Buddhist cosmology is the description of the
shape and evolution of the Universe according
to the Buddhist scriptures and commentaries.
It consists of temporal and spatial cosmology,
the temporal cosmology being the division
of the existence of a 'world' into four discrete
moments (the creation, duration, dissolution,
and state of being dissolved; this does not
seem to be a canonical division, however).
The spatial cosmology consists of a vertical
cosmology, the various planes of beings, their
bodies, characteristics, food, lifespan, beauty
and a horizontal cosmology, the distribution
of these world-systems into an "apparently"
infinite sheet of universes.
The existence of world-periods (moments, kalpas),
is well attested to by the Buddha.The historical
Buddha (Gautama Buddha) made references to
the existence of aeons (the duration of which
he describes using a metaphor of the time
taken to erode a rock by brushing it with
a silk cloth, once per century), and simultaneously
intimates his knowledge of past events, such
as the dawn of human beings in their coarse
and gender-split forms, the existence of more
than one sun at certain points in time, and
his ability to convey his voice vast distances,
as well as the ability of his disciples (who
if they fare accordingly) to be reborn in
any one of these planes (should they so choose).
== Introduction ==
The self-consistent Buddhist cosmology, which
is presented in commentaries and works of
Abhidharma in both Theravāda and Mahāyāna
traditions, is the end-product of an analysis
and reconciliation of cosmological comments
found in the Buddhist sūtra and vinaya traditions.
No single sūtra sets out the entire structure
of the universe, but in several sūtras the
Buddha describes other worlds and states of
being, and other sūtras describe the origin
and destruction of the universe.
The synthesis of these data into a single
comprehensive system must have taken place
early in the history of Buddhism, as the system
described in the Pāli Vibhajyavāda tradition
(represented by today's Theravādins) agrees,
despite some minor inconsistencies of nomenclature,
with the Sarvāstivāda tradition which is
preserved by Mahāyāna Buddhists.The picture
of the world presented in Buddhist cosmological
descriptions cannot be taken as a literal
description of the shape of the universe.
It is inconsistent, and cannot be made consistent,
with astronomical data that were already known
in ancient India.
However, it is not intended to be a description
of how ordinary humans perceive their world;
rather, it is the universe as seen through
the divyacakṣus (Pāli: dibbacakkhu दिव्यचक्ख्खु),
the "divine eye" by which a Buddha or an arhat
who has cultivated this faculty can perceive
all of the other worlds and the beings arising
(being born) and passing away (dying) within
them, and can tell from what state they have
been reborn and into what state they will
be reborn.
The cosmology has also been interpreted in
a symbolical or allegorical sense (for Mahayana
teaching see Ten spiritual realms).
Buddhist cosmology can be divided into two
related kinds: spatial cosmology, which describes
the arrangement of the various worlds within
the universe; and temporal cosmology, which
describes how those worlds come into existence,
and how they pass away.
== Spatial cosmology ==
Spatial cosmology displays the various, multitude
of worlds embedded in the universe.
Spatial cosmology can also be divided into
two branches.
The vertical (or cakravāla; देवनागरीः
चक्रवाल) cosmology describes
the arrangement of worlds in a vertical pattern,
some being higher and some lower.
By contrast, the horizontal (sahasra) cosmology
describes the grouping of these vertical worlds
into sets of thousands, millions or billions.
=== Vertical cosmology ===
"In the vertical cosmology, the universe exists
of many worlds (lokāḥ; देवानागरीः
लोक/लोको) – one might say
"planes/realms" – stacked one upon the next
in layers.
Each world corresponds to a mental state or
a state of being".
A world is not, however, a location so much
as it is the beings which compose it; it is
sustained by their karma and if the beings
in a world all die or disappear, the world
disappears too.
Likewise, a world comes into existence when
the first being is born into it.
The physical separation is not so important
as the difference in mental state; humans
and animals, though they partially share the
same physical environments, still belong to
different worlds because their minds perceive
and react to those environments differently.
The vertical cosmology is divided into thirty-one
planes of existence and the planes into three
realms, or dhātus, each corresponding to
a different type of mentality.
These three realms (Tridhātu) are the Ārūpyadhātu
(4 Realms), the Rūpadhātu (16 Realms), and
the Kāmadhātu (15 Realms).
This Sakwala/solar system or plane of existence
comprises the "five or six desire realms".
In some instances all of the beings born in
the Ārūpyadhātu and the Rūpadhātu are
informally classified as "gods" or "deities"
(devāḥ), along with the gods of the Kāmadhātu,
notwithstanding the fact that the deities
of the Kāmadhātu differ more from those
of the Ārūpyadhātu than they do from humans.
It is to be understood that deva is an imprecise
term referring to any being living in a longer-lived
and generally more blissful state than humans.
Most of them are not "gods" in the common
sense of the term, having little or no concern
with the human world and rarely if ever interacting
with it; only the lowest deities of the Kāmadhātu
correspond to the gods described in many polytheistic
religions.
The term "brahmā; देवनागरीः
ब्रह्मा" is used both as a name
and as a generic term for one of the higher
devas.
In its broadest sense, it can refer to any
of the inhabitants of the Ārūpyadhātu and
the Rūpadhātu.
In more restricted senses, it can refer to
an inhabitant of one of the eleven lower worlds
of the Rūpadhātu, or in its narrowest sense,
to the three lowest worlds of the Rūpadhātu
(Plane of Brahma’s retinue) A large number
of devas use the name "Brahmā", e.g. Brahmā
Sahampati सहम्पत्ति महाब्रह्मा,
Brahmā Sanatkumāra ब्रह्मा
सनतकुमार, Baka Brahmā बक
ब्रह्मा, etc.
It is not always clear which world they belong
to, although it must always be one of the
worlds of the Rūpadhātu.
According to the Ayacana Sutta, Brahmā Sahampati,
who begs the Buddha to teach Dhamma to the
world, resides in the Śuddhāvāsa worlds.
==== Formless Realm (Ārūpyadhātu अरुपधातु)
====
The Ārūpyadhātu (Sanskrit) or Arūpaloka
(Pāli) (Tib: gzugs med pa'i khams; Chinese:
无色界/無色界;Jpn: 無色界 Mushiki-kai;
देवनागरीः अरुपधातु
/ अरुपलोक) or "Formless realm"
would have no place in a purely physical cosmology,
as none of the beings inhabiting it has either
shape or location; and correspondingly, the
realm has no location either.
This realm belongs to those devas who attained
and remained in the Four Formless Absorptions
(catuḥ-samāpatti चतु-समापत्ती)
of the arūpadhyānas in a previous life,
and now enjoys the fruits (vipāka) of the
good karma of that accomplishment.
Bodhisattvas, however, are never born in the
Ārūpyadhātu even when they have attained
the arūpadhyānas.
There are four types of Ārūpyadhātu devas,
corresponding to the four types of arūpadhyānas:
===== Arupa Bhumi (Arupachara Brahmalokas
or Immaterial/Formless Brahma Realms) =====
Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana or Nevasaññānāsaññāyatana
(Tib: 'du shes med 'du shes med min; Jpn:
非有想非無想処; देवनागरीः
नैवसंज्ञानासंज्ञायातन)
"Sphere of neither perception nor non-perception".
In this sphere the formless beings have gone
beyond a mere negation of perception and have
attained a liminal state where they do not
engage in "perception" (saṃjñā, recognition
of particulars by their marks) but are not
wholly unconscious.
This was the sphere reached by Udraka Rāmaputra
(Pāli: Uddaka Rāmaputta), the second of
the Buddha's original teachers, who considered
it equivalent to enlightenment.
Total life span on this realm in human years
- 84,000 Maha Kalpa (Maha Kalpa = 4 Asankya
Kalpa).
This realm is placed 5,580,000 Yojanas ( 1
Yojana = 16 Miles) above the Plane of Nothingness
(Akiknchaknkayatana).
Ākiṃcanyāyatana or Ākiñcaññāyatana
(Tib: ci yang med; Chinese: 无所有处/無所有處;
Jpn: 無所有処 mu sho u sho; देवनागरीः
अकिञ्चानयातन) "Sphere
of Nothingness" (literally "lacking anything").
In this sphere formless beings dwell contemplating
upon the thought that "there is no thing".
This is considered a form of perception, though
a very subtle one.
This was the sphere reached by Ārāḍa Kālāma
(Pāli: Āḷāra Kālāma), the first of
the Buddha's original teachers; he considered
it to be equivalent to enlightenment.
Total life span on this realm in human years
- 60,000 Maha Kalpa.
This realm is placed 5,580,000 yojanas above
the Plane of Infinite Consciousness(Viknknanaknchayathana).
Vijñānānantyāyatana or Viññāṇānañcāyatana
or more commonly the contracted form Viññāṇañcāyatana
(Tib: rnam shes mtha' yas; Chinese: 识无边处/識無邊處;
Jpn: 識無辺処 shiki mu hen jo; देवनागरीः
विज्ञानायातन) "Sphere
of Infinite Consciousness".
In this sphere formless beings dwell meditating
on their consciousness (vijñāna) as infinitely
pervasive.
Total life span on this realm in human years
- 40,000 Maha Kalpa.
This realm is placed 5,580,000 yojanas above
the Plane of Infinite Space(Akasanknayathanaya)
Ākāśānantyāyatana or Ākāsānañcāyatana
(Tib: nam mkha' mtha' yas; Chinese: 空无边处/空無邊處;Jpn:
空無辺処 kū mu hen jo; देवनागरीः
अाकाशनायातन) "Sphere
of Infinite Space".
In this sphere formless beings dwell meditating
upon space or extension (ākāśa) as infinitely
pervasive.
Total life span on this realm in human years
- 20,000 Maha Kalpa.
This realm is placed 5,580,000 yojanas above
the Akanita Brahma Loka — Highest plane
of pure abodes.
==== Form Realm (Rūpadhātu) ====
The Rūpadhātu (Pāli: Rūpaloka; Tib: gzugs
kyi khams; Chinese: 色界; Jpn: 色界 Shiki-kai;
देवानागरीः रुपलोक/रुपधातु)
or "Form realm" is, as the name implies, the
first of the physical realms; its inhabitants
all have a location and bodies of a sort,
though those bodies are composed of a subtle
substance which is of itself invisible to
the inhabitants of the Kāmadhātu.
According to the Janavasabha Sutta, when a
brahma (a being from the Brahma-world of the
Rūpadhātu) wishes to visit a deva of the
Trāyastriṃśa heaven (in the Kāmadhātu),
he has to assume a "grosser form" in order
to be visible to them.
There are 17-22 Rūpadhātu in Buddhism texts,
the most common saying is 18.The beings of
the Form realm are not subject to the extremes
of pleasure and pain, or governed by desires
for things pleasing to the senses, as the
beings of the Kāmadhātu are.
The bodies of Form realm beings do not have
sexual distinctions.
Like the beings of the Ārūpyadhātu, the
dwellers in the Rūpadhātu have minds corresponding
to the dhyānas (Pāli: jhānas).
In their case it is the four lower dhyānas
or rūpadhyānas॥रुपध्यान.
However, although the beings of the Rūpadhātu
can be divided into four broad grades corresponding
to these four dhyānas, each of them is subdivided
into further grades, three for each of the
four dhyānas and five for the Śuddhāvāsa
devas, for a total of seventeen grades (the
Theravāda tradition counts one less grade
in the highest dhyāna for a total of sixteen).
Physically, the Rūpadhātu consists of a
series of planes stacked on top of each other,
each one in a series of steps half the size
of the previous one as one descends.
In part, this reflects the fact that the devas
are also thought of as physically larger on
the higher planes.
The highest planes are also broader in extent
than the ones lower down, as discussed in
the section on Sahasra cosmology.
The height of these planes is expressed in
yojanas, a measurement of very uncertain length,
but sometimes taken to be about 4,000 times
the height of a man, and so approximately
4.54 miles (7.31 km).
===== Pure Abodes =====
The Śuddhāvāsa (Pāli: Suddhāvāsa; Tib:
gnas gtsang ma; Chinese: 净居天/凈居天;
देवनागरीः शुद्धावास)
worlds, or "Pure Abodes", are distinct from
the other worlds of the Rūpadhātu in that
they do not house beings who have been born
there through ordinary merit or meditative
attainments, but only those Anāgāmins ("Non-returners")
who are already on the path to Arhat-hood
and who will attain enlightenment directly
from the Śuddhāvāsa worlds without being
reborn in a lower plane.
Every Śuddhāvāsa deva is therefore a protector
of Buddhism.
(Brahma Sahampati, who appealed to the newly
enlightened Buddha to teach, was an Anagami
under the previous Buddha).
Because a Śuddhāvāsa deva will never be
reborn outside the Śuddhāvāsa worlds, no
Bodhisattva is ever born in these worlds,
as a Bodhisattva must ultimately be reborn
as a human being.
Since these devas rise from lower planes only
due to the teaching of a Buddha, they can
remain empty for very long periods if no Buddha
arises.
However, unlike the lower worlds, the Śuddhāvāsa
worlds are never destroyed by natural catastrophe.
The Śuddhāvāsa devas predict the coming
of a Buddha and, taking the guise of Brahmins,
reveal to human beings the signs by which
a Buddha can be recognized.
They also ensure that a Bodhisattva in his
last life will see the four signs that will
lead to his renunciation.
The five Śuddhāvāsa worlds are:
Akaniṣṭha or Akaniṭṭha; देवनागरीः
अकनिठ्ठ / अकनिष्ठ
– World of devas "equal in rank" (literally:
having no one as the youngest).
The highest of all the Rūpadhātu worlds,
it is often used to refer to the highest extreme
of the universe.
The current Śakra will eventually be born
there.
The duration of life in Akaniṣṭha is 16,000
kalpas (Vibhajyavāda tradition).
Mahesvara (Shiva) the ruler of the three realms
of samsara is said to dwell here.
The height of this world is 167,772,160 yojanas
above the Earth (approximately the distance
of Saturn from Earth).
Sudarśana सुर्दशन or Sudassīसुदस्सी
– The "clear-seeing" devas live in a world
similar to and friendly with the Akaniṣṭha
world.
The height of this world is 83,886,080 yojanas
above the Earth (approximately the distance
of Jupiter from Earth).
Sudṛśa सुर्दश or Sudassa सुदस्स
– The world of the "beautiful" devas are
said to be the place of rebirth for five kinds
of anāgāmins.
The height of this world is 41,943,040 yojanas
above the Earth.
Atapaअताप or Atappaअतप्प
– The world of the "untroubled" devas, whose
company those of lower realms wish for.
The height of this world is 20,971,520 yojanas
above the Earth (approximately the distance
of Sun from Earth).
Avṛhaअभ्रह or Avihaअभिह
– The world of the "not falling" devas,
perhaps the most common destination for reborn
Anāgāmins.
Many achieve arhatship directly in this world,
but some pass away and are reborn in sequentially
higher worlds of the Pure Abodes until they
are at last reborn in the Akaniṣṭha world.
These are called in Pāli uddhaṃsotas, "those
whose stream goes upward".
The duration of life in Avṛha is 1,000 kalpas
(Vibhajyavāda tradition).
The height of this world is 10,485,760 yojanas
above the Earth (approximately the distance
of Mars from Earth).
===== Bṛhatphala worlds भ्रतफल
=====
The mental state of the devas of the Bṛhatphala
worlds (Chn: 四禅九天/四禪九天; Jpn:
四禅九天) corresponds to the fourth dhyāna,
and is characterized by equanimity (upekṣā).
The Bṛhatphala worlds form the upper limit
to the destruction of the universe by wind
at the end of a mahākalpa (see Temporal cosmology
below), that is, they are spared such destruction.
Asaññasatta अासनसत्त (Sanskrit:
Asaṃjñasattva असम्जनासत्व)
(Vibhajyavāda tradition only) – "Unconscious
beings", devas who have attained a high dhyāna
(similar to that of the Formless Realm), and,
wishing to avoid the perils of perception,
have achieved a state of non-perception in
which they endure for a time.
After a while, however, perception arises
again and they fall into a lower state.
Bṛhatphalaभ्रतफल or Vehapphala
वेहफल (Tib: 'bras bu che) – Devas
"having great fruit".
Their lifespan is 500 mahākalpas.
(Vibhajyavāda tradition).
Some Anāgāmins are reborn here.
The height of this world is 5,242,880 yojanas
above the Earth.(approximately the distance
of Venus from Earth)
Puṇyaprasava पुण्यप्रसभ
(Sarvāstivāda tradition only; Tib: bsod
nams skyes;देवनागरीः पुन्यप्रसभ)
– The world of the devas who are the "offspring
of merit".
The height of this world is 2,621,440 yojanas
above the Earth.
Anabhrakaअनभक्र (Sarvāstivāda
tradition only; Tib: sprin med; देवनागरीः
अनभ्राक) – The world of the
"cloudless" devas.
The height of this world is 1,310,720 yojanas
above the Earth.
===== Śubhakṛtsna worlds =====
The mental state of the devas of the Śubhakṛtsna
worlds (Chn/Jpn: 三禅三天; देवनागरीः
शुभक्षण) corresponds to the
third dhyāna, and is characterized by a quiet
joy (sukha).
These devas have bodies that radiate a steady
light.
The Śubhakṛtsna worlds form the upper limit
to the destruction of the universe by water
at the end of a mahākalpa (see Temporal cosmology
below), that is, the flood of water does not
rise high enough to reach them.
Śubhakṛtsna or Subhakiṇṇa / Subhakiṇha
(Tib: dge rgyas;देवनागरीः
शुभक्षिण्ण) – The world
of devas of "total beauty".
Their lifespan is 64 mahākalpas (some sources:
4 mahākalpas) according to the Vibhajyavāda
tradition.
64 mahākalpas is the interval between destructions
of the universe by wind, including the Śubhakṛtsna
worlds.
The height of this world is 655,360 yojanas
above the Earth.
Apramāṇaśubha or Appamāṇasubha (Tib:
tshad med dge;देवनागरीः
अप्रमाणशुभ) – The world
of devas of "limitless beauty".
Their lifespan is 32 mahākalpas (Vibhajyavāda
tradition).
They possess "faith, virtue, learning, munificence
and wisdom".
The height of this world is 327,680 yojanas
above the Earth.
Parīttaśubha or Parittasubha (Tib: dge chung;
देवनागरीः परित्तशुभ)
– The world of devas of "limited beauty".
Their lifespan is 16 mahākalpas.
The height of this world is 163,840 yojanas
above the Earth.
===== Ābhāsvara worlds =====
The mental state of the devas of the Ābhāsvara
worlds (Chn/Jpn: 二禅三天; देवनागरीः
अभश्वभारा) corresponds to
the second dhyāna, and is characterized by
delight (prīti) as well as joy (sukha); the
Ābhāsvara devas are said to shout aloud
in their joy, crying aho sukham!
("Oh joy!").
These devas have bodies that emit flashing
rays of light like lightning.
They are said to have similar bodies (to each
other) but diverse perceptions.
The Ābhāsvara worlds form the upper limit
to the destruction of the universe by fire
at the end of a mahākalpa (see Temporal cosmology
below), that is, the column of fire does not
rise high enough to reach them.
After the destruction of the world, at the
beginning of the vivartakalpa, the worlds
are first populated by beings reborn from
the Ābhāsvara worlds.
Ābhāsvara or Ābhassara (Tib: 'od gsal;
देवनागरीः अभासभारा
/ अव्भसार) – The world of
devas "possessing splendor".
The lifespan of the Ābhāsvara devas is 8
mahākalpas (others: 2 mahākalpas).
Eight mahākalpas is the interval between
destructions of the universe by water, which
includes the Ābhāsvara worlds.
The height of this world is 81,920 yojanas
above the Earth.
Apramāṇābha or Appamāṇābha (Tib: tshad
med 'od; देवनागरीः अप्रमानभ)
– The world of devas of "limitless light",
a concept on which they meditate.
Their lifespan is 4 mahākalpas.
The height of this world is 40,960 yojanas
above the Earth.
Parīttābha or Parittābha (Tib: 'od chung;
परितव्भ) – The world of devas
of "limited light".
Their lifespan is 2 mahākalpas.
The height of this world is 20,480 yojanas
above the Earth.
===== Brahmā worlds =====
The mental state of the devas of the Brahmā
worlds (Chn/Jpn: 初禅三天; ब्रह्मलोक)
corresponds to the first dhyāna, and is characterized
by observation (vitarka) and reflection (vicāra)
as well as delight (prīti) and joy (sukha).
The Brahmā worlds, together with the other
lower worlds of the universe, are destroyed
by fire at the end of a mahākalpa (see Temporal
cosmology below).
Mahābrahmā (Tib: tshangs pa chen po; Chn/Jpn:
大梵天 Daibonten; देवनागरीः
महाब्रह्मा) – the world
of "Great Brahmā", believed by many to be
the creator of the world, and having as his
titles "Brahmā, Great Brahmā, the Conqueror,
the Unconquered, the All-Seeing, All-Powerful,
the Lord, the Maker and Creator, the Ruler,
Appointer and Orderer, Father of All That
Have Been and Shall Be."
According to the Brahmajāla Sutta (DN.1),
a Mahābrahmā is a being from the Ābhāsvara
worlds who falls into a lower world through
exhaustion of his merits and is reborn alone
in the Brahma-world; forgetting his former
existence, he imagines himself to have come
into existence without cause.
Note that even such a high-ranking deity has
no intrinsic knowledge of the worlds above
his own.
Mahābrahmā is 1 ​1⁄2 yojanas tall.
His lifespan variously said to be 1 kalpa
(Vibhajyavāda tradition) or 1 ​1⁄2 kalpas
long (Sarvāstivāda tradition), although
it would seem that it could be no longer than
​3⁄4 of a mahākalpa, i.e., all of the
mahākalpa except for the Saṃvartasthāyikalpa,
because that is the total length of time between
the rebuilding of the lower world and its
destruction.
It is unclear what period of time "kalpa"
refers to in this case.
The height of this world is 10,240 yojanas
above the Earth.
Brahmapurohita (Tib: tshangs 'khor; देवनागरीः
ब्रह्मपुरोहिता)
– the "Ministers of Brahmā" are beings,
also originally from the Ābhāsvara worlds,
that are born as companions to Mahābrahmā
after he has spent some time alone.
Since they arise subsequent to his thought
of a desire for companions, he believes himself
to be their creator, and they likewise believe
him to be their creator and lord.
They are 1 yojana in height and their lifespan
is variously said to be ​1⁄2 of a kalpa
(Vibhajyavāda tradition) or a whole kalpa
(Sarvāstivāda tradition).
If they are later reborn in a lower world,
and come to recall some part of their last
existence, they teach the doctrine of Brahmā
as creator as a revealed truth.
The height of this world is 5,120 yojanas
above the Earth.
Brahmapāriṣadya or Brahmapārisajja (Tib:
tshangs ris; देवनागरीः ब्रह्मपरिषद
/ ब्रह्मपरिष्ज्ज)
– the "Councilors of Brahmā" or the devas
"belonging to the assembly of Brahmā".
They are also called Brahmakāyika, but this
name can be used for any of the inhabitants
of the Brahma-worlds.
They are half a yojana in height and their
lifespan is variously said to be ​1⁄3
of a kalpa (Vibhajyavāda tradition) or ​1⁄2
of a kalpa (Sarvāstivāda tradition).
The height of this world is 2,560 yojanas
above the Earth.
==== Desire Realm (Kāmadhātu / कामधातु)
====
The beings born in the Kāmadhātu (Pāli:
Kāmaloka; Tib: 'dod pa'i khams; Chn/Jpn:
欲界 Yoku-kai; देवनागरीः
कामधातु) differ in degree of
happiness, but they are all, other than Anagamis,
Arhats and Buddhas, under the domination of
Māra and are bound by sensual desire, which
causes them suffering.
===== Heavens =====
The following four worlds are bounded planes,
each 80,000 yojanas square, which float in
the air above the top of Mount Sumeru.
Although all of the worlds inhabited by devas
(that is, all the worlds down to the Cāturmahārājikakāyika
world and sometimes including the Asuras)
are sometimes called "heavens", in the western
sense of the word the term best applies to
the four worlds listed below:
Parinirmita-vaśavartin or Paranimmita-vasavatti
(Tib: gzhan 'phrul dbang byed; Chn/Jpn: 他化自在天
Takejizai-ten; देवनागरीः
परनिमित्त-वशवती)
– The heaven of devas "with power over (others')
creations".
These devas do not create pleasing forms that
they desire for themselves, but their desires
are fulfilled by the acts of other devas who
wish for their favor.
The ruler of this world is called Vaśavartin
(Pāli: Vasavatti), who has longer life, greater
beauty, more power and happiness and more
delightful sense-objects than the other devas
of his world.
This world is also the home of the devaputra
(being of divine race) called Māra, who endeavors
to keep all beings of the Kāmadhātu in the
grip of sensual pleasures.
Māra is also sometimes called Vaśavartin,
but in general these two dwellers of this
world are kept distinct.
The beings of this world are 4,500 feet (1,400
m) tall and live for 9,216,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda
tradition).
The height of this world is 1,280 yojanas
above the Earth.
Nirmāṇarati or Nimmānaratī (Tib: 'phrul
dga' ; Chn: 化乐天/化樂天; Jpn: 化楽天
Keraku-ten; देवनागरीः निम्मरथी
/ निम्मरती)– The world of
devas "delighting in their creations".
The devas of this world are capable of making
any appearance to please themselves.
The lord of this world is called Sunirmita
(Pāli: Sunimmita); his wife is the rebirth
of Visākhā, formerly the chief of the upāsikās
(female lay devotees) of the Buddha.
The beings of this world are 3,750 feet (1,140
m) tall and live for 2,304,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda
tradition).
The height of this world is 640 yojanas above
the Earth.
Tuṣita or Tusita (Tib: dga' ldan; Chn/Jpn:
兜率天 Tosotsu-ten;देवनागरीः
तुषिता) – The world of the "joyful"
devas.
This world is best known for being the world
in which a Bodhisattva lives before being
reborn in the world of humans.
Until a few thousand years ago, the Bodhisattva
of this world was Śvetaketu (Pāli: Setaketu),
who was reborn as Siddhārtha, who would become
the Buddha Śākyamuni; since then the Bodhisattva
has been Nātha (or Nāthadeva) who will be
reborn as Ajita and will become the Buddha
Maitreya (Pāli Metteyya).
While this Bodhisattva is the foremost of
the dwellers in Tuṣita, the ruler of this
world is another deva called Santuṣita (Pāli:
Santusita).
The beings of this world are 3,000 feet (910
m) tall and live for 576,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda
tradition).
The height of this world is 320 yojanas above
the Earth.
Yāma (Tib: 'thab bral; Chn/Jpn: 夜摩天
Yama-ten; देवनागरीः यामा
भुवन / यम लोक) – Sometimes
called the "heaven without fighting", because
it is the lowest of the heavens to be physically
separated from the tumults of the earthly
world.
These devas live in the air, free of all difficulties.
Its ruler is the deva Suyāma; according to
some, his wife is the rebirth of Sirimā,
a courtesan of Rājagṛha in the Buddha's
time who was generous to the monks.
The beings of this world are 2,250 feet (690
m) tall and live for 144,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda
tradition).
The height of this world is 160 yojanas above
the Earth.
===== Worlds of Sumeru सुमेरू
। सुनेरू =====
The world-mountain of Sumeru is an immense,
strangely shaped peak which arises in the
center of the world, and around which the
Sun and Moon revolve.
Its base rests in a vast ocean, and it is
surrounded by several rings of lesser mountain
ranges and oceans.
The three worlds listed below are all located
on, or around, Sumeru: the Trāyastriṃśa;
देवनागरीः त्रायतीस
/त्रायतीम्स devas live
on its peak, the Cāturmahārājikakāyika
devas चर्तुर-महाराजिक
live on its slopes, and the Asuras असुर
live in the ocean at its base.
Sumeru and its surrounding oceans and mountains
are the home not just of these deities, but
also vast assemblies of beings of popular
mythology who only rarely intrude on the human
world.
Trāyastriṃśa or Tāvatiṃsa (Tib: sum
cu rtsa gsum pa; Chn/Jpn: 忉利天/三十三天
Tōri-ten; देवनागरीःत्रायतीम्स)
– The world "of the Thirty-three (devas)"
is a wide flat space on the top of Mount Sumeru,
filled with the gardens and palaces of the
devas.
Its ruler is Śakra देवेन्द्र
शक्र devānām indra, "Śakra, lord
of the devas".
Besides the eponymous Thirty-three devas,
many other devas and supernatural beings dwell
here, including the attendants of the devas
and many heavenly courtesansapsaras अप्सरा
(nymphs).
The beings of this world are 1,500 feet (460
m) tall and live for 36,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda
tradition) or 3/4 of a yojana tall and live
for 30,000,000 years (Vibhajyavāda tradition).
The height of this world is 80 yojanas above
the Earth.
Cāturmahārājikakāyika or Cātummahārājika
(Tib: rgyal chen bzhi; Chn:四天王天; Jpn:
四大王衆天 Shidaiōshu-ten; देवनागरीःचर्तु-महाराजिक)
– The world "of the Four Great Kings" is
found on the lower slopes of Mount Sumeru,
though some of its inhabitants live in the
air around the mountain.
Its rulers are the four Great Kings of the
name, Virūḍhaka विरुद्धक,
Dhṛtarāṣṭra धृतराष्ट्र,
Virūpākṣa विरुपाक्ष,
and their leader Vaiśravaṇa वैश्यवर्ण.
The devas who guide the Sun and Moon are also
considered part of this world, as are the
retinues of the four kings, composed of Kumbhāṇḍas
कुम्भाण्ड (dwarfs), Gandharva
गन्धर्वs (fairies), Nāgas (dragons)
and Yakṣas यक्ष (goblins).
The beings of this world are 750 feet (230
m) tall and live for 9,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda
tradition) or 90,000 years (Vibhajyavāda
tradition).
The height of this world is from sea level
up to 40 yojanas above the Earth.
Asura (Tib: lha ma yin; Chn/Jpn: 阿修羅
Ashura; देवनागरीः असुर)
– The world of the Asuras is the space at
the foot of Mount Sumeru, much of which is
a deep ocean.
It is not the Asuras' original home, but the
place they found themselves after they were
hurled, drunken, from Trāyastriṃśa where
they had formerly lived.
The Asuras are always fighting to regain their
lost kingdom on the top of Mount Sumeru, but
are unable to break the guard of the Four
Great Kings.
The Asuras are divided into many groups, and
have no single ruler, but among their leaders
are Vemacitrin (Pāli: Vepacitti वेपचित्ती)
and Rāhu.
===== Earthly realms =====
Manuṣyaloka मनुष्यलोक
(Tib: mi; Chn/Jpn: 人 nin) – This is the
world of humans and human-like beings who
live on the surface of the earth.
The mountain-rings that engird Sumeru are
surrounded by a vast ocean, which fills most
of the world.
The ocean is in turn surrounded by a circular
mountain wall called Cakravāḍa (Pāli:
Cakkavāḷa चक्रवाल) which
marks the horizontal limit of the world.
In this ocean there are four continents which
are, relatively speaking, small islands in
it.
Because of the immenseness of the ocean, they
cannot be reached from each other by ordinary
sailing vessels, although in the past, when
the cakravartin kings ruled, communication
between the continents was possible by means
of the treasure called the cakraratna (Pāli
cakkaratana चक्ररत्न), which
a cakravartin चक्रवर्ति
and his retinue could use to fly through the
air between the continents.
The four continents are:
Jambudvīpa or Jambudīpa (Chn/Jpn: 閻浮提
Enbudai; देवनागरीः जम्वुद्धिप)
is located in the south and is the dwelling
of ordinary human beings.
It is said to be shaped "like a cart", or
rather a blunt-nosed triangle with the point
facing south.
(This description probably echoes the shape
of the coastline of southern India.)
It is 10,000 yojanas in extent (Vibhajyavāda
tradition) or has a perimeter of 6,000 yojanas
(Sarvāstivāda tradition) to which can be
added the southern coast of only 3 ​1⁄2
yojanas' length.
The continent takes its name from a giant
Jambu tree (Syzygium cumini।
गुलाव-जामुन), 100 yojanas
tall, which grows in the middle of the continent.
Every continent has one of these giant trees.
All Buddhas appear in Jambudvīpa.
The people here are five to six feet tall
and their length of life varies between 10
to power 140 years (Asankya Aayu) and 10 years.
Pūrvavideha पूर्वविदेह
or Pubbavidehaपूव्वविदेह
is located in the east, and is shaped like
a semicircle with the flat side pointing westward
(i.e., towards Sumeru).
It is 7,000 yojanas in extent (Vibhajyavāda
tradition) or has a perimeter of 6,350 yojanas
of which the flat side is 2,000 yojanas long
(Sarvāstivāda tradition).
Its tree is the acacia.
The people here are about 12 feet (3.7 m)
tall and they live for 250 years.
Aparagodānīya अपारगोदनिय
or Aparagoyāna अपारगोयन is
located in the west, and is shaped like a
circle with a circumference of about 7,500
yojanas (Sarvāstivāda tradition).
The tree of this continent is a giant Kadamba
tree.
The human inhabitants of this continent do
not live in houses but sleep on the ground.
They are about 24 feet (7.3 m) tall and they
live for 500 years.
Uttarakuru उत्तरकुरु is
located in the north, and is shaped like a
square.
It has a perimeter of 8,000 yojanas, being
2,000 yojanas on each side.
This continent's tree is called a kalpavṛkṣa
कल्पवृक्ष (Pāli: kapparukkha
कप्परुक्ख) or kalpa-tree,
because it lasts for the entire kalpa.
The inhabitants of Uttarakuru have cities
built in the air.
They are said to be extraordinarily wealthy,
not needing to labor for a living – as their
food grows by itself – and having no private
property.
They are about 48 feet (15 m) tall and live
for 1,000 years, and they are under the protection
of Vaiśravaṇa.
Tiryagyoni-loka or Tiracchāna-yoni (Tib:
dud 'gro; Chn/Jpn: 畜生 chikushō; देवनागरीः
तिरिछन्न योनी) – This
world comprises all members of the animal
kingdom that are capable of feeling suffering,
regardless of size.
Pretaloka or Petaloka (Tib: yi dwags; देवनागरीः
प्रेत लोक) – The pretas,
or "hungry ghosts", are mostly dwellers on
earth, though due to their mental state they
perceive it very differently from humans.
They live for the most part in deserts and
wastelands.
===== Hells (Narakas नरक) =====
Naraka नरक or Niraya निरय (Tib:
dmyal ba; देवनागरीः नरक)
is the name given to one of the worlds of
greatest suffering, usually translated into
English as "hell" or "purgatory".
As with the other realms, a being is born
into one of these worlds as a result of his
karma, and resides there for a finite length
of time until his karma has achieved its full
result, after which he will be reborn in one
of the higher worlds as the result of an earlier
karma that had not yet ripened.
The mentality of a being in the hells corresponds
to states of extreme fear and helpless anguish
in humans.
Physically, Naraka is thought of as a series
of layers extending below Jambudvīpa into
the earth.
There are several schemes for counting these
Narakas and enumerating their torments.
One of the more common is that of the Eight
Cold Narakas and Eight Hot Narakas.
====== Cold Narakas ======
Arbuda अर्बुद – the "blister"
Naraka
Nirarbuda निरर्बुद – the
"burst blister" Naraka
Ataṭa अतट – the Naraka of shivering
Hahava हहव – the Naraka of lamentation
Huhuva हुहुव – the Naraka of chattering
teeth
Utpala उत्पल – the Naraka of skin
becoming blue as a blue lotus
Padma पद्म – the Naraka of cracking
skin
Mahāpadma महापद्म – the Naraka
of total frozen bodies falling apartEach lifetime
in these Narakas is twenty times the length
of the one before it.
====== Hot Narakas ======
Sañjīva सञ्जीव – the "reviving"
Naraka.
Life in this Naraka is 162*1010 years long.
Kālasūtra कालसूत्र – the
"black thread" Naraka.
Life in this Naraka is 1296*1010 years long.
Saṃghāta सङ्घात – the "crushing"
Naraka.
Life in this Naraka is 10,368*1010 years long.
Raurava/Rīrava रौरव/रीरव
– the "screaming" Naraka.
Life in this Naraka is 82,944*1010 years long.
Mahāraurava/Mahārīrava महारौरव/महारीरव
– the "great screaming" Naraka.
Life in this Naraka is 663,552*1010 years
long.
Tāpana/Tapana तापन/तपन – the
"heating" Naraka.
Life in this Naraka is 5,308,416*1010 years
long.
Mahātāpana महातापन – the
"great heating" Naraka.
Life in this Naraka is 42,467,328*1010 years
long.
Avīci अवीचि – the "uninterrupted"
Naraka.
Life in this Naraka is 339,738,624*1010 years
long.
==== The foundations of the earth ====
All of the structures of the earth, Sumeru
and the rest, extend downward to a depth of
80,000 yojanas below sea level – the same
as the height of Sumeru above sea level.
Below this is a layer of "golden earth", a
substance compact and firm enough to support
the weight of Sumeru.
It is 320,000 yojanas in depth and so extends
to 400,000 yojanas below sea level.
The layer of golden earth in turn rests upon
a layer of water, which is 8,000,000 yojanas
in depth, going down to 8,400,000 yojanas
below sea level.
Below the layer of water is a "circle of wind",
which is 16,000,000 yojanas in depth and also
much broader in extent, supporting 1,000 different
worlds upon it.
Yojanas are equivalent to about 13 km (8 mi).
=== Sahasra cosmology ===
Sahasra means "one thousand".
All of the planes, from the plane of neither
perception nor non-perception (nevasanna-asanna-ayatana)
down to the Avici – the "uninterrupted"
or "unceasing" (avici literally means "without
interval") niraya – constitutes the single
world-system, cakkavala (intimating something
circular, a "wheel", but the etymology is
uncertain), described above.
In modern parlance it would be called a 'universe',
or 'solar system'.
A collection of one thousand solar systems
are called a "thousandfold minor world-system"
(culanika lokhadhatu).
Or small chiliocosm.
A collection of 1,000 times 1,000 world-systems
(one thousand squared) is a "thousandfold
to the second power middling world-system"
(dvisahassi majjhima lokadhatu).
Or medium dichiliocosm.
The largest grouping, which consists of one
thousand cubed world-systems, is called the
"tisahassi mahasassi lokadhatu".
Or great trichiliocosm.
The Tathagata, if he so wished, could effect
his voice throughout a great trichiliocosm.
He does so by suffusing the trichiliocosm
with his radiance, at which point the inhabitants
of those world-system will perceive this light,
and then proceeds to extend his voice throughout
that realm.
==== Maha Kalpa ====
The word kalpa, means 'moment'.
A maha kalpa consists of four moments (kalpa),
the first of which is creation.
The creation moment consists of the creation
of the "receptacle", and the descent of beings
from higher realms into more coarse forms
of existence.
During the rest of the creation moment, the
world is populated.
Human beings who exist at this point have
no limit on their lifespan.
The second moment is the duration moment,
the start of this moment is signified by the
first sentient being to enter hell (niraya),
the hells and nirayas not existing or being
empty prior to this moment.
The duration moment consists of twenty "intermediate"
moments (antarakappas), which unfold in a
drama of the human lifespan descending from
80,000 years to 10, and then back up to 80,000
again.
The interval between 2 of these "intermediate"
moments is the "seven day purge", in which
a variety of humans will kill each other (not
knowing or recognizing each other), some humans
will go into hiding.
At the end of this purge, they will emerge
from hiding and repopulate the world.
After this purge, the lifespan will increase
to 80,000, reach its peak and descend, at
which point the purge will happen again.
Within the duration 'moment', this purge and
repeat cycle seems to happen around 18 times,
the first "intermediate" moment consisting
only of the descent from 80,000—the second
intermediate moment consisting of a rise and
descent, and the last consisting only of an
ascent.
After the duration 'moment' is the dissolution
moment, the hells will gradually be emptied,
as well as all coarser forms of existence.
The beings will flock to the form realms (rupa
dhatu), a destruction of fire occurs, sparing
everything from the realms of the 'radiant'
gods and above (abha deva).
After 7 of these destructions by 'fire', a
destruction by water occurs, and everything
from the realms of the 'pleasant' gods and
above is spared (subha deva).
After 64 of these destructions by fire and
water, that is—56 destructions by fire,
and 7 by water—a destruction by wind occurs,
this eliminates everything below the realms
of the 'fruitful' devas (vehapphala devas,
literally of "great fruit").
The pure abodes (suddhavasa, meaning something
like pure, unmixed, similar to the connotation
of "pure bred German shepherd"), are never
destroyed.
Although without the appearance of a Buddha,
these realms may remain empty for a long time.
It should be noted that the inhabitants of
these realms have exceedingly long life spans.
The formless realms are never destroyed because
they do not consist of form (rupa).
The reason the world is destroyed by fire,
water and wind, and not earth is because earth
is the 'receptacle'.
After the dissolution moment, this particular
world system remains dissolved for a long
time, this is called the 'empty' moment, but
the more accurate term would be "the state
of being dissolved".
The beings that inhabited this realm formerly
will migrate to other world systems, and perhaps
return if their journeys lead here again.
== Temporal cosmology ==
Buddhist temporal cosmology describes how
the universe comes into being and is dissolved.
Like other Indian cosmologies, it assumes
an infinite span of time and is cyclical.
This does not mean that the same events occur
in identical form with each cycle, but merely
that, as with the cycles of day and night
or summer and winter, certain natural events
occur over and over to give some structure
to time.
The basic unit of time measurement is the
mahākalpa or "Great Eon" (Chn/Jpn: 大劫
daigō; देवनागरीः महाकल्प
/ महाकप्प).
The length of this time in human years is
never defined exactly, but it is meant to
be very long, to be measured in billions of
years if not longer.
A mahākalpa is divided into four kalpas or
"eons" (Chn/Jpn: 劫 kō; अन्तरकल्प),
each distinguished from the others by the
stage of evolution of the universe during
that kalpa.
The four kalpas are:
Vivartakalpa विवर्तकल्प
"Eon of evolution" – during this kalpa the
universe comes into existence.
Vivartasthāyikalpa विवर्तस्थायिकल्प
"Eon of evolution-duration" – during this
kalpa the universe remains in existence in
a steady state.
Saṃvartakalpa संवर्तकल्प
"Eon of dissolution" – during this kalpa
the universe dissolves.
Saṃvartasthāyikalpa संवर्तस्थायिकल्प
"Eon of dissolution-duration" – during this
kalpa the universe remains in a state of emptiness.Each
one of these kalpas is divided into twenty
antarakalpas अन्तरकल्प (Pāli:
antarakappa अन्तरकप्प; Chn/Jpn:
中劫, "inside eons") each of about the same
length.
For the Saṃvartasthāyikalpa this division
is merely nominal, as nothing changes from
one antarakalpa to the next; but for the other
three kalpas it marks an interior cycle within
the kalpa.
=== Vivartakalpa ===
The Vivartakalpa begins with the arising of
the primordial wind, which begins the process
of building up the structures of the universe
that had been destroyed at the end of the
last mahākalpa.
As the extent of the destruction can vary,
the nature of this evolution can vary as well,
but it always takes the form of beings from
a higher world being born into a lower world.
The example of a Mahābrahmā being the rebirth
of a deceased Ābhāsvara deva is just one
instance of this, which continues throughout
the Vivartakalpa until all the worlds are
filled from the Brahmaloka down to Naraka.
During the Vivartakalpa the first humans appear;
they are not like present-day humans, but
are beings shining in their own light, capable
of moving through the air without mechanical
aid, living for a very long time, and not
requiring sustenance; they are more like a
type of lower deity than present-day humans
are.Over time, they acquire a taste for physical
nutriment, and as they consume it, their bodies
become heavier and more like human bodies;
they lose their ability to shine, and begin
to acquire differences in their appearance,
and their length of life decreases.
They differentiate into two sexes and begin
to become sexually active.
Then greed, theft and violence arise among
them, and they establish social distinctions
and government and elect a king to rule them,
called Mahāsammata।
महासम्मत, "the great appointed
one".
Some of them begin to hunt and eat the flesh
of animals, which have by now come into existence.
=== Vivartasthāyikalpa ===
==== First antarakalpa ====
The Vivartasthāyikalpa begins when the first
being is born into Naraka, thus filling the
entire universe with beings.
During the first antarakalpa of this eon,
human lives are declining from a vast but
unspecified number of years (but at least
several tens of thousands of years) toward
the modern lifespan of less than 100 years.
At the beginning of the antarakalpa, people
are still generally happy.
They live under the rule of a universal monarch
or "wheel-turning king" (Sanskrit: cakravartin
चक्रवर्ति; Jpn: 転輪聖王
Tenrin Jō-ō), who conquer.
The Mahāsudassana-sutta (DN.17) tells of
the life of a cakravartin king, Mahāsudassana
(Sanskrit: Mahāsudarśana) who lived for
336,000 years.
The Cakkavatti-sīhanāda-sutta (DN.26) tells
of a later dynasty of cakravartins, Daḷhanemi
(Sanskrit: Dṛḍhanemi) and five of his
descendants, who had a lifespan of over 80,000
years.
The seventh of this line of cakravartins broke
with the traditions of his forefathers, refusing
to abdicate his position at a certain age,
pass the throne on to his son, and enter the
life of a śramaṇa श्रमण.
As a result of his subsequent misrule, poverty
increased; as a result of poverty, theft began;
as a result of theft, capital punishment was
instituted; and as a result of this contempt
for life, murders and other crimes became
rampant.
The human lifespan now quickly decreased from
80,000 to 100 years, apparently decreasing
by about half with each generation (this is
perhaps not to be taken literally), while
with each generation other crimes and evils
increased: lying, greed, hatred, sexual misconduct,
disrespect for elders.
During this period, according to the Mahāpadāna-sutta
(DN.14) three of the four Buddhas of this
antarakalpa lived: Krakucchanda Buddha (Pāli:
Kakusandha ककुछन्द), at the
time when the lifespan was 40,000 years; Kanakamuni
कनकमुनी Buddha (Pāli: Konāgamana
कोनागमन) when the lifespan was
30,000 years; and Kāśyapa काश्यप
Buddha (Pāli: Kassapa कस्सप) when
the lifespan was 20,000 years.
Our present time is taken to be toward the
end of the first antarakalpa of this Vivartasthāyikalpa,
when the lifespan is less than 100 years,
after the life of Śākyamuni Buddha (Pāli:
Sakyamuni शाक्यमुनी), who
lived to the age of 80.
The remainder of the antarakalpa is prophesied
to be miserable: lifespans will continue to
decrease, and all the evil tendencies of the
past will reach their ultimate in destructiveness.
People will live no longer than ten years,
and will marry at five; foods will be poor
and tasteless; no form of morality will be
acknowledged.
The most contemptuous and hateful people will
become the rulers.
Incest will be rampant.
Hatred between people, even members of the
same family, will grow until people think
of each other as hunters do of their prey.Eventually
a great war will ensue, in which the most
hostile and aggressive will arm themselves
and go out to kill each other.
The less aggressive will hide in forests and
other secret places while the war rages.
This war marks the end of the first antarakalpa.
==== Second antarakalpa ====
At the end of the war, the survivors will
emerge from their hiding places and repent
their evil habits.
As they begin to do good, their lifespan increases,
and the health and welfare of the human race
will also increase with it.
After a long time, the descendants of those
with a 10-year lifespan will live for 80,000
years, and at that time there will be a cakravartin
king named Saṅkha शंख.
During his reign, the current bodhisattva
in the Tuṣita तुषिता heaven
will descend and be reborn under the name
of Ajita अजित.
He will enter the life of a śramaṇa श्रमण
and will gain perfect enlightenment बोधीज्ञान
as a Buddha; and he will then be known by
the name of Maitreya (मैत्रेय,
Pāli: Metteyya मेत्तय).
After Maitreya's time, the world will again
worsen, and the lifespan will gradually decrease
from 80,000 years to 10 years again, each
antarakalpa being separated from the next
by devastating war, with peaks of high civilization
and morality in the middle.
After the 19th antarakalpa, the lifespan will
increase to 80,000 and then not decrease,
because the Vivartasthāyikalpa will have
come to an end.
=== Saṃvartakalpa ===
The Saṃvartakalpa begins when beings cease
to be born in Naraka.
This cessation of birth then proceeds in reverse
order up the vertical cosmology, i.e., pretas
then cease to be born, then animals, then
humans, and so on up to the realms of the
deities.
When these worlds as far as the Brahmaloka
are devoid of inhabitants, a great fire consumes
the entire physical structure of the world.
It burns all the worlds below the Ābhāsvara
worlds.
When they are destroyed, the Saṃvartasthāyikalpa
begins.
=== Saṃvartasthāyikalpa ===
There is nothing to say about the Saṃvartasthāyikalpa,
since nothing happens in it below the Ābhāsvara
worlds.
It ends when the primordial wind begins to
blow and build the structure of the worlds
up again.
=== Other destructions ===
The destruction by fire is the normal type
of destruction that occurs at the end of the
Saṃvartakalpa.
But every eighth mahākalpa, after seven destructions
by fire, there is a destruction by water.
This is more devastating, as it eliminates
not just the Brahma worlds but also the Ābhāsvara
worlds.
Every sixty-fourth mahākalpa, after fifty
six destructions by fire and seven destructions
by water, there is a destruction by wind.
This is the most devastating of all, as it
also destroys the Śubhakṛtsna worlds.
The higher worlds are never destroyed.
== Mahayana views ==
Mahayana Buddhism accepts the cosmology as
above.
A cosmology with some difference is further
explained in Chapter 5 of the Avatamsaka Sutra.
== See also
