So -- So, yesterday we learned
about the questions of planes
and how to think of 3x3 linear
systems in terms of
intersections of planes and how
to think about them
geometrically.
And, that in particular led us
to see which cases actually we
don't have a unique solution to
the system,
but maybe we have no solutions
or infinitely many solutions
because maybe the line at
intersection of two of the
planes happens to be parallel to
the other plane.
So, today, we'll start by
looking at the equations of
lines.
And, so in a way it seems like
something which we've already
seen last time because we have
seen that we can think of a line
as the intersection of two
planes.
And, we know what equations of
planes look like.
So, we could describe a line by
two equations telling us about
the two planes that intersect on
the line.
But that's not the most
convenient way to think about
the line usually,
though, because when you have
these two questions,
have you solve them?
Well, OK, you can,
but it takes a bit of effort.
So, instead,
there is another representation
of a line.
So, if you have a line in
space, well, you can imagine may
be that you have a point on it.
And, that point is moving in
time.
And, the line is the trajectory
of a point as time varies.
So, think of a line as the
trajectory of a moving point.
And, so when we think of the
trajectory of the moving point,
that's called a parametric
equation.
OK, so we are going to learn
about parametric equations of
lines.
So, let's say for example that
we are looking at the line.
So, to specify a line in space,
I can do that by giving you two
points on the line or by giving
you a point and a vector
parallel to the line.
For example,
so let's say I give you two
points on the line:
(-1,2,2), and the other point
will be (1,3,-1).
So, OK, it's pretty good
because we have two points in
that line.
Now, how do we find all the
other points?
Well, the other points in
between these guys and also on
either side.
Let's imagine that we have a
point that's moving on the line,
and at time zero,
it's here at Q0.
And, in a unit time,
I'm not telling you what the
unit is.
It could be a second.
It could be an hour.
It could be a year.
At t=1, it's going to be at Q1.
And, it moves at a constant
speed.
So, maybe at time one half,
it's going to be here.
Times two, it would be over
there.
And, in fact,
that point didn't start here.
Maybe it's always been moving
on that line.
At time minus two,
it was down there.
So, let's say Q(t) is a moving
point, and at t=0 it's at Q0.
And, let's say that it moves.
Well, we couldn't make it move
in any way we want.
But, probably the easiest to
find, so our role is going to
find formulas for a position of
this moving point in terms of t.
And, we'll use that to say,
well,
any point on the line is of
this form where you have to plug
in the current value of t
depending on when it's hit by
the moving point.
So, perhaps it's easiest to do
it if we make it move at a
constant speed on the line,
and that speed is chosen so
that at time one,
it's at Q1.
So, the question we want to
answer is, what is the position
at time t, so,
the point Q(t)?
Well, to answer that we have an
easy observation,
which is that the vector from
Q0 to Q of t is proportional to
the vector from Q0 to Q1.
And, what's the proportionality
factor here?
Yeah, it's exactly t.
At time one,
Q0 Q is exactly the same.
Maybe I should draw another
picture again.
I have Q0.
I have Q1, and after time t,
I'm here at Q of t where this
vector from Q0 Q(t) is actually
going to be t times the vector
Q0 Q1.
So, when t increases,
it gets longer and longer.
So, does everybody see this now?
Is that OK?
Any questions about that?
Yes?
OK, so I will try to avoid
using blue.
Thanks for, that's fine.
So, OK, I will not use blue
anymore.
OK, well, first let me just
make everything white just for
now.
This is the vector from Q0 to
Q(t).
This is the point Q(t).
OK, is it kind of visible now?
OK, thanks for pointing it out.
I will switch to brighter
colors.
So, OK, so apart from that, 
I claim now we can find the
position of its moving point
because,
well, this vector,
Q0Q1 we can find from the
coordinates of Q0 and Q1.
So, we just subtract the
coordinates of Q0 from those of
Q1 will get that vector Q0 Q1 is
&lt;2,1, -3&gt;
OK,
so, if I look at it,
well, so let's call x(t),
y(t), and z(t) the coordinates
of the point that's moving on
the line.
Then we get x of t minus,
well, actually plus one equals
t times two.
I'm writing the components of
Q0Q(t).
And here, I'm writing t times
Q0Q1.
y(t) minus two equals t,
and z(t) minus two equals -3t.
So, in other terms,
the more familiar way that we
used to write these equations,
let me do it that way instead, 
minus one plus 2t,
y(t) = 2 t, z(t) = 2 - 3t.
And, if you prefer,
I can just say Q(t) is Q0 plus
t times vector Q0Q1.
OK, so that's our first
parametric equation of a line in
this class.
And, I hope you see it's not
extremely hard.
In fact, parametric equations
of lines always look like that.
x, y, and z are functions of t
but are of the form a constant
plus a constant times t.
The coefficients of t tell us
about a vector along the line.
Here, we have a vector,
Q0Q1, which is &lt;2,1,-3&gt;.
And, the constant terms tell us
about where we are at t=0.
If I plug t=0 these guys go
away, I get minus 1,2,
2.
That's my starting point.
OK, so, any questions about
that?
No?
OK, so let's see,
now, what we can do with these
parametric equations.
So, one application is to think
about the relative position of a
line and a plane with respect to
each other.
So, let's say that we take
still the same line up there,
and let's consider the plane
with the equation x 2y 4z = 7.
OK, so I'm giving you this
plane.
And, the questions that we are
going to ask ourselves are,
well, does the line intersect
the plane?
And, where does it intersect
the plane?
So, let's start with the first
primary question that maybe we
should try to understand.
We have these points.
We have this plane,
and we have these points,
Q0 and Q1.
I'm going to draw them in
completely random places.
Well, are Q0 and Q1 on the same
side of a plane or on different
sides, on opposite sides of the
planes?
Could it be that maybe one of
the points is in the plane?
So, I think I'm going to let
you vote on that.
So, is that readable?
Is it too small?
OK, so anyway,
the question says,
relative to the plane,
x 2y 4z = 7.
This point, Q0 and Q1,
are they on the same side,
on opposite sides,
is one of them on the plane,
or we can't decide?
OK, that should be better.
So, I see relatively few
answers.
OK, it looks like also a lot of
you have forgotten the cards
and, so I see people raising two
fingers, I see people raising
three fingers.
And, I see people raising four
fingers.
I don't see anyone answering
number one.
So, the general idea seems to
be that either they are on
opposite sides.
Maybe one of them is on the
plane.
Well, let's try to see.
Is one of them on the plane?
Well, let's check.
OK, so let's look at the point,
sorry.
I have one blackboard to use
here.
So, I take the point Q0,
which is at (-1,2,2).
Well, if I plug that into the
plane equation,
so, x 2y 4z will equal minus
one plus two times two plus four
times two.
That's, well,
four plus eight,
12 minus one,
11.
That, I think,
is bigger than seven.
OK, so Q0 is not in the plane.
Let's try again with Q1.
(1,3, - 1) well,
if we plug that into x 2y 4z,
we'll have one plus two times
three makes seven.
But, we add four times negative
one.
We add up with three less than
seven.
Well, that one is not in the
plane, either.
So, I don't think,
actually, that the answer
should be number three.
So, let's get rid of answer
number three.
OK, let's see,
in light of this,
are you willing to reconsider
your answer?
OK, so I think now everyone
seems to be interested in
answering number two.
And, I would agree with that
answer.
So, let's think about it.
These points are not in the
plane, but they are not in the
plane in different ways.
One of them somehow overshoots;
we get 11.
The other one we only get 3.
That's less than seven.
If you think about how a plan
splits space into two half
spaces on either side,
well, one of them is going to
be the point where x 2y 4z is
less than seven.
And, the other one will be,
so, that's somehow this side.
And, that's where Q1 is.
And, the other side is where x
2y 4z is actually bigger than
seven.
And, to go from one to the
other, well, x 2y 4z needs to go
through the value seven.
If you're moving along any path
from Q0 to Q1,
this thing will change
continuously from 11 to 3.
At some time,
it has to go through 7.
Does that make sense?
So, to go from Q0 to Q1 we need
to cross P at some place.
So, they're on opposite sides.
OK, now that doesn't quite
finish answering the question
that we had, which was,
where does the line intersect
the plane?
But, why can't we do the same
thing?
Now, we know not only the
points Q0 and Q1,
we know actually any point on
the line because we have a
parametric equation up there
telling us,
where is the point that's
moving on the line at time t?
So, what about the moving
point, Q(t)?
Well, let's plug its
coordinates into the plane
equation.
So, we'll take x(t) 2y(t) 4z(t).
OK, that's equal to,
well, (-1 2t) 2( 2 t) 4( 2 -
3t).
So, if you simplify this a bit,
you get 2t 2t -12t.
That should be -8t.
And, the constant term is minus
one plus four plus eight is 11.
OK, and we have to compare that
with seven.
OK, the question is,
is this ever equal to seven?
Well, so, Q(t) is in the plane
exactly when -8t 11 equals
seven.
And, that' the same.
If you manipulate this,
you will get t equals one half.
In fact, that's not very
surprising.
If you look at these values,
11 and three,
you see that seven is actually
right in between.
It's the average of these two
numbers.
So, it would make sense that
it's halfway in between Q0 and
Q1, but we will get seven.
OK, and that at that time,
Q at time one half,
well, let's plug the values.
So, minus one plus 2t will be
zero.
Two plus t will be two and a
half of five halves,
and two minus three halves will
be one half, OK?
So, this is where the line
intersects the plane.
So, you see that's actually a
pretty easy way of finding where
a line on the plane intersects
each other.
If we can find a parametric
equation of a line and an
equation of a plane,
but we basically just plug one
into the other,
and see at what time the moving
point hits the plane so that we
know where this.
OK, other questions about this?
Yes?
Sorry, can you say that?
Yes, so what if we don't get a
solution?
What happens?
So, indeed our line could have
been parallel to the plane or
maybe even contained in the
plane.
Well, if the line is parallel
to the plane then maybe what
happens is that what we plug in
the positions of the moving
point,
we actually get something that
never equals seven because maybe
we get actually a constant.
Say that we had gotten,
I don't know,
13 all the time.
Well, when is 13 equal to seven?
The answer is never.
OK, so that's what would tell
you that the line is actually
parallel to the plane.
You would not find a solution
to the equation that you get at
the end.
Yes?
So, if there's no solution at
all to the equation that you
get, it means that at no time is
the traveling point going to be
in the plane.
That means the line really does
not have the plane ever.
So, it has to be parallel
outside of it.
On the other hand,
if a line is inside the plane,
then that means that no matter
what time you choose,
you always get seven.
OK, that's what would happen if
a line is in the plane.
You always get seven.
So, maybe I should write this
down.
So, if a line is in the plane
then plugging x(t),
y(t), z(t) into the equation,
we always get, 
well, here in this case seven
or whatever the value should be
for the plane,
If the line is parallel to the
plane -- -- in fact,
we, well, get,
let's see, another constant.
So, in fact,
you know, when you plug in
these things,
normally you get a quantity
that's of a form,
something times t plus a
constant because that's what you
plug into the equation of a
plane.
And so, in general,
you have an equation of the
form, something times t plus
something equals something.
And, that usually has a single
solution.
And, the special case is if
this coefficient of t turns out
to be zero in the end,
and that's actually going to
happen,
exactly when the line is either
parallel or in the plane.
In fact, if you think this
through carefully,
the coefficient of t that you
get here,
see, it's one times two plus
two times one plus four times
minus three.
It's the dot product between
the normal vector of a plane and
the vector along the line.
So, see, this coefficient
becomes zero exactly when the
line is perpendicular to the
normal vector.
That means it's parallel to the
plane.
So, everything makes sense.
OK, if you're confused about
what I just said,
you can ignore it.
OK, more questions? No?
OK, so if not,
let's move on to linear
parametric equations.
So, I hope you've seen here
that parametric equations are a
great way to think about lines.
There are also a great way to
think about actually any curve,
any trajectory that can be
traced by a moving point.
So -- -- more generally,
we can use parametric equations
-- -- for arbitrary motions --
-- in the plane or in space.
So, let's look at an example.
Let's take, so,
it's a famous curve called a
cycloid.
A cycloid is something that you
can actually see sometimes at
night when people are biking If
you have something that reflects
light on the wheel.
So, let me explain what's the
definition of a cycloid.
So, I should say,
I've seen a lecture where,
actually, the professor had a
volunteer on a unicycle to
demonstrate how that works.
But, I didn't arrange for that,
so instead I will explain it to
you using more conventional
means.
So, let's say that we have a
wheel that's rolling on a
horizontal ground.
And, as it's rolling of course
it's going to turn.
So, it's going to move forward
to a new position.
And, now, let's mention that we
have a point that's been painted
red on the circumference of the
wheel.
And, initially,
that point is here.
So, as the wheel stops
rotating, well,
of course, it moves forward,
and so it turns on itself.
So, that point starts falling
back behind the point of contact
because the wheel is rotating at
the same time as it's moving
forward.
And so, the cycloid is the
trajectory of this moving point.
OK, so the cycloid is obtained
by considering,
so we have a wheel,
let's say, of radius a.
So, this height here is (a)
rolling on the floor which is
the x axis.
And, let's -- And,
we have a point,
P, that's painted on the wheel.
Initially, it's at the origin.
But, of course,
as time goes by,
it moves on the wheel.
P is a point on the rim of the
wheel, and it starts at the
origin.
So, the question is,
what happens?
In particular,
can we find the position of
this point, x(t),
y(t), as a function of time?
So, that's the reason why I
have this computer.
So, I'm not sure it will be
very easy to visualize,
but so we have a wheel,
well, I hope you can vaguely
see that there's a circle that's
moving.
The wheel is green here.
And, there's a radius that's
been painted blue in it.
And, that radius rotates around
the wheel as the wheel is moving
forward.
So, now, let's try to paint,
actually, the trajectory of a
point.
[LAUGHTER]
OK, so that's what the cycloid
looks like.
[APPLAUSE]
OK, so -- So the cycloid,
well, I guess it doesn't quite
look like what I've drawn.
It looks like it goes a bit
higher up, which will be the
trajectory of this red point.
And, see, it hits the bottom
once in a while.
It forms these arches because
when the wheel has rotated by a
full turn,
then you're basically back at
the same situation,
except a bit further along the
route.
So, if we do it once more,
you see the point now is at the
top, and now it's at the bottom.
And then we start again.
It's at the top,
and then again at the bottom.
OK.
No.
[LAUGHTER]
OK, so the question that we
want to answer is what is the
position x(t),
y(t), of the point P?
OK, so actually,
I'm writing x(t),
y(t).
That means that I have,
maybe I'm expressing the
position in terms of time.
Let's see, is time going to be
a good thing to do?
Well, suddenly,
the position changes over time.
But doesn't actually matter how
fast the wheel is rolling?
No, because I can just play the
motion fast-forward.
The wheel will be going faster,
but the trajectory is still the
same.
So, in fact,
time is not the most relevant
thing here.
What matters to us now is how
far the wheel has gone.
So, we could use as a
parameter, for example,
the distance by which the wheel
has moved.
We can do even better because
we see that, really,
the most complicated thing that
happens here is really the
rotation.
So, maybe we can actually use
the angle by which the wheel has
turned to parameterize the
motion.
So, there's various choices.
You can choose whichever one
you prefer.
But, I think here,
we will get the simplest answer
if we parameterize things by the
angle.
So, in fact,
instead of t I will be using
what's called theta as a
function of the angle,
theta, by which the wheel has
rotated.
So, how are we going to do that?
Well, because we are going to
try to use our new knowledge,
let's try to do it using
vectors in a smart way.
So, let me draw a picture of
the wheel after things have
rotated by a certain amount.
So, maybe my point,
P, now, is here.
And, so the wheel has rotated
by this angle here.
And, I want to find the
position of my point,
P, OK?
So, the position of this point,
P, is going to be the same as
knowing the vector OP from the
origin to this moving point.
So, I haven't really simplify
the problem yet because we don't
really know about vector OP.
But, maybe we know about
simpler vectors where some will
be OP.
So, let's see,
let's give names to a few of
our points.
For example,
let's say that this will be
point A.
A is the point where the wheel
is touching the road.
And, B will be the center of
the wheel.
Then, it looks like maybe I
have actually a chance of
understanding vectors like maybe
OA doesn't look quite so scary,
or AB doesn't look too bad.
BP doesn't look too bad.
And, if I sum them together,
I will obtain OP.
So, let's do that.
So, now we've greatly
simplified the problem.
We had to find one vector that
we didn't know.
Now we have to find three
vectors which we don't know.
But, you will see each of them
as fairly easy to think about.
So, let's see.
Should we start with vector OA,
maybe?
So, OA has two components.
One of them should be very easy.
Well, the y component is just
going to be zero,
OK?
It's directed along the x axis.
What about the x component?
So, OA is the distance by which
the wheel has traveled to get to
its current position.
Yeah.
I hear a lot of people saying R
theta.
Let me actually say a(theta)
because I've called a the radius
of the wheel.
So, this distance is a(theta).
Why is it a(theta)?
Well, that's because the wheel,
well, there's an assumption
which is that the wheel is
rolling on something normal like
a road,
and not on, maybe,
ice, or something like that.
S So, it's rolling without
slipping.
So, that means that this
distance on the road is actually
equal to the distance here on
the circumference of the wheel.
This point, P,
was there, and the amount by
which the things have moved can
be measured either here or here.
These are the same distances.
OK, so, that makes it a(theta), 
and maybe I should justify by
saying amount by which the wheel
has rolled,
has moved, is equal to the, 
so, the distance from O to A is
equal to the arc length on the
circumference of the circle from
A to P.
And, you know that if you have
a sector corresponding to an
angle, theta,
then its length is a times
theta, provided that,
of course, you express the
angel in radians.
That's the reason why we always
used radians in math.
Now, let's think about vector
AB and vector BP.
OK, so AB is pretty easy,
right, because it's pointing
straight up, and its length is
a.
So, it's just zero, a.
Now, the most serious one we've
kept for the end.
What about vector BP?
So, vector BP,
we know two things about it.
We know actually its length,
so, the magnitude of BP -- --
a.
And, we know it makes an angle,
theta, with the vertical.
So, that should let us find its
components.
Let's draw a closer picture.
Now, in the picture I'm going
to center things at B.
So, I have my point P.
Here I have theta.
This length is A.
Well, what are the components
of BP?
Well, the X component is going
to be?
Almost.
I hear people saying things
about a, but I agree with a.
I hear some cosines.
I hear some sines.
I think it's actually the sine.
Yes.
It's a(sin(theta)),
except it's going to the left.
So, actually it will have a
negative a(sin(theta)).
And, the vertical component,
well, it will be a(cos(theta)),
but also negative because we
are going downwards.
So, it's negative a(cos(theta)).
So, now we can answer the
initial question because vector
OP, well, we just add up OA,
AB, and BP.
So, the X component will be
a(theta) - a(sin(theta)).
And, a-a(cos(theta)).
OK.
So, any questions about that?
OK, so, what's the answer?
Because this thing here is the
x coordinate as a function of
theta, and that one is the y
coordinate as a function of
theta.
So, now, just to show you that
we can do a lot of things when
we have a parametric equation,
here is a small mystery.
So, what happens exactly near
the bottom point?
What does the curve look like?
The computer tells us,
well, it looks like it has some
sort of pointy thing,
but isn't that something of a
display?
Is it actually what happens?
So, what do you think happens
near the bottom point?
Remember, we had that picture.
Let me show you once more,
where you have these
corner-like things at the
bottom.
Well, actually,
is it indeed a corner with some
angle between the two
directions?
Does it make an angle?
Or, is it actually a smooth
curve without any corner,
but we don't see it because
it's too small to be visible on
the computer screen?
Does it actually make a loop?
Does it actually come down and
then back up without going to
the left or to the right and
without making an angle?
So, yeah, I see the majority
votes for answers number two or
four.
And, well, at this point,
we can't quite tell.
So, let's try to figure it out
from these formulas.
The way to answer that for sure
is to actually look at the
formulas.
OK, so question that we are
trying to answer now is what
happens near the bottom point?
OK, so how do we answer that?
Well, we should probably try to
find simpler formulas for these
things.
Well, to simplify,
let's divide everything by a.
Let's rescale everything by a.
If you want,
let's say that we take the unit
of length to be the radius of
our wheel.
So, instead of measuring things
in feet or meters,
we'll just measure them in
radius.
So, take the length unit to be
equal to the radius.
So, that means we'll have a=1.
Then, our formulas are slightly
simpler.
We get x(theta) is theta -
sin(theta), and y equals 1 - cos
(theta).
OK, so, if we want to
understand what these things
look like, maybe we should try
to take some approximation.
OK, so what about
approximations?
Well, probably you know that if
I take the sine of a very small
angle, it's close to the actual
angle itself if theta is very
small.
And, you know that the cosine
of an angle that's very small is
close to one.
Well, that's pretty good.
If we use that,
we will get theta minus theta,
one minus one,
it looks like it's not precise
enough.
We just get zero and zero.
That's not telling us much
about what happens.
OK, so we need actually better
approximations than that.
So -- So, hopefully you have
seen in one variable calculus
something called Taylor
expansion.
That's [GROANS].
I see that -- OK, 
so if you have not seen Taylor
expansion,
or somehow it was so traumatic
that you've blocked it out of
your memory,
let me just remind you that
Taylor expansion is a way to get
a better approximation than just
looking at the function,
its derivative.
So -- And, here's an example of
where it actually comes in handy
in real life.
So, Taylor approximation says
that if t is small,
then the value of the function,
f(t), is approximately equal
to,
well, our first guess,
of course, would be f(0).
That's our first approximation.
If we want to be a bit more
precise, we know that when we
change by t,
well, t times the derivative
comes in,
that's for linear approximation
to how the function changes.
Now, if we want to be even more
precise, there's another term,
which is t^2 over two times the
second derivative.
And, if we want to be even more
precise, you will have t^3 over
six times the third derivative
at zero.
OK, and you can continue,
and so on.
But, we won't need more.
So, if you use this here,
it tells you that the sine of a
smaller angle,
theta, well,
yeah, it looks like theta.
But, if we want to be more
precise, then we should add
minus theta cubed over six.
And, cosine of theta,
well, it's not quite one.
It's close to one minus theta
squared over two.
OK, so these are slightly
better approximations of sine
and cosine for small angles.
So, now, if we try to figure
out, again, what happens to our
x of theta, well,
it would be,
sorry, theta minus theta cubed
over six.
That's theta cubed over six.
And y, on the other hand,
is going to be one minus that.
That's about theta squared over
two.
So, now, which one of them is
bigger when theta is small?
Yeah, y is much larger.
OK, if you take the cube of a
very small number,
it becomes very,
very, very small.
So, in fact,
we can look at that.
So, x, an absolute value,
is much smaller than y.
And, in fact,
what we can do is we can look
at the ratio between y and x.
That tells us the slope with
which we approach the origin.
So, y over x is,
well, let's take the ratio of
this, too.
That gives us three divided by
theta.
That tends to infinity when
theta approaches zero.
So, that means that the slope
of our curve,
the origin is actually
infinite.
And so, the curve picture is
really something like this.
So, the instantaneous motion,
if you had to describe what
happens very,
very close to the origin is
that your point is actually not
moving to the left or to the
right along with the wheel.
It's moving down and up.
I mean, at the same time it is
actually moving a little bit
forward at the same time.
But, the dominant motion,
near the origin is really where
it goes down and back up,
so answer number four,
you have vertical tangent.
OK, I think I'm at the end of
time.
So, have a nice weekend.
And, I'll see you on Tuesday.
So, on Tuesday I will have
practice exams for next week's
test.
 
