoning processes with multiple aspects of cognitive development, one may form a novel relationship between once independent systems of perception and cognition.

Theoretically, this could be achieved through top-down or bottom-up sensory stimulation as previously discussed. These stages are also presented as correlations with Ken Wilber's model of Gross, Subtle, Causal, and Non-dual forms of spirituality.

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# Practical Applications

## Practical Applications

The following represents the primary review of a psychological, physiological, and sociological methodology that may incorporate the most effective means by which to achieve endogenous psychological, physiological, and sociological regulation of the human organism. The methodology that follows is designed to integrate a variety of strategies, which incorporate the principles of the aforementioned psychological theorists, physiological research, and professional self-development training processes.

Throughout the sections that follow, one must recognize the critical importance of selecting a High-Value Vision, or purpose/objective for one's life. The reason for this is primarily connected to the way in which goal-oriented behaviors anchored in a perceived sense of compassion and altruism may be linked with enhanced sustained activation in the pre-frontal cortex throughout time. The pre-frontal cortex may be regarded as a central cortical region responsible for self- inquiry, self-regulation, and the development of higher conscious functions within the human nervous system. The sections that follow provide a comprehensive review of the principles of practical psychology for self-inquiry and self-regulation.

## State of Mind & Physiology

This section will address the three major states of the human central nervous system (Low-Value, Center-Value, and High-Value energy states). Learning how to shift states of mind and body is critical for individuals who want to move from Low-Value energy states of fear, anger, anxiety, and depression into Center-Value energy states of calm, focus, centeredness, and attention, and then ultimately into High-Value energy states of vision, inspiration, awareness, compassion, love, creativity, and others.

### Low-Value Energy States

The Low-Value energy states are linked with phylogenetically primitive regions of the brain, which are designed to enhance survival within an organic ecosystem (Shin & Liberzon, 2009). Animals freeze, run away, or prepare to fight in response to a perceived threat in the environment. This may be evidenced in the following examples: a deer that has been caught by a car's headlights will freeze in the road; a rabbit will scurry away when startled; or a bear will become combative when threatened.

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Fear states are comprised of the brain's response to perceived threats in an individual's environment. The human organism has developed the capacity to respond efficiently and effectively to threats in the environment, and these responses to stimuli are governed by the amygdala. The amygdala is responsible for receiving and processing interior and exterior perceptual signals in order to produce a life- protecting response--fear. Threats trigger activity within the amygdala prior to the conscious processing and acknowledgement of the threat within the prefrontal cortex. Therefore, the amygdala not only receives and processes signals from the environment, but it is one of the first regions of brain tissue to process information in order to enable the human organism to respond to threats reflexively (Ohman, 2005).

The prefrontal cortex is primarily responsible for thinking, planning, engaging, and focusing on the present moment, including being calm, attentive, alert, and relaxed (Forbes & Grafman, 2010) (Engstrom & Soderfeldt, 2010). The prefrontal cortex, or neocortex (new brain), is also responsible for communicating with other people in an attentive and compassionate manner (Hoffman, 2012). Due to the fact that the prefrontal cortex is the most recent region of brain tissue to develop and evolve within the human nervous system, it is also the most sensitive and vulnerable to the states of fear produced by the amygdala, which perceives and responds to threat signals from the environment prior to passing information to the prefrontal cortex. When the amygdala receives _potentially_ threatening signals through sensory stimuli, the amygdala's natural default response is to interpret the sensory input as _likely_ threatening and dangerous. What does a person do when he or she responds to an environment with fear? What will the person experience? When the amygdala perceives a dangerous situation, the individual may respond with three basic emotions, which nearly all people experience daily and throughout their lives; these are Fight, Flight, and Freeze (Schmidt et al,2008).

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### Fight

When one perceives something in the environment as preparing to attack or actively attacking, one typical response is to fight back. The underlying emotion linked with the fight response is anger, frustration, and a need to stop (or kill) the environmental stimulus executing the attack. This primitive response is the reason why individuals may experience deep, murderous rage and the feeling that they want to cause extreme, even fatal, harm to a person or thing when they feel angry. Fight is a natural response, and it does not mean that people are fundamentally malevolent. Rather, one must understand that Fight is the amydala's primitive response designed to ensure human survival in the face of a perceived threat.

Many will respond with anger if they experience some kind of social slight, fail to get what they want, or even stub a toe. All of these events send subtle or overt signals into the nervous system, which are preferentially processed by the amygdala. The amygdala, then, preferentially interprets stimuli as potential threats and may produce an aggressive reaction: the desires to fight, kill, threaten, or attack in response to a painful stimulus. All of these are basic and simple reactions, a natural function of the brain's response to a threatening stimulus or even a perceived (and imaginary) threat.

### Flight

Flight is the second response and the second basic emotion produced during perceived threats. Flight is associated with anxiety in response to a direct threat or a general sense of apprehension that something unknown may be amiss. This response is simply the brain's method for handling a perceived threat in the environment that could result in death, just as with the Fight response. The Flight response does not make a person bad or broken, if experienced occasionally. What this response means is that the brain and body are set to high alert. The brain perceives some signal in the environment as either overtly threatening or generally misaligned with what is anticipated, so the Flight reaction is primed and activated in order to prepare for escape _in the event that this is necessary_ (literally running for one's life from a predator). The Flight response is designed to pump adrenaline into an individual's body in order to escape from the present environment, which includes the people surrounding them, their work, or a difficult problem processed in the mind's eye.

Some individuals may experience generalized anxiety or a sense of generalized apprehension, because the brain perceives particular stimuli as potentially life threatening, and the individual may not know what the amygdala is detecting. On a primitive structural level, the brain may perceive a specific mental object or an exterior situation as something that may result in death, and these assessments may occur either consciously or unconsciously. Regardless of an individual's awareness, the body will respond as though the threat to life is real, and one may experience overwhelming feelings of anxiety and apprehension. For the amygdala, a threat demands a reaction--anger, anxiety, or immobilization.

### Freeze

The third basic emotion or state that an individual may experience is the Freeze response, which is an immobilization response that may be associated with depression. The Freeze response is most clearly and simply exemplified by how an opossum behaves when it feels threatened or needs to protect its life. The opossum plays dead; it freezes its body and immobilizes completely. Central nervous system (CNS) activity shuts down electrical activity as much as possible, and the body becomes still, silent, and almost completely frozen. The objective of playing dead is to deceive the threatening entity into thinking that the organism is dead and, therefore, uninteresting. Essentially, the opossum goes into a state of hibernation, which is akin to a state of being "frozen" or immobilized.

When a human shuts down using the same mechanism as an opossum, he or she may exhibit symptoms of depression. People who become overwhelmed by their thoughts or their bodies' responses to environmental stimuli may become depressed and exhibit immobilization responses. Their bodies begin to slow down, the world seems overwhelming, they cannot seem to move, and they want to be as still or immobile as possible. Sleep schedules may become disturbed so as to allow for a return to homeostasis only during nocturnal cycles (i.e. sleeping all day, and being sleepless all night). The change in sleep cycle may be linked with the fact that other organisms within the environment are most active during the daytime, which is precisely the time in which more stimuli could be perceived as threatening. During the nighttime, the organism may perceive a survival advantage, because most animals are sleeping, and the cover of darkness provides safety from predators.

Eventually, one may become so entrenched in this immobilized/depressive state that he or she will not get out of bed or go to work during daytime hours. The person may want to be completely still and "rest" as the nervous system seems to go into a state of deep hibernation that appears to have no end. In this state, the individual will produce less serotonin and dopamine, which, in turn, causes the dendrites on the neurons to shrink away from each other, or physically move farther apart, which makes communication among neurons more difficult (i.e. makes mental and physical tasks more challenging). This diminished neurotransmission may lead to low energy levels and a feeling of depletion. In a cyclical manner, these neurological reactions may lead to the organism's feeling more depressed or immobilized as sustained immobilization progressively increases the amount of energy required to shift back into a normal state.

### Organismic Self-Termination

During periods of deep immobilization, the need to play dead may become a self-fulfilling prophecy, and suicide may become a logical attempt to extinguish the perception of threats within one's environment. The depressive feelings associated with the need to kill oneself may also represent the Fight response turned inwardly (Blatt, 1998). Here, the individual may feel as though he or she is not allowed to experience Fight--anger and aggression--toward others for moral, social, and ethical reasons. As a result, one may withhold aggressive reflexes and ultimately turn this response inwardly, where the body may respond to a suppressed Fight response by selecting Freeze as an alternative. Once the Freeze response has been activated, self- termination may appear to be the most logical means by which to extinguish the perception of threatening environmental stimuli. The general affect of the organism may naturally indicate negative emotional valence, because fear signals continue unabated, which is associated with responses such as a sense of desperation and despair: a sense of "no way out" or being "trapped", "crushed" and "battered" by the world, "surrounded" by enemies, "forgotten" by friends, etc. These sensations represent the fundamental death-scenario for which the amygdala is hypersensitive to detecting.

### Organismic Self-Regulation

The amygdala is pre-programmed to detect stimuli that may be associated with the sensations of being trapped, crushed, battered, surrounded by enemies, isolated, and forgotten by one's pack, and so on. The amygdala does not interpret stimuli logically or rationally, but instinctively; if the amygdala is right, the organism survives the day. If the amygdala is wrong, the organism survives the day with negative affect. The amygdala does not serve as a primary affect-regulation processor but rather as an emergency threat-survival processor. Therefore, a higher brain function must intervene in order to more accurately assess the situation if positive affect is to be restored.

### Evoling Beyond the Amygdala

To combat the primitive survival bias of the amygdala, humans must stimulate activity within the prefrontal cortex in order to recondition the nervous system, and exert more influence over CNS activity and its basic reflexes (Blatt, 1998). The neo-cortex is responsible for mediating attention, self- awareness, and thoughtful and intelligent decision-making. This region of the brain is responsible for assisting humans with evolving toward more happy, loving, and conscious states (Hoffman, 2012). Through the natural course of evolution, this region of the brain has enabled humans to develop more control over their nervous systems in order to make informed decisions about their lives, their relationships, and the world in which they live.

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### Center-Value States

A powerful Center requires present-moment attention throughout the body and mind as well as throughout the surrounding environment (Ngo TLi, 2013). A sense of deep calm and stillness may occur when physiology begins to rest and psychological activity--thoughts and emotions--become still.

The Center-Value state may emerge when awareness of the past, the present, and the future occur in a single, centered moment of sustained executive attention. During this state, no attraction to feelings, thoughts, or preferences exist. There is no aversion to pain, anxiety, or fear. The Center-Value state is one of executive attention that is open, clear, and calm; the mind rests in an open state. This open state is alert and aware of all the surrounding exterior stimuli (sights, sounds, etc.) and interior stimuli (feelings, sensations, thoughts, etc.).

Therefore, one may not experience a fear-of-death sensation or become enmeshed in painful mental thought patterns that are related to the past and future. Rather, everything may appear calm and quiet as the mind focuses gently and attentively on what is actually occurring within one's interior and exterior environment, without elaboration or interaction -- Simple, coherently focused awareness (Farb et al., 2007).

### Cyclical Interruption of Center-Value States

However, prefrontal activation and the associated Center-Value states may be frequently challenged by signals from the amygdala, which may frequently re-introduce disturbing emotions into the nervous system. The primitive re-activation of the amygdala is natural as emotional upheaval emerges into awareness and executive attention becomes increasingly challenging to sustain. Apprehension about the past and future may beget fear, anxiety, and depressive thoughts.

Therefore, engaging with the pre-frontal cortex may require consistent maintenance of executive attention. One must bring his or her awareness back to the present moment and re-establish sustained executive attention. When one brings his or her attention back to real exterior and interior stimuli that occur within the present moment, one may notice the residue of painful feelings recently activated by the amygdala (i.e. feelings of anger, anxiety, or depression).

One must recognize the cyclical nature of this pattern: The nervous system shifts from a state of fear, into a state of focus, and then back into a state of fear. This pattern may continue until the prefrontal cortex once again asserts its cortical dominance through sustaining executive attention.

The method for achieving sustained pre-frontal activation may require that all exterior and interior stimuli are permitted to enter into awareness. The repression of these stimuli may only inhibit the higher cortex from regulating these emotions, so painful exterior and interior sensations must remain available to awareness. When individuals pay attention to these sensations, thoughts, and emotions, they may begin to shift, dissolve, and change (Moyal et al., 2013).

### High-Value Energy States

Once the nervous system sustains executive attention and soothes the amygdala, blood-flow will increase to the pre-frontal region of the brain (Hankey, 2006). The Center-Value states may begin to evolve into feelings of excitement, inspiration, and compassion as dopamine and serotonin are released in the prefrontal cortex (these neurotransmitters are correlated with sustained executive attention). Meanwhile, the mind may begin to contemplate the nature of reality, and engage with philosophy, art, morals, and science.

Thereafter, the process of engaging with these High-Value energy states may beget a pattern of compounding positive reinforcement. Here, individuals may find activation of the prefrontal cortex to be so pleasurable that they are naturally drawn to increase their focus upon objects of inspiration, love, beauty, and appreciation. This, in turn, may further soothe the amygdala as feelings of fear, anger, anxiety, and depression continue to dissolve -- A cycle of virtue.

Therefore, the key to shifting mental and physical states is to think of the nervous system as being similar to a stick shift, which most have not been taught how to drive proficiently. Perhaps some have been taught basic strategies for shifting into first gear and second, but they were not taught how to shift into third, fourth, and fifth in order to experience razor sharp clarity, vision, purpose, spiritual ecstasy, and other powerful High-Value energy states. One must develop the capacity to harness the power of their nervous systems, because no one else is responsible for creating these shifts on one's behalf.

Of course, human interaction and connection may serve as an aid to help one and others shift states during periods of increased environmental stress. Here, the simple act of paying attention to an individual in distress may assist with their releasing Low-Value energy states through connecting with a stabilized human within their visual or auditory range. However, one must learn the fundamentals of shifting states autonomously in order to increase the consistency with which they are capable of benefiting themselves and others.

## Three Keys to State

"State" is a term that describes the quality of subjective experience in an individual, which may range from fear and its expressions of anger, anxiety, and depression into centeredness, and then into High-Value energies of Goodness, Beauty, and Truth. These may also include inspiration, love, compassion, justice, fullness, freedom, and others. The three keys to state consist of Physiological, Thought, and Focus components (Physiology, Cognition, Attention) (Robbins, 1998).

Physiology is the first component, and it is the foundation for an individual's biological state. Physiology mediates a human's physical existence and provides the body with the ability to interact with the material world. Physiology consists of three components: the first of which is the musculoskeletal system; the second is the circulatory- respiratory; and the third is the central nervous system (CNS).

The musculoskeletal system is the foundation: the backbone of the body and the scaffold for structural well-being. The musculoskeletal system is comprised of the skeleton and the muscular systems, which define the way in which a person expresses the physical formation of the body. Shaping the musculoskeletal system is a simple and powerful way to modulate physiological states, because it is in these subtle adjustments that the posture can stimulate a variety of nerve plexuses (bundles of nerve fiber) throughout the body. The stimulation of these nerve plexuses transmits signals through the spinal cord and into the brain, informing the brain as to what is happening in the world and how to formulate a response. These bundles are located near the heart and the solar plexus, as well as above the two eyebrows in the center of the forehead, the dimples during a smile, and the crown of the head. Through shifting the physical formation of the musculoskeletal system, one may stimulate these nerve centers and enhance the brain's experience of alertness, strength, confidence, openness, and love.

Once one opens up the chest, sits up straight, and expands the arms for an embrace, he or she may naturally begin to feel center- and High-Value energy states. Through incorporating positive facial affect through smiling and raising the eyebrows, one may further enhance a positive state of being (Nauert, 2010) (Neuhoff & Schaefer, 2002). Alternatively, when an individual scowls, contracts the face, hunches over, and shallows the breath, he or she may naturally feel negative sensations. Many individuals replicate these basic physiological states daily, without noticing, which contributes to either living in Low-Value, Center-Value, or High-Value states as their baselines.

## Applications

Exploring physiological structure is a simple process. To test these propositions, one must practice and apply specific exercises designed for the mind and body to shift states. In the first step to experimenting with state adjustments, one may begin by standing in an upright position. This stance must be relaxed, while taking deep steady breaths to assist with becoming relaxed, focused, and centered.

### High-Value State: Strength

The first exercise is designed to calm the nervous system. First, one must establish a strong physical posture in order to establish a sense of physiological safety, strength, and integrity, which will inform the amygdala that the physical body is safe and not easily threatened. To do so, one must physically open the arms, the chest, and legs. The legs must be placed in a position of strength, squatting slightly, and leaning slightly forward, akin to that of a linebacker or a quarterback. Here, the individual should hold his or her ground with strength and power, and as the arms and chest expand, it is important to breathe deeply. Once this step is complete, the individual must lift his or her head up toward the sky and raise the eyebrows as though absorbing the sunlight. Even if smiling is not a natural, reflexive response, it is essential to evoke a smile. This exercise is designed to stimulate the nerve plexus of the social engagement system in the face and neck, which sends signals through the vagus nerve to the back of brain, assuring the amygdala that the environment is safe. At this point, the individual may observe a minor or large shift in state. The goal of this exercise is to develop a sense of physical strength and fortification within one's body in relationship with the external environment.

### Low-Value State: Freeze

Once one learns how to shift states through shifting posture, it is important to create a contrast, so the mind can recognize how it feels to unconsciously shift into a Low-Value energy posture. This may result in a state of fear, anger, anxiety, and depression. The individual may slump the body forward, which may produce a somatic sensation of structural weakness. Incorporating a head hanging down position with a frown may result in deliberately evoked affect signals that inform the brain that the environment is potentially unfriendly or dangerous. Signals are bi-directional: The body informs the brain on how to respond to stimuli, and the brain informs the body on how to respond to stimuli - each to varying degrees depending upon circumstance. The individual must continue to exaggerate this negative state and experience a feeling of structural frailty, as though the body can no longer hold itself up. This exercise demonstrates what it feels like to be in a weak, passive, or depressive state. To continue with this exercise, one may become so small and slight through this posture that it is as though he or she may fall over and "rest" his or her frail body on the ground in a fetal position. This completes the immobilization response and is designed to protect the face, neck, and stomach from predators.

### Low-Value State: Fight

This next exercise demonstrates the manner in which physical movement may create and enhance a Low-Value Fight state. This energy state may be replicated when the individual contracts his or her fists and tightens the muscles throughout the body, as the eyebrows furrow and the individual clenches his or her teeth. In fact, the individual may bare their teeth, as an animal would, as though to demonstrate aggression and possession of weaponized fangs--all in preparation for battle.

### Low-Value State: Flight

Next, one may practice shifting posture to experience the Low-Value energy state of Flight. One may make his or her physical frame smaller by contracting the shoulders and bringing them inward. Next, one must manually shake the body in a slight tremble or shiver while raising the eyebrows and opening the eyes wide. One must also make his or her breath shallow. As the breath becomes shallower and the chest continues to collapse, one may begin to experience a state of anxiety, nervousness, or fear.

These exercises demonstrate how the body's movements send signals from a variety of nerve plexuses depending on posture and movement. The musculoskeletal system is the foundation. To shift back into a High-Value state, one must return to the posture of strength and security.

### Physiology: Circulatory-Respiratory

The second component of Physiology is the circulatory-respiratory system, which is primarily comprised of the heart, lungs, and venous tissues. Each of these components are capable of delivering a powerful impact to state of mind through oxygenating blood properly and regulating heart rate variability (HRV) rhythms. The HRV represents the degree to which heart-rate varies within a specified period of time, where the heart-rate naturally increases on the inhale and decreases on the exhale. This represents the "variability" of heart-rate overtime and within breath cycles. The heart is responsible for pumping blood throughout the body and regulating brain activity through HRV. These systems may be directly modulated through the respiratory system.

### Coherent Breathing

Breathing patterns are the easiest for an individual to control, and they directly stimulate the vagus nerve, which modulates HRV within 15 to 20 seconds. Breathing patterns are the key to control, as they may either benefit or damage the body and mind. The manner in which a person breathes may directly impact the way the heart will beat, and a high HRV is optimal (high variability: up in speed and down in speed). To achieve a high HRV, one must exercise coherent breathing, directly interfacing with the autonomic nervous system through modulating breathing cycles. Although each person will have a unique optimal breath rate, for simplicity, this section will present a pattern of approximately five breaths per minute. To engage in this exercise, one must inhale for six seconds, and then exhale for six seconds, repeatedly for a full minute, without any gap. At this rate, this pattern should be repeated about five times within a single minute (six-second inhale and six-second exhale).

While practicing this breathing technique, one must focus upon remembering positive feelings associated with the heart region, the neck, the face, and the gut, which are all innervated by the vagus. Through bringing attention to these regions of the body, a person may begin to experience feelings of love, compassion, and gratitude. These states of relaxation and positivity must next be integrated into physical movement. Moving energy and circulating blood throughout the body may enhance oxygenation of body tissues, which will augment HRV and aid in shifting states.

_Increasing Brain &Body Blood-Flow_: Through creating a dramatic shift in physiology, one may develop the capacity to shift from Low-Value to High-Value energy states quickly and effectively. To do so, one must practice aerobic exercises designed to move CNS energy and pump blood through standing up, stretching out, and becoming limber in movement. From here, one must jump slightly, approximately 30 times, or more, as though jumping rope. It is not important how high one jumps; the feet do not need to lift off of the ground very high. What is important is that body moves to overcome the force of gravity and the heart pumps more blood. This oxygenation may assist with shifting states through enhancing blood-flow within the prefrontal cortex and removing cellular waste from surrounding tissues, while clarifying and energizing the mind and body.

### Central Nervous System

The CNS is primarily comprised of the spinal cord and brain, which has about 100 billion nerve cells, also known as neurons. Neurons are comprised of a cell body and two types of cellular extensions (dendrites and axons), which, like tree branches, reach-out to other neurons and establish connections through which they transmit nerve impulses. Neurons transmit electrical signals from the brain throughout the body via an electrochemical process, which creates a cascade of depolarizing neurons (neurons zap each other like dominoes) in order to stimulate brain activity, heart-rate, respiration, and a number of other functions.

The dendrites and axons that connect one neuron to another may shrink away from one another when underutilized, which causes communication to become limited or extinguished. The loss of connections among neurons may be the principle reason for which people may develop depression (nerve signaling becomes challenging when connections are reduced), memory loss, cognitive decline, and other conditions (Ernst et al., 2006). Conversely, when the brain relays electrical information through a nerve pathway frequently, a pattern will develop and fortify the connection.

## CNS & Ballistic Movement

Powerful ballistic movements of the arms or legs may stimulate the nervous system through creating powerful bursts of electrical activity throughout the body (Zehr et al., 1994; Robbins 1998;). For example, thrusting the arms or legs forward or vertically as with martial arts training may result in the fortification of nerve cells throughout the associated nerve pathways.

Moreover, the powerful activation of kinesthetic movement and electrical charge throughout the body in conjunction with strong posture and HRV may result in the creation of an anchoring stimulus. That is, through establishing a positive High-Value energy state and subsequently engaging with a single powerful ballistic movement (or a series of powerful ballistic movements), one may simultaneously enhance the energy of the High-Value state and form an association between the High-Value energy state and the ballistic movement. Therefore, triggering the ballistic movement in the future may immediately evoke the memory and, therefore, the existence of the High-Value energy state, simultaneously.

Here, the objective is to produce more electrical voltage within the nervous system. This objective can be met through eliciting powerful physical movements coupled with coherent breathing and a subsequently high HRV.

## Thought

Thinking is one of the most prevalent activities with which a person may engage throughout the day. Thoughts impact physiological states, and physiological states may impact a person's thoughts. Thoughts comprise the basic framework that constructs meaning for the mind. Thought-based frameworks include values, personality, empowerment or disempowerment, language, imagery, and a person's sense of the three forces of reality (as described below). Thought systems may also directly impact the activity of the musculoskeletal, circulatory- respiratory, and central nervous systems, as thoughts cascade throughout the nervous system in order to produce alterations in posture, respiration, HRV, and nerve cell discharge (i.e. Mind and Body are bi-directionally linked).

### The Three Forces of Reality

Reality is constructed of three major forces: subjective reality; intersubjective reality (social reality), and the objective world (principles that govern the physical world, such as space-time, the behavior of matter, and other measurable features of the material universe). The manner in which one _thinks_ about any one of these factors may strongly influence both the individual's perception and the form of his or her subjective, social, and objective realities.

|   
---|---

  * Subjective Reality

|  (Empowering or Disempowering)

  * Social Reality

|  (Empowering or Disempowering)

  * Objective Reality

|

First, one must recognize the two components of subjective reality, which are empowering thoughts and disempowering thoughts. Reality may become what one believes as thoughts cascade throughout the nervous system in order to mediate discrete behaviors within one's social and objective world. The manner in which a person constructs his or her subjective realities may directly impact the manner in which all people live socially and the way in which the rules of nature respond to individual and group actions. That is, thoughts influence the personal (mental) universe, as well as the intersubjective (social) universe, and the objective (physical) universe. The reality of an individual's thoughts or a group's thoughts may empower or disempower that individual or group. Conversely, the manner in which groups of individuals think may empower or disempower the individual.

For example, one person may believe that human beings cannot fly, and they may persuade every other person on the earth that this is true. This may create a subjective and social reality construct, wherein "humans cannot fly". This shared belief may be regarded as a matter of fact that is subjectively and inter subjectively agreed upon. This, in turn, may result in zero innovation and machination of the physical world to produce flying machines. Here, a thought has impacted the subjective, social, and physical elements of reality.

Meanwhile, one person, on the other side of the planet, may decide to challenge this hypothesis and believe that _anything is possible_ , which may lead to the belief that "humans can fly, somehow, with machines". Here, the subjective reality has been adjusted, which has impacted the physical world (i.e. matter was transformed into a flying machine), and, therefore, the social world (most people now believe the statement "humans can fly").

The primary difference between these two thoughts is not their _objective_ reality, but rather, primarily, their _subjective reality_. One thought was _subjectively empowering_ and the other thought was _subjectively disempowering_ , wherein each thought either expanded or constrained the potential for psychological, sociological, and material evolution, or constrained the potential of psychological, sociological, and material evolution.

### Thought: Linguistic Elaboration & Images

Through linguistic descriptions (elaboration/story making), thought- image construction (visualization), and physiological/attentional state training, one may deeply integrate selected individual thoughts/beliefs into a _complex group of thoughts/ beliefs_ , which constitutes a _belief system_ that may persist through time. The process of linguistic elaboration often involves the creation of a "story" with every thought, which provides multiple reasons and rationales for why a thing is or is not the case. Moreover, asking high quality questions about the nature of a thought may serve to further elaborate and contextualize the thought (i.e. I am worthy, and anything is possible -- What evidence can I find in order to support this argument?).

Meanwhile, the translation of linguistic concepts into visual thought- images may occur within the mind of sighted individuals, and these thought-images may influence one's perception of a thing. If one increases the brightness, size, and clarity of a thought-image that appears in the mind's eye-- utilizing the imagination--the enhanced interior perceptual stimulation may likewise enhance the sense that a thought-image represents reality (Robbins, 1998).

For example, one may think and reaffirm an empowering thought, such as " _I can do this. I can be successful. I am worthy. There are people who love me, like me, and care about me, and their names are_..." Here, one may use language to describe the empowering thought, and the associated images may become bright and large. The images of related people, sceneries, environments, actions, and their relationships to the past, present, and future may visually describe these thoughts. Through translating empowering language into images, these empowering thoughts are imbued with a greater sense of reality and a greater sense of truth. Conversely, one may cognize a disempowering thought such as _" I cannot do it. I will fail. I am worthless. Nobody likes me, and they think that I will fail. They think I am worthless and that will never change."_ If one makes these disempowering images bright and large, the images that accompany these thoughts may likewise shift one's state.

Through creating a new empowering Thought, elaborating on that Thought, and making the associated images brighter and clearer, people may create a new subjective reality for themselves. Thereafter, one may shift behavior within the social and objective realities, which may shift the very nature of those realities.

### Focus

Directing attention toward one object in the mental, social, and physical world over another is fundamental to navigating among multiple interior and exterior objects, where the type of thoughts a person focuses upon may influence the way in which the mind works and the way in which the person behaves. Moreover, attention may be open and expansive (all inclusive), as well as narrow and specific (exclusive) (Fehmi & Robbins, 2007). Shifting Focus (attention) is fundamental to shifting states, and Coherent Focus constitutes the capacity to sustain executive attention in order to achieve several discrete objectives: The direction of attention, specificity of attention, and openness of attention.

For this next exercise, one must open the eyes and gently place his or her attention upon a _single point within the field of vision to the exclusion of other objects_ for 10 seconds. After 10 seconds, while holding focus upon that single point, one must open his or her attention by relaxing one's awareness to view all the objects in the visual environment simultaneously. One may notice that a sustained open awareness evenly perceives objects in the visible environment at once.

This form of Coherent Focus represents the form of attention that one must develop, and through repetition of this exercise, one may continuously shift activity toward the prefrontal cortex and sustain conscious awareness when environmental stimuli appear threatening. Here, higher cortical systems will remain online--alert and attentive-- reducing activity in the amygdala and promoting the conscious processing of thoughts. One may learn to open his or her focus at any time. Whether enjoying a walk in nature or staring at a computer screen, the key to shifting attentional states is to develop sustained, open, alert executive attention. Through expanding focus from a single tree to an entire forest, one may open focus. Through simultaneously focusing upon both the tree and forest, one may become coherently focused.

## Focus: Navigating Multiple Mental Objects

This next Coherent Focus exercise will aid in directing attention and navigating among multiple mental objects. To perform this exercise, one must close the eyes and become aware of the dark space in front of the field of vision, allowing that sense of vision to open and expand into the darkness. Next, one must recognize both his or her own disempowering thoughts and empowering thoughts, letting them exist simultaneously and paradoxically. Here, each thought, when focused upon to the exclusion of the other, may appear independently real.

However, through sustaining broad, open attention across all mental objects, which are paradoxical and contradictory in nature, one does not imbue either thought with more energy with which to grow and envelope the mind; thoughts are perceived as both real and unreal. Upon establishing an open, Coherent Focus, which recognizes the existence of multiple mental objects simultaneously, one may deliberately select the thought system that appears to be most empowering and effective for achieving strategic objectives. Rather than haphazardly attending to any thought that just so happens to cross through one's awareness, one may consciously choose the thoughts with which they would like to engage. Once a thought has been selected, one must enhance the clarity of those thoughts and images, make them bigger and brighter, and form elaborations and logical justifications for why these empowering thoughts are valid.

Through integrating Thought, Physiology, and Focus, one may shift from Low-Value states into Center-Value states and, eventually, into High-Value peak states.

## Human Needs

The following section will provide the reader with an overview of the psychology of human needs/drives, life domains, and stages of development.

Physical health and survival is the foundation for basic human needs, where people must first receive nourishment and shelter in order to sustain their bodies prior to advancing to the higher-level needs. The next basic need is to feel safe, which includes a sense of fundamental physiological and psychological integrity a s well as the need to establish a sense of safety in relationship with other beings.

Through establishing a sense of personal safety and safety in relationship, one must sense that one will not be harmed physically, mentally, or emotionally. Therefore, humans also require relationships, and the critical nature of this need is exemplified through the developmental survival needs of infants. Both infant survival and psychophysical development requires physical touch on the skin, which is a highly sensitive social organ that alerts the body as to when it is in danger or in a safe relationship.

The concept of "failure to thrive" refers to research, which underscores the importance of social touch for infant survival (Polan, 1994). Newborns, when left untouched, even with proper nourishment and safety, grow more slowly when compared to their more frequently touched peers, and in some cases, the infants may die due to lack of touch. Humans cannot fulfill any higher need until these three fundamental needs are met: physiological, safety, and relationship needs.

Once these three primary human needs are met, humans must develop a sense of personal significance, wherein they feel valued and important to themselves, society, and the universe in some way. The failure to fulfill this need may result in a person's feeling unworthy, disrespected, and unappreciated. Significance is a fundamental need, and humans need to fulfill it in one way or another, either positively or negatively.

Knowledge is the next human need. Once one has established fulfillment through physiological nutrition, physical safety, safety in relationships, and feeling significant, one must develop a sense of _understanding_ their environment. Many cultures may develop a range of simple to complex ways of making meaning and interpreting the world at varying levels of accuracy, but whatever the level of meaning, people must develop the sense that they understand themselves, their social world, and their position in the universe. Through knowledge construction, people must understand anything and everything within their world: science, religion, language, and philosophy. People are interested in learning, whether this leads to complete enlightenment or through focusing upon information regarding a specific field of interest.

The next needs are for Growth and Higher Values; everyone must sense that they are making progress and moving forward toward an objective in their lives (Robbins, 1998). Once that need for growth is fulfilled, everybody needs to experience their personal Higher Values, which typically represent one's personal interpretations of goodness, beauty, truth, justice, mercy, love, compassion, contribution, etc. Manifesting Higher Values may occur through developing a professional vocation in law, medicine, science, religion, philosophy, or other fields.

Next, the need for self-transcendence represents the need for a person to develop a sense of cosmic meaning, which connotes one's position in the universe both during one's present lifetime and after one's death. Cosmic meaning must be achieved, lest life is regarded as an uninspiring and meaningless series of painful and pleasurable events that end in death but nothing more. Even if one is an atheist who believes that he or she was born into the world from earth matter and will die, losing all consciousness, people must develop some sense that their lives mean something from a cosmic perspective. Everyone must feel connected beyond their small finite lives. Perhaps the rationalist, who does not believe in life after death, instead believes that his or her contribution has an impact on society that will contribute to the unfolding of evolution, creating a ripple of beneficial evolutionary effects throughout the universe for eternity. Meanwhile, perhaps another person takes on a more religious and spiritual perspective, subscribing to a belief in life after death, which imbues his or her life with cosmic meaning. Regardless of one's philosophical orientation, everyone needs to feel that they have a place in the universe and to understand their cosmic purpose.

### Body, Emotion, Mind, Spirit

The aforementioned needs are divided into a few broad categories: the needs of the Body, Emotions, the Mind, and the Spirit. The needs of the Body are represented by the physiological needs, such as nourishment and physical safety. The needs of Emotion refer to the need for relationships, to feel secure, and to feel significant. The needs of the Mind include the need to find meaning and obtain knowledge. The needs of the Spirit include the need for growth, Higher Values, and self-transcendence. These fundamental needs are present throughout all three domains of life, which are comprised of the self domain, relational domain, and the professional domain (or the mission of one's life in the physical world).

### States and Needs: A Synergistic Relationship

States and needs are synergistically connected, where increased need fulfillment may result in enhanced High-Value energy states, and enhancing energy states may support a person's capacity to satisfy his or her needs. Training to enhance states while achieving need fulfillment must occur synergistically. For example, one may shift interior states through the state training strategies reviewed in the previous sections, and these strategies will assist one with implementing one's High-Value visions, which may satisfy all needs simultaneously. Note: One need not actualize each strict objective completely in order to elevate state or begin to meet needs. Rather, one must simply initiate and progressively actualize the _process_ of taking action and implementing one's High-Value vision.

## Stages of Development

### Egocentric:

The egocentric stage of development is the first stage of hum an identity formation, which is primarily concerned with securing the safety and well-being of the self without concern for others. Most people return to this type of thinking multiple times throughout a day or their lives until they begin training to move into higher stages through processes similar to this program.

### Ethnocentric (Social Sell):

The ethnocentric stage of development is the second stage of development in human identity formation, which is primarily concerned with satisfying the safety and well-being of both the self and a close social group (close friends, family, and religious or other community group). The majority of the world population may operate primarily at this stage of development as their center of gravity, which appears to contribute to international, interracial, interethnic, intersex, and interreligious conflict.

### Worldcentric (Global Self):

The worldcentric stage of development is the third stage of human identity formation, which is primarily concerned with satisfying the safety and well-being of both the self, a close social group, and all others in the world, regardless of origin, race, ethnicity, sex, creed, or species. This type of thinking represents a high stage of development that is challenging to reach but has indeed been reached by many, now and in the past. This program is designed to facilitate development that is oriented toward this stage and beyond. Here, focusing upon High- Values (Goodness, Beauty, and Truth) and taking action to contribute are critical processes that stimulate growth into this stage. Many people who are aware of or value this stage of development may "peak" and "drop" from operating at this stage multiple times throughout the day or their lives as they return to their dominant center of gravity, which may be egocentric or ethnocentric.

## Positive & Negative Need Fulfillment

Every human _will_ fulfill these basic needs in one way or another, and they will either be fulfilled through positive or negative methods. Physiological needs may be satisfied through eating well or eating poorly, but in either case, a person is still drinking liquid and consuming some kind of sustenance. The essential question here is: How does one choose to fulfill this need? Is the person fulfilling this need by eating junk food: chips, cookies, and other snacks? Is the person satisfying thirst through drinking soft drinks? Or is the person fulfilling this need through eating fruits, vegetables, nuts, taking supplements, and consuming a balanced diet?

The need for safety could be satisfied through strengthening the body and developing healthy and trusting relationships with others. Conversely, one may fulfill the need for safety through negative means, by avoiding healthy relationships, fighting with or threatening others, or becoming depressed so that the Low-Value state may be easily controlled and sustained. The positive forms of need fulfillment for safety include strengthening the body and developing safe and reliable relationships. However, many choose to satisfy their need for safety through smoking or forming addictions, subtle and overt, which provide them with a sense of certainty and control.

The need for relationships and intimacy may be satisfied through developing trusting, loving, meaningful, and empowering relationships with others, and this need may be satisfied in negative ways through developing destructive relationships with others. For example, one could engage in aggressive fighting or join a gang in order to fulfill the need for relationship. This behavior is a Low-Value form of relationship, which will necessarily perpetuate Low-Value energy states.

The need to develop a sense of significance may be satisfied through positive or negative actions. For example, one may choose to satisfy this need through developing robust physical health, while another may develop a unique and valuable intimate relationship, which is held in high regard above all others. Conversely, the need for significance could be developed in a negative way through judging, controlling, and harming others, where feeling significant may be obtained through wielding the power of mental, physical, or emotional destruction within the three domains of life.

Those who satisfy their need for knowledge may simultaneously achieve a sense of significance through developing a highly specialized form of knowledge in a unique field of study. Meanwhile, another may satisfy this need in a negative manner through solidifying a single perspective while attempting to squelch free speech among peers.

The need for growth may be satisfied through choosing to develop physically, emotionally, and mentally, in all three domains. The need for growth may be accomplished through making progress in the previously mentioned need categories, in a positive manner. Conversely, this need could be satisfied negatively through selecting a Low-Value purpose, such as increasing wealth and significance at the expense of the well- being of others.

Next, High-Value needs could be met through actualizing one's potential via compassion, courage, strength, love, and acts of true justice and beauty. However, one may satisfy this need through misidentifying one's feelings of justice with those of vengeance and punishment. Meanwhile, aggression could be misidentified as strength and courage. During this scenario, acts of violence are fundamentally negative methods of fulfilling this particular need, because they originate from a Low-Value energy state. Hence, a High-Value energy state is required in order to fulfill the higher needs in a positive manner.

The need for self-transcendence could be fulfilled positively by selecting spirituality, science, or another domain of experience as a way of establishing cosmic meaning and a sense of purpose for one's existence. The scientist may find meaning through studying the universe and determining that evolution is the ultimate purpose for the existence, while a religiously-oriented person may simply believe that life continues after death. This particular need is not likely to be met in a negative way. However, this need could be left unmet. The failure to meet this need may result in a sense of universal existential despair that life is brief and consciousness ends at death; therefore, there is no reason to continue living.

## Cognitive Dissonance & Conflicting Beliefs

Cognitive dissonance describes the manner in which _beliefs_ about oneself, others, or the world _conflict_ with the way in which one's self, others, or the world have manifested in reality (Draycott & Dabbs, 1998). The result of these conflicts is psychic pain, and the means by which to achieve relief from this psychic pain is through either changing one's subjective beliefs to match social and objective realities, or changing one's social and objective realities to match subjective beliefs.

For example, a person who smokes tobacco and believes that smoking is bad may experience inner conflict until he or she either changes this belief (smoking is okay) or changes behavior (stops smoking). Another example is someone who believes that joy is only possible when social and environmental circumstances are absolutely favorable according to his or her rigid personal beliefs about how reality _should be_. This may cause that person to feel joyless and angry with the world and other people, because it may appear that other people or circumstances are thwarting the ability to experience joy. One solution to the problem is that this person could shift his or her beliefs about how joy may be achieved or the person can shift his or her behaviors. For instance, one can shift beliefs: _I can experience joy without controlling others_. Or the person could shift behaviors: _I will achieve momentary control over others in order to experience intermittent joy_.

Here is a brief exercise, which consists of a few questions, which may demonstrate one means by which to resolve cognitive dissonance.

Question 1: What is a source of pain in one's life? This pain can be small or the biggest pain ever experienced. Choose one. What is this pain? One must hold that image in the mind: the thoughts and feelings regarding any experiences involving this situation.

Question 2: What are one's beliefs about oneself in this situation? What does one believe about oneself? What must one do? What actions are required? How does one appear to others in the situation? What are one's beliefs about others and the world in this situation?

Question 3: Do one's beliefs conflict with reality? If no, then one's pain is not related to cognitive dissonance, but perhaps to state or need fulfillment. If yes, then one may need to reconcile beliefs with reality.

> Option 1: What is an alternative belief that one can hold in order to resolve this inner conflict?
> 
> Option 2: How could one change personal behavior in order to adjust one's social and objective realities? What could one do in order to make the world match one's beliefs about how it should be?

Action: Now it is time to make a strategic decision, which will impact the manner in which one behaves in the future. The decision is up to each individual: Is it necessary to change personal beliefs? Is it necessary to change personal behaviors or to change the external world? Is it necessary to change both? The responses must be linked with a High- Value outcome in order to ensure synergy among multiple psychological processes.

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### Cognitive Dissonance & Conflicting Beliefs

Cognitive dissonance may also occur as a result of the presence of paradoxical human needs. These paradoxical needs/multiple drives must be integrated into a unified vision/objective in order to achieve fulfillment without continued conflict. To accomplish this, one must understand how these drives conflict in order to discover the origins of the cognitive dissonance and the solutions (Robbins, 1998).

### Safety vs. Growth

The first two needs that are in conflict with each other are the needs for safety and growth. Safety needs are designed to avoid risk and preserve the status quo of a person's current situation. Paradoxically, growth requires the risk of stepping outside of one's comfort zone, the zone of safety, and into a place of uncertainty.

### Safety vs. Relationship

The second set of needs that conflict are the need for safety and the need for relationship/intimacy. Safety needs are designed to avoid risk, while relationship and intimacy necessarily require that humans drop their defenses in order to connect. To satisfy relationship/intimacy needs, one must connect even if intentional or unintentional emotional pain is a known component of human relationship. The resolution of these paradoxical needs will result in a relationship that leads to an ever- deepening sense of safety, which, in turn, heightens the risk of incurring ever-deepening pain in the event of loss, betrayal, etc.

### Significance vs. Relationship

The next groups of needs that conflict are the needs for significance and relationship. Significance needs frequently manifest through the projected images of a strong and invulnerable self, while intimate relationships often require the exposure of deep, dark, and shameful experiences of personal pain and challenges that may be embarrassing to expose. In essence, relationships may challenge one's sense of significance. Fortunately, each one of these needs can be met simultaneously if people find a way to unify these needs; positive, empowering relationships will ultimately assist with fulfilling the need for significance even more deeply.

### The Unified Self

The most powerful and effective way in which to achieve one's objective and simultaneously meet all needs in the future is to ensure that one's objective is intimately linked with the fulfillment of each need. Each need must be fulfilled within the context of one's overall outcome and strategy--they must not be separate. One must synthesize all needs as though they are all designed to synergistically meet one's singular High-Value objective (Robbins, 1998).

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## Autobiographical Constructs & Peak State Reinforcement

The past may be both a challenging and rewarding domain of autobiographical memory, which may be subjected to re-conditioning. Through deliberately engaging in the recollection of positive memories, one may train the memory circuits (via operant conditioning) to retrieve records of past experiences that reinforce one's nervous system with High-Value energy states. Through buttressing the historical elements of personality with empowering recollections, one may strengthen one's autobiographical constructs through selectively reinforcing positive recollections.

One may have enjoyed a strong, healthy, and vibrant childhood and adolescence, or a past that is filled with pain, abuse, and abandonment. Therefore, one must reinforce one's psychological integrity through re¬directing attention and recruiting positive memories into awareness. This process may enhance the quality of retrieved autobiographical memory constructs. Recalling events from the past may occur in a structured and deliberate manner in order to re-condition the nervous system. Through directing the brain's memory retrieval system to reference _only_ positive autobiographical memory constructs first, one may train the memory retrieval circuits to repeat this behavior in the future. Through recollecting positive memories and deliberately enhancing the intensity of the memory constructs, one may also further classically condition the brain to associate strong positive feeling states with selected memory constructs. The exercise appears as follows:

### Physiological

When were the most secure moments of one's past in terms of meeting the physiological needs of having food and shelter? One must bring the experience to mind and feel the pleasure that is associated with having secured these resources: Think of a time when these needs were met with abundance.

_Intensify the positive sensation through generating a High- Value peak-state_ !

### Safety

What were the moments of the past when one was most secure physically and emotionally? Where did this security take place? Which people are involved? Was one alone or with others? Think of the location in terms of structure, environment, and geographical location: Feel this sense of security and all the positive sensations associated with fulfilling this need.

_Intensify the positive sensation through generating a High- Value peak-state!_

### Relationship

When did one feel the most connected and loved? One must remember those feelings and amplify the positive states associated with those recollections: This event is the source of strength for relationships in the present and future.

_Intensify the positive sensations through generating a High- Value peak-state!_

### Significance

In what moment in the past did one feel most significant, valuable, incredible, and respected? One must focus on that experience and envision it: Imagine the sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and all other sensations. Who was there? Where did this occur? Who were the people that honored the individual in this way? What accomplishment did the individual achieve to bring about this feeling of significance?

_Intensify the positive sensation through generating a High- Value peak-state!_

### Knowledge & Meaning

One must now recall aspects of the past when one felt the most understood by oneself and others. When did one most fulfill the need to obtain meaning and understanding? Was this experience during formal education, or was it with a good friend or mentor? Is it possible that this gratification occurred while reading and researching? One must remember that experience and fully re-experience it.

_Intensify the positive sensation through generating a High-Value peak-state!_

### Growth

When was a period of time of immense progress? When did life really move forward in an incredibly positive direction? One must recall a moment of exponential growth and development. What did it feel like? What did it look like? What action or events occurred to prompt this growth? Who was present?

_Intensify the positive sensation through generating a High-Value peak-state!_

### Higher Values/Passions

One must recall the High-Values of the past: a time when one's personal values were so clear and vivid that there were no doubts about one's Highest Values. One must recall memories of knowing the High- Values of Goodness, Beauty, and Truth, and having a purpose. Where did this certainty exist? At what age did this occur? Who was present? What actions and events stimulated this experience? One must experience that state, see it, and feel it.

_Intensify the positive sensation through generating a Higb-Value peak-state!_

### Self-Transcendence/ Cosmic Meaning

One must recall the past experiences of a universal, cosmic meaning of one's life. It is important for people to recall an experience of fulfillment and gratitude for one's existence, understanding one's purpose and discovering one's place in the universe. When did this realization occur? Where did this happen? One must recall past thoughts and situations, bringing those experiences back into the present moment: Feel them and increase the strength of those feelings.

_Intensify the positive sensation through generating a High-Value peak-state!_

### Primary Attachments

Primary attachment figures represent deep autobiographical constructs upon which a great deal of personality develops, and these relationships are frequently filled with both empowering experiences (need fulfillment) and disempowering experiences (failure to fulfill needs). Therefore, the memory retrieval system must be repeatedly conditioned to retrieve empowering memories _first_ when recalling one's primary attachment figures. What were the best qualities of these caregivers, and how did they make a positive impact? One must explore the parents/guardians' positive attributes and recall how caregivers shaped one's life in a positive manner. Even if these figures were associated with high levels of pain, one must shift focus to the most positive aspects of these relationships.

_Intensify the positive sensation through generating a High-Value peak-state!_

## Reframing: Pain into Strength

The next section will address re-owning pain for the purpose of enhancing a sense of resilience. Through confronting painful experiences one may learn to transform their recollections of past pain into fuel for the present.

### Physiology

One must recall a time in the past when one experienced the most fear or pain associated with physiological needs: securing food and/or shelter. Did a time ever exist when one was uncertain of eating a meal or living without shelter?

_Recognise that these experiences and memories actually provide people with strength. Feel this pain and experience it. Own the pain and do not deny it, reject it, or blame another person for it. Accept this pain as a gift that provides fuel for the present and future. Intensify the positive sensation through generating a High-Value peak-state!_

### Safety

One must recall a time when physical and emotional safety was most threatened. What did that experience feel like? How does that experience give one strength and power? Did that lack of safety impact any relationships? Was that safety impacted by relationships? Did somebody cause the pain? Did this experience result in feelings of insignificance, unworthiness, and disrespect? How did this experience provide strength for one's personal development?

_Recognise that these experiences and memories actually provide people with strength. Feel this pain and experience it. Own the pain and do not deny it, reject it, or blame another person for it. Accept this pain as a gift that provides fuel for the present and future. Intensify the positive sensation through generating a High-Value peak-state!_

### Relationship

One must recall a period of time when one felt most deficient in fulfilling one's need for safe, healthy, and vibrant relationships. How did this painful experience provide an opportunity for growth? How does one develop from that pain? How does one learn from that experience?

_Recognise that these experiences and memories actually provide people with strength. Feel this pain and experience it. Own the pain and do not deny it, reject it, or blame another person for it. Accept this pain as a gift that provides fuel for the present and future. Intensify the positive sensation through generating a High-Value peak-state!_

### Knowledge/ Meaning

One must recall a time of immense confusion, misunderstanding, or feeling misunderstood. How does this confusion lead to clarity? How does one emerge from that confusion, using it as fuel for strength?

_Recognise that these experiences and memories actually provide people with strength. Feel this pain and experience it. Own the pain and do not deny it, reject it, or blame another person for it. Accept this pain as a gift that provides fuel for the present and future. Intensify the positive sensation through generating a High-Value peak-state!_

### Growth

Recall a time of stagnation. One must feel the pain associated with feeling stuck and take the time to experience the strength that comes from re-owning that pain.

_Recognise that these experiences and memories actually provide people with strength. Feel this pain and experience it. Own the pain and do not deny it, reject it, or blame another person for it. Accept this pain as a gift that provides fuel for the present and future._

_Intensify the positive sensation through generating a High-Value peak-state!_

### High-Values

One must recall a time of extreme lack of inspiration, a low point in life, when High-Values were absent and life seemed meaningless. One must bring this pain back into one's mind: the pain accompanied by not feeling a purpose for living. How does that pain provide one with strength and power?

_Recognise that these experiences and memories actually provide people with strength. Feel this pain and experience it. Own the pain and do not deny it, reject it, or blame another person for it. Accept this pain as a gift that provides fuel for the present and future. Intensify the positive sensation through generating a High-Value peak-state!_

### Self-Transcendence

One must recall a time when one felt that he or she lacked a sense of ultimate meaning and cosmic purpose. What was the sensation of pain associated with this memory?

_Recognise that these experiences and memories actually provide people with strength. Feel this pain and experience it. Own the pain and do not deny it, reject it, or blame another person for it. Accept this pain as a gift that provides fuel for the present and future. Intensify the positive sensation through generating a High-Value peak-state!_

### Primary Attachment Figures

Next, one must recall painful memories and experiences related to parents or guardians. When did these caregivers not seem understanding? Recall moments of extreme frustration. One must think of a time when he or she felt abandoned and alone with relation to parents or guardians. Identify and re-experience the most intense pain associated with one's caregivers. Every person experiences some kind of pain with regard to parents, guardians, and other caregivers.

_Recognise that these experiences and memories actually provide people with strength. Feel this pain and experience it. Own the pain and do not deny it, reject it, or blame another person for it. Accept this pain as a gift that provides fuel for the present and future. Intensify the positive sensation through generating a High-Value peak-state!_

## Coherent Focus & Awareness

Establishing awareness of the present moment may involve a combination of simple and gentle focused-attention technique s: a gentle openness and a suppleness of attention that allows all thoughts and emotions to simply arise, change, and fall away without one becoming too attracted or resistant to the thoughts, whether pleasurable or painful. Through gently focusing upon a single point and allowing one's attention to gaze evenly and openly upon all space and objects within one's visual environment, one may gently enter into the present moment. One may feel as if he or she is frequently jumping out of this state, becoming more agitated and driven by intrusive thoughts and emotions. However, this is a necessary part of the process and completely OK during these stages of Coherent Focus training.

Awareness is primary, where humans are not their thoughts, emotions, or five senses. The witnessing faculty of consciousness allows one to process and encounter the experience of thoughts, the experience of emotions, and the experience of sensations. That is, the witness is the _observer 0f the experiences,_ not the experiences themselves.

One tool that may be effective for anchoring the witnessing faculty within the present moment includes the use of concentric geometrical figures organized in a symmetrical manner.

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The image above is a 5-dimensional object rendered within a 2- dimensional space, which may serve as an effective mandala. Mandalas are designed to assist individuals with simultaneously focusing/narrowing attention and relaxing/opening attention (Coherent Focus). Through gently gazing at the center of the geometrical figure below, one may allow one's attention to be oriented toward a single point as the symmetrical qualities of the mandala focus the mind toward the center of the image.

Meanwhile, the peripheral geometric patterns may serve as a frequent attention re-orientation/novelty alerting stimulus, which causes attention to re-open, re-examine, and re-orient itself to the image. Here, the image may appear to shift and change as peripheral vision constantly shifts from geometry to geometry. The entire image is precisely designed to simultaneously focus and open one's attention through drawing primary centered attention to a central point and stimulating/re-orienting one's peripheral attention by appearing to frequently change.

One may continue to gently gaze at the mandala for the next several minutes and relax. While observing the mandala, one must notice one's feelings, thoughts, and experiences, and bring one's attention gently to sensations throughout the body.

The methodology for producing a state of Coherent Focus while reflecting upon an external visual stimulus is quite simple and straightforward, but this is only the first step. Through engaging with the interior visual multidimensional rotation strategies, one may further develop states of Coherent Focus. This may be achieved through rendering multidimensional form-constants as discussed in the previous section on visual perception and multidimensional form rotation.

# Strategy Review

## The Strategies for State: Physiology

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### Physiology

To review, the physiological components of state are comprised of the musculoskeletal system (posture and facial expression), the circulatory and respiratory systems (coherent breathing and moving the body), and the central nervous system (CNS) (activation and deactivation). Coherent breathing consists of inhaling for six seconds and exhaling for six seconds, for at least one minute, to enhance positive heart rate variability (HRV). Thereafter, one may begin shifting into a more optimal state of CNS efficiency and energy usage. Next, CNS electrical current may be rapidly activated and deactivated through powerful ballistic movements.

## Strategies: Thought

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### Thought

The next aspect of state is Thought, where language and imagery serve as one's internal representation of reality. Is one's language empowering or disempowering? The mind may perceive an empowering thought, and elaborative language (stories and context) will anchor that thought within a belief system, which creates a more empowering cognitive bias through which to interpret stimuli within the environment. One may imagine Thought: images that are bright, beautiful, and expansive, and if these thoughts are darker, smaller, and further away, they may become less powerful and influential over one's state.

### Elaborative Questions

The next aspect of Thought is a person's questions: The manner in which one asks questions. Are one's questions empowering or disempowering? This is fundamental, because questions will stimulate the mind to engage with a problem-solving process, which generates solutions. For example, if one asks the question, _" Why am I not worthy enough?"_ the individual may find an answer to support this question: _" I am not worthy enough, because I do not have x, y, and z."_ However, if one asks an empowering question, such as, _" What is it that makes me unique?"_, the mind will search for answers to that question, reinforcing a positive thought pattern: _" I am unique, because x, y, and z"_.

## Strategies: Focus

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### Focus

The next component of state is Focus. Focus may be open and expansive or narrow and specific, and focus may be directed from one mental object to another. One may choose to focus upon multiple mental objects simultaneously, which enables the perception of multiple, paradoxical beliefs (empowering and disempowering beliefs exist simultaneously in the mind). Through sustained, open attention upon all thoughts, one may next choose to focus exclusively upon one mental object over another and imbue empowering thoughts with additional energy.

### Directing Attention

Likewise, on what type of thoughts of the past, present, or future does the individual focus? Does one focus on a dismal, horrific, and painful past, present, or future, or does one focus upon the empowering elements of the past and present while developing a compelling vision for the future? The thoughts that one focuses upon may result in behaviors that conform with those thoughts and reinforce their sense of reality. Therefore, it is critical to focus upon the empowering elements of the past and present while developing a compelling vision for the future that drives one toward a High-Value outcome.

## Strategies: Physiological Needs

One must focus upon how to fulfill one's physiological needs in a manner that will support a healthy and strong body, which are fundamental to establishing a healthy and strong life. The most primary need of the body is for water and nutrition, which fuels the body's life- supporting systems. This need is simple, but many people neglect this essential need of the body by creating problems at the core of one's physiological system. Nutritional imbalances may result in the physiological and psychological exacerbation of fear, anger, anxiety, depression, and disease.

### Nourishment H20

The first aspect of nourishment is water, which is the most essential fluid that the body requires for standard operations. One must always have a surplus of water available to ensure optimal metabolic processing. Most types of consumable fluids do not replace water. Caffeine squeezes water out of the body, because it is a diuretic, while, fruit drinks, soda, alcohol, and almost all other beverages reduce the total consumption of the most essential component of the liquid. The body requires clean, clear, and unadulterated water (Popkin et al.., 2010).

### Nourishment: Food

The second aspect of nourishment is food, which consists of a balance of meats, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and whole grains. Meats, vegetables, fruits, and nuts should be consumed in accord with a physician's recommended daily-intake levels, which will vary from person to person. Some people choose a vegetarian or vegan lifestyle, which may result in losing key proteins, because they neglect to balance their intake of the correct nuts, mushrooms, and whole grains. If one chooses to have a diet that includes meat, one must make certain to eat vegetables, fruits, nuts, and whole grains in a balanced manner. None of these, as individual food groups, completely replace the other. Therefore, it is critical to ensure that one balances his or her diet according to one's physician-recommended needs (Kowalski & Bujko, 2012).

Generally speaking, one should not consume more meats than vegetables, where green, leafy vegetables are a critical source of protans, vitamins, minerals, and fiber that meat does not provide in the same way. Again, some people will not eat meat, which is fine; for these individuals, supplementing protein through eating the appropriate mushrooms and nuts is recommended. One may want to review the USDA's food pyramid for recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) as a guide on consumption of a balanced diet. However, the USDA'sfood pyramid may inaccurately recommend the intake of pulverized grain products due to misconceptions regarding the contrast between whole grains and pulverized grains.

### The Role of Glycemic Index, Pulverized Carbohydrates, and Sugar in Disease

Fruits are generally excellent sources of vitamin C, and nuts are often great sources of protein. However, fruit contains sugar, and one must eliminate sugar from the diet whenever possible, because sugar consumption has been implicated in a variety of diseases, which include heart disease and diabetes (Yang et al., 2014). Sugar intake must be limited (maximum: men = 37.5 grams sugar daily and women = 25 grams sugar daily). One single can of soda or one single bowl of cereal, independently of one another, contains about the maximum quantity of sugar that an individual may consume within a single day. Exceeding this recommended daily allotment may result in damage to the pancreas and fat deposits throughout the body. Some foods with a high glycemic index rapidly convert into sugar when ingested, and these include breads, potatoes, and white rice.

The glycemic index is a tool that measures the rate at which certain foods convert into sugar and impact blood sugar levels. It is easy for one to neglect the fact that potatoes, breads, and rice may act upon the body like granulated sugar, because these items do not actually contain granulated sugar. However, when one ingests them, these foods impact the body as if one drank a can of soda (Glycemic index, 2015). Therefore, one must recognize that bread, potatoes, and white rice, although they can be great, should be eaten in moderation. Evenwhole grain or whole wheat bread produces a strong spike in blood sugar levels, because bread does not contain the type of whole grains a person needs. Breads are comprised of pulverized grains, which are used to make refined flour, but the body requires whole grains that have not been pulverized (i.e. seeds).

Food comprised of pulverized grain (flour of any kind) contains a high glycemic index, and nearly all foods that may be purchased within a standard supermarket contain this substance, which the body treats as a sugar (Glycemic index, 2015). Cereal, chips, bread (even whole-wheat bread), cakes, dough, and pastas all indicate that they possess carbohydrates, which are derived from the grain from which they were made (corn meal, crushed wheat/flour, etc.) The carbohydrates in the natural, _uncrusbed_ grain, are typically bound-up within insoluble fibers (in the form of seeds), but when these whole grains are crushed and transformed into a powder within a mill, the insoluble fibers are destroyed.

Insoluble fibers serve as a healthy delayed time-release mechanism that impedes the activity of digestive enzymes and acids. Insoluble fiber is essential, because this serves as a tough outer shell that must be destroyed prior to making the carbohydrates available for conversion into sugars. Standard digestion of true whole grains (seeds) slowly converts these carbohydrate molecules into sugars in the gut during digestion, which serves as a sustainable energy source for exercise, etc (Nilsson et al., 2008). However, when the insoluble fibers are crushed during the standard milling process, the insoluble fibers are pulverized, and the carbohydrate molecules become more easily accessible to digestive enzymes and acids (in-fact, they become too easily accessible) (Dziki et al., 2012). The fibrous time-release mechanism is destroyed by the pulverization/milling process, which allows the carbohydrates to convert into sugar almost instantly upon consumption. Although most nutrition labels that indicate the quantity of "total carbohydrate" accurately and honestly, the destruction of the insoluble fiber (delayed time-release mechanism) means that each 1 gram of carbohydrate is treated by the body as approximately 0.7-1 gram of raw sugar. Therefore, 27 grams of carbohydrate within one's pasta or bread must be regarded as 19-27 grams of sugar. This is a problematic situation, which has resulted in a surge in obesity, heart disease, inflammation,and other diseases throughout the Western population. Therefore, reduction of pulverized grain consumption (flour) and sugar consumption may result in the vastly enhanced performance of multiple physiological parameters (Salmeronet al., 1997).

One must eat a balanced diet in accord with unique physician recommended daily allowances, which may consist of meats, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and _true whole grains_ (seeds that are not pulverized into flour).

To do so, it may be necessary to meet with a physician, review a glycemic index calculator, and explore the USDA's food pyramid in order to create a strategy for consuming an optimal diet. Once an individual takes these steps, he or she may experience massive improvements in the quality of his or her physiological health and well- being.

### Multivitamins

Some people may want or even need to supplement their diets through consuming multivitamins. Multivitamins have been demonstrated to serve as some of the most effective tools for bridging the nutritional gap in diets that do not have 100 percent of all the necessary vitamins and minerals a person needs each day. Although more research is required, some studies have demonstrated that IQ (intelligence quotient) increases when malnourished children eat a multivitamin (Schoenthaler et al., 2000). These supplements may be an important component of a balanced diet. Moreover, if one chooses to continue expanding their base of supplements, a B-complex multivitamin may be of value (Kennedy et al., 2010). These supplements contain a number of B vitamins, which are water soluble, meaning that once a person eats them, the body does not store them. The body either metabolizes or excretes the unused vitamins through urine every day. The B-vitamins are known to boost cellular energy levels and correct disease that results from B-vitamin deficiencies.

### The Benefit of Fatty Acids

The next step to enhancing nutrition intake is to add omega-3 and omega-6 oils to one's diet (Harris, 2014). These supplements consist of fatty acids that the CNS uses in order to coat nerve cells with essential fatty acids through a process known as myelination: Myelin promotes nerve signal transmission. A diet rich in fish is a diet rich in omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, and it is critical to balance the intake of the omega-3 and -6 fatty acids, because incorrect ratios may result in physiological imbalance. Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are typically derived from fish oil, and fish oil supplements contain the correct ratio of omegas. However, one may also acquire these fatty acids from plant- based alternatives. Fish oil and plant-based formulations of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are excellent methods for ensuring optimal CNS nerve signal transmission.

## Strategies: Safety

One may satisfy the need for safety through securing the body's physiological needs, developing trusting and empowering relationships, and connecting with High-Values that transcend the basic need for safety. Physiological systems are designed to experience a sense of safety when a powerful posture and physical form are present. Therefore, developing the body's musculoskeletal system may imbue one's nervous system with a sense of strength. This may, in turn, increase the likelihood that one will feel physically safe in the event of a dangerous experience.

Second, one must establish healthy and empowering social relationships, because all humans need the experience of safe mammalian connection Children, adolescents, and adults are hardwired for relationships, which ensure physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual survival. Human beings who encounter threatening experiences may often speak to others about their painful experiences for the precise reason that connecting through relationship is a key element for regulating the nervous system and re- establishing a sense of safety. Relationships establish safety through soothing the nervous system when an individual feels seen, heard, and touched in a way that is desired (Lun et al., 2008). The three following factors--seeing, hearing, and touching, in a positive way--are critical for healthy social interaction.

### Seen, Heard, and Touched

_Seeing:_ Does the individual feel "seen"? Do loved ones notice how the individual looks and behaves in a way that is unique and valuable to the individual? Do loved ones pay attention to the individual?

_Hearing:_ Does the individual feel "heard"? Does the individual feel understood? Do loved ones listen without interrupting?

_Touching:_ Does the individual feel "touched"? Do loved ones make physical contact with the individual through handshakes, pats on the back, hugs, massages, and other forms of appropriate physical intimacy? Does the individual enjoy the experience of this type of physical contact or does the individual's need for touch match an alternative preferred style? These perceptions of the individual and the actions of the loved ones are fundamental to establishing and maintaining connection. For establishing safety, one must have clear relationships in place that may provide one with the feeling of being seen, heard, and touched in a positive way.

The individual must also have a High-Value outcome. To develop a High-Value outcome, one must create a sense of certainty and conviction which will override any sense of fear that the person may experience. The High-Value outcome may serve as a vision that draws the mind forward toward a brilliant objective, which the individual will perceive as inevitable and essential. With a clear and coherent vision that is constandy present, the prefrontal cortex may remain engaged, and difficult circumstances may feelless painful to experience. Rather, painful experiences may be experienced as natural steps toward making a lasting and positive contribution to the world.

## Strategies: Relationship

Developing and maintaining positive relationships beyond a need for safety may be assisted through the application of the following model, which is based upon the work of Dale Carnegie. Carnegie's book, _How to Win Friends and Influence People_ is a consistent and clear source for how to apply the most effective strategies for creating positive relationships with other human beings.

## How to win friends

#### _Rule one: Smile._

Most people reflexively respond in a positive manner when they observe a human smile. Therefore, one must smile in a friendly way to everybody encountered, even if the other person is a stranger. One must make certain to generate positive affect when interacting with others, because this may encourage conversation, which forms the foundation for a mutual sense of safety, connection, and significance.

#### _Rule two: become genuinely interested in other people._

Through demonstrating a genuine and sincere interest in others, recipients of this behavior may feel genuinely seen, heard, understood, and appreciated. This is an incredible gift, which may immediately develop rapport, because genuine interest results in the fulfillment of safety, connection, and significance needs. Promoting need fulfillment within others may foster the reciprocity of need fulfillment behavior.

#### _Rule three: Speak in terms of the other person 's interests._

To further develop upon the previous rule, one must strive to discus s topics that are of interest to the other person. Through discussing what others love about their religion, science, or profession, the recipientmay feel seen, heard, and understood. Meanwhile, the other person may naturally begin to demonstrate reciprocity of this behavior.

#### _Rule four: Make the other person feel important, and do it sincerely._

The next important aspect of building relationships is to make the other person feel important/significant and to do it sincerely. Many people may approach this principle in a unique manner. However, one of the best ways to begin is through simply applying rules 1, 2, and 3. Next, one may offer a compliment. Even if the receiving party feels uncomfortable with the flattery, the compliment may be taken to heart during a later time. This is important for helping the other person with establishing a sense of significance. One may stimulate a sense of safety, connection, and significance when one smiles, demonstrates a genuine interest in the other, speaks in terms of the other person's interests, and offers a unique and sincere compliment.

#### _Rule five: Remember that a person 's name is to that person the sweetest sound._

A person's name is one of the most important and charged words in one's life. One's name is what others have called that person from birth; it is the word that he or she understood to be connected with experiences of nourishment, a sense of safety, a sense of being seen, heard, and touched, as well as basic identity formation. One's name is the auditory stimulus that one's primary attachment figures chose to associate with nurturing behaviors, and it is a special recognition that one is a unique and distinct entity in a highly complex universe. Referring to people by their first and their last names speaks to the core of one's sense of core safety, connection, significance, and fundamental existence. Therefore, one must speak to the person's name, personally: "Richard, how are you?" "David, you look great!" These subtle and thoughtful actions may imbue interactions with a sense relational familiarity, which tend to encourage rapport and belonging.

#### _Rule six: Do not "correct" others._

If one must correct another, one must do so in a manner that sustains the individual's sense of significance. This may be achieved through providing applying the previous 5 principles and those that follow in order to reinforce a sense of safety and connection prior to and after offering a correction. Moreover, one must not offer a correction in a public forum, where self-consciousness and significance may be more quickly diminished. There will be a time to demonstrate one's knowledge and intelligence at another time, in private if necessary.

#### _Rule seven: Do not "interrupt" others unless you have something truly worth interrupting for._

When people are speaking they typically want to feel seen, heard, and understood, and an interruption may immediately result in their perception that they are unseen, unheard, and misunderstood. The interruption of a sense of being heard, seen, and understood may interrupt one's sense of significance, connection, and safety -- A disruption of rapport. However, if the interruption draws attention to something of overwhelming mutual interest - something for which the other person will appreciate, then a disruption may have merit. However, it is generally essential to not interrupt people, and if an interruption occurs, a conciliatory or reconciliatory gesture is required ("excuse me for interrupting, my apologies ", etc.). Typically, one must return to the original subject that was under discussion in order to restore rapport and provide the individual with an opportunity to continue with their social transmission. Generally, one must allow the other to speak and when they are finished, one may reciprocate through sharing one's thoughts on a related subject.

## How to win others to your way of thinking

#### _Rule One: The best way to win an argument is to avoid it._

The next category is how to win others to one's way of thinking and how to influence other people. For Carnegie, the best way to win an argument is to avoid it. Specifically, speaking with others while one is in a state of agitation may be interpreted as an act of aggression.

The nervous system of the other person may immediately detect the social initiator's subtle social cues, which indicate a state of minor or overt irritation (fight response). Subsequently, the individual may respond with aggression (fight response), shutting down (immobilization), or panic (flight). Through triggering these states within another person, one disengages their prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for listening attentively and processing cognitive information. The recipient is not likely to be convinced of an alternative point of view during the activation of Low-Value energy states, because activity in the prefrontal cortex is diminished, and logical, dispassionate thought is inhibited. Therefore, avoiding argumentation is the first step toward promoting the adoption of one's perspective.

The primary method of persuading somebody that an alternative perspective or course of action is preferred is through developing rapport. One must first stimulate a state of relaxation and openness within the other person. Through avoiding argumentation (a charged Low-Value energy state) one may begin with an open and non- judgmental inquiry. For example: _" Yours is an interesting point of view -- I wonder what would occur if we took your view to be true, and incorporated this perspective into the equation. Personally, I am not attached to either view, but, wouldyou be open to considering this?"_ Through this example, one may avoid conflict and instead focus upon integration and the open exploration of an alternative perspective. The person of interest must be allowed to feel completely free to accept or reject either premise, which dramatically enhances the probability of establishing mutual understanding and the successful re-shaping of an individual's beliefs.

#### _Rule two: Show respect for the other person 's opinions._

One must avoid conflict and demonstrate respect for the other person's perspective, as with the previous example. Moreover, one must never accuse another of being "wrong". Human beings must feel seen, heard, and understood, and this is achieved through demonstrating the capacity to listen, connect, and recognize the other person's positive traits (or positive aspects of one's perspective). This enables one to sustain a sense of significance during a dialog, which sustains rapport and stimulates openness to considering new ideas.

#### _Rule three: If you are wrong admit it immediately and emphatically._

One must achieve social transparency through taking responsibility and acknowledging wrongs committed. One's acceptance of personal responsibility for one's errors demonstrates to the other party that one is a rational and self-reflective individual. One must develop the capacity to sacrifice one's sense of significance for the benefit of truth and the development of a meaningful relationship. This encourages a mutual sense of safety, connection, and respect.

#### _Rule four: Allow the other person to fully express themselves._

This principle emphasizes the importance of encouraging others to fully express their views, which fulfills their need to be seen, heard, and understood. Through encouraging self-expression, one may deepen rapport and stimulate a sense of safety, connection, and significance. When one demonstrates that the other person's views are worthy of attention, trust may deepen, and the opportunity to introduce alternative perspectives may be enhanced.

#### _Rule five: Let the other person feel that they can fully experience the idea as their own._

One must strive to form an association between one's own perspective and the perspectives of others. Through incorporating the ideas of others into one's presentation, others may feel that their views represent a unique contribution to a discussion or decision-making process. This process of "buy-in" allows others to take ownership, at least partial ownership, of a newly synthesized idea. Due to the fact that nearly all social behavior involves advocating for one's own ideas, it is critical that others develop the sense that a newly proposed idea incorporates at least part or even a large part of their own strong beliefs.

#### _Rule six: Honestly strive to see things from the other person 's point of view._

One must listen carefully and genuinely to others in order to develop a clear understanding of the subjective reality of others. Moreover, the process of repeating back to others what they have said may assist with fulfilling the other individual's need to feel seen, heard, and understood. One must make certain to reflect and summarize, in one's own words, the perspectives of others. This may result in reciprocity of this behavior.

#### _Rule seven: Be sympathetic with the other person 's needs, desires, and experiences._

Through developing empathy and understanding for another person's needs, desires, and experiences, one may appreciate the unique interior drama of the other person's life. This may assist with disarming others and fostering connection, which is fundamental for others to remain open to new ideas.

#### _Rule eight: Appeal to the nobler motives._

One must find a way to cause others to think about their own Highest Values and act upon them, because the actualization of Higher Values is of universal benefit. What does the other person value? Everyone has a High-Value outcome (whether conscious or unconscious), and everyone has an underlying sense of how things should be in an ideal world. Therefore, one must appeal to the other person's Highest Values during dialog.

#### _Rule nine: Dramatize your ideas._

To dramatize one's ideas, it is necessary to vary the inflection of one's voice. One may also use one's hands and body to express enthusiasm and excitement, which may naturally stimulate similar emotions within the other individual. This methodology may capture people's attention and enable them to connect with the sphere of one's mind in order to fully see, hear, and understand one's unique subjective reality. To enhance how others receive one's message, one must dramatize one's ideas, making them clearer, more interesting, and more enjoyable to receive.

#### _Rule ten: Throw down a challenge._

One may challenge others to grow and develop through actualizing their own High-Value objectives. Through challenging others, one may assist others with shifting their focus away from what they are concerned or frightened about and toward the challenge at hand.

## How to change others without arousing resentment

#### _Rule one: Begin with praise and honest appreciation._

Through providing others with a sense of being seen, heard, and understood, one may initiate dialog on subjects related to adjusting the behaviors of others.

#### _Rule two: Call attention to people 's mistakes, indirectly._

One must call attention to people's mistakes in an indirect manner. One must subtly inform others of an alternative way of living that will appeal to their Higher Values.

#### _Rule three: Talk about your own mistakes before criticizing the other person._

One must avoid criticizing others and asking them to change their behaviors without first acknowledging one's own imperfections. This acknowledgement highlights a mutual sense of similarity, which encourages rapport and protects the other person's sense of significance.

#### _Rule four: Ask questions instead of giving direct orders._

One may enhance persuasive capabilities if he or she begins the process by asking others questions about why they act the way they do, what they would like to change, and why they would like to change. What are their Highest Values?

#### _Rule five: Let the other person save face._

Through praising, appreciating, and empowering others, both in public and in private, one may set the stage for asking questions that reveal Higher Values, which lead to personal growth and positive change. One must sustain the other's sense of significance in order to stimulate positive change that does not result in an interior collapse within the other party.

#### _Rule six: Praise the slightest improvement and praise every improvement._

Carnegie suggests that one must be "hearty in your approbation and lavish in your praise." If one notices the slightest movement toward progress, one must immediately recognize, value, and affirm that progress in order to stimulate additional positive change.

#### _Rule seven: Give the other person a fine reputation to live up to._

One must observe and affirm the positive characteristics of others: their kindness, love, compassion, etc. This may cause others to increase the frequency with which they display those positive traits.

#### _Rule eight: Use encouragement. Make the fault seem easy to correct._

One must make the faults of others appear easy to correct--not impossible. If one initiates one's process of self-development with heavy-handed criticism, personal challenges become perceived as increasingly difficult to overcome.

#### _Rule nine: Make the other person happy about doing the thing you suggest._

When one can make others happy about participating in a particular course-of-action, one has achieved buy-in and given others ownership over that perspective. The idea must become a part of one's way of thinking in order to stimulate a sense of intrinsic motivation to act upon the suggested action.

## Strategies: Significance

Significance is a fairly simple need to begin meeting immediately through taking a few actions to address one's self-image and the way in which one presents oneself to others.

### Appearance

One of the simplest ways in which to revitalize the mind with a sense of worth and personal value is to dress one's best. Therefore, one may consider dressing in one's best suit, shoes, a designer t-shirt, or well- tailored pants. One may also ensure that he or she is hygienic and well- groomed. However one prefers his or her appearance to be in its ideal state, he or she must do that consistently!

### Empowering Relationships

Significance is strongly enhanced through ensuring that relationships are empowering. Social engagements with others who appreciate, understand, and value one's unique qualities are fundamental for ensuring that one experiences a deep sense of significance. Those individuals who are destructive and disempowering in speech or behavior may subtly or overtly undermine one's sense of self-worth. Those who are open to one's feedback and influence may be individuals to be included and empowered once they begin to shift their behaviors. However, those who are extremely abusive and refuse to re-adjust their behaviors must be removed from one's social sphere.

### High-Value Purpose

A High-Value purpose may strongly contribute to a sense of significance that is beyond the need for social reinforcement. Indeed the High-Value purpose may fill one with such a sense of self-worth and significance that one may feel that appearance and relationships are no longer necessary. However, each of these three factors is critical, and eventually all three must be integrated in order to achieve a complete fulfillment of this need.

## Strategies: Meaning & Knowledge

### Peers with Knowledge

Meeting the need for Meaning, Knowledge, and Understanding is critical for achieving clarity of mind and making intelligent decisions. Spending time with those who hold advanced knowledge on a particular subject area of interest may assist with the growth and development of one's knowledge. One must listen and ask questions! Through engaging with others who hold higher levels of knowledge in a subject area of interest, one's cognitive capacities may be enhanced. Thereafter, one may choose to learn similar knowledge and develop comparable high-level thinking strategies that are exemplified by those with greater knowledge in a specific domain: These people may become mentors.

### Read: Research, Literature, and News

To grow one's knowledge in any specific or broad subject area, rapidly and as needed, one must ensure that one is frequently reading new and interesting materials from research publications, literature, or the news. These are excellent sources of information that are available throughout the developed world.

### Teach and Apply Knowledge!

Deepening one's understanding of a particular subject area may also be achieved through teaching, which deepens one's knowledge through greater contextualization.

## Strategies: Higher Values

One must develop a clear and compelling vision of one's future as related to the actualization of Higher Values. The key to actualizing these Higher Values is to ensure that one is taking massive action to bring one's High-Value vision into reality. This must be focused upon impacting oneself, others, and the world at large with a powerful and positive contribution. Contribution is a master strategy that will fulfill the needs of the Spirit and propel the human organism to greater and greater fulfillment.

### Contemplate

What does one believe to be good, true, and beautiful? One must contemplate the ways in which Goodness, Beauty, and Truth have manifested in the past and the present. Through contemplating these questions with relation to each of the three life domains, one may develop a clear vision for how one would like to implement High Values into one's life.

### Vision

One must develop a compelling vision for one's life based upon these Higher Values: One must see the vision and feel it clearly, as though it is already happening, right now! How does one want to actualize Goodness, Beauty, and Truth in one's life? One must feel it and make the thoughts and images more real and clearer.

### Strategy

One must develop a strategy for how one plans to achieve this objective and actualize one's High-Value vision. Next, one must find somebody who has done something similar in their lives: to find a High-Value Exemplar and a mentor who can serve as a guide for how to actualize one's Higher Values.

### Take Action

One must take massive and consistent action in order to actualize one's High-Value vision, and one must remember to both remain present and connected with one's Highest Values

## Strategies: Self-Transcendence

Self-Transcendence needs are met through developing a clear reason for why one believes that one's limited time on Earth is or will be important within the context of an unfolding universe that will outlast the existence of the physical body. Many people fulfill this need through science, religion, or philosophy, and a great number of collective strategies exist for fulfilling this need. Perhaps one will find that the theory of evolution is the most appealing, providing an answer for the meaning of life. Perhaps the meaning of life can be actualized through one's connecting with a specific religion or philosophy. One must find one's way of making ultimate meaning, learning about how others make ultimate meaning, and finding the one that best matches personal disposition, embodying that form of meaning genuinely!

# Supplement

## Methods of Observation

The scientific method is primarily concerned with formulating a hypothesis and developing an experiment to test the theory. The best means by which to test a theory has typically consisted in establishing an independent variable (control), which is represented by any variable the experimenter intends to change or 'vary' in order to perturb or influence the 'dependent variable'. These experiments are conducted regularly in order to determine the efficacy of prescription medications for treating many disease states. Therefore, the hypothesis of an experiment may be that administering a particular medication (control variable) will produce a change in the disease state (dependent variable). Therefore, the experimenter may provide the medication to a small group of individuals who have contracted a particular disease. The next step would typically include measuring the rate at which the disease enters into remission through measuring the subject's subjective symptom reports and other physiological markers. However, these experiments tend to produce misleading results to the subject's expectation that consuming a medication will increase their well being (i.e. the placebo effect).

The placebo effect represents a 'confounding variable', which interferes with measuring the effect of the control variable. Typically, a study such as this would compare 50% of the study participants with a 'Sugar Pill' or 'Saline Injection' in order to control for the subject's expectation bias. This represents a form of 'blinding' in order to prevent subjects from becoming aware whether they received a medication or placebo (Single blinding). Single blinding could also leverage deception through informing subjects that they are being assessed on their reaction time while they are actually being assessed on whether the medication benefits a particular disease state.

Principle Investigators (Pi's) may also prevent the experimenters who interface with subjects from learning which patients were subjected to the control variable (Double blinding). This is designed to reduce both subject and experimenter bias.

Therefore, double blinding is regarded as a more reliable method to ensure that subjects are blinded to the nature of the event.

These studies may produce results, which are more accurate with larger sample sizes, where N = Number of subjects.

For example:

N = 10 | Anticipate 31.6% margin of error  
---|---  
N = 20 | Anticipate 22.4% margin of error  
N = 50 | Anticipate 14.1% margin of error  
N = 100 | Anticipate 10% margin of error  
N = 200 | Anticipate 7.1% margin of error  
N = 1000 | Anticipate 3.2% margin of error, etc

### Constructs of Cognition & Personality

The practice of leveraging assessments for psychological research must include a brief review of the various forms of assessment validity. The following assessments have been demonstrated to hold some forms of validity, but they may also lack in other forms of validity. Therefore, each inventory must be regarded as a potential tool for learning more about oneself or others rather than a stable predictor for psychological success or other characteristics. The human being is capable of changing it's performance across a variety of the following measures of psychological information processing and social behavior.

Therefore, the position of this work is that such assessments may be beneficial for clinical research, which measures changes when exposed to control variables and practical applications in determining risk factors for psychopathology or opportunities for personal growth and development The following represents a partial list.

Forms of Validity | Measures  
---|---  
Content & Construct validity | Subject in question  
Criterion validity | Correct criteria for subject  
Concurrent validity | Consistent with benchmarks  
Internal validity | Cause-effect relationships  
Predictive validity | Predicts for characteristics  
Ecological validity | Real-world application  
Population validity | Generalizes to real populations

### _Cognitive Assessments_

Dr. Robert Spearman was the first to suggest that a 'General Intelligence' or 'G' could account for the reason that students who scored well in one subject tended to score well across multiple subjects. He also suggested that 'special intelligence' could exist, which represented specialized cognitive capabilities. Meanwhile, French psychologist Alfred Binet and his colleagues, Victor Henry and Theodore Simon developed the Binet-Simon test, which represented one of the earliest assessments of verbal capability. This was one of the first assessments to be used in order to determine an individual's 'mental age' vs. 'physical age', which could be achieved through measuring the average scores for individuals within each age range. Binet acknowledged that the assessment was limited, and he emphasized that multiple intelligences could only be properly documented through qualitative methods. Meanwhile, Dr. Raymond Catell contributed to this field of research through proposing that Fluid intelligence and Crystallized intelligence represent distinct measures of cognitive function.

Fluid intelligence refers to the capacity to adapt to novel problem solving environments, whereas Crystal intelligence refers to the capacity to store and retrieve information. These two forms of cognitive function tend to be inversely related, where younger populations tend to exhibit greater levels of Fluid cognitive function, and older adults tend to be possessed of greater Crystal cognition (i.e. Accumulated data).

Domain | Characteristics  
---|---  
Fluid Intelligence | Cognitive Flexibility  
Crystal Intelligence | Accumulated Data

Stanford University researchers subsequently revised the Binet- Simon assessment, which has since become known as the more widely used Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale is similar to the Stanford-Binet model to assess cognitive function through a series of similar standardized assessments. The median score for a standard population on each of these assessments is 100, and each Standard Deviation is represented by 15 points on the assessment scale. The assessment primarily measures the following broad domains with some variation.

Domain | Characteristics  
---|---  
Knowledge | Vocabulary, Objects  
Quantitative | Verbal and Non-Verbal  
Visual Spatial | Position, Direction, Rotation  
Working Memory | Digit Span, Last Word Spoken  
Fluid Reasoning | Symbol Coding, Analogies

The 'Bell Curve' represents a visual description of a normative probability distribution. This model describes the standard deviation from a mean of data, which tends to assume a bell- shaped curve. The majority of psychological assessments reveal that the majority of most populations are possessed of a variety of normative characteristics. These normative characteristics are represented by the center of the bell curve. The deviation from the norm is represented by the left and right edges of the curve.

### Bell Curve sample:

[Images Available In Paid Version]

These measures of cognition have only demonstrated modest correlations with financial success throughout life-span (Zargosky, 2007). Published research has suggested that each increase in 1 point of IQ score tends to increase income from $234 - $616 per year. This study also suggested that IQ only accounts for 9% of the factors that contribute to personal income, and only 2.4% to variance in wealth accumulation. Therefore, personal net worth tends to be correlated with factors, which are not directly related to IQ. Rather, the primary factors that contribute to wealth accumulation (Net Worth) are primarily a function of the capacity to save and the deployment of stored assets to generate a return on investment (ROI). (Pawasutipaisit & Townsend, 2011). Therefore, the role of IQ assessment may be best applied for determining whether individuals are at risk for cognitive deficits due to physiological or psychopathology. These assessments may also be beneficial at determining potential opportunities for growth and development within a variety of cognitive domains.

### _Moral Reasoning Constructs_

Dr. Lawrence Kohlberg and Elliot Turial are most widely known for their work on the subject of moral reasoning. Kohlberg believed that morality could be assessed across the (1) Pre- conventional, (2), Conventional, and (3) Post-conventional stages of moral development. Kohlberg's model proposed that a subject's stage of moral development could be determined through documenting their qualitative responses to moral dilemmas. For example: The Pharmaceutical company makes billions of dollars in profit each year, but your friend's grandfather needs their medication, which he cannot afford. The company left it's pharmaceutical supply gate unlocked, and you could easily grab enough medication to save his life. Would you take the medication?

|   
---|---  
Stages | Moral Characteristics  
_Pre-conventional:_ |   
Stage 1: Obedience | Avoid Punishment  
Stage 2: Self-interest | Increase personal gain  
|   
_Conventional:_ |   
Stage 3: Conformity | Determined by group norms.  
Stage 4: Authority | Adherence to laws over norms.  
|   
_Post-Conventional:_ |   
Stage 5: Social contract | Greatest # of individuals benefit  
Stage 6: Universal ethics | Universal Laws

Published research in the journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare has suggested that the Kohlberg inspired Moral Development Scale for Professionals (MDSP) has demonstrated construct validity. Meanwhile, Carol Gilligan's "Stages of Care" have expanded upon his theory to address stages of moral development in females, which suggested that logic is not the only means by which to characterize moral reasoning. Rather, females may consider processing emotional sentiment as a means by which to determine whether a particular behavior is moral (Soderhamn et al, 2011).

###  _Empathizing - Systematizing Theory_

Dr. Simon Barron-Cohen developed a theory of human cognition and personality, which primarily focused upon whether individuals tend to engage in 'systematic' or 'empathic' information processing. The result of this inventory was to establish the presence of a 'Systematizing Quotient' (SQ) and 'Empathy Quotient' (EQ), which could be sub-classified into 5 additional types. These included the Systematizing Quotient (SQ), Empathy Quotient (EQ), Sensory Perception Quotient (SPQ), and Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ).

Cohen also suggested that these characteristics are observed to varying degrees across the male and female brain types (Escovar et al, 2016).

These were classified as follows:

Gender Dominance | Characteristics  
---|---  
Male Brain | Preferentially Systematizing  
Female Brain | Preferentially Empathic  
Balanced Brain | Balanced  
Extreme Male Brain | Autism Spectrum  
Extreme Female Brain | Excessively Empathic

Peer reviewed research published in Nature has suggested that SQ and EQ are not correlated, which serves to verify that these represent unique constructs (Escovar et al, 2016). The research also suggested that SQ and EQ vary according to gender, where males tend to score higher on SQ, and females score higher on EQ. However, variation between SQ did not correlate significantly between performance in mathematical problem solving, so this assessment could not predict for participation in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields. Conversely, higher scores on EQ tended predict for higher performance in mathematics, but a gender was not found to be correlated with EQ's predictor for mathematical performance. Meanwhile, high scores in EQ tended to correlate with high scores on the 'Social Awareness', 'Social Cognition', and 'Social Communication' subscales. Therefore, the primary correlates with mathematical achievement were social skills.

However, other researchers have noted the following gender characteristics:

Gender Dominance | Characteristics  
---|---  
Female | Social: Sharing and Turn-Taking  
Male | Social: Rough and Tumble Play  
Female | Social: Responding Empathically  
Female | Social: Using Theory of Mind'  
Male | Social: Dominance Hierarchy  
Male | Parenting Style: Structured  
Female | Parenting Style: Exploratory  
Female | Values Altruism in Relationship  
Male | Empathic Disorders  
Male | Aggression  
Gender Dominance | Characteristics  
Female | Language is cooperative  
Female | Dialog on Emotion  
Female | Attend to Facial Expression  
Male | Murder  
Male | Attend to Objects

### Personality Inventories

The Woodsworth Personal Data Sheet has been regarded as one of the first formal personality tests, which was designed to prevent Army recruits from enlisting if they were predisposed to 'Shell Shock' (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder) (Derogatis, 1994). This self-assessment established the practice of soliciting information directly from subjects in order to 'rate' their responses and determine their personality characteristics. The Woodsworth Data Sheet consisted of 116 Yes / No questions.

### Sample Inventory

  * Do you feel well and strong?
  * Do you sleep well?
  * Are you frightened at night?
  * Have you had bouts of dizziness?
  * Did you have a happy childhood? Etc.

These questions were designed to determine whether individuals were strong, healthy, and most likely to be resilient to the effects of combat. Many of these questions are still present on the modern 'Symptom 90 Checklist', which is administered by the Pearson Assessment & Information Group.

### _Psychopathology Assessments_

Swiss Psychologist Dr. Hermann Roschach developed the Rorchach Test, which consists of a projective assessment designed to determine whether thought, personality, or mood disorders may be present in a subject. Specifically, this assessment was originally designed to determine whether a patient could be diagnosed with schizophrenia, so these were not general purpose personality assessments (Gurley, 2017). The assessment process includes a series of Cards, each of which contain an amorphous ink blot. The medical professional would sit next to their subject but slightly behind them in order to avoid producing subtle social cues that could influence the subject's responses. Five inkblots contain black ink, two are red, and three contain multiple colors -- They are all presented on a white background. The subjects are asked to describe what they see in order to determine the nature of their psychological processes. Once the subject has reviewed each of the cards, they are presented with the cards once more and asked to describe what they saw previously and how they derived that image from the card.

The observer will next document how the subject responds, their body language, and other subtle changes in how they behave.

The primary scoring models include the Rorschach Comprehensive Scoring System (RCS) and the Rorchach Performance Assessment System (R-PAS). The ink blots tend to produce 'popular' vs. 'uncommon' responses, which assists with determining how subjects responses vary and may assist with developing correlates with cognition or behavior.

Subjects may respond through observing a 'bat' vs. a 'moth, 'two humans' vs. 'two elephants' or a 'chameleon' vs. a 'butterfly', etc. Multicultural assessment has demonstrated variations across cultures. For example, North Americans tend to demonstrate higher degrees of texture-based responses, whereas Europeans tended to demonstrate reduced texture-based interpretations unless constructs such as the need for 'closeness' was present. Typically, Europeans primarily responded to 'Form' based content and reduced responsiveness to 'Color'.

The Rorschach is still used to this day, but psychologists have increasingly turned to the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) in order to perform psychological assessments. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory is one of the most widely used psychological assessments, which was developed at the University of Minnesota by Starke Harhaway and J.C. McKinley in 1939 (Friedman et al, 1990). The assessment consists of a series of self-reported items, which are designed to measure a variety of psychological problems.

These include Hypochondia, Depression, Hysteria, Psychopathy, Femininity vs. Masculinity, Paranoia, Psychasthenia (Anxiety), Schizophrenia, Mania, and Social Introversion.

Sample Inventory

  * I like mechanics magazines
  * I have a good appetite
  * I wake up fresh & rested most mornings
  * I like to read newspaper articles on crime
  * My hands and feet are usually warm enough
  * My sex life is satisfactory
  * At times I have fits of laughing & crying
  * I am troubled by attacks of nausea and vomiting
  * No one seems to understand me
  * I feel that it is certainly best to keep my mouth shut when I'm in trouble
  * Evil spirits possess me at times
  * I have had very peculiar and strange experiences

### _The Myers-Briggs Personalis Types_

According to psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung, individual personalities can be predictable and categorized into a series of types (Kroeger & Thuesen, 1989).

Preceding his death and independent of his work, Katharine Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers continued his work by organizing observable behaviors into classifications for personality types. The result was the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): a tool that was originally used to identify personality preferences and match them with occupational talents. Today, individuals use Typewatching to gain considerable insight into themselves and their friends, family members, children, parents, romantic partners, co-workers, supervisors, and more. This system has not been subjected to rigorous experimental testing, so this must be regarded as a system designed to promote a way of thinking about and reflecting upon personality. It is through this self-reflection process that people can begin to see the interaction among their many personal preferences and work toward creating harmony among them.

This assessment has not been rigorously investigated. However, one study published in the journal of American Personality Assessment found that each of these constructs were independent of each other. Therefore, the Myers-Briggs may be possessed of construct validity (Marcia, 1977).

##### Attention Orientation

Introversion (Inward) & Extraversion (Outward)

##### Information Processing

Sensing (Logic Data) & Intuition (Intuit Data)

##### Decisions

Thinking (Logic Decisions) & Feeling (Intuit Decisions)

##### Preferred Environment

Judging (Logical Env.) & Perceiving (Intuitive Env.)

###  _Personality Constructs and Factor Analysis_

Raymond Catell made significant contributions to the field of psychology and particularly with personality theories through Applied Factor Analysis. This was designed in order to identify 16 core human personality traits.

### _Five Primary Personality Factors_

The Factor Five Personality Inventory significantly reduced these 16 personality traits into five primary characteristics. These include the following (Acronym: OCEAN).

Personality Factor | Characteristics  
---|---  
Openness to Experience | Intellect & Openness  
Conscientiousness | Industriousness & Orderliness  
Extroversion | Enthusiasm & AssertKxness  
Agreeable ness | Compassion and Politeness  
Neurotic ism | Volatility & Withdrawal

### Sample Inventory

### _Openness to experience_

  * I have a rich vocabulary.
  * I have a vivid imagination.
  * I have excellent ideas.
  * I am not interested in abstractions. ( _reversed_ )
  * I do not have a good imagination. ( _reversed_ )

### _Conscientiousness_

  * I am always prepared.
  * I pay attention to details.
  * I like order.
  * I often forget to put things back in their proper place. ( _reversed_ )
  * I shirk my duties. ( _reversed_ )

### _Extroversion_

  * I am the life of the party.
  * I don't mind being the center of attention.
  * I feel comfortable around people.
  * I keep in the background. ( _reversed_ )
  * I don't like to draw attention to myself. ( _reversed_ )

### _Agreeableness_

  * I am interested in people.
  * I sympathize with others' feelings.
  * I have a soft heart.
  * I insult people. ( _reversed_ )
  * I feel little concern for others. ( _reversed_ )

### _Neuroticism_

  * I am easily disturbed.
  * I change my mood a lot.
  * I get irritated easily.
  * I feel emotionally well ( _reversed_ ).
  * My mood tends to be stable ( _reversed_ ).

Peer reviewed research published by Taki et al demonstrated that changes in brain structure and tissue growth may correlate with at least one of these personality characteristics (Taki, 2012). The research demonstrated that annual changes in gray matter volume were correlated with cognitive openness and creativity (i.e. Openness). These changes in grey matter were observed in the right inferior parietal lobule, where grey matter loss is greater in those with lower levels of openness. Therefore, increased openness has correlated with higher levels of grey matter volume in this region of the brain. Meanwhile, other peer reviewed research has demonstrated that gender differences exist across these personality characteristics (Weisberg et al, 2011). Females have been found to demonstrate greater levels of extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Still other research has found evidence that these five factors are present across multiple countries regardless of nationality (Gurven et aI, 2012). This has provided further evidence that these personality characteristics serve to effectively measure variations in personality within human subjects. However, the assessment was primarily made available in the English language, which limited it's capacity to measure variations across language dominance.

Further research has also demonstrated that these five factors may correlate with psychopathologies as outlined within the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Illness (DSM) (Morey et al, 2000). The study, which evaluated 144 patients with previously diagnosed personality disorders demonstrated that correlations are present. Meanwhile, other research has suggested that integrating the five factor model into the DSM could enhance diagnostic precision (Hong, 2011).

For example, Geoffrey Miller of the New York University Sterm Business School and University of New Mexico has explained that an excess of conscientiousness may correlated with obsessive compulsive disorder, whereas low levels may predict for drug addition and other impulse inhibition disorders. Meanwhile, low emotional stability may predict for depression, anxiety, bipolar, borderline, and histrionic personality disorder. Low extroversion may correlate with the avoidant or schizoid personality disorders, and high openness may correlate with shizotypical and schizophrenic disorders. Meanwhile, very low levels of agreeableness may predict for psychopathy and paranoid personality disorders (Geoffrey, 1970).

There are many other assessments, which may be of interest for revealing information related to one's cognitive function and personality characteristics. The position of this work is that such assessments may be effective for monitoring individual psychological information processing and sociological behavior within a specific moment in time. However, the results of these instruments may vary based upon state of mind, age, culture, nutrition, personal growth and development progression, and many other variables. The human brain and mind are highly plastic, so individual responses to these inventories may change depending upon the manner in which these variables change. Therefore, these assessments may be used in order to reveal information about ones self or others, which may or may not have been evident. However, these assessments may not be regarded as reflective of lasting or unchanging psychological characteristics.

This section has represented only a brief review of a large variety of psychological instruments in the field, so the reader is encouraged to conduct further research on the subject.

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## Principles of Practical Psychology

  1. Titlepage
  2. Preface
  3. A Brief Review of Philosophy
  4. A Brief Review of Modern Psychology
  5. A Brief Review of Eastern Philosophies
  6. The Human Central Nervous System
  7. Modern Theories on Stages of Human Development
  8. Plato's One & Wilber's Spirit
  9. Practical Applications
  10. Strategy Review
  11. Supplement
  12. References

