The theatre of Ancient Greece, or ancient
Greek drama, is a theatrical culture that
flourished in ancient Greece 700 BC. The city-state
of Athens, which became a significant cultural,
political, and military power during this
period, was its centre, where it was institutionalised
as part of a festival called the Dionysia,
which honoured the god Dionysus. Tragedy,
comedy, and the satyr play were the three
dramatic genres to emerge there. Athens exported
the festival to its numerous colonies and
allies in order to promote a common cultural
identity.
Etymology
The word τραγῳδία, from which the
word "tragedy" is derived, is a compound of
two Greek words: τράγος or "goat" and
ᾠδή meaning "song", from ἀείδειν,
"to sing". This etymology indicates a link
with the practices of the ancient Dionysian
cults. It is impossible, however, to know
with certainty how these fertility rituals
became the basis for tragedy and comedy.
Origins
Martin Litchfield West speculates that early
studies in Greek religion and theatre, which
are inter-related, especially the Orphic Mysteries,
was heavily influenced by Central Asian shamanistic
practices. A large number of Orphic graffiti
unearthed in Olbia seem to testify that the
colony was one major point of contact.
Greek tragedy as we know it was created in
Athens around the time of 532 BC, when Thespis
was the earliest recorded actor. Being a winner
of the first theatrical contest held at Athens,
he was the exarchon, or leader, of the dithyrambs
performed in and around Attica, especially
at the rural Dionysia. By Thespis' time the
dithyramb had evolved far away from its cult
roots. Under the influence of heroic epic,
Doric choral lyric and the innovations of
the poet Arion, it had become a narrative,
ballad-like genre. Because of these, Thespis
is often called the "Father of Tragedy"; however,
his importance is disputed, and Thespis is
sometimes listed as late as 16th in the chronological
order of Greek tragedians; the statesman Solon,
for example, is credited with creating poems
in which characters speak with their own voice,
and spoken performances of Homer's epics by
rhapsodes were popular in festivals prior
to 534 BC. Thus, Thespis's true contribution
to drama is unclear at best, but his name
has been immortalized as a common term for
performer—a "thespian."
The dramatic performances were important to
the Athenians – this is made clear by the
creation of a tragedy competition and festival
in the City Dionysia. This was organized possibly
to foster loyalty among the tribes of Attica.
The festival was created roughly around 508
BC. While no drama texts exist from the sixth
century BC, we do know the names of three
competitors besides Thespis: Choerilus, Pratinas,
and Phrynichus. Each is credited with different
innovations in the field.
More is known about Phrynichus. He won his
first competition between 511 BC and 508 BC.
He produced tragedies on themes and subjects
later exploited in the golden age such as
the Danaids, Phoenician Women and Alcestis.
He was the first poet we know of to use a
historical subject – his Fall of Miletus,
produced in 493-2, chronicled the fate of
the town of Miletus after it was conquered
by the Persians. Herodotus reports that "the
Athenians made clear their deep grief for
the taking of Miletus in many ways, but especially
in this: when Phrynichus wrote a play entitled
“The Fall of Miletus” and produced it,
the whole theatre fell to weeping; they fined
Phrynichus a thousand drachmas for bringing
to mind a calamity that affected them so personally,
and forbade the performance of that play forever."
He is also thought to be the first to use
female characters.
Until the Hellenistic period, all tragedies
were unique pieces written in honour of Dionysus
and played only once, so that today we primarily
have the pieces that were still remembered
well enough to have been repeated when the
repetition of old tragedies became fashionable.
New inventions during the Classical Period
After the Great Destruction of Athens by the
Persian Empire in 480 BC, the town and acropolis
were rebuilt, and theatre became formalized
and an even greater part of Athenian culture
and civic pride. This century is normally
regarded as the Golden Age of Greek drama.
The centre-piece of the annual Dionysia, which
took place once in winter and once in spring,
was a competition between three tragic playwrights
at the Theatre of Dionysus. Each submitted
three tragedies, plus a satyr play. Beginning
in a first competition in 486 BC each playwright
submitted a comedy. Aristotle claimed that
Aeschylus added the second actor, and that
Sophocles introduced the third. Apparently
the Greek playwrights never used more than
three actors based on what is known about
Greek theatre.
Tragedy and comedy were viewed as completely
separate genres, and no plays ever merged
aspects of the two. Satyr plays dealt with
the mythological subject matter of the tragedies,
but in a purely comedic manner.
Hellenistic period
The power of Athens declined following its
defeat in the Peloponnesian War against the
Spartans. From that time on, the theatre started
performing old tragedies again. Although its
theatrical traditions seem to have lost their
vitality, Greek theatre continued into the
Hellenistic period. However, the primary Hellenistic
theatrical form was not tragedy but 'New Comedy',
comic episodes about the lives of ordinary
citizens. The only extant playwright from
the period is Menander. One of New Comedy's
most important contributions was its influence
on Roman comedy, an influence that can be
seen in the surviving works of Plautus and
Terence.
Characteristics of the buildings
The plays had a chorus from 12 to 15 people,
who performed the plays in verse accompanied
by music, beginning in the morning and lasting
until the evening. The performance space was
a simple circular space, the orchestra, where
the chorus danced and sang. The orchestra,
which had an average diameter of 78 feet,
was situated on a flattened terrace at the
foot of a hill, the slope of which produced
a natural theatron, literally "watching place".
Later, the term "theatre" came to be applied
to the whole area of theatron, orchestra,
and skené. The coryphaeus was the head chorus
member who could enter the story as a character
able to interact with the characters of a
play.
The theatres were originally built on a very
large scale to accommodate the large number
of people on stage, as well as the large number
of people in the audience, up to fourteen
thousand. Mathematics played a large role
in the construction of these theatres, as
their designers had to be able to create acoustics
in them such that the actors' voices could
be heard throughout the theatre, including
the very top row of seats. The Greeks' understanding
of acoustics compares very favourably with
the current state of the art. The first seats
in Greek theatres were wooden, but around
499 BC the practice of inlaying stone blocks
into the side of the hill to create permanent,
stable seating became more common. They were
called the "prohedria" and reserved for priests
and a few most respected citizens.
In 465 BC, the playwrights began using a backdrop
or scenic wall, which hung or stood behind
the orchestra, which also served as an area
where actors could change their costumes.
It was known as the skênê. The death of
a character was always heard behind the skênê,
for it was considered inappropriate to show
a killing in view of the audience. Though
there is scholarly argument that death in
Greek tragedy was portrayed off stage primarily
because of dramatic considerations, and not
prudishness or sensitivity of the audience.
In 425 BC a stone scene wall, called a paraskenia,
became a common supplement to skênê in the
theatres. A paraskenia was a long wall with
projecting sides, which may have had doorways
for entrances and exits. Just behind the paraskenia
was the proskenion. The proskenion was beautiful,
and was similar to the modern day proscenium.
Greek theatres also had tall arched entrances
called parodoi or eisodoi, through which actors
and chorus members entered and exited the
orchestra. By the end of the 5th century BC,
around the time of the Peloponnesian War,
the skênê, the back wall, was two stories
high. The upper story was called the episkenion.
Some theatres also had a raised speaking place
on the orchestra called the logeion.
Scenic elements
There were several scenic elements commonly
used in Greek theatre:
mechane, a crane that gave the impression
of a flying actor.
ekkyklêma, a wheeled platform often used
to bring dead characters into view for the
audience
trap doors, or similar openings in the ground
to lift people onto the stage
Pinakes, pictures hung to create scenery
Thyromata, more complex pictures built into
the second-level scene
Phallic props were used for satyr plays, symbolizing
fertility in honour of Dionysus.
Masks
Masks and ritual
The Ancient Greek term for a mask is prosopon,
and was a significant element in the worship
of Dionysus at Athens, likely used in ceremonial
rites and celebrations. Most of the evidence
comes from only a few vase paintings of the
5th century BC, such as one showing a mask
of the god suspended from a tree with decorated
robe hanging below it and dancing and the
Pronomos vase, which depicts actors preparing
for a Satyr play. No physical evidence remains
available to us, as the masks were made of
organic materials and not considered permanent
objects, ultimately being dedicated to the
altar of Dionysus after performances. Nevertheless,
the mask is known to have been used since
the time of Aeschylus and considered to be
one of the iconic conventions of classical
Greek theatre.
Masks were also made for members of the chorus,
who play some part in the action and provide
a commentary on the events in which they are
caught up. Although there are twelve or fifteen
members of the tragic chorus, they all wear
the same mask because they are considered
to be representing one character.
Mask details
Illustrations of theatrical masks from 5th
century display helmet-like masks, covering
the entire face and head, with holes for the
eyes and a small aperture for the mouth, as
well as an integrated wig. These paintings
never show actual masks on the actors in performance;
they are most often shown being handled by
the actors before or after a performance,
that liminal space between the audience and
the stage, between myth and reality. This
demonstrates the way in which the mask was
to ‘melt’ into the face and allow the
actor to vanish into the role. Effectively,
the mask transformed the actor as much as
memorization of the text. Therefore, performance
in ancient Greece did not distinguish the
masked actor from the theatrical character.
The mask-makers were called skeuopoios or
“maker of the properties,” thus suggesting
that their role encompassed multiple duties
and tasks. The masks were most likely made
out of light weight, organic materials like
stiffened linen, leather, wood, or cork, with
the wig consisting of human or animal hair.
Due to the visual restrictions imposed by
these masks, it was imperative that the actors
hear in order to orient and balance themselves.
Thus, it is believed that the ears were covered
by substantial amounts of hair and not the
helmet-mask itself. The mouth opening was
relatively small, preventing the mouth to
be seen during performances. Vervain and Wiles
posit that this small size discourages the
idea that the mask functioned as a megaphone,
as originally presented in the 1960s. Greek
mask-maker, Thanos Vovolis, suggests that
the mask serves as a resonator for the head,
thus enhancing vocal acoustics and altering
its quality. This leads to increased energy
and presence, allowing for the more complete
metamorphosis of the actor into his character.
Mask functions
In a large open-air theatre, like the Theatre
of Dionysus in Athens, the classical masks
were able to create a sense of dread in the
audience creating large scale panic, especially
since they had intensely exaggerated facial
features and expressions. They enabled an
actor to appear and reappear in several different
roles, thus preventing the audience from identifying
the actor to one specific character. Their
variations help the audience to distinguish
sex, age, and social status, in addition to
revealing a change in a particular character’s
appearance, e.g. Oedipus after blinding himself.
Unique masks were also created for specific
characters and events in a play, such as The
Furies in Aeschylus’ Eumenides and Pentheus
and Cadmus in Euripides’ The Bacchae. Worn
by the chorus, the masks created a sense of
unity and uniformity, while representing a
multi-voiced persona or single organism and
simultaneously encouraged interdependency
and a heightened sensitivity between each
individual of the group. Only 2-3 actors were
allowed on the stage at one time, and masks
permitted quick transitions from one character
to another. There were only male actors, but
masks allowed them to play female characters.
Other costume details
The actors in these plays that had tragic
roles wore boots called cothurni that elevated
them above the other actors. The actors with
comedic roles only wore a thin soled shoe
called a sock. For this reason, dramatic art
is sometimes alluded to as “Sock and Buskin.”
Melpomene is the muse of tragedy and is often
depicted holding the tragic mask and wearing
cothurni. Thalia is the muse of comedy and
is similarly associated with the mask of comedy
and the comedic "socks".
See also
References
Additional literature
Brockett, Oscar G. and Robert Ball. The Essential
Theatre. 7th Ed. Harcourt Brace, Orlando:
2000
Brooke, Iris. Costume in Greek Classical Drama.
Methuen, London: 1962
Buckham, Philip Wentworth, Theatre of the
Greeks, London 1827.
Davidson, J.A., Literature and Literacy in
Ancient Greece, Part 1, Phoenix, 16, 1962,
pp. 141–56.
ibid., Peisistratus and Homer, TAPA, 86, 1955,
pp. 1–21.
Easterling, P.E.. The Cambridge Companion
to Greek Tragedy. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-41245-5. 
Easterling, Patricia Elizabeth; Hall, Edith,
Greek and Roman Actors: Aspects of an Ancient
Profession, Cambridge University Press, 2002.
ISBN 0-521-65140-9
Else, Gerald F.
Aristotle's Poetics: The Argument, Cambridge,
MA 1967.
The Origins and Early Forms of Greek Tragedy,
Cambridge, MA 1965.
The Origins of ΤΡΑΓΩΙΔΙΑ, Hermes
85, 1957, pp. 17–46.
Flickinger, Roy Caston, The Greek theater
and its drama, Chicago, University of Chicago
Press, 1918
Freund, Philip, The Birth of Theatre, London:
Peter Owen, 2003. ISBN 0-7206-1170-9
Haigh, A. E., The Attic Theatre, 1907.
Harsh, Philip Whaley, A handbook of Classical
Drama, Stanford University, California, Stanford
University Press; London, H. Milford, Oxford
University Press, 1944.
Lesky, A. Greek Tragedy, trans. H.A., Frankfurt,
London and New York 1965.
Ley, Graham. A Short Introduction to the Ancient
Greek Theatre. University of Chicago, Chicago:
2006
Loscalzo, Donato, Il pubblico a teatro nella
Grecia antica, Roma 2008
McDonald, Marianne, Walton, J. Michael, The
Cambridge companion to Greek and Roman theatre,
Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University
Press, 2007. ISBN 0-521-83456-2
Moulton, Richard Green, The 
ancient classical drama; a study in literary
evolution intended for readers in English
and in the original, Oxford, The Clarendon
Press, 1890.
Padilla, Mark William, "Rites of Passage in
Ancient Greece: Literature, Religion, Society",
Bucknell University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8387-5418-X
Pickard-Cambridge, Sir Arthur Wallace
Dithyramb, Tragedy, and Comedy , Oxford 1927.
The Theatre of Dionysus in Athens, Oxford
1946.
The Dramatic Festivals of Athens, Oxford 1953.
Rabinowitz, Nancy Sorkin. Greek Tragedy. Malden,
MA: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4051-2160-6. 
Ridgeway, William, Origin of Tragedy with
Special Reference to the Greek Tragedians,
1910.
Riu, Xavier, Dionysism and Comedy, 1999. review
Ross, Stewart. Greek Theatre. Wayland Press,
Hove: 1996
Rozik, Eli, The roots of theatre: rethinking
ritual and other theories of origin, Iowa
City: University of Iowa Press, 2002. ISBN
0-87745-817-0
Schlegel, August Wilhelm, Lectures on Dramatic
Art and Literature, Geneva 1809.
Sommerstein, Alan H., Greek Drama and Dramatists,
Routledge, 2002.
Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane, Tragedy and
Athenian Religion, Oxford:University Press
2003.
Tsitsiridis, Stavros, "Greek Mime in the Roman
Empire 184-232.
Varakis, Angie. “Research on the Ancient
Mask”, Didaskalia, Vol. 6.1 Spring 2004.
Vervain, Chris and David Wiles, The Masks
of Greek Tragedy as Point of Departure for
Modern Performance. New Theatre Quarterly
67, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge,
2004.
Vovolis, Thanos and Giorgos Zamboulakis. The
Acoustical Mask of Greak Tragedy, Didaskalia
Vol. 7.1.
Wiles, David. Greek Theatre Performance: An
Introduction. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge: 2000
ibid. The Masks of Menander: Sign and Meaning
in Greek and Roman Performance, Cambridge,
1991.
ibid. Mask and Performance in Greek Tragedy:
from ancient festival to modern experimentation,
Cambridge, 1997.
Wise, Jennifer, Dionysus Writes: The Invention
of Theatre in Ancient Greece, Ithaca 1998.
review
Zimmerman, B., Greek Tragedy: An Introduction,
trans. T. Marier, Baltimore 1991.
External links
Ancient Greek theatre history and articles
Drama lesson 1: The ancient Greek theatre
Ancient Greek Theatre
The Ancient Theatre Archive, Greek and Roman
theatre architecture – Dr. Thomas G. Hines,
Department of Theatre, Whitman College
Greek and Roman theatre glossary
Illustrated Greek Theater – Dr. Janice Siegel,
Department of Classics, Hampden-Sydney College,
Virginia
Searchable database of monologues for actors
from Ancient Greek Theatre
Logeion: A Journal of Ancient Theatre with
free access which publishes original scholarly
articles including its reception in modern
theatre, literature, cinema and the other
art forms and media, as well as its relation
to the theatre of other periods and geographical
regions.
