 
# Collected Philosophy Works of Liangzhi Gao

# On Synthesis Philosophy

\---- Philosophy Thinking of a Chinese Scientist

Prof. Liangzhi Gao

# Content

### Brief Introduction of the author

### Preface 1 Li Rui
### Preface 2 Liangzhi Gao

### Chapter 1 Introduction
### Chapter 2 Synthesis Philosophy and Its Origin

### Chapter 3 What is the Noumenon of the World?
### Chapter 4 How is the World Composed?

### Chapter 5 Is Man able to Cognize the World?
### Chapter 6 How to Evaluate Dialectics?

### Chapter 7 How does Man Cognize the World?
### Chapter 8 What is Man's Essence and Goal?

### Chapter 9 How is History Developing?
### Chapter 10 How is the Contemporary World Developing?

### Main References

Brief introduction of Prof. Liangzhi Gao

Liangzhi Gao (1929--) or Gao Liangzhi (in Chinese, Gao is his family name)

He was born in Shanghai and graduated from the Affiliated High School of Shanghai University in 1946

In 1950 ,he graduated from College of Agricultural Sciences of Zhejiang University .

He was working in East China College of Agriculture Sciences for four years . After then, he was working in East China Institute of Agricultural Sciences , which turned to be Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences(JAAS) in 1978. From 1983-1990 ,he was assigned as the President of JAAS and also a senior researcher there.

At the same period , he was a professor of Nanjing Agricultural University, China Agricultural University and Nanjing College of Meteorology . He was a Trustee of CIMMYT( International Research Centre of Maize and Wheat in Mexico)

He was one of the founders of Agricultural Meteorology and the main founder of Agricultural Modeling Science in China.

He has been accomplished 88 research papers and many books on Agricultural Sciences, as Climatic Ecology of Rice , Foundation of Agricultural System Science , Foundation of Agricultural Modeling Science,etc.

He was interested in philosophy in his young age . After he retired in 1999, up to now, he has read more than 300 books on philosophy, mostly original works of famous Chinese and Western philosophers. He wrote 8 books on philosophy:

1) Essay on Synthesis Philosophy, Gao Liangzhi, China Culture Press, 2007 (in Chinese)

2) Strolling on Western Philosophy, Gao Liangzhi, Wuhan University Press, 2014(in Chinese)

3) A Brief Discussion on Chinese Philosophy, Gao Liangzhi, Wuhan University Press, 2014(in Chinese)

4) Love Philosophy, Gao Liangzhi, Zhejiang University Press,2011

5) Good Philosophy and Common Values, Gao Liangzhi, China Culture Press, 2014(in Chinese)

6) Beauty Philosophy, Gao Liangzhi, Wuhan University Press,2014

7) Does Man have Soul? —Soul Philosophy and Scientific Rational Belief, Gao Liangzhi, Zhejiang University Press,2015(in Chinese)

8) Synthesis of Chinese and Western Philosophy,Gao Liangzhi , Zhejiang University Press,2015(in Chinese)

His books on philosophy obtain high evaluation in the academic circle and by the readers in China.

Synthesis Philosophy pushes Construction of Harmonious Society

Preface I

Li Rui

At the end of 2005, I received the book Essay on Synthesis Philosophy from my colleague, who was a schoolmate of the author. Reading this book made me have a much wider view which enlightened me on many problems that I had been thinking about.

Firstly , I remind that in 1990 ,I wrote a long article of 80 thousand words—Primary Discussion of Mao Zedong's left leaning wrong thinking in his Late age, I had discussed Mao' s theoretical thinking and philosophic views including his works On Contradiction and On Practice. Besides the misleading of his theory of Class Struggle in human historical development, I analyzed his Struggle Philosophy. Movement and Struggle are the kernel thinking of his early philosophic thinking, which is his outlook of Cosmos and Life. In his total life, he liked to active and to struggle, especially to realize his maxim: "Struggle with Man is a great pleasure " . He regarded that Difference is just Contradiction .There is no place in the world without contradiction and opposition. Engaging in anything, you must pass through struggle to overcome the contradiction. Hence he built the Struggle Philosophy from theory to practice. As to the term of "Synthesis" ,he regarded the meaning of it is "If you could not destroy me , then I will destroy you". Anything in the world has changes and struggles. Only struggle could solve problems. He made Struggle to be absolutized and neglected and rejected any Identity . Then his ideas were: " Struggle will certainly bring success"," Struggle makes progress. If there is no struggle ,then it will bring failure "," 0.8 billion people, how could there be no struggle?"。 Under the rule of his Struggle Philosophy, China experienced political movement one by one and came to the Cultural Revolution. In all our philosophic books ,we could not find an important concept in Marxist philosophy: Unity of Diversity. While I am writing this article, I deeply feel that too much and too terrible of the influence of ideology upon the society .How painful the lessons was that this bitter pill brought to contemporary China.

I am not a scholar engaging in theoretical research, so on philosophy problem, I'll stop here .As to ancient and modern philosophy, the relation between ideological development and human historical development , how to cognize history ,how to cognize the world ,how to cognize Man's essence and some basic problems in traditional philosophy, as the opposition of Materialism and idealism, what is Dialects, including the relation between struggle and Identity etc. I have not made deep researches. The author of this book takes"Synthesis "as his kernel philosophic theory which is a creative thinking and a challenge to traditional philosophy ,making me much admiring

After reading this book, I got the connection with the author. He accepted my request presenting me ten copies of this book. On 2006 January 26 . I sent this book to six leading comrades working in the Central Committee of CPC and wrote a letter. The text is as follows.

This book is worth reading. The author is a senior cadre, a natural scientist , the former president of JAAS(Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences). He had great contribution to Agricultural Meteorology. He analysed philosophic problems mainly using knowledge of natural sciences. He had read many (more than 100 references) ancient and modern Chinese and Western philosophic famous works . He found that all the success and failure of our party were related to the correctness and incorrectness of Marxist philosophy and our realization. Driven by historical sense of mission, he presented a series of new opinions and formed a new theoretical system taking "Synthesis "as the kernel thinking . In this book ,he insisted on the reasonable part of Marxism and rejected its incorrect or incomplete parts ( as " All social history was history of Class Struggle", "Struggle of opposites is absolute ",etc. )He regarded that it is incorrect for us in the past time to reject all Non-Marxism philosophy. The creation and development of recent science and recent thinking of Democracy, Liberty, Rule of Law , Human Right, etc. including the thinking that our party is advocating recently ,as "govern for the people"," people orientation ",etc. all came from philosophers ( as Montesquieu, Rousseau ,etc.) in . European Enlightenment Movement in 18 century。The thinking of "Harmonious society ","Harmonious world "relate with Confucius's saying : "Harmony but not sameness ". The author regarded that we should synthesize Marxism philosophy , Western philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy together to form a philosophic thinking with Chinese characteristics.

Last year , I have introduced to you the book Note book of Reading History written by an Architectural experts Zhang Qinnan。 I deeply felt that if we do not understand natural sciencesave a comprehensive reflection on the universal rules of human historical development ,on the doctrine and the theory that we believed, on the history of our party and on the way of your governance.

Last year, I entered my age of 88. I wrote a poem for myself .the last two sentences are: "The only thing I am worrying, When Constitutionalism could be implemented? "

In my letter, I especially mentioned the problem of natural science. I really feel that it is too long for our party to be limited in the Struggle philosophy of one person. We did not understand the rules of human social development and of the nature. I remembered an old event. In 50th years of last century, while I engaged in hydropower construction, I deeply felt that lack of scientific knowledge was a basic problem of our party which is composed mainly by old cadres. In July of 1955, there was an editorial of People's Daily of 3000 words : "Cadres must learn natural sciences"which was written by me. In this article , I mentioned that "3/4 of old cadres have only the level lower than junior middle school. Some comrades regarded that they are responsible for political and organizing leaderships. It is enough to have some applied knowledge and it is not necessity to learn natural science. These comrades do not understand that Communism is built on the basis of sciences. Dialectical Materialism could not be separated from natural sciences. Without certain knowledge of natural science , it is impossible to learn Marxism ."

Now we are constructing Socialism , "We must grasp sciences and understand the rules of natural changes. No matter industry or agriculture, no matter basic construction or production , all of them are dealing with nature If you don't understand the rules of nature, you must have difficulties in political leadership and organizing management."

From the view of the later Great leap forward movement , this editorial article may be said useless.

The author is a scientist of agricultural meteorology with great contribution and deep natural science basis. After he retired from the position of president of JAAS (Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences), he devoted himself to the study of philosophy with a high sense of historical responsibility. He has read more than one hundred famous philosophic works. He found that either ancient or modern , either the East or the West , either Marxism or Non–Marxism , all philosophies have their reasonable parts . There did not reject with each other and may be synthesized together. The basic thinking of his book is : in contemporary China ,we should promote the great synthesis of Chinese ,Western and Marxist philosophy. In Tang and Song dynasty of China, the great synthesis of Confucian, Buddhism and Daoism had pushed forward China's splendid culture. Today, the great synthesis of Chinese, Western and Marxist philosophy must push forward the Revitalization of Chinese nation. Of course, the most important is to absorb the active factors of Liberty ,Democracy , Rule of Law ,Science ,etc. from the West philosophy.

Today .although there are some modifications of traditional Marxism in China. But, how to treat excellent traditional Chinese philosophy? How to treat Western philosophy which played important role in Western civilization? And as to the problems in philosophy itself , relation between philosophy and science , problem of Dialectics, the motive force of historical development, Man's cognition of the world and the essence of Man ,etc. all these problems, the author combining with the situation and practice of China , presented a series new opinions. He takes Synthesis as the kernel , presented a new theoretical system . The author ,in his Preface , wrote modestly :"I hope this small book will give rise to some thinking of readers ,so as to discuss some problem for helping the progress and development of our country。"

Here, I like to talk on a problem. Now .we still often use the term of Marxism-Leninism to name the guiding ideology of our country. This is a misleading. This concept originated from the saying of Stalin:" Leninism is Marxism in the era of Imperialism of proletarian revolution ". The theory of Leninism is : Socialism could get success in Russia firstly. The dictatorship of the proletariat is acquired and maintained by the proletariat with violence. It is not limited by any law. The proletariat is led by the Communist Party. The leadership of the Communist Party is One-party dictatorship. Dictatorship of one person is the expression, representation and execution of the dictatorship of the proletariat. How to guarantee the most rigid unification of will? The only way is that the will of thousand people obey the will of one person"。 All those saying of Lining shows that so called dictatorship of the proletariat is equal to dictatorship of one party ,of leader ,of one person and personal worship . This in not Marxism ! Mao Zedong's Struggle philosophy was also originated from Lining. In Lining's article On the Question of Dialectics ,Lenin said:

The unity(coincidence, identity, equal action)of opposites is conditional ,temporary, transitory, relative. The struggle of mutually exclusive opposites is absolute, just as development and motion are absolute.

What Mao Zedong introduced in his article On Contradiction is just this saying.

Now, we are implementing market economics. Market economics and competition must conform the principle of Justice, Equality and Rule of Law. Our political democratization must implement Constitutionalism. Government and party should constraint by Constitution.

I hope that this book On Synthesis Philosophy , could not only modify our past incorrect guiding ideology ,but also push forward synchronous of reform of economic system and political system and establishment of a really harmonious society .

2007-1-14

( This article was published in the magazine :<Yan Huang Chun Qiu>in 2007 ,4 )

Brief Introduction of Li Rui (1917- ,李锐)

Li Rui was born in Pingjiang, Hunan province. He joined CCP(China Communist Party) in 1937 .and engaged in youth and Journalism works. In 1958, he was vice minister of water resources and electric power and also part time secretary of Mao Zedong . In 1959 , he was criticized mistakenly in the meeting at Lu Shan .During Cultural Revolution , he was in jail for 8 years.After 1979, he was assigned as vice minister of Electric power and Executive vice minister of Central Organization Department. In the twelve Party Congress of CCP , he was elected member of the Central Committee,. He was famous in the world for his researches on Mao Zedong. He had many works on the history of Mao Zedong and CCP.

# Preface

### Liangzhi Gao

The subtitle of this book is Philosophy Thinking of a Chinese Scientist, which shows the identity of the author.

I , as the author of this book ,am a Chinese scientist.

I was born and growing in China. I have been living and working in China in my whole life. Even though I have been visited many countries (USA ,Italy Japan ,India ,Mexico , Ethiopia , the Philippines, etc. ),but I am exactly a Chinese. No matter in the weak period or in the strong period of China , I am proud as a Chinese at all. While I am coming into the old age and have the time to have philosophic thinking, I don't forget I am a Chinese. That is why I pay much attention to and accept the elite portion in traditional Chinese philosophy. I also pay attention to link philosophy thinking and the history and reality of China. Of course ,at the same time I also pay high respect to Western philosophy and uptake many nutrition from Western philosophy .

I myself am not a philosopher. I am an agricultural scientist , working for a long period in agricultural researches . In the field of agricultural sciences, I have been obtaining certain achievements. I am one of the earliest agro-meteorologists in China. I am the establisher of agricultural system and agricultural modeling science in China. I have obtained 8 Scientific Awards. In my life, I have cultivated more than 1000 college students and 14 master and doctor degree graduates. I may be comfortable to say that I have done my best in the fields of science.

Why in my late age, I begin to have philosophic thinking and write this book on philosophy? Here, let me review the process of my contact with philosophy.

From my childhood period, I have the characters of curiosity and love of learning. Curiosity and love of learning are two characters interacting as both cause and effect. Due to curiosity, I love learning. Due to learning, I have more curiosity. Owing to these characters, I studied very well, especially in the middle school.. I am interested in all courses. There was no course of philosophy in middle school. But through the course of Chinese language , I contact many traditional philosophic classics,as Analects of Confucius , Mencius ,etc. At the same time, through the classes of mathematics and natural sciences, I believe the rational thinking very much. After 1949(establishment of PRC) , I could only contact few philosophic books of Marxism, as On practice, On Contradiction (both written by Mao Zedong) Anti Dulin theory, Dialectics of nature(both written by Engels). In 80's period of 20th century, the ideological field began to open in China. It is possible for me to contact comprehensively the Western books of science and philosophy. I studied those new scientific theories which contain philosophy thinking ,as theory of Systems ,theory of Information , theory of Cybernetics, theory of Dissipative Structure,etc. I also read book introducing the history of Western philosophy. At the same time , I read seriously many books of Chinese traditional philosophy ,as Book of Dao and De(《道德经》) or Laozi(《老子》),Analects of Confucius(《论语》),Mencius(《孟子》), Zhuangzi(《庄子》) ,Mozi (《墨子》), The Great Learning(《大学》), The Doctrine of Mean(《中庸》),etc. While I was writing the book Foundation of Agricultural Systems , I read seriously The Book of Changes (《易经》). In my own books, I discussed the problem of philosophy in relation with sciences

In 1999, I retired and basically finished my agricultural science researches . But my health , my eyes and brain are still good. There is enough leisure time remained. I could be summarizing my scientific and historical knowledge in my life . I could have a review of the changes of the ages which I experienced. It coursed me to think on the basic philosophic problems . The characters of curiosity and love of learning.began from my childhood also pushed me to study and investigate philosophy. I bought a lot of books on Western philosophy (ancient , recent and modern ) .and also Chinese traditional philosophy

From my youth age, I have another character—liking to suspect. In 1947, (my age of 18), for the fate of my country, I joined underground revolution activities. Next year, I , with others ,went to liberation region in Anhui province . I took part in a training class learning revolutionary theories. One day in the class , I stood up and asked teacher a question:" All scientific laws should have strict provability ,does Marxism have strict provability?" 。All classmates and the teacher laughed out. It seemed that they felt me so childish. But I myself didn't regard me childish . For my full life, I insist on my opinion— any theory should have strict provability, including Marxism certainly.

In the researches of agricultural sciences, I also insist on the character of liking suspect. In 50-60's period of 20th century , government asked scientists to learn from Soviet Union(SU). But in the field of agro-meteorology, I found that the theory and method of agro-meteorology of SU is not suitable in China . I presented the opinion of Agricultural Meteorological Ecology. This opinion helped me to obtain many successful achievements. After 80's of last century ,while many scientists learned the method and theory from Western countries, I had spent one year in USA as a visiting professor in OSU (Oregon State University),I read many books and papers on crop modeling. I found that crop modeling developed in Western countries( The Netherland , USA , UK ,etc)could not carry great help for agriculture . I tried to combine crop modeling and crop optimization together. After I returned China , I and my research group accomplished rice and wheat simulation ,optimization and decision making systems(RCSODS and WCSODS ) ,. Both of them have been applied in more than 10 provinces in China and helped farmers obtaining higher yield and more profit than before. These two large scale crop modeling systems got high scientific awards later.

In the field of philosophy, I also don't like to follow blindly. I learned seriously all schools of Western and Chinese philosophy, but I insist on independent thinking. From great amounts of scientific and historical facts , I have been making my own conclusions.

Now, this book expresses my own conclusions of many philosophic problems through my independent thinking in more than 50 years.

As a scientist, I am familiar with a part of natural sciences and I also studied many books of philosophy. I found that there is a great difference between science and philosophy. Science has a knowledge system which could be recognized by all people in the world . For example, in the field of Physics,from Galileo(1564-1642) to Isaac Newton(1642-1727),to Albert Einstein(1879-1955),and to the modern Quantum Physics, the basic principle of Physics has been inheriting and developing continuously. The physical theories they presented are recognized by all physicists and also all people with certain education level .

But , in the field of philosophy, from ancient time to now ,there is no philosophic system which is recognized by all people. Why I should mention this problem in Preface. I like to express my basic opinion and hope of the book. I don't expect all readers accept my opinions in this book .I only hope that this book could Inspire the thinking of readers so as to discuss some common problems in philosophy.

I myself am not a specialized philosopher, but a philosophy lover. So mistakes in this book are unavoidable. I sincerely hope to have your comments and criticism.

Thank all of you for reading this book,

2015-5-17

# Chapter 1 Introduction

  1. What is Philosophy?

This is a book on philosophy. So we have to discuss the problem: what is philosophy?

In ancient China there was philosophic thinking ,but there wasn't the term —Philosophy. The term " Philosophia" came from ancient Greece. The original meaning was loving (philem) wisdom (Sophia).So the earliest meaning of Philosophy was loving and pursuing wisdom or knowledge.

In more than 2000 years later, philosophers presented many different explanations or definitions of Philosophy.

This book is not a text book of Philosophy. So it is not necessary to discuss the definition of Philosophy in detail.

Here , I like to introduce the explanation of the term Philosophy from two authoritative books.

Famous German philosopher Wilhelm Windelband (1848-1915) wrote in his Textbook of History of Philosophy:

Philosophy, according to the conventional understanding, is the elaboration of general problem of the outlook of Cosmos and human life

Famous British philosopher Bertrand Russell(1872-1970)wrote in his book The History of Western Philosophy as the first sentence

The conceptions of life and the world which we call "philosophy" are a product of two factors.

The two factors he mentioned : one is religious and ethical conceptions ;the other is science.

From the elaborations of these two worldwide famous philosophers ,it may be said that Philosophy is the knowledge of the Outlook of the World and Human Life.

Some book on philosophy mentioned Methodology. Recent Western philosophy paid much attention to Epistemology or Methodology of Man's Understanding. But ,Methodology discusses the method to understand the world. It may be included in the concept of Outlook of the World .

  2. Characters of Philosophy

If Philosophy is defined as the knowledge (or wisdom ) of the outlook of the world and human life, then we could understand some characters of philosophy which make it different from science ,art ,religion and other civilization fields

  1. Philosophy has very wide coverage

The outlook of the world and human life has a very wide coverage, including the views of all things in the world and in human life. Any science makes researches limited in a certain field of the natural or social world . Only philosophy makes researches in the whole world and human life.

Philosophy has a very wide coverage; it doesn't mean that philosophy likes an Encyclopedia including all contents of various sciences. Philosophy doesn't make researches in all problems in the world and human life. It only makes researches in some basic problems in the world and human life .as the noumenon or essence of the world , the meaning of human life, could man understand the world, how to understand the world, and so on. These problems are not discussed in any science.

Of course , philosophy has a very wide coverage; it does not mean that philosophy has a higher level than that of science. Just as we could not say that Botany is higher than Plant taxonomy or Plant Physiology . There is only the difference of field of knowledge coverage,no difference of knowledge level .

We also could not say that owing to philosophy has a wider coverage than sciences , philosophy could be the guidance of science. This problem will be discussed in the last part of this book .

  2. Philosophy could not leave Man

Although in the definition of philosophy presented by Windelband and Russell does not make mention of Man. But so called the outlook of the world and human life means the views of Man on the world and human life.

It may be said that philosophy is the theoretical system of the relation between Man and the world.

This character makes the difference of philosophy from science.

Natural science makes researches on the nature itself. The research object of natural science is the rules in the nature . These rules could be found gradually by Man . But they are not controlled or changed by Man. Before and after Nicolaus Copernicus ( 1473-1543),presented the theory of Heliocentrism, the earth is moving around the sun forever

The research object of philosophy is "Man—Nature System",including the understanding of Nature by Man , the understanding of the world of Man and the understanding of Human life. All the understandings of Man relate with the ideology, opinion and knowledge level of Man .

  3. Philosophy is rational knowledge

Philosophy is Man's rational knowledge. The main method of philosophy is Logic analysis and Logical reasoning ,not belief or imagination . This character makes philosophy different from any Man's irrational activities as art ,religion,etc. Philosophy does not recognize any authority . This character of philosophy is similar to science.

Philosophers also use the method of intuition sometimes. Chinese philosopher Zhuangzi and Western philosopher Nietzsche used intuition more often .

Intuition is different from logic reasoning . But intuition used in philosophy has a certain degree of human reason which is different from imagination and belief.

Philosophy makes researches on Man's rational and irrational thinking. But those researches themselves are rational . Just as poem and music are Man's perceptual ,not rational activities . But the theories of literature and art are rational knowledge .

  4. There is no world widely recognized philosophy system

The theories of natural sciences reveal the rules of nature itself . While the theory is proved by many facts or experiments, it is relatively correct . All scientists and people will recognize it ,no matter which nation or country they come from. The correct theory of science could be recognized comprehensively by all people in the world .

But philosophy is not the case. The basic problem of philosophy is Man's outlook of the world and human life. Philosophy relates with Man . People living in different countries and belonging to different nations will have different philosophy thinking. Even in a same country ,due to different periods , different educations , people will have different philosophy thinking. In 19th century of Germany , the most famous philosophers ,Kant ,Hegel and Marx , had quite different philosophy.

But we could not say that in philosophy ,there is no comparatively correct and incorrect theories,no comparatively reasonable and unreasonable theories. From ancient time to now, based on hard thinking and effort by many philosophers , philosophy has been getting much development,from partial to full ,from unreasonable to reasonable understanding of the world and human life . Even so ,people still have different philosophic thinking . The expectation to have a philosophic thinking which could be accepted by all people in the world seems impossible.

Someone perhaps does not agree with the above opinion. But let us think , is it possible to let all people accept Marx's philosophy of Dialectical Materialism or Dewey's philosophy of Pragmatism? Believers of different religions have their own thinking of the world and life , .Is it possible to have one philosophy theory making all believers give up their religious beliefs?

  3. Method of Philosophy

There is apparent difference between the method applied in science and in philosophy.

The methods of science ,in the early age, are mainly Induction (Biology,Chemistry ,Geology ,etc)and deduction(Mathematics). Began from Francis Bacon(1561-1626 ) and Galileo(1564-1642),methods applied in recent and modern science are mainly hypothesis and experiment(Physics,Chemistry,Biology,etc).Any hypothesis should be proved by experimental facts .If it is proved correct ,then the hypothesis may be recognized as basically correct (not absolutely correct, since science must be push forward continuously). All natural scientists ,facing the experimental facts ,will accept the truth. So , there are rules in Physics ,Chemistry ,Biology,etc recognized by the whole world .

The basic method of philosophy is Speculation. French philosopher Reve Descartes(1596-1650)had detailed discussion on the method of philosophy.He presented four main points:①Suspecting;②Analysis;③deduction④Induction .

He wrote in Discourse on Method (translated by John Veitch):

The first was never to accept anything for true which I did not clearly know to be such.

So .the standard of truth which he presented is that it should be clearly known to be such in my mind.

This is a method of Logic thinking. Philosophers regard that the theory is truth which is very clearly known to be true by himself.

This method of speculation is very important in the development of philosophy . But it courses that there are often different ,even opposite ,philosophic theories.

For example. Plato (427-347 BC ) and Descartes(1596-1650),both presented the theory of Innate Ideas. They regarded that the Man's ideas of the God ,moral ideas ,logic ideas ,etc are all innate (given by God,or the Heaven ). John Locke(1632-1704)in his book An Essay of Concerning Human Understanding used a whole chapter to refute the theory of Innate Ideas. Immanuel Kant(1724-1804)presented Transcendental Philosophy which affirmed that many Man's idea (as time, space ,etc. )are innate. Karl Marx(1818-1883)and Friedrich Von _Engels(_ 1820-1895)denied the theory of Innate Ideas again . The opinions of those famous philosophers ware apparently different or opposite.

Kant ,Hegel, Feuerbach and Marx , they all emphasized the importance of Practice in understanding or finding the truth.

In my opinion, Marx's idea of Practice is noticeable:

The question whether objective truth can be attributed to human thinking is not a question of theory but is a practical question (Marx : Theses On Feuerbach)

Practice , including historical practice ,production practice, life practice and experimental practice .

The combination of theoretical hypothesis and the experimental facts makes the theory of natural sciences be accepted by people world widely. So, in philosophy , the combination of philosophic speculation and practice (historical practice ,scientific practice ,social practice ,etc. )will be possible to make philosophic theories be accepted by most people in the world.

In this book , the method that the author applied is just the combination of philosophic speculation and various facts of practice . As to those opposite theories in philosophy, the author tried to make verification, analysis , induction and synthesis by various historical or scientific facts.

\- Chapter 2 Synthesis Philosophy and Its Origin

1. Basic Views of Synthesis Philosophy

Before discussing the details of Synthesis Philosophy, I like to introduce the basic views of Synthesis Philosophy, so as to help readers have an general understanding of Synthesis Philosophy.

1)Synthesis Philosophy intends to synthesize the elite and reasonable parts of Chinese traditional philosophy and Western philosophy so as to form a new philosophic system which is beneficial to China and other countries in the world.

2)So called "Synthesis" is a method of understanding of the world . It is a philosophic view and a method of thinking

The meanings of" Synthesis" are:

(1)Synthesis of things: anything in the world is a "Synthetic Body" ,which combines different parts into a synthetic entity . A synthetic body is the combination of diversity and unity

(2).Synthesis of ideas: To understand the world, Synthesis philosophy does not reject any different views, but extract the seasonable factors in those views and combines them together

(3) Synthesis implicates development and Innovation. Just due to synthesis ,there will be development and innovation

(4)The view of Synthesis covers all things in the cosmos , the world and also in human life ,including all substantial and spiritual things ( society ,family ,art ,literature ,theory ,etc.)

(5)The view of Synthesis involves the view of Dialectics, but not as same as Dialectics. Different parts in a thing may have contradiction or struggle, but they are mainly in coordination and harmony. Otherwise, they could not be stable and existent.

(6)The whole world may be divided into two kinds: Natural world and Man making world. In Natural world, substance is the first, man's spirit could understand natural world. But in Man making world (besides the wide cosmos beyond man's activity, all things on the earth belong to Man making world), the essence is the synthesis of substance and spirit . Spirit is the more important factor

(7) The essence of Natural world is the synthesis of substances and rules of movement.

(8) Man's understanding of the world is the synthesis of the known and the unknown

(9)The methods of Man's understanding of the world are:

A. Synthesis of perception and reason

B. Synthesis of induction and deduction

C. Synthesis of cognition and practice

D. Synthesis of theory and experiment

E. Synthesis of rational and irrational cognition

(10) The goal of Man is the synthesis of Truth, Good, Beauty and Love.

(11) The motive force of historical development is the synthesis of economy, politics , science and civilization

2. Origin of Synthesis thinking

What is synthesis thinking?

The brief explanation is: Synthesis thinking regards that all things in the world are Synthetic Bodies which are combinations of their different parts. They are all: One involves Many and Many involves One. All things in the world are combinations of Diversity and Unity..

Confucius had a saying:

Harmony, but not Sameness

This is a good expression of Synthesis thinking.

Synthesis has the similar meaning as Harmony. Synthesis is different from singleness and sameness

In Synthesis, there will be contradiction or struggle. But Synthesis does not certainly involve struggle. The main expression of Synthesis is coordination, confluence and harmony of different components.

In this paragraph, we''ll discuss the origin of Synthesis thinking.

  1. Inheritance of Chinese traditional philosophy

After I studied Chinese traditional philosophy systematically, I understand that Synthesis Thinking is the elite of Chinese traditional philosophy.

If we make an investigation into Chinese and Western ideological heritages, we 'll find that they have important difference.

Western philosophy originated from ancient Greece. Ancient Greek civilization produced in 11-9th centuries BC (The era of Homer),which was close to the time when Book of Changes (《 易经》)produced in China,3000 years ago.

Ancient Greek philosophers regarded that all things in the cosmos have a single essence. Tales(624-546 BC)regarded that water is the essence of all things, Anaksimenes(585-525 BC)regarded that gas is the essence of all things . Heraclitus(535-475 BC)regarded that fire is the essence of all things . Pythagoras(580-500 BC)regarded that number is the essence of all things .

In the age of ancient Greece and later, science had got important achievements ,as mathematician Euclidean( 325-265 BC)developed Geometry . Archimedes (287-212 BC)discovered Principle of Leverage and Buoyancy Law .

From above brief introduction of philosophy and scientific achievements of ancient Greece,. It may be said that the characters of ancient Greece are: emphasizing, singleness ,.emphasizing analysis and emphasizing logic.

Now .let us investigate ancient civilization of China .

Book of Changes is the earliest book of philosophy in ancient China. The basic elements of Book of Changes were two Components, each one was named a Yao: Yin Yao, a broken line (\- -) and Yang Yao, an unbroken line (—) .Three Yaos formed a Trigram .There were the famous 8 Trigrams . The book Yi Chuan was a book explaining Book of Changes. In Yi Chuan ,it was said " One Ying and one Yang is named Dao" Dao is the essence of the world . Dao is formed by the combination of Yin and Yang. This was the ontology of Chinese traditional philosophy . Apparently ,it was a view of Synthesis. Yi Chuan also said that three Yao in the Trigram means Heaven ,Earth and Man which were named Three Talents. Three Talents were the basic elements of the cosmos and the world . This was also a thinking of Synthesis .

Laozi was the earliest philosopher in ancient China ,living In the Spring and Autumn period . He wrote:

"Dao is great;

Heaven is great;

Earth is great;

And Man is also great.

There are four things that are great.

Of them ,man is one.(<Lao Zi >Chapter 25)

The Cosmogony of Laozi was the Synthesis of Dao , Heaven ,Earth and Man . This was also a Synthesis thinking .

Confucius did not talk on Cosmogony. But in the human life ,he said:

A wise man seeks harmony , but not sameness

The meaning of " Seeking harmony , but not sameness "is very close to the term —Synthesis..

Mencius was one of the earliest philosophers who presented the view of Unity of Heaven and Man . A student of him asked : "Was the case that King Yao gave the empire to King Shun?" Mencius answered : "Yao exhibited Shun to Heaven and Heaven accepted him .Yao exhibited him to the people and the people accepted him。". The meaning of Mencius 's answer is that Heaven and the people gave the empire to Shun . This is a synthetic view in politics.

The Doctrine of the Mean was a Confucian Classics. It wrote:

Mean is the great root of the world.

Harmony is the perfect path of the world.

Let the Mean and the Harmony exist, the order of the world will prevail and all things will be nourished .

Here , Harmony means the coordination of different parts of things . Mean means that the different parts in a thing are in a suitable ratio. The last sentence means Synthesis involves Development of all things

Famous philosopher Zhu Xi(朱熹) in Song dynasty presented the theory of Relation of Li (理,principle) and Qi (气,substance). He regarded that Li is the principle of Heaven , Qi is Yin and Yang ,which expresses as all things . This is the synthesis of the outlook of the Cosmos.

Famous philosopher Lu Jiuyuan(陆九渊) presented the theory of the Unity of Principle and Heart which means the coordination of Principle of Heaven and the Inner Morality of Heart. This is the Synthesis thinking of Ethics.

Famous philosopher Wang Yangming(王阳明) presented the theory of the unity of Cognition and Practice. This is the Synthesis thinking of Epistemology

Famous philosopher Dai Zhen(戴震) presented the Synthesis view of Dao(道,essence),Qi(气,substance) and Li(理,principle).

Famous modern philosopher Xiong Shili (熊十力) presented clearly the theory of the Unity of Heart (Spirit) and Substance. This is the Synthesis thinking of Ontology.

From the brief introduction above ,It may be seen that in more than 2000 years, the Synthesis thinking has been maintaining continuously and becoming the dominant thinking in Chinese philosophy .

Comparing with recent and modern Western philosophy and science, the meanings of concepts in Chinese traditional philosophy seem not so clear, as Heaven(天) , Dao(道) , Li(理) , Qi(气),etc。 This is the reason that they are rather difficult to be applied in modern researches of science and social life. Traditional Chinese philosophy emphasized synthesis, not analysis, emphasized intuition, not logic and experiment. Those characters makes some negative effects on the development of science in China. But we have to recognize that the Synthesis thinking in traditional Chinese philosophy is a very valuable ideological resource,not only in China ,but also in the world.

In Modern China, Zhang Dainian (张岱年)was the philosopher who emphasized most clearly the Synthesis thinking. In 30's of 20 century, he presented the thinking of Synthetic Creativity. In his philosophy, he synthesized Materialism, Idealism and Analytic philosophy together.

I must say that the Synthesis thinking introduced in this book is not created by myself . I inherit the Synthesis thinking from traditional Chinese philosophy,also from the thinking of Synthetic Creativity from Zhang Dainian. Even though my opinion is not all the same as that of Zhang.as in the understanding of Dialectics .

2. Synthesis Thinking in Ancient and Recent Western Philosophy

Synthesis thinking is not unique to China. In ancient and recent Western philosophy, there was also Synthesis thinking.

Ancient Greek philosopher Anaxagoras(500~428BC ),different from those philosophers who regarded one single factor as the essence of the world, he presented two factors as the essences ,which are Seed and Wisdom . Using modern language, Seed means the substances. Wisdom means rules of movement. This is a Synthesis thinking of Ontology.

The Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle(384-322 BC) regarded that all things are the combination of Matter and Form .The meaning of Matter is close to Substance or Material . The meaning of Form is close to Essence. This was the Synthesis thinking of the existence of things.

In 18th century , Immanuel Kant(1724-1804) presented the theory of Innate (a prior) Synthesis Judgment". According to Kant ,Man's knowledge have two sources: one comes from experience and the other comes from innateness (a priori).So called "a priori "or "innateness" is the inborn ability of rational thinking. This is an excellent Synthesis thinking of Epistemology.

Freiedrich Hegel(1770-1831)regarded that anything is not a single body . There is the unity and struggle of its two opposites. This thinking of Dialectics is also a kind of Synthesis thinking. But the content of Synthesis is wider than Dialectics. Things could have two opposite parts, and also could have multiple parts. These parts may struggle with each other , but mainly they are in coordination and harmony .

In summary, ancient and recent Western philosophy did have their Synthesis thinking. But not like in China, the Synthesis thinking had not been implementing throughout in Western philosophy.

An apparent character in the history of Western philosophy was that there were many opposite theories and arguments. The main arguments were as follows:

  1. Theory of Ideas and Theory of Substance

  2. Theory of Nominalism and Theory of Realism

  3. Theory of Empiricism and Theory of Rationalism

  4. Theory of Materialism and Theory of Idealism

It is interesting that the philosophers who presented the opposite theories were not common ones, but all very famous ones. For example, the philosopher who presented the Theory of Idea was Plato. The philosopher who presented the Theory of Substance was Aristotle. The philosophers who insisted on the Theory of Empiricism were Francis Bacon, John Locke, etc. The philosophers who insisted on the Theory of Rationalism were Rene Descartes, Baruch de Spinoza, etc . The philosophers who insisted on the Theory of Materialism were Ludwig Feuerbach, Karl Marx,etc. . The philosophers who insisted on the Theory of Idealism were George Berkeley, Freiedrich Hegel, etc.

But there was not impossible to synthesize those opposite theories. Kant made a successful synthesis of Theory of Empiricism and Theory of Rationalism. In fact , there is also possible to synthesize those other opposite theories ,which will be discussed in different chapter of the book.

The Synthesis philosophy introduced in this book applies the method combining speculation and practice ,according various facts including historical facts ,scientific facts .art facts .life facts, etc. to make judgments of different theories ,attracting all reasonable parts in different theories to establish a rather complete and synthesized theory of philosophy .

  3. Inspiration of Modern Western Philosophy

After Hegel Western philosophy entered the Modern period. There appeared many philosophic schools. A. common character of them is the avoidance of the argument of Materialism and Idealism. Some schools tried to digest this argument, as Analytic philosophy and Phenomenology. Some tried to suspend it, as Structuralism and Philosophy of Science.

But there appeared some new arguments in philosophy .The main ones are:

  1. Rationalism and irrationalism

  2. Philosophy of Science and philosophy of Human

  3. Analytic philosophy and Post Analytic philosophy

  4. Realism and Anti-realism

  5. Modernism and Postmodernism

Those arguments between different philosophic schools provide wider possibility for forming Synthesis Philosophy. The synthesis of the opposite opinions in those arguments will be discussed in related chapters of this book.

Here we discuss the problem of Rationalism and Irrationalism as an example

Recent philosophy ,from René Descartes(1596-1650)to Karl Marx (1818-1883),insisted on Rationalism. Descartes said:" never to accept anything for true which I did not clearly know to be such." Is just the rational thinking.

Modern Irrationalism philosophy began from Arthur Schopenhauer,(1788—1860). In his book The World as Will and Presentation ,he pointed out :the Subject of the world is will. Not only Man has will. all animal .plants ,stars have their wills. Will is an irrational spiritual factor. So his philosophy is an Irrational philosophy.

Irrational philosophy is a very important school of modern philosophy. Why is the case? From the view of Synthesis philosophy, Man requires two kinds of thinking ,rational and irrational. For understanding the world (as in science ) of course ,Man needs rational thinking . But in Man's feeling world (as in Love,Art or Religion) Man needs irrational thinking. So Rational and Irrational philosophies should not reject each other. They may be synthesized in the great goals of Man : Truth ,Good ,Beauty and Love.

In Modern Western philosophy Herbert Spencer(1820-1903)have written a book System of Synthetic Philosophy. It was a book of large scale and comprehensive contents .including Philosophy, Biology , Psychology, Sociology , Ethics, etc. So,the meaning of his Synthetic Philosophy was different from"Synthesis Philosophy"in this book at your hand.

In Modern philosophy .I should mentioned Structuralism. The philosophers of Structuralism ,as Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908-2009), Louis Althusser ( 1918-1990), Jacaueo Lacan, 1901-1981),etc. They all lived in 20th century . So Structuralism is completely a modern philosophy.

In 20th century , in the field of Natural sciences, there appears System Theory ,Information Theory , Control Theory , etc. The philosophic thinking of Structuralism is concerting with those Scientific thinking of Systems. These two thinking have making great contributions to the progress of science and social life. They must have important influence on the development of 21th century.

The Synthesis philosophy introduced in this book obtained influences from Structuralism in philosophy and system thinking in science .They are also the origins of Synthesis philosophy.

.4)Synthesis thinking in Natural Sciences

As a scientist, I certainly like to think how to consider philosophy problem using scientific achievements

If that Synthesis thinking is not emphasized enough in Western philosophy .but Synthesis is a very important view in the development of Western sciences

In Mathematics, René Descartes(1596-1650)synthesized Algebra and Geometry to create Analytic geometry. Isaac Newton (1642-1727),as a physicist ,combined Kinematics and Mathematics together, presented the method of fluxion which was the beginning of Calculus. Later , the synthesis of Geometry and Calculus created Differential geometry. The synthesis of Physics and Mathematics created Physical Mathematics. The synthesis of Mathematics and Operation Researches created many very useful mathematical methods for optimization as Linear programming, Nonlinear programming, Dynamic programming, Goal programming, etc.

The development of Physics has been a history from separation to synthesis. In 18th century, Mechanics, Optics, Thermodynamics, Science of Electricity, Science of Magnetism were all researched separately. In 19th century , Hans Christian Oersted(1777-1851),Hans Christian Oersted(1777-1851),Michael Faraday(1791~1867)discovered that power of electricity and magnetism could be converted into each other. In 1864, James Clerk Maxwell(1831-1879)established Electromagnetic wave equation, solving the rule of the conversion of electricity and magnetism. In 1855, British physicist R.W, Grove presented the Theory that all physical powers, as mechanical force, heat ,light ,electricity , magnetic force and chemical force may be converted into each other under certain condition

In the whole life of Albert Einstein (1879-1955),he worked on the synthesis in physics. Time and space, mass and energy are concepts seem to be opposite .In 1905, he published his famous paper —On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies and presented the Special theory of Relativity. He united time and space together. He presented the famous equation:

E=mc2

### It points out that while under the condition of near light speed, the energy will express as the increase of inertia mass. This theory unites mass and energy together. In 1916, he presented his famous theory of General Relativity. Its principle may be applied to the whole cosmos and also to the atomic nucleus. Modern Physics are pursuing continuously the synthesis theory of four fundamental powers in the cosmos, which are gravity, electromagnetic force, weak interaction force, strong interaction force. .

In Biology, both Botany and Zoology began with Taxonomy whose main method was collection and observation .The inner relation between various plants and animals was not found .The first breakthrough of Synthesis in Biology was the Theory of Evolution presented by British Biologist Charles Darwin (1809-1882) .In 1882-1885 ,he took part in n the worldwide biological investigation. After observing a great amount of biological facts , he presented the principle of Survival of the Fittest Natural Selection His theory explained the rule of Evolution in the biological world .

The second breakthrough of Synthesis in Biology was the discovery of Double Helix Structure of DNA in Chromosome in cells .Scientists may make clear all the relationships between different plants , animals and microbes. They discovered that DNA structures between Human Beings and Chimpanzees have the sameness of 98.5% (from Fang Zhouzi)

From the development of Physics and Biology in 20th century , one may astonished by the great Synthesis involved in the natural world .

Is the great Synthesis in natural world not necessary to be reflected in philosophy?

5) Conclusions of Historical Experience and World Politics

Philosophy makes researches in outlook of the world and human life. The world includes natural world and Man's world( Man's history and social life). Philosophic thinking should explain the experiences and lessons in Man's history and social life.

As a Chinese, I like to review the history of China. China's history was a history of separation and unification alternately. Which situation of separation or unification was beneficial to people? It was apparent that the periods of unification, as the early period of Han, Tang, Song , Ming ,Qing dynasties were all stable and prosperous times. In the periods of separation, as North and South period, Five dynasties and Ten countries period .South Song period and Warlords melee period in ROC (Republic of China), people all lived in a deep suffering and whole country was weak and unstable. So unification had been always beneficial to both country and people.

As explained in the beginning of this chapter, the meaning of Synthesis does not mean that there is no contradictions and struggles. In the late period of a dynasty, while all country was decaying or Invaded and occupied by other nations, revolution or anti-invading war was required ,as the revolution in 1911.the Anti-Japan war in 1937-1945 , the liberation war in 1946-1949. But the time of revolution and war were usually short. After the establishment of PRC in 1949, there was required to unite all people of different classes to construct the country. But due to the incorrect policy applied by the leader to insist on the Theory of Struggle in philosophy and to emphasize class struggles in whole country, China had many harmful political movements in the period of 1949-1976 and at last happened the terrible Cultural Revolution of 10 years ,which carried China to a great disaster. After the finish of Cultural Revolution, China began the period of Reformation and Open up , in the recent 20-30 years, the leading party stopped all political movements and class struggles ,unite all people to develop economics ,democratic politics and civilization, China has been getting great achievements recognized by all the world.

The history of ancient and modern China, all showed that the thinking and policy of Synthesis and Unification are certainly beneficial to the country and the people. The thinking and policy of Separation or Struggle were harmful to the country and the people.

Let us see the history of the modern world, in 20th century, there were two world wars. Both carried great suffering and disasters to all countries and all people After World war II, even though there was Cold War but no worldwide Hot War. The world economics and also sciences and technologies have been getting great progress.

In modern time, there are more than 200 countries in the world. Different countries and different nations have different civilizations which have different languages, habits, political systems and religions. All these different civilizations need to have mutual respect .mutual study so as to form a worldwide Synthesis of coordinative relationship. It is impossible to ask one civilization to govern all the other civilizations.

This fact shows that from the view of worldwide politics, it is important to realize Synthesis philosophy in modern world.

In summary, the origins of the thinking of Synthesis philosophy are :

  1. Heritage of Chinese traditional philosophy

  2. Enlightenment of ancient ,recent and modern Western philosophy

  3. Various achievements of modern natural sciences

  4. Lessons and conclusions of world history and world politics.

Chapter 3 What is the Noumenon of the World

  1. The Problem Raised

What is the Noumenon (or essence)of the world? This is the basic problem (Ontology) in philosophy

In ancient Greece, Aristotle regarded this problem as the First Philosophy and named it as Metaphysics

In 19th century German philosopher Friedrich Von En _gels(_ 1820-1895)wrote in Feuerbach and the End of Classic German Philosophy:

The question: which is primary, spirit or nature?

The answers which the philosophers gave to this question split them into two great camps. Those who asserted the primacy of spirit to nature and, therefore,... comprised the camp of idealism. The others, who regarded nature as primary, belong to the various schools of materialism.

This chapter will discuss this basic problem of philosophy

  2. The Opposition of Materialism and Idealism

In ancient and recent Western philosophy, the problem of the noumenon was one of the most important problems concerned by philosophers. As Engles said, the schools of philosophies may be classified into two groups: Idealism and Materialism.

More than 3000years ago before the beginning of ancient Greek philosophy, the Greek mythos told the stories of creation of the world by God. It was the beginning of Idealism .

The early Natural Philosophers generally regarded that the essence of the world was a kind of substance. Tales(624-546 BC) said : the original substance of all things is Water. Anaksimenes (585-525 BC)said: the fundamental substance of all things is Air. Heraclitus (535-475 BC)said ,Fire is the primordial element.

These theories were the beginning of Materialism.

In ancient Greece, famous philosopher Plato (427-347 BC ) presented the Theory of Ideas. He classified the world into two parts: 1) Idea world (or world of Intellect);2)Sensible world(or world of Senses). In his theory, Idea world is absolute and permanent . Sensible world is always changing and unstable. He regarded that God created all things according to his Ideas.

So , Plato may be regarded an establisher of Idealism in philosophy

Aristotle (384-322 BC)was a student of Plato .But he presented the Theory of Substance , which was apparently different from his teacher(Plato)'s theory . The Theory of Substance was an important development of Materialism.

In the Middle age of Europe , Aurelius Augustinus(354-430)and Thomas Aquinas(1224-1274)were two most important philosophers of Christianity. Both of them applied philosophic theory to prove that God created all things in the world. So, they belonged to the group of Idealism

During and after the Renaissance and Enlightenment Movement in Europe, Humanity and sciences had been getting great development which provided a good condition for Materialism.

The argument of Idealism and Materialism was the main content of Recent Western philosophy..

The advocators of recent Materialism was Francis Bacon (1561-1626 ) and Thomas Hobbes(1588-1679). Bacon said that the essence of the world is substances. Hobbes said that the Cosmos is the summation of all things.

But in the same period .famous British philosopher George Berkeley(1685-1753)presented the Theory of "Spiritual Substance" and proved that the existence of God . He developed the theory of Idealism.

In 18th century , Montesquieu(1689-1755),. Voltaire(1694-1778), Denis Diderot (1713 —1784), Baron Holbach (1723-1789) were all important philosophers who supported Materialism.

In 18-19th centuries , the most important philosopher of Idealism was Freiedrich Hegel(1770-1831). He presented that the highest rank of philosophy was the Absolute Spirit, or Absolute Idea..

After Hegel , the most influential Materialist was German philosopher Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach(1804-1872). Based on his view of Materialism, he analyzed deeply the essence of religions.

German philosophers Karl Marx (1818-1883)presented the theory of New Materialism, which was different from the Old Materialism. His view will be discussed below.

  3. On Synthetic Dualism

In the long time arguments between Materialism and Idealism, An another theory presented by famous French philosopher René Descartes(1596-1650).His theory was regarded as Dualism , which was different from Monism. Both Materialism and Idealism belongs to Monism

Descartes wrote in his book Mediation on First Philosophy:

On the one hand, I have a clear and distinct idea of myself, in so far as I am a thinking and not an extended thing, and, on the other, a distinct idea of the body, in so far as it is only an extended and not a thinking thing..

(Mediation on First Philosophy: Six Mediation,translated by Micheal Moriarty)

Here ,he clearly pointed out that Man has his body which is a extending thing (substance ),and at the same time ,Man has his thinking thing(Spirit or idea).

This is the theory of Dualism.

He also wrote:

Nature likewise teaches me, through these very feelings of pain,

hunger, thirst, and so forth, that I am not present in my body only as

a pilot is present in a ship, but that I am very closely conjoined to it and, so to speak, fused with it, so as to form a single entity with it.

Here, I (which means the soul or spirit of Man) am closely conjoined to my body (substance ). So ,The theory of Dualism presented by Descartes does not mean the absolute separation of substance and spirit, but the conjugation or synthesis of them,which may be named Synthetic Dualism

In 19th century , famous German economist and philosopher Karl Marx talked about his New Materialism.

In his book The Outline on Feuerbach, he wrote:

The chief defect of all hitherto existing materialism - that of Feuerbach included - is that the thing, reality, sensuousness, is conceived only in the form of the object or of contemplation, but not as sensuous human activity, practice, not subjectively.

So .the New Materialism of Marx was to combine object and subject together. And man's practice was the channel of the combination

Usually, Object means the substance, and Subject means the thinking(or spirit ) of Man .So Marx's New Materialism also emphasized the combination or synthesis of substance and spirit .

Now .let us review the opinions of Ontology in Chinese traditional philosophy.

In the early Yin dynasty, the idea of God was also strong in Man's heart. Began from Zhou dynasty the idea of God was apparently weakened. The earliest book of philosophy was Book of Changes (《易经》), which was formed in the early period of Zhou dynasty.

In Book of Changes, there were two basic elements :Ying (expressed as a broken line) and Yang (expressed as a unbroken line). In the book Yi Chuan , (《易传》)which was a set of books explaining Book of Changes ,it said:

The combination of One Yin and One Ying is called Dao .

In Chinese traditional philosophy, Dao was the Noumenon of the world. So ,it may be said that the Ontology of Chinese traditional philosophy was Dualism,not Monism.

Just like the opinion of Descartes and Marx , the Dualism in Chinese traditional philosophy did not mean the separation of Substance and Spirit ,but the combination or synthesis of Substance and Spirit (Yin and Yang )..So ,it was also the Synthetic Dualism.

In Ming dynasty , famous philosopher Wang Yangming(王阳明) wrote :

Where the Mind exists is the Matter,. What the Mind uses is the Matter (Collected Works of Wang Yangming)

So , the opinion of Wang Yangming was the Unitty of Mind and Matter which was also.the Synthetic Dualism.

WangYangming lived in 15-16 century, Karl Marx lived in 19 Century . These two philosophers got a similar opinion that Mind(Subject ) and Matter(Object ) are combined together.

Famous modern Chinese philosopher Xiong Shili( 熊十力) wrote in his book Quan Kun Yan(《乾坤衍》):

Idealists regard that things only have the Spirituality. Materialists regard that things only have Materiality. Both of them insist on the Simplicity of things in the Cosmos.

Qian (乾)is life and soul. Kun (坤) is substance and energy. Both of them are in the Complexity of things in the Cosmos

He criticized both Materialism and Idealism regarding both of them only shows the Simplicity , not Complexity of the world .

I agree with the opinions of Descartes. Marx , Wang Yangming and Xiong Shili. Their theories of Ontology are all Synthestic Dualism, which is the basic idea of Ontology in Synthesis philosophy/

4. Basic Views of Synthesis philosophy on Ontology

1) What is the World?

The world which philosophy faces to is different from the world which natural science faces to.

The world which natural science faces to is the Natural World, It is independent of Man. The world which philosophy faces to is the world which Man faces to, in which Man takes the kernel position . The problem of Ontology in philosophy should discuss the Noumenon of the world which Man faces to

The world which Man faces to could be divided into two parts: Natural world and Human world (or Man-made world). Human world includes those parts of natural world which are influenced or reformed by Mankind and all things created by Man, as crops ,livestock ,etc. and also those things created by Mankind ,as tools ,machines ,civilizations ,etc.

We'll discuss these two worlds now.

(1)Natural world : the broad Cosmos and all stars ,the Galaxy ,the Solar System belong to Natural world. Today and in a long period in the future ,Man could observe them ,but could not influence or reform them.

On the earth, all natural forces ,natural chemical compounds ,wild plants, wild animals ,various micro-organisms ,before Man reform them ,belong to Natural world.

Spirit of man is a special product created in the brain of an advanced animal — Human being. In the broad Cosmos, it is only like a very little drop of water in the great sea.

In the natural world, Man's spirit (or wisdom) only have the ability to observe and understand the great Natural world . In most Natural sciences, Man's spirit is not in their visual field and usually be neglected. So, Natural world may be called Natural Substance world

(2) Human world:

Human world is the world influenced, reformed or created by Mankind. It includes the following parts:

A .Human substance world

It includes all things created by Man, as crops, livestock , cloths ,foods ,houses ,cars ,ships and things used in communication ,research ,etc.

B. Human social world

it includes Man's history, economics ,politics ,society , family country ,etc.

C. Human civilization world

It includes religion, literature, painting, music ,drama ,etc.

Based on the above classification ,we may discuss the following problems

2) What is Substance?

According to above classification , substance in the world may be divided into two large groups:

(1)Natural substance

Natural substances are created by Nature itself, not by Man. It includes various substances in the Cosmos , on the earth and in the biological circle. They are the research objects of natural sciences.

Substances in micro-world are molecules, atoms, electrons, protons, neutrons and various basic particles

Substances in the whole Cosmos are galaxies, solar system, fixed stars, satellites, Comets, novas, supernova, neutron stars, black hole, white hole, etc.

Substances on the earth are atmosphere, soil , seas ,continents, various energies, etc.

Substances in the biological circle are various plants , animals, micro-organisms and life substances as proteins , DNA ,etc

(2) Human substance

Human substance includes all substances designed , created and produced by Mankind

Creation of these substance required natural substances as raw materials .For example, various crops were created from natural wild plants by breeding and improvement for many years.

There are massive products of agriculture , handicraft and industry

Those related to Cloth are garments, shoes, hats, etc.

Those related to Food are grains, fruits, vegetables , candy ,etc.

Those related to House are constructions, furniture, home appliances.

Those related to Moving are cars, aircrafts, ships ,etc.

Those related to War are various weapons

Those related to Information and Communication are computer's hardware, software, network , etc.

Those related to scientific research are various Instruments, chemical reagents, etc.

Those related to Space technology are artificial satellite, rocket, missile, spaceship, etc.

  2. What is Spirit ?

According to the explanation in Chinese and Western philosophy, the meaning of the term —Spirit may be classified into three kinds:

  1. Personified Spirit.

In ancient and recent Western philosophy, God was just the personified Spirit. In the philosophy of Aurelius Augustinus(354-430)and Thomas Aquinas(1224-1274), they said :Spirit created the world. It meant God created the world.

(2)Spirit in Man's mind

. This is the most popular meaning of Spirit, which means Man's Subjective factor as consciousness, idea, ideology or thinking. So .all philosophic thinking, scientific knowledge, ethics, moralities, civilizations, arts, religions belong in the term: Spirit.  
Man's thinking is related to the objective world. It may be the true expression of the world, as science, philosophy, etc. It also may be the imaginary reflection of the world, as art, religion, etc..

Some philosophers regard that the Spirit comes from Man's heart (or mind).Their theories are called Subjective Idealism.

3) Spirit in the world

Some philosophers regarded that Spirit does not come from Man's heart , but from the whole world . Famous German philosopher Freiedrich Hegel(1770-1831) presented the ideas of Absolute Spirit and Absolute Idea. Those terms do not mean the thinking of Man, but means the absolute force in the whole Cosmos and the whole world which is the origin of all things . This theory is called the Objective Idealism.

Personalized Spirit , or God ,belongs to Man's religious belief, which is beyond the field of philosophy. We' ll not discuss in this chapter. The problem of Absolute Spirit will be discussed in next chapter.

In this chapter, we'll mainly discuss the relation of the Man's Spirit (the second kind of Spirit) and Substance.

4)Discussions about the Noumenen of Natural World

According to Plato, idea is ahead of thing and is the reason of thing. He presented an example: a carpenter must has a idea of table first ,then he could make the table

How to evaluate Plato's opinion?

The answer is different in Natural world and Human world..

In Natural world, all scientists will not agree that Idea is ahead of natural thing. Idea, consciousness, thinking, spirit are all the products of Man's brain. Man's brain is only a organ of high animal which is living on a very small star —the Earth, among billions stars in the great Cosmos. The history of the Cosmos was about 20 billion years. The history of origin of organism was about 3.5 billion years, The history of Human being is only 5 million years, Taking an example, The Cosmos is a man of 4000 years old .The original organism is a man of 700 years old, Human being is only a baby of 1 year old. So, idea, thinking or spirit of Man is impossible to create or have great influence upon the Cosmos

As to Natural world, we must recognize that its Noumenon is basically substance. The view of Materialism is basically correct.

But if we only say that the Noumenon of Natural word is Substance , it is a too simple or not complete understanding .

Any substances in the Cosmos could not separate from movement. If there is no movement, all things will disappear or die out

A more complete understanding of the Noumenen of Natural world is the Synthesis of the essence of Substance and the rule of Movement.

Based on continuously effort and discovery of scientists, it is proved that all substances in the Cosmos are composed of molecules, atoms, neutrons, electrons, photons and elementary particles . These are the essence of Substances.

Also, based on the efforts and discoveries of scientists, all movements of substances follow the basic rules of movement, as law of universal gravitation, law of quantum mechanics, law of thermodynamics, law of electromagnetism, etc.

In Biology .all substances of plants, animals and microorganism are composed of some basic substances ,as protein , carbon hydrates ,DNA ,etc.

All the life phenomenon follows the law of evolution .law of genetics , etc.

The above understanding was also presented in Chinese traditional philosophy.

In Song dynasty ,philosopher Zhang Zai (张载) presented the concept of Qi (气),which is correspondent to Substance and its movement. Philosophers ,Two Cheng (二程) and Zhu Xi (朱熹) presented the concept of :Li( 理),which is correspondent to the essence of substance and the rules of movement. In Ming dynasty ,philosopher Luo Qinshun (罗钦顺) presented the opinion of that Li is in the Qi . Huang Zongxi(黄宗羲) presented the opinion of the Unity of Qi and Li .

It may be regarded that the thinking of the Unity of Qi (substance and its movement) and Li (essence and rules) is a quite deep thinking of the Noumenon of Natural world .

In summary, the Noumenon of Natural world is the Synthesis of the essence of substance and the rules of movement .

Is the above understanding more complete than the opinion that Noumenon of Natural world is only the Substance?

5) Discussion about the Noumenon of Human World

We'll discuss the Noumenon of Human substantial world and Human social and civilized world respectively

  1. Noumenon of Human Substantial World

Human Substantial world includes all things used for Man's clothing, eating , housing ,moving ,communication ,etc. They are things that Man contacts every day.

What is the Noumenon of them?

We may begin the discussion from the problem of table presented by Plato. Plato said: a carpenter must has a idea of table first, then he could make the table according to his idea of table.

No matter judging by common sense or by science, his saying is correct

Someone might doubt of this ancient philosopher —Plato's saying . Let us listen what a recent famous economist Karl Marx said.

In Marx's book Capital , he wrote :

But what distinguishes the worst architect from the best of bees is this, that the architect raises his structure in imagination before he erects it in reality. At the end of every labor-process, we get a result that already existed in the imagination of the laborer at its commencement.

The meaning of the above sentences is exactly the same as what Plato said.

All things in Human substantial world, as cloth, food ,house ,car ,telephone, computer ,TV , etc. are designed and produced according to certain ideas of Man. Without certain idea, Man is impossible to create those things

Of course, it could not be said that, Idea must be ahead of thing. Before Man has certain idea, there should be certain thing

We still take a table as example. Before the original Man had a table, he could only put something on a stone. As for the purpose of putting things more stable, according to the idea —how to put things stable, he tried to trim the stone. Then the first table was created. So, the first table was created by the combination of Man's idea and a natural stone . It is difficult to say which factor is ahead. Afterwards, the improvement of table could not leave the old table (substance) and also Man′s thinking of improving the table(idea).

As to the creation of the majority of Human substances, not only ideas of Human mind are required, various scientific researches are necessary. Please think, is it possible to build a high building without mechanics, materials science, architectural science, etc. Is it possible to invent a computer without mathematics, electronics, information science and computer science? Of course, the development of these sciences requires many kinds of substances. The development of architectural science requires many architectural materials. The development of computer science requires various computer hardware. And the improvement of these materials still requires deep researches of architectural science and computer science.

In summary, as to the Human substances, it is difficult to say that substance and idea, which one is ahead and which one is afterward.

It could only be said that substance and idea are joining together to create a thing.

In summary, all Human substances are created by the Synthesis of material and Man′ s idea. But it should be recognized by in the synthesis, Man's idea plays the leading rule.

Science and technology is the first productive force. This conclusion is correct in modern world. In all discoveries of science and technology .Man′ s spiritual factor takes the leading rule. Please think ,if there is no the Electromagnetic theory presented by famous scientist Michael Faraday(1791-1867),is it possible to produce various electronic family appliances, as electric lamp , phone, television ,etc.

So, the conclusion is that the Noumenon of human substantial things is the Synthesis of substance and spirit ,and the spiritual factor takes the leading rule..

  2. Noumenon of Human Social and Civilized World

In Human social world , the importance of Man′s spiritual factor apparently exceeds substantial factor.

Taking a political event as example. In 1948, KMT (Chinese Nationalist Party)opened a National Convention at Nanjing. In 1949, CCP (China Communist Party) opened the first session of the CPPCC National Committee. From the view of materials, there was no difference in these two national conferences. Both are many chairs and tables in a large and bright hall. But the political contents of them are absolutely different. What is the main difference between these two conferences, spiritual factor or substantial factor? Someone might say : we should consider the economical conditions of the conferences . But the time interval of two conferences was only one year. The economical and substantial conditions are basically the same.

Now ,let us observe the situation in Human civilization world. In 8th century , famous Chinese writer Han Yu (韩愈) wrote a famous essay Original Principle (《原道》). In 20th century , famous Chinese writer Lu Xun(鲁迅) wrote a famous short novel The true story of Ah Q .There was no apparent difference between the substances (paper, ink, pen, etc.) that they used. But the languages(classical or modern Chinese ) ,the periodical backgrounds , the ideologies , the goals and styles of their writings were apparently different. Someone might say the substantial factor of literature should be the economical condition of the writing period. But, how to explain that in a same period, there appeared very different writing styles? In the period of Han Yu (Tang dynasty),many writers likes to write rhythmical prose, but Han Yu was a pioneer who wrote plain essay which created a new and famous literature style in that period . Lu Xun lived in the period of ROC (Republic of China). In the same period , the style of his novels and essays were apparently different from the current styles of those writers who only wrote the stories between man and women ( the literature school of mandarin duck and butterfly).

The different styles of writers could only be explained by the spiritual factor of the writers.

The summary of this chapter is:

  1. The Noumenon of Natural world must be the Synthesis of essence of substance and the rules of movement .

  2. The Noumenon of the Human world must be the Synthesis of substance and spirit , and the spiritual factor plays the leading role .

This is the basic view of Synthesis Philosophy on the problem of the Noumenon of the world

Chapter 4 How the world is Composed?

The Noumenen of the world is the kernel problem in Ontology. There are some other problems in Ontology which will be discussed in this Chapter, such as problem of diversity and unity, problem of phenomenon and essence, problem of Individuality and commonality, etc.

  1. Synthesis of Diversity and Great Unity of the World

There is great diversity in the world. There are countless different things (different materials, plants , animals ,human races ,etc. ) in the world. Is there unity in the world? This is a problem concerned by many philosophers from ancient to modern time. Almost all philosophers affirmed that there is unity in the world.

Some philosophers in ancient Greece as Tales(624-546 BC) , Anksimandros(610-546 BC), Heraclitus(535-475 BC),etc. regarded that all things in the world coming from a single substance, as Water, Gas ,Fire ,etc. Some of them ,as Parmenides(540-470 BC) regarded that the world is unified in Existence. Some of them ,as Pythagoras(490-420 BC) regarded that the world is unified in Number.

Ancient Chinese Lao Zi ,in his The Book of Dao and De(《道德经》), said :

Dao begets the One;

The One begets the Two;

The Two begets the Three;

The Three begets all things of the world." ( Chapter 42)

So, in Lao Zi's thinking, all things came from Dao, which means they are unified in Dao.

Dao is the essence of the world and also the moving rule of the world (in Chinese, Dao has the meaning of Road).

Confucius and Mencius paid attention to the Unity and Harmony of human society and family.

In Song dynasty, famous philosophers Cheng Hao(程颢,1032-1085),Cheng Yi(程颐,1033-1107)and Zhu Xu(朱熹,1130-1200)presented the theory of Li (理,Principle). Li is the kernel idea in their philosophy(理学,New Confucianism), Chen Yi said :" There is Li ,then there are Phenomenon, and then there are Numbers". Zhu Xu said:" Li produced Qi (气,substances)." So, in their philosophy, Li is the Unity and moving rule of all things.

Also in Song dynasty, famous philosopher Zhang Zai (张载)presented the theory of Qi (气学)。According his thinking, Qi has its form and image (like the concept of Substance). So, Qi is the Unity of all things.

In Qing dynasty ,famous philosopher Dai Zhen (戴震) presented the theory of the Unity of Dao ,Qi and Li . He combined them together as the essence of great Unity of the world.

So, all philosophers in ancient West and ancient China affirmed that there exists great Unity of the world.

But, ancient scientists talked little on the problem of Unity of natural world. Scientists only presented their theory according the facts they found.

Surprisingly, from recent to modern period, scientists have found countless facts proving that there really exists great Unity in the cosmos and in the world.

In this book, I use the term "Synthesis", not the term "Unification " to express the idea of the Unity of the world . The two terms have certain difference. "Synthesis" means "Harmony, but not sameness". "Synthesis" means that there is a combination of Diversity and Unity of the world. So "Synthesis" is a better term than "Unification "

1).Unity in Substance essence

As explained above, the Noumenon of Natural World is the Synthesis of Substance Essence and Movement Rule.

There are countless kinds of substances in natural world. Just on a very small star in the cosmos—Earth, there are numerous kinds of substances, as various rocks, metals, soils, plants, animals , micro-

organisms, etc. Natural sciences have proved that in the great diversity of substances, there exists great unity, which expressed in two aspects: Macro and Micro. The main achievement in Macro Unity is the establishment of periodic law of chemical elements. The main achievement in Micro Unity is clarification of Atomic Structure.

  1. Establishment of periodic law of chemical elements

In the Middle Age of Europe, alchemists were the early researchers of substances, but they didn't have the correct idea of Element. Robert Boyle(1627—1691) in his book The Sceptical Chemist presented pioneer the concept of Element. He pointed out that Element is the substance which could not be chemically decomposed. In18-19 centuries, chemists found many Elements. But they did not understand the inner relation between these Elements. Russian chemist Dmitri, Ivanovich (1834-1907),after long period research, presented a Periodic Table of Elements in 1867. He found a quite complete Periodicity between 63 elements. This table may explain the chemical and physical properties of all elements. It also may predict the elements which have not been found yet. Up to now, 120 chemical elements are found. All of them can be put in a suitable location in the table.

Later, the astronomers proved that the elements found on other stars are same as those found on the Earth. Then the great Unity of substances in the whole cosmos is proved.

2) Elucidation of Atomic Structure

Why there is periodic law of chemical elements? It should be explained by the atomic structure of all chemical elements.

In ancient Greece period more than 2000 years ago, Demokritos (460-370 BC ) presented the thinking of Theory of Atom. He regarded that all things in the cosmos are composed of atom and empty.

In the history of science, the structure of atom was proved in 19-20 th centuries.

There are some milestone achievements:

  1. In 1836-1838 ,British physicist Michael Faraday,1791~1867) found the fact of vacuum discharge.

B in 1858, French physicist Jean Baptiste Perrin(1870-1942)proved that ,in vacuum tube , cathode ray carried negative electricity. In 1890, British physicist Joseph John Thomson (1856—1940) proved the existence of Electron.

C. in 1909,New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford(1871-1937)found

ɑray, which carries positive electricity and was named Proton. He clarified the primary structure of Atom.

D. After 1930 , through the continuous experiments token by Walther Wilhelm Georg Bothe,(1891-1957),Gary Stanley Becker(1930-)Joliot Curie(1900—1958),Neutron, which does not carry electricity, was found.

Then, the structure of Atom was basically clarified which could explain all the difference between Elements

3)Basic Particle and Theory of Quark

After 1930, physicists and astronomers found many basic particles and presented the theory of Quark.

  1. In 1930, British physicist Paul Dirac(1902-1984) presented Theory of Anti particle. He regarded that all particle has its anti-article .

  2. A series of basic article was discovered in the researches of Cosmic ray, as Positive Electron, Neutrino, Anti-neutrino, μMeson, γMeson,πMeson, etc.

  3. Theory of Quark

In 1964, for the purpose of explaining so many articles , American physicist Murray Gell-Mann (1929~) presented Theory of Quark. He presented that Quark may be classified into two kinds: Upper and Lower. It also may be classified into 3 kinds: Red, Blue and Green.

In summary, through continuous researches in more than 100 years, it may be regarded that all things in the cosmos are composed of 120 Elements. All these Elements have similar atomic structures which are constructed by Electrons, Protons , Neutrons and Basic Articles. Here appears the great Unity of substances in the whole cosmos.

2) Unity in Movement Rules

Substance could not be separated from Movement. Where is Substance, there is Movement.

The above introduction shows that there is high Unity of all Substances in the cosmos .Is there Unity of various Movement Rules? After long period researches, natural scientists have proved that there exists high Unity in Movement Rules

In the history of natural sciences, there were several milestone achievements:

A. In 1687, Isaac Newton (1642-1727), in his book The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy presented Law of Universal Gravitation. Later astronomers have proved that this Law can be applied to all macro-movements in the whole cosmos , except movement near the speed of light

B. In 1687, based on the achievements of René Descartes(1596-1650)and Christiaan Huygens (1629—1695), Newton presented Law of Momentum conservation .

C. In 1774, Antoine Lavoisier(1743-1794)established Law of Mass Conservation

D. In 1798-1799 C. Rumford (1753—1814) and H. Davy (1778—1829) discovered Conversion of heat energy and mechanical energy.

E. In 1820, Michael Faraday (1791~1867) discovered Electromagnetic induction relationship

F. In 1845, J R. Meyer (1814~1878), made a conclusion of Law of Transformation and Conservation of heat energy , mechanical energy, electromagnetic energy ,chemical energy and bioenergy. Then, the great Unity of various movements and energies are understood.

G. In 1905, Albert Einstein (1879-1955) presented Special Relativity which shows the Unity of Time and Space.

H. In 1916, Albert Einstein presented General Relativity which clarifies that all physical laws are covariant

I. In 1900, Max Planck (1858-1947) presented the concept of Quantum, which shows that energy distribution is not continuous, but interval with Integer sequence. In 1911, David Bohr (1885-1962) presented Quantum Theory, which could explain the movement in micro-world.

J. Scientists all regarded that there are 4 kinds of Force in the cosmos: gravitational force, electromagnetic force, strong interaction and week interaction force. Up to now, there is united theory of the back three forces. Many physicists believe that the general united theory will be found in the future.

In summary, more than 2000 years ago , ancient philosophers presented the thinking of great Unity. But they had not proved it. Natural scientists, at the beginning, perhaps did not notice or believe the thinking of ancient philosophers. But through continuous experiments and discoveries, they found that there truly exists great Unity of all substances and movement rules. This historical fact makes all men astonishing and amazed by the mystery of the cosmos

The great Unity of substances and movement rules in the cosmos, perhaps is not a important problem in other philosophy. But in Synthesis Philosophy, this is its very important theoretical basis.

2. Synthesis of Phenomenon and Essence

Relation between phenomenon and essence has been a problem discussed in philosophy circle from ancient up to now

In Ancient Greece, Plato presented the difference between Sensible World and Idea world. Aristotle regarded that Sensible Substance is the first Substance. Rational Substance is the second Substance. Both of their theories related to the relation between phenomenon and essence

In Recent period of the West, there were two philosophic schools,.one was the British Empiricism and the other was Rationalism of European Continent. Empiricism paid more attention to phenomenon. Rationalism paid more attention to essence

Immanuel Kant(1724-1804)presented the theory of " a prior ( Innate) Synthesis Judgment", which combined Empiricism and Rationalism together. According to Kant, Man's knowledge have two sources: one comes from experience and the other comes from "a priori"(innateness).So called "a priori "or "innateness" is the inborn ability of rational thinking.

Both of Empiricism and Rationalism regarded that man should understand essence (rational cognition) through phenomenon(experience).

In 19-20 centuries ,began from Arthur Schopenhauer(1788—1860), an irrational philosophy arisen, which emphasized the method of man's Intuition

Henri Bergson (1859—1941), the founder of Life Philosophy, presented the opinion that intuition is the only method to understand Life.

Edmund Husserl (1859~1938) was the founder of Phenomenology. Husserl presented the concept of "Intentionality" which is the combination of Intentional activity and intentional object. His theory is that Man has different types of Intentional activities. To pursue the Truth, Man uses the methods as observation, analysis , experiment ,judgment, etc. To pursue Beauty, Man uses the methods as perception , feeling, intuition, etc.

In my opinion, Husserl' s theory was a breakthrough of West Epistemology

In ancient Chinese philosophy, there was also the discussion on the problem of the relation between phenomenon and essence , even less than that in the West..

Zhou's Book of Change(《周易》) ,which was composed of two books: one is Book of Change(《易经》) and the other is Appendices of Book of Change(《易传》). Book of Change was the earliest philosophic book in ancient China, which was written in the early period of Zhou dynasty. Appendices of Book of Change ,which made explanation of Book of Change ,was written in the Warring States Period。

Zhou's Book of Change is composed of three parts: Images, Explanation and Meanings. There are 64 Hexagrams in the book. Taking the first Hexagram –Qian (乾, Creative) as a example,

Its Image is Qian above(≡)and Qian below(≡)

Its Explanation is that the Creative works great, successful and perseverant.(元亨利贞).

Its meaning is that how Great the Creative is! It is Strong and Justice.

(大哉乾乎,刚健中正)

In the period of Wei-Jin, Wang Bi (王弼) was a talent young philosopher. His famous theory was to understand the meaning and forget the image.

What he meant was not to deny the image, but to understand the Meaning through the Image directly. This is the meaning of "Imagery " , which is the kernel idea in Chinese Beauty philosophy..

In summary, most philosophers, either in the West or in China recognized that the world is composed of the Synthesis of phenomenon and essence.

Some philosophers paid more attention to phenomenon, as Aristotle, Empiricist in Britain, etc. Some philosophers paid more attention to essence, as Plato , Rationalist in European Continent.

In the West, Kant and Husserl made rather complete understanding of the Synthesis of phenomenon and essence.

In ancient China, Wang Bi made a rather complete understanding of the Synthesis of phenomenon (image) and essence (meaning).

Generally speaking, in the field of Science, man should understand the essence of the world through experiments and rational reasoning . But in the field of Life, Beauty and Love, man should grasp the essence directly from phenomenon by Intuition.

In Synthesis philosophy, the world is composed of the Synthesis of phenomenon and essence. If there is no phenomenon, there will be no essence. At the same time, if there is no essence, there will be no phenomenon. We could not say, which is the first and which is the second

  2. Synthesis of Individuality and Collectivity

In the Warring States Period of ancient China, Gongsun Long(325-250 BC,公孙龙 )was one of few philosophers in ancient China who paid attention to Logic Reasoning. He presented a proposition :"White horse is not horse"。It means that White Horse is a real horse ,but Horse is only a abstract concept. These two are not the same. Here is the problem of Individuality and Collectivity.

In the Middle Ages of Europe, there was a philosophic argument between Nominalism and Realism. The Nominalism philosophers as Roscellinus(1050-1125).William of Occam (about 1300-1350) regarded that only Individuals really exist in the world. The concepts, as Specie and Genus are only abstract concepts, or a Name, which are not real things. The Realism philosophers.as Anselmus(1033-1109),Thomas Aquinas(1224-1274) had the opposite opinion. They regarded that Species and Genus are real things. Those individuals are only accidental phenomenon. They are not real things.

In 20th century, there was argument between Realism and Anti- realism.. Modern Realism regarded that only those ideas conforming to real existence are true. Anti- realism regarded that only those ideas could be proved logically are true. Both of them took concept or idea as their research object. So they are different from the thinking of Nominalism which only took the real individuals as their objects.

From the view angle of science, both Nominalism and Realism had their correctness and one-sidedness

Let us begin with the saying of "White horse in not horse". From the view of common speaking, this saying could not be understood. People usually say: "White horse is horse".

But from the view of logic language, this saying is correct. Because White horse and Horse are not same concepts. These two concepts cannot be confused. So , Gongsun Long and other philosophers of School of Name had contribution to ancient Chinese philosophy .

I do not prepare to discuss the problem of language or Name. I like to discuss the problem from the view of science: White horse and Horse , which one is the substance? Or, Individual and Group(Species and Genus), which one is real substance?

White horse and orseHorse HorseHorse , both of them are concepts. Concepts may be classified into two kinds: Substance Concept and Abstract Concept.

Using a substance concept to represent a real substance, this is an important innate ability of Man to cognize the world. Even a dog , it has this ability . Its owner may change his cloth every day, but his dog could distinguish him.

The concept of White horse

represents a white horse or a group of white horse. The concept of Horse represents all horses. Both white horse and all horsed are real substances

The Nominalism philosophers regard that only individual (as a white horse ) is substance , group (as group of horse) is not substance.

The Realism philosophers regard that only the commonness of things (as Horse) is substance. Any individual (as a white horse) is not substance.

From the view of Biology, all living things are living as an individual, but at the same time, they are living in a group((Species and Genus). So, there is a relation of Individuality and Collectivity.

All living things or organisms exist in a group or species. Individuals will die but its species is possible to live for a very long time, through the basic character of organism —Reproduction .Many organisms have very strong ability of reproduction. In the theory of Evolution presented by Charles Darwin (1809-1882) . high ability of reproduction is the basic condition of biological evolution. So any organism has its species. Both its individuals and species are real substances.

Modern biology proves that the genetic substance of any organism is DNA . The basic character of DNA is Duplication. Duplication certainly forms collectivity of a special organism, So any organism has its individual and also its collectivity. Both its individuals and its collectivity are real substance.

The same case is in the physical and chemical world.

Physics makes researches in atoms and basic particles. Chemistry makes researches in molecules. All molecules, atoms and basic particles exist both as individual and as collectivity. It is impossible to have substance without collective molecules and atoms. And it is also impossible to have collective molecules and atoms without individual molecule and atom.

As to the Name, all Men or animals (dog , cat ,etc.)cultivated by Men have a special Name. But in general, individual plants or animals do not have special name. But their species have a special name. In Biological Taxonomy, there are special name for Classes, Orders, Families, Genera and Species .

While we see a Chrysanthemum flower bed, Chrysanthemum is a family name in Botany. In this family, there are many Genera and Species with different names. But each Chrysanthemum flower does not have its special name

We could not say only the group of Chrysanthemum is real substance and the individual Chrysanthemum flowers are not substance. We must recognize that both the flower bed and all individual flowers are substances.

Name is a symbol which represents certain substance, Nominalism regards that the name of Genera or Species (as Horse) is only a symbol ,not a substance . Realism regards that only the symbol (or name) represents the real substance , these individuals are not substances . Both theories have their correctness but also one-sidedness.

The opinion of Synthesis Philosophy is that there is the synthesis of Individuality and Collectivity in the world. World is composed of Individuality and Collectivity of various things .Both individuals and collectivity are real substances..

4. Summary of this chapter

1) The world is composed of Synthesis of diversity and unity . There exits great unity in substances and movement rules in the natural world .There is One in Many and Many in One.

2) The world is composed of Synthesis of phenomenon and essence. In the field of science, men find essence through phenomenon by experiments and logical reasoning. In the field of Beauty, Love or Life, men grasp the essence directly from phenomenon by Intuition.

3) The world is composed of Individuality and Collectivity of various things .Both individuals and collectivity are real substances.

Chapter 5 Is Man able to Cognize the World?

  1. Review of Epistemology in history of philosophy

Does Man can cognize the world? How to cognize the world? These are two basic problems of Epistemology in philosophy.

  1. Review of Western Epistemology

In ancient Greece , Anaxagoras(500~428BC ) presented the idea of Nous. Nous had the meaning of rules of things and also the meaning of cognizing the world. Both Plato's Idea and Aristotle's Substance and Forms had the meaning of Ontology and the meaning of Epistemology. In ancient Western philosophy, it is difficult to separate Epistemology from Ontology. Epistemology was not an independent part of philosophy.

After the Renaissance, began with Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), natural sciences have been developing rapidly, which promoted the development of Epistemology. In philosophy, there formed a Epistemological Turn. It means that philosophy turned from Ontology to Epistemology.

From Recent to Modern period, many important philosophers presented different theories of Epistemology.

(1) Empiricism philosophers

Francis Bacon (1561-1626): He persisted that Substance is the noumenon of all things. In Epistemology, he presented the principle of combination of sensibility and reason. He advocated method of experiment. He established the method of Induction

John Locke(1632-1704)regarded that all idea came from experience(feeling and reflection). He presented that there are two kinds of truth, one is that the idea conforming to the objective facts, and the other is that ideas conforming with each other, as mathematics.

(2) Rationalism philosophers

René Descartes(1596-1650)presented the thinking method of general skepticism which is a rational thinking . He advocated the method of Deduction. His theory had great influence upon development of science and philosophy in late centuries.

Baruch de Spinoza(1632-1677)presented that there are three knowledge:①Sensible knowledge;②Rational knowledge;③Intuition knowledge. He said the first knowledge will carry mistakes.

Both Descartes and Spinoza regarded that sensible experiences are unreliable. Only rational knowledge is reliable.

(3) George Berkeley(1685-1753): His famous statement was :

The reality of the sensible things consisted in being perceived

He refused all substantial objects which are independent from perception

(4) David Hume(1711-1776)

He presented his famous theory of Skepticism. His main opinion is:

Neither induction, nor deduction could obtain the Truth . The premise of deduction is induction. But induction is impossible to involve all things..

His theory has great influences upon the development of science and philosophy in later centuries.

(5) Immanuel Kant(1724-1804)

He classified man' cognition into three levels: Sensibility, Understanding and Reason. He presented his famous theory of "a prior ( Innate) Synthesis Judgment", which combined Empiricism and Rationalism together. According to Kant, Man's knowledge have two sources: one comes from experience and the other comes from "a priori"(innateness).So called "a priori "or "innateness" is the inborn ability of rational thinking. He presented the concept of "Thing itself "and affirmed that it is impossible to know "Thing itself ". His opinion has been criticized as Agnosticism.

(6) Freiedrich Hegel(1770-1831)

He affirmed the unity of Thinking and Existence and Thinking is precedent. He presented the concept of Absolute Spirit which reaches the highest level of the Unity of Thinking and Existence.

(7) Positivism philosophers

In the middle and late period of 19 century, François Xavier Comte(1798-1857),John Stuart Mill(1806-1873),Herbert Spencer(1820–1903),etc. presented philosophy of Positivism, which affirmed that knowledge should be limited within the scope of experience They refused to pursuit the essence of things

(8) Karl Heinrich Marx(1818-1883), Friedrich Von _Engels (_ 1820-1895)

They regarded that Man's cognition is from sensibility to reason, and world is possible to be known

(9) Ernst Mach(1838-1916)

He regarded that all things are Complex of elements of man's perception.

In summary, on Epistemology, Western philosophers presented the following problems:

①Is the world possible to be known?

②Is there the possibility to unify thinking and existence?

③ Is there things which could be independent from Man's perception?

④How to cognize the world?

From 20th century up to now, the above problems have been discussed continuously.

In Chapter 5-7 of this book,' I'll discuss these problem using mainly scientific facts and presented my own opinions.

2)Some Characters of Chinese Epistemology

Comparatively to say, Chinese ancient philosophy discussed less on Epistemology. The strong points of Chinese ancient philosophy were Ontology and Moral philosophy, but not Epistemology. Even though, there was some characters of ancient Chinese Epistemology .as follows;

  1. Chinese ancient philosophy paid much attention to Man's study. We have to say that Study is a very important method of Epistemology .Everyone's most knowledge comes from study

  2. Chinese ancient philosophy paid more attention to the goal , rather than the method of cognition of the world . Ancient Chinese philosophers emphasized that the main goal of Man's cognition or study was to be an upright man

  3. In ancient China , the school of Name (名学) had detailed thinking of Logic Reasoning ,as Gongsun Long introduced above

  4. Ancient Chinese philosophers used the method of Intuition much often than Western philosophers.

In the book Lao Zi (or Classic of Dao and De), the first sentence is:

The Dao that can be expressed in words is not the true and eternal Dao.

The meaning of this sentence is: A thing that can be expressed by words means that it can be understood by rational method. But Dao is not such a thing. Dao cannot be understood by words or rational method. So, Dao can only be understood by Intuition.

In Tang dynasty, Huineng (慧能),the creator of Chanism (禅宗) presented the method of Sudden Enlightenment (顿悟). It was just the method of Intuition

  5. Chinese ancient philosophers emphasized the combination of cognition and practice. In Mind dynasty, famous philosopher Wang Yangming had a saying :

The goal of true knowing is doing. It can't say you know without doing.

(Complete works of Wang Yangming)

2. Knowability and Non - Knowability of the World

In my opinion ,Immanuel Kant(1724-1804)was one of the top philosophers in whole Western philosophy. His famous theory of " Innate Synthesis Judgment" basically explains the origin of Man's knowledge.

But one idea of him has been criticized by other philosophers quite often , that is the idea of "Thing in itself " . Kant ' opinion is that Thing in itself is impossible to be known by man , or is unknowable.

How to evaluate the opinion of Kant?

Kant was not only a famous philosopher, but also a successful scientist. He presented the theory of Nebula, which obtained high evaluation in Astronomy and Cosmology. So, he was impossible to deny science and the knowability of the world.

What is the Thing in itself named by Kant? In his famous book The Critique of Pure Reason, he pointed out that Thing in itself means absolute things, as Soul, God and absolute knowledge.

Soul and God are religious ideas, In Kant's period, Christianity had strong influence in the mind of people. He said Soil and God are unknowable. This was a euphemistic refusal.

As to absolute knowledge, this term was presented by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz(1646-1716)and Christian Wolff(1679-1754 ),which means the unconditional and universal knowledge .

Kant's Thing in itself also has a meaning of the final real; essence of thing, which has the same meaning of absolute knowledge.

Kant classified knowledge into three levels: Sensibility, Understanding and Reason. He regarded the man's knowledge are limited in the scope of Sensibility and Understanding. So called Reason (Soul, God and Absolute knowledge) is beyond the scope of man's cognition.

Synthesis Philosophy accepts the reasonable factor of of Kant's thinking. Synthesis Philosophy affirms the opinion of Synthesis of Knowability and Non-knowability of the world.

In the history of natural sciences, man's cognition of the world has been deepening continuously, from incorrectness to correctness , from phenomenon to essence . But man could not say that man has already reached the final and absolute knowledge. If this becomes the case, the development of science will be stopped. All improvement of human being will be stopped. This situation is beyond man's imagination and does not conform to man's well-being

Kant's "Thing in itself" means the final essence of things in the world . It is man's goal of pursuit in science .But man will not reach this goal. So Kant's thinking is an eternal pushing power of the progress of all sciences. It is an excellent philosophic thinking.

  2. Synthesis of Thinking and Existence

There is another problem directly related to the above one (knowability and Non- knowability), which is a key problem in philosophy: Relation between thinking and existence..

Friedrich _Engels_ (1820-1895)said: The major basic problem in total , especially recent philosophy is the relation between thinking and existence.

After 20th century, the interesting of philosophers has been turning, some discuss problem of life, some discuss problem of logic and language, some discuss irrational thinking, etc. So the problem of the relation between thinking and existence is no more the basic problem of philosophy.

But if we say the basic problem of Ontology is the relation between substance and spirit, we have to say that the basic problem of Epistemology is the relation between thinking and existence.

The kernel of the relation between thinking and existence is: in there the unity of thinking and existence?

There are 4 opinions about this problem:

  1. Thinking is the reflection of the world. Just like a mirror, which could reflect outside things directly and truly. So there must be the unity of thinking and existence. This thinking is regarded as the view of Old Materialism

② Thinking is prior to existence. All things in the world exist and move according to thinking. So existence must be conformed to thinking. Freiedrich Hegel had this opinion, which is regarded as Idealism.

③Thinking may actively reflect the world. Thinking, through practice, may reform the world. So there is the unity between thinking and existence. This opinion belongs to Dialectical materialism.

  5. Thinking could not conform to existence completely. This is the view of David Hume and Immanuel Kant.

There are sharp arguments between these different opinions. The former three opinions have been criticized as Dogmatism. The fourth opinion has been criticized as Skepticism.

Synthesis Philosophy accepts the reasonable elements of the above opinions ,presents the following view:

In a certain degree, thinking could conform to existence. But thinking could not completely conform to existence. In a long period , the distance between thinking and existence may be shortened . But even in far future there still will be distance between them.

So , the correct saying is that there is Synthesis of thinking and existence ,but not the Complete Unity of them .

This opinion will be explained as follows:

  1. From the viewpoint of Nature's property

In the Nature , there exists high unity in the substances and movement rules. For example, all the movement of stars follows the law of universal gravitation.. All electromagnetic phenomena follow Maxwell's law. The unity of Nature makes the possibility for Man to cognize it.

But at the same time, there are some properties of Nature make Man impossible to cognize it completely

(1)High diversity and complexity

Taking Human being as a example, there are 6 billion people in the world. Everyone has more than 100000 genes which are not all the same each other, Each gene is composed of base pairs. Human being is only one of countless organisms on the Earth. If all biologists in the world take part in the job of clarifying all the structure of genes or base pairs of all organisms on the earth, It is not possible to accomplish this task , not to say there is no necessity to do so .

So, in fact , Man could not understand the biological world completely.

(2) Randomness of natural changes

Due to the fact that there are too many factors influencing the natural changes, there appears great randomness in the Nature. Randomness of a change means that Man couldn't understand all of rules of the change. A familiar example is the change of weather. Weather in one region is affected by changes of many factors (vapour pressure, temperature, moisture, air current, etc. ) in many different regions. All these changes are random. Weather is the result of all random factors. So, meteorologists might forecast a general trend of weather change. It is impossible for them to forecast the weather change exactly in the future several months or a year.

A daily example is the traffic accident which is also random. It is impossible to predict even a single traffic accident

(3) Sudden changes

In the nature, there are often sudden changes, caused by contingent factors, which is not predictable, as forest conflagration, volcano, earthquake, the outbreak of some disease. Forest conflagration may be caused by someone's cigarette butt

In fact , there are many events which could not be predicted .Any one could not predict his life time. because life time is determined by many random and sudden factors.

  2. From the View Point of Man's Cognizing Ability

If we only discuss things in daily life, it is possible to have the unity of thinking and existence. We take a table as example. While we see a table, the appearance of the table comes to our brain. There will be a concept of table in our thinking. We know the size, sharp, colour, function of the table. These thinking are possible to be conformed to the real table.

But the Cosmos is very large. In Astronomy, distance between stars use Light Year(LY) and Astronomic Distance (AD) as unit.

One LY is the distance that light transfers in a year. One AD is the distance between Sun and Earth which equals 150 million km. One LY equals 63240 AD

The diameter of Solar system is 80 AD. The diagram of Galaxy is 100000 LY

In 2003, America 's Courage Rover began to launch and reached Mars on January 3 in 2004,more than half years later. The distance between Earth and Mars is 400 million km. According to this speed .a Rover fly over one LY requires 10000 years , much longer Man's life time. It might be possible to use robot. But the feeling ability of a robot is not as same as a man. And man has irrational thinking ability, which robot has not. So even it is possible for a man to reach Mars ,but it is impossible for a man to fly over 1 LY..

  3. From the view of Man's cognition method

From Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), Galileo(1564-1642), Isaac Newton(1642-1727), up to now, Man has been getting great success to understand the world The main methods are the combination of Induction and Deduction ,or the combination of Observation ,Experiment and Theoretical Hypothesis.

But David Hume(1711-1776)pointed deeply that neither Induction ,nor Deduction could not prove the absolute correctness of scientific theories, This problem will be discussed in detail in Chapter 7 of this book .

From 20th century , the method of Modelling is used quite popular in science. Combination of Simulating Modelling and Experimental Validation is an advanced method in science. But any model could not have 100% correctness due to the high complexity of problems

Up to now, Man has not find a method which could have the 100% correctness to explain and predict the property and movement of the Nature. From the view of philosophy , science and logic , such method might not be found for ever.

(4)From View of the History of Natural Sciences

From 16th century, natural sciences have been developing greatly.

But up to now, is there any scientific theory could be said that it obtains the final truth. No, there is not .

In 1866, Gregor Johann Mendel(1822-1884)presented Mendel's law of inheritance. In 1910, Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866-1945) presented Theory of Gene. In 1953, Watson and Crick published their paper on the molecular structure of DNA. The substantial base of Genetics has basically clarified. Is all problems in Genetics are solved? No, It is far from reaching this goal. As the problem of the rule of Mutation, the relation between protein and DNA, the structure and function of various proteins , etc . all of these problems have not be clarified yet. It may be said that Molecular Biology is only at the beginning.

Science is endless. There is no end of Man's cognition of the world.

Thinking and Existence could be unified in a certain degree. But it is impossible to have a complete Unity between thinking and Existence.

The view of Synthesis Philosophy is : Man could have the Synthesis of Thinking and Existence . But it is impossible for Man to have the complete Unification of Thinking and Existence.

In this book . I presented the view of the Synthesis of Knowability and Non-knowability, and also the view of that there is only the possibility of Synthesis ,not complete Unification ,of Thinking and Existence. Because these views are conform to the facts. And also , only these views could push forward the endless progression of science and could avoid Man 's overconfidence to believe that Man has already obtain the absolute truth ,but practically going astray.

Any real natural scientist or social scientist will not say that he has obtained the complete and absolute truth. He will not say that science is not necessary to be developed further.

4. Synthesis of Man's perception and Objective things

Kant said: We can only deal with their presentation. Thing in itself

Is beyond the extent of our knowledge .His opinion has been criticized as agnosticism.

But the alike views existed continuously in the history of philosophy.

Mentioned above, in the Middle Ages of Europe, Nominalism philosophers regarded that only the sensible individuals are substance. In 17th century, John Locke regarded that all ideas come from experiences, In 19th century, Positivism philosophers regarded that Man's knowledge only can be limited in the extent of experience. Especially, Austria scientist Ernst Mach (1838-1916)regarded that things are Sensory or Elemental Complexes

IIyich Lenin (1870-1924) in his book Materialism and Empirical critique criticized Mach: All world is only my presentation . This is the purist Egoism.

A view seems to be incorrect, but so many important philosopher insisted on it . We have to analysis this view seriously.

This is a deep layer problem in Epistemology

Firstly , are there objective things independent from Man's perception? From view of common sense, the answer is : yes , there are definitely these things.

Here is a table. While you close your eyes, you can't say the table is not there.

Perception (Sense and understanding) is a ability of human being. The origin of human being is only 5 million years ago. But the life of the Earth is 4.6 billion years. While the Earth is 1000 years old, human being is about 1 years old. If objective things could not exist outside Man's perception, does it mean that before the birth of human being, the Earth does not exist?

This view seems not only incorrect, but funny.

But did those philosophers who persisted in this view really regarded that objective things do not exist outside the extent of Man's perception?

No, the fact is not the case.

Even George Berkeley(1685-1753),who was regarded as a thorough- going Idealist, did not have this thinking. He did not deny the existence of objective things. He said: I do not deny the existence of

anything which is understood by our sensible organs or reflection...They exist truly

Ernst Mach (1838-1916),who was criticized by Lenin , was a very important and successful scientist . In his book Analysis of Sensations

(1897), he mentioned often the terms of Things, Facts, Sensible facts, etc.

So ,we can understand that the opinion of "Man's cognition could not beyond the extent of Man's perception "does not point to things themselves ,but to Man's understanding of things.

Kant 's said : We can only deal with our perception , What he meant is that Man's understanding of things could not beyond Man's perception . He did not mean that outside the extent of Man's perception, there are no things existing.

Here is the difference between natural science and philosophy. Natural sciences deal, with natural things themselves. Philosophy deals with the relation between Man and the nature.

If Man's Perception means the combination of Man's Sense and Man's Understanding, then the opinion that Man's cognition could not beyond Man's perception is correct with no doubt. This opinion conforms to all the facts of natural sciences.

Natural Sciences are allowed to have hypothesis. But any hypothesis should be proved by experimental facts or objective facts. Otherwise, they could not be said as Truth. All experimental facts or objective facts are possible to be perceptible. In the history of natural science, Either Theory of Ether t and Theory of Phlogiston(Heat Substance)had raged in a period. But no experimental fact could prove these theories. So they are denied later by scientists.

Immanuel Kant himself was a successful scientist. Modern Positivism was famous for the connection between science and philosophy. Their views in Epistemology are conformed to science

How to understand Mach's opinion of "All things are Complex of elements of man's perception."?

Of course , things are not certainly related with Man's perception . A table is not necessary to exist with the connection of Man's perception. But , in Man's brain , things do not exist in the form of their self. In Man's brain, it is impossible to put a real table. It may be said that in Man's brain, things appear as complex of Man's perception. A table appears in Man's brain as Complex of its sharp ,colour ,hardness ,etc.

Mach (1838-1916) himself was a physicist, and also a psychologist. He regarded that the idea of Complex of Perception could unite physics and psychology together. He said: This view is especially helpful in those hypothesized things, as atom, molecule. In Mach's period, atom and molecule are scientific hypothesis. So Mach 's opinion is a thinking method in science. Albert Einstein (1879-1955) said, while he presented his theory of Relativity, he had used the thinking method of Mach.

In summary, the view of Synthesis philosophy is: Man's cognition is the synthesis of objective things and Man's perception. Things in the world, of course, exist independently from Man's perception. But Man's cognition must be limited in the extent of Man's perception.

If someone regards that Man's cognition could be separated from Man's perception , then he must l deviate from science and go Into the path of superstition

In social science , it is the same case , any theory of social science should conform to the social fact or social practice, which is perceptible by people.. In China , after the Cultural Revolution , the opinion of "Practice is the standard of testing truth."has pushing forward the great progress of China's economic and social development. All the results of Practice are perceptible This opinion helps China go out from the road of Utopian socialism.

# Chapter 6 How to evaluate Dialectics?

Thinking and Existence, even though could not be completely accordant with each other, but they may be close to a considerable extent. It means that Man could cognize the world to a cert extent.

Then, what is the method for Man to cognize the world? This is one of the most important problems in Epistemology

Before discussing this problem, I like to discuss the problem of Dialectics firstly .Since after 1949, in China, Materialist Dialectics has been regarded as the main method of Man's cognition

  1. What is Dialectics?

What is Dialectics? In Western philosophy, the opinions are not consistent.

Freiedrich Hegel(1770-1831)was the main Western philosopher who advocated Dialectics. So the most authoritative answer of this problem came from Hegel.

In 1817, Hegel accomplished his book Science of Logic, which explained his idea of Dialectics.

In this book,

Vol.1 Doctrine of Being, discussing the interconversion between Quality and Quantity

Vol. 2 Doctrine of Essence, discussing the Unity of Opposites

Vol. 3 Doctrine of Notion, discussing Negation of Negation

These three rules are the original thinking of Hegel on Dialectics

Friedrich _Engels_ ,(1820-1895)in his book _Dialectics_ of _Nature_ said:Dialectics may be included as three rules: Rule of conversion from quality to quantity and from quantity to quality, Rule of mutual penetration of opposites and Rule of negation of negation

We have to say that besides the above three rules, Engels paid much attention to the rules of Universal connection and of Eternal movement .

In 1915, Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) said in his article T _alk about the problem of Dialecti_ _cs:_ The United object being divided into two parts and their contradiction is the most important character of it.

In 1938, _The Concise Textbook of Soviet Communist Part_ y (B) presented the basic meanings of Dialectics They are:

a. The universal connection in the nature

b. The Continuous movement in the nature

c. The developing process of things is from non-apparent quantitative change to apparent qualitative change

d. All objects in the nature contain inner contradiction. The struggle of opposites is the inner content of the development process.

Here is no more the rule of Negation of Negation

Mao Zedong in his article On Contradiction did not mention the rule of Negation of Negation.

The Universal connection of things is not a proprietary thinking of Dialectics. Ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus(535-475 BC)said clearly : All things exist and at the same time do not exist. So all things are continuously changing, producing and disappearing.

Universal connection and Eternal movement are really universal rules in the nature. Almost all philosophers accept these two rules.

So , Universal connection and Eternal movement are not the special characters of Dialectics.

The basic characters of Dialectics are the three rules that Hegel and Engels pointed out: 1) Interconversion between Qualitative change and Quantitative change;2)Struggle of opposites;3)Negation of Negation

But the rule of negation of negation is no longer mentioned by Lenin and Mao Zedong. So the remained rules od Dialectics are only two:

a. Interconversion between Qualitative change and Quantitative change

b. Struggle of opposites.

We'll discuss these two rules below

  2. On the Struggle of Opposites

  1. On"One divides into two"

There is two opposites in a thing. or One could be divided into Two. This was a very old philosophy thinking

In ancient Greece, the school of Pythagoras(580-500 BC)had such dialectic thinking. They regarded that the noumenon of all things is One. One contains two opposites: odd number and even number. Since an odd number plus one is a even number. An even number plus one is an odd number. They listed ten pairs of opposites: finite and infinite, odd number and even number, single and numerousness, left and right, positive and negative, stillness and motion, straight line and curve, bright and dark, good and evil, square and rectangle.

In ancient China ,there were also many thinking of "One divides into Two" For example, in eight Hexagrams of Book of Change(Zhou dynasty)

Quan Hexagram | Heaven | Sun | Sunny day | Strong | King | Father | Metal

---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---

Kun Hexagram | Earth | Moon | Cloudy day | Weak | People | Mother | Soil

From the view of modern science, some above dichotomies are not scientific. As Sun and Moon, they do not form an opposite. But we have to say that in philosophy , there are really many opposite concepts ,as Truth and Falsity, Good and Evil , Beauty and Ugliness, Subject and Object, Thinking and Existence, Substance and Spirit, etc. In Art, there are Content and Form, Narrative and Lyric, Meaning and Image, etc. In Economics, there are Superstructure and Economic base, Production and Consumption, etc. In Physics, there are Particulate and Volatility, etc. In Biology , there are Heredity and Variation, etc.

Recent Dialectics is not the same as the ancient Dialectics. According to the statements of Hegel, Engels, Lenin, etc. the thinking of Unity of Opposites has the following contents:

  1. Two sides of a thing have their essential differences. They are opposite and contradictable with each other.

  2. Two sides of a thing have the property of mutual affirmation. Only in the relation with the other side, one side could reflect itself and obtain its own essence.

  3. Two sides of a thing are at the opposite and negative position. They have the relation of mutual negation.

  4. The struggle of two opposites is absolute, eternal. Their unity is relative and temporary.

  5. Struggle of the two sides is the inner cause of the development of thing. Inner cause is the basis. External cause is the condition.

We have to say that they seem to be deep thinking. But are these thinking conform to the Truth? It should be evaluated by various objective facts

In reality, the above thinking does partly (not completely) conform to facts in sciences

In Physics and Chemistry, we take the relation of electron , atom and ion as example. Atom of Hydrogen is composed of a pair of opposite: a electron and a proton. Electron carries negative electric power. Proton carries positive power. These two sides have a relation of mutual attraction and mutual exclusion. While electron leaves proton, proton becomes positive ion. While increasing a electron, the atom of Hydrogen becomes a negative ion. So there is a function of negation between electron and proton.

In Biology, a ecological system is composed of organisms and environment. They are two sides of the system. Environment provides the living condition for organism. Organism may improve the environment (increasing soil nutrition and oxygen .content in atmosphere). The two sides are mutual dependent. But while the amount of organism increases too much, environment must be destroyed. So they also have the relation of mutual negation.

So ,the phenomenon of the Unity of Opposite does exist in the nature . Synthesis Philosophy does not deny Dialectics.

But is the Unity of opposites, One divides into Two, a universal rule in the nature and Man's society. It should be examined by various facts in sciences and in Man's history.

  2. Is "One Divides into Two" a universal rule?

Many things in the world and Man's society do not accordant to the rule of "One divides into two".They may be divided into three , four or many. The facts are:

(1)Up to now, modern Physics discovers that there are more than 100 basic particles in the cosmos, as electron, proton , neutron, photon, graviton, gluon, neutrino ,etc. It is impossible to classify them into two kinds.

(2) Quantum mechanics discovers that movement of electron outside a atom is determined by three Quantum numbers: Primary quantum number (n), Angular quantum number(l) and Magnetic quantum number(m) ,not only two numbers.

(3)In 1964, American physicist Murray Gell-Mann (1929- )presented the theory of Quark .He pointed that there are Quarks of three colors: red, green and blue, not two .

(4) Sun light is composed of seven colors, not two

(5)Modern Biology proves that the basic substances of life are three: DNA, RNA and protein, not two. The basic rule in life is DNA→RNA →protein .

(6)Modern Biology regards that all organisms on the Earth may be classified into five Kingdoms: Plant Kingdom .Animal Kingdom. Primary biological Kingdom .Bacteria Kingdom and Fungi Kingdom, not the old classification of only two Kingdoms: Plant and Animal

(7)A society is composed of many classes and stratums. Some social scientist pointed out they there are ten stratums in China today. It is impossible to divide China's society into only two classes

(8) There are many kinds of family: two parents family, single parent family or single family. A family cannot be certainly divided into two..

Perhaps someone might say: you could not realize Dialectics using common scientific or social facts. But even you use your philosophic view, it is still impossible to divide all things in the world into only two sides or two opposites.

3)Is there certainly mutual struggle between components in a thing?

Hegel and Engels pointed out the rule of Negation of Negation is the basic rule of Dialectics. Even though this rule was not mentioned by others (as _The Concise Textbook of Soviet Communist Part_ y (B) and _On Contradiction_ of Mao ). But the thinking of Negation is still remained.

Lenin said in his T _alk about the problem of Dialecti_ _cs:_

Unity (consistency, sameness, balance)of opposites is conditional, temporary, perishable and relative. Struggle of mutually exclusive opposites is absolute, just as development and movement is absolute

This philosophic thinking has great negative influence upon modern history of USSR, China and many other Socialist countries in 20 centuries.

The problem is: is this thinking correct? Is there only struggle between opposites or components in various things in the world?

Let us observe the following facts:

  1. Besides the atom of hydrogen, atomic nucleuses of all chemical elements are composed of protons and neutrons. Protons carry positive electricity. Neutrons are electric neutral. So protons and neutrons are not mutual exclusive, but coordinate with each other. Through their mutual coordination, atomic spin is established and various isotopes are formed.

  2. Substance and movement are two main components of all natural things. They two are Interdependent with each other and could be separated from each other. There is no substance without movement and there is no movement without substance. The mutual exclusion or mutual struggle between substance and movement are not seen in the nature.

  3. In Biology, the basic genetic material is DNA .DNA is composed of two chains of many base pairs.. There are 4 bases: Thymine (T), Cytosine(C). Adenine (A), Guanine (G) , At the time of cell division. Two chains will separate and duplicate itself quickly .A only links with T, C only links with G. So after cell division, a completely same series of DNA are formed.

Two chains of DNA completely coordinate with each other. There is no exclusion or negation. So they are not opposites of each other

  4. In Human society, most families are harmonic. Generally, there are possibly unimportant contradictions between family members. But mutual love between husband and wife, between parents and children are the most important relationship in the family. There are no case of "Struggle is absolute"

  5. In a country, there are possible contradiction between different classes and strata. In some certain period, there were possible class struggles. For example, in 16-18th centuries in Europe. there were Bourgeois democratic revolutions happened in different counties. In 20th century, there were revolutions happened in 1911 and 1949 in China. But from the view of long period of history, the period of revolutions were short. In the long construction period of a country, it is completely possible to have the harmonic relationships between different classes and strata.

If according to the principle of Dialectics that Struggle is absolute, the government or leaders creates artificially Class Struggles in the society, it will carry great disasters to the people and the country. Both USSR and China in the period of 20 century had the serious lessons

  3. Are Internal Causes certainly the Basis of Change of Thing?

Mao Zedong ,in his article On Contradiction ,wrote:

According to materialist dialectics, changes in nature are due chiefly to the development of the internal contradictions in nature. Changes in society are due chiefly to the development of the internal contradictions in society,

It holds that external causes are the condition of change and internal causes are the basis of change, and that external causes become operative through internal causes

This statement cannot be said to be universally accordant to scientific and historical facts. Observing various facts in science and social life, there are several situations:

  1. Internal causes are basis and external cause are condition of change

As the example that Mao said in his article, under suitable temperature, egg could change to be a chicken. In the egg, there is a set of chicken's DNA, which is really the internal cause of becoming a chicken.

  2. Movement of things depends on the mutual relation between things. It is impossible to distinguish the internal and external causes.

All Movements of celestial bodies in the Cosmos follow Law of universal gravitation. Its equation is :

F=G0(m1m2)/r2

F is Gravity force , G0 is universal gravitation constant, m1 , m2 are weight of two bodies, r is the distance between two bodies.

This equation shows that the movement of celestial bodies is the mutual function between them. It is impossible to distinguish which is the internal cause and which is the external cause.

Movement of atom depends on the mutual function between atomic nucleus and its outside electrons. It is also not possible the distinguish the internal and external causes

  3. External cause is the dominant factor.

Newton's famous equation is:

F=ma.

In the equation, F is external force, M is mass, a is velocity of movement.

The equation shows that, if there is no external force, there will be no change of movement velocity. The change of movement velocity must have external force. So, external force is the dominant factor of change of movement velocity.

In natural science, there are internal cause and external cause of change or movement of thing .But the change or movement depends completely the mutual function of internal and external causes. The biological evolution is the case. The principle of biological evolution discovered by Charles Darwin is Natural Selection. Natural Selection is the mutual function of environmental change and biological change. Modern Biology has clarified that biological changes are due to the random or sudden changes of DNA, which have no certain direction. The direction of evolution is determined by environmental changes. This situation is different from the individual development of organism. Egg changes into a chicken. This is the individual development. It may be said that DNA is the dominant cause (internal cause). But in the whole biological evolution, it cannot be said that DNA is the dominant cause .The mutual change of environmental change and random or sudden change of DNA, the mutual function of them are the cause of biological evolution. We cannot say which one is the dominant cause. .

  3. ### On Interconversion of Quantitative Change and Qualitative Change

In On Contradiction, Mao wrote:

There are two states of motion in all things, that of relative rest and that of conspicuous change. Both are caused by the struggle between the two contradictory elements contained in a thing.

While two opposites of a thing are in the situation of unity, combination, harmony, balance, etc, the thing is in the state of quantitative change. While two opposites of a thing are in the situation of the destruction of this unity, combination, harmony, balance, etc. the thing is in the state of qualitative change..

This rule, began from Hegel ,either the idealism dialectics, or materialism dialectics, all insisted on it .

But, it this rule conforms to all facts of sciences and Human history

There may be three situations:

  1. There are some facts really conforms to this rule. For example, water changes from vapour to liquid ,and from liquid to ice is a process from quantitative change to qualitative change , Temperature is the condition of these change. There are many examples in related articles. It is not necessary for me to introduce.

  2. There is only quantitative change and no qualitative change. In other words, there is only gradually change and no drastic change.

This is the case of biological evolution.

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) , using many facts, proved that biological evolution is a gradually process. This theory has two bases. One is that biological variations are very tiny. Modern Biology proves that all biological variations come from mutation of DNA or random combination of DNA .Both of them could carry very tiny changes to organism. The other is natural selection under certain environment. The process of natural selection is very gradual generationally. The velocity of natural selection is much lower than artificial selection.

In Human history, besides the short time of revolution, the progress of society in any country are gradual. In Britain, after the Glorious Revolution in 1688, there was no drastic change in her history. In USA , after American Civil War in 1861-1865 , there was no drastic change in her history . But in more than 300years in these two countries, there have been great progresses of politics , economy ,education ,sciences, etc.

  3. Some things have two periods of quantitative change and qualitative change .But the cause was not the internal cause as Dialectics explains, but external causes. In the history of biological evolution, there was species eruption in Cambrian period about 500 million years ago. Someone might say that this fact negates the theory of Darwin. But the period of Cambrian went on about 40 million years . It was a very long period. The biological variation was still gradual.

There are several explanation of the species eruption in Cambrian period. But all explanation points to external causes. There was no internal contradiction of two opposites which could explain this fact.

After the species eruption in Cambrian period, there was no more species eruption happened in biological history. This fact was not conform to the rule of interconversion of quantitative change and qualitative change that Dialectics affirms

  4. ## Property of Dialectics

In philosophy, what is the property of Dialectics? Is it a thinking method, or an universal rule? Different philosophers had different opinions

The opinion of Hegel is: Idea is just the object. This unity is the absolute and complete truth (Hegel: Science of Logic)

Dialectics is the main content of his Absolute Idea. So his opinion is that Dialectics is not only a rule of thinking , but also an universal rule of the world. These two are unified together. Their Unity is the absolute Truth.

Karl Marx affirmed Dialectics. But he had not said that Dialectics is a universal rule of the world.

A formal statement of Marx on Dialectics was in the Epilogue of Capital (second edition), He said: My Dialectics method is not only different from Hegel's Dialectics method. They are opposite. Here Marx looked Dialectics as a method , not as a universal rule Someone evaluated Marx's Capital : The research method of Marx is Realistic .Unfortunately ,his narrative method is German Dialectical . Marx answered that research method must be different from narrative method. Research method must fully occupies material , analyses the developmental forms and pursuits the inner connections between these forms. After all of these works are done, then the real movement could be narrated suitably. The meaning of his statement is that research of Economics must use the method of Economics itself. Dialectics might be used in narrative method.

So, Marx did not look Dialectics as an universal rule, but a narrative method.

Friedrich _Engels said in his_ _Dialectics of Nature:_ _The rules of Dialectics are abstracted from the nature and history of Human society.._

_What Engels meant is that Dialectics could not put into natural and historical facts from outside_

Most Western Marxists in 20th century are opposed to take dialectics as an universal rule, but take it as a method of cognizing the world

In summary, it may be said that Dialectics is a old and wise thinking method. People may use Dialectics to explain some phenomenon in nature and human history . But we could not take Dialectics as the universal rules in the world and in Human history. We should not put the rules of Dialectic from outside into natural and historical facts.

The rules of nature and Human society could be found only by sciences. None of any philosophic theory or thinking could cover all rules of the world.

## 5. Synthesis thinking and Dialectics

I have to say , Synthesis thinking is only a method or view of thinking . It is not the rule of things and not a universal truth at all.

Since Dialectics is also a method of thinking , the comparison of these two methods are listed below:

Dialectics | Synthesis thinking

---|---

Anything could be divided into two | Thing could be divided into two ,three or many

Anything is composed of two opposites, there are mutual struggle and mutual coordination between opposites. Mutual struggle is absolute ,Mutual coordination is relative | Things are composed of different components . Sometimes there is mutual struggle between them. But mutual coordination and mutual synthesis are dominant

In change of thing, internal cause is the basis. External cause is the condition | In some case the basis of change of thing is internal cause. In some case , the basis is external cause. In some case , there is mutual function of internal and external causes

There is interconversion of quantitative change period and quantitative period. These two cases are determined by the struggle or coordination of two opposites | Generally, there is gradually change of thing. The speed of change ,sometime is slow, sometime is quick ,according to different conditions

Some philosophers regard that Dialectics is the universal rule of all things in the world | Synthesis thinking is only a view of cognizing the world.

Chapter 7 How Does Man Cognize

the World?

Although Man could not know the absolute truth of the world, but in a certain extent, Man could recognize the world. In fact, through continuous effort of philosophy and exploration of science, Man's cognition of the world has been obtaining great progress, which gets the benefit from improvement of Man's cognition method

This chapter will discuss the methods of Man's cognition of the world

  1. ## Synthesis of Sensibility and Reason

In history of Epistemology, Man's method of cognition began with the relation between sensibility and reason.

In Metaphysics of Aristotle ,he classified Substance into three kinds:① Matter;②Form;③ Individual thing. So called Matter is the basis of Substance. So called Form is the essence of Substance. Individual thing is the combination of Matter and Form. For example, as to a marble statue, Matter is marble, Form is the figure of statue ( as a man's figure). Aristotle regarded that the individual is Sensible Substance. Matter and Form are Reasonable Substance. Here he distinguished Sensibility and Reason

After Enlightenment Movement, following the rapid progress of natural science, Epistemology obtained much concern. In 17th century , Baruch de Spinoza(1632-1677),in his book Treatise on the Correction of the Understanding ,classified knowledge into three kinds:①Sensible knowledge ;②Reasonable knowledge ;③Intuition knowledge. He regarded that the first kind of knowledge is incorrect. Only the second and third kinds of knowledge are correct and true knowledge.

In 18th century, Immanuel Kant(1724-1804)made a deep analysis of Epistemology. He classified Man's knowledge into three kinds:①Sensibility;②Understanding ;③Reason . His so called Understanding closes to Reason, which people generally talk about . His so called Reason means Soul. God and absolute knowledge, which are unknowable by Man .

He presented the theory of " a prior (Innate) Synthesis Judgment", which combined Empiricism and Rationalism together. According to Kant, Man's knowledge have two sources: one comes from experience and the other comes from "a priori"(innateness). So called "a priori "or "innateness" is the inborn ability of rational thinking.

Even though Kant's theory, especially his view of Innate ability was criticized by Materialists in Western countries and also in China. But in my opinion, Kant's theory was a breakthrough in Western Epistemology. He pointed out where Man's Reason comes from. Innate (or inborn) ability is the essential nature of human being which makes Man different from other animals. Reason (in his common meaning) is also one of Man's Common Value which push forward the progress of science, civilization and society in the whole world.

Later ,in the works of Marx , Engels , Lenin ,and Mao ,they all classified Man 's knowledge into two kinds or two stages , One is Sensible stage and the other is Rational stage . Man's cognition is began with Sensible stage, and then raise up to Rational stage.

In Synthesis Philosophy, Man's cognition is the Synthetic process of Sensibility and Reason or an endless interconversion of Sensibility and Reason. .

Many facts in the history of science could prove this opinion.

Taking Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation as an example, a very important basis of this Law is Kepler's three Laws of Planetary Motion, especially the second law: The square of the planetary cycle is proportional to the cube of the average distance between it and the sun. This law was obtained by many observing facts. So Newton's Law, even is a result of reasonable thinking , but it comes from many sensible facts.

Later, Newton's Law was accepted popularly later and caused a sensation. It was due to the fact that using Newton's Law , the appearance of Halley's Comet in 1759 was successfully predicted. And the discovery of Uranus and Neptune also proved the correctness of Newton's Law. These were all sensible facts.

So, the discovery and validation of Newton's Law told us Man's cognition of the world is an endless interconversion of Sensibility and Reason.

2. Synthesis of Induction and Deduction

Rational knowledge must come from sensible knowledge. which is a process of Induction. This is the view of Empiricism began with Francis Bacon (1561-1626).

But from 17th century, Rationalism philosophers did not agree with this view. Rene Descartes(1596-1650) said in his book Discourse on Method(1637):

The first was never to accept anything for true which I did not clearly know to be such.

To conduct my thoughts in such order that, by commencing with objects the simplest and easiest to know. I might ascend by little and little, and ,as it were ,step by step ,to the knowledge of the more complex.

This is method of Deduction, which is applied popularly in mathematics and other natural sciences.

In 17-18th centuries ,there were long period argument between Empiricism and Rationalism, Induction and Deduction .

Immanuel Kant(1724-1804)'s theory of " a prior ( Innate) Synthesis Judgment", which combined Empiricism and Rationalism , Induction and Deduction together

The history of natural sciences proves that, besides Mathematics and Logics, the success of all natural sciences comes from the combination of Induction and Deduction.

The most famous example of success of applying method of Induction was the discovery of Rule of Biological Evolution by Charles Darwin (1809-1882). In 1831-1836, he participated in the global maritime travel. He had been to seashore of Africa. East and West seashore of Latin America, New Zealand , Australia, India, crossing , Atlantic Ocean and then returned to UK . In his travelling, he had observed a lot of facts in biological world and Geological changes. He also collected the facts in breeding of plants and animals. At last, he concluded the theory of Biological Evolution , which astonished the world

He presented the theory of Biological Evolution mainly using the method of Induction. But his theory was also based on the Malthus 's theory of population, which pointed out that all organisms is increasing according to Geometric progression (2,4,16...), but food of them is increasing according to arithmetic progression (1,2,3...). This is a theoretic, deductive theory.

So, Darwin used the combination method of Induction and Deduction.

In the argument between Induction and Deduction ,The philosopher who presented the most important challenge was David Hume(1711-1776).His opinion was: there must be the premise in Deduction. The premise of deduction is induction. But induction is impossible to involve all things. The theoretical basis of Induction is the hypothesis of "the future will as same as the past " "similar causes will produce similar result"," natural uniformity" ,etc. But these hypothesis could not be proved logically or by facts.

.This is the famous "Problem of Induction"in the history of philosophy.

There were several attempts by later philosophers trying to solve this problem as follows:

(1)Kant's Innate Synthesis Judgment.

Kant's theory combined Innate Analysis and acquired Synthetic Judgment together. The acquired Synthetic Judgment is dependent on experience, which is not certain. Innate Analysis is dependent on Innate (a prior) understanding framework, which is certain.

But duo to the experience is continuously changeable, so any science based on the combination of Experience and Innate Analysis is also not certain.

(2) Theory of Natural Uniformity.

Scientists presented a theory of natural uniformity. But this hypothesis has not been proved by natural sciences. For example, The great species explosion in the Cambrian period happened only once in the whole history of the Earth and no more again .

(3) Probability Logic

Postulation method was presented by Bertrand Russell(1872-1970). Probability method was presented by Rudolf Carnap (1891-1970). The conclusion of these modern theories of Mathematical Logic are : The result obtained by these methods are Probability Truth, not Absolute Truth. This conclusion is closed to the original thinking of David Hume.

So, the thinking of David Hume is correct. According to Hume, even the combination of Induction and Deduction could not obtain the certain Truth. Up to now, no scientist dare to say he has found the final Truth.

In Synthesis Philosophy , the term "Synthesis" is used to describe the method of joined use of Induction and Deduction, which means these two methods could be combined in a certain extent to explore the Truth , but their combination is not possible to be complete

## 3. Synthesis of Cognition and Practice

Relation between cognition and practice, similar as the relation between knowing and doing in Chinese philosophy is a problem commonly concerned by Chinese and Western philosophy

In ancient Chinese philosophy, there were many saying about the relation of knowing and doing .

Lao Zi said:

Without going out the house, one can know everything in the world.(Lao Zi ,41)

It means, without practice, you can know everything.

Confucius said:

A wise man is one who acts before he speaks , and afterwards speaks according to his action . (Analects of Conficius,2)

Xun Zi said:

Knowing something is not as good as doing something (Xun Zi 8)

Wang Yangming said:

Knowing and Doing are unified together.( Wang Yangming's Biography).

Ancient Chinese philosophers found two function of Doing in cognizing the world :①Doing is the goal of Knowledge;②Doing is a measure for knowing

But Lao Zi 's opinion was different: Doing is not essential of Knowing.

All these opinions could be found in Western philosophy.

Socrates regarded that one can obtain knowledge only by the method of questioning and answer.. Plato regarded that knowledge is the product of Man's soul. Their opinions were similar as that of Lao Zi .

In history of Western philosophy, Aristotle was the first one who paid much attention to Practice. In his classification of Science, there is a kind of Practical Science, which includes Ethics and Political science

Kant classified Reason into two kinds: Cognition Reason and Practical Reason. He pointed out that Practical Reason is the Regulation of Human's Practice.

Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach(1804-1872)presented the view that Practice is the standard of testing whether the thinking is correct or not

Karl Marx wrote not too much on philosophy. In Western philosophy, his contribution recognized by other philosophers was that he put Practice at a high location in philosophy.

In Theses on Feuerbach, he wrote:

The question whether objective truth can be attributed to human thinking is not a question of theory but is a practical question.

The philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point is to change it.

In my opinion, his view on Practice is worthy to be noticed.

After Cultural Revolution of China (1966-1976), there was a comprehensive discussion in whole country on the question of "Practice is the only standard of testing Truth" . This discussion pushed forward greatly the progress of China.

Basically, it is correct to affirm that Practice is the standard of testing Truth. Of course, so called Practice involves observations, experiments in natural sciences and also the social practice in social sciences.

But , we have to discuss in detail on this statement .

(1)It could not be said that using the experimental facts , you certainly can reach Truth. Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation was successfully proved in the discovery of Uranus (1781) and Neptune(1846). But later (early 20th century), Albert Einstein (1879-1955) presented his theory of Relativity , proving that in the condition of near light speed , Newton's Law is not completely correct.

(2) In social science, some rules or policies may be correct in a certain period or condition .But in other period or condition, these rules or policies might be incorrect or harmful. For example, in modern China , before 1949 ,mass movement and class struggle pushed forward the process of revolution . But after 1949, while a new country was established, the continuous mass movements and class struggles carried great disaster. In a normal country, the only correct method of governance is: Rule of Law, but not mass movement or class struggle.,

(3)The thinking of "Practice is a only standard of testing Truth " is not suitable or correct for all sciences . At least, it is not suitable in two sciences , Mathematics and Logic .The methods used in these two sciences are purely Logical Reasoning . They do not depend on Practice or experiments.

(4)While we pay attention to Practice, we should not neglect the importance of Rational thinking or theory. A complete method of cognising the world is the Synthesis of Practice and Reason (or Theory) ,not Practice alone. This view is explained in above two sections of this chapter.

4. Synthesis of Modelling and Experiment

In the later period of 20th century, up to now, Information science has been developing rapidly.

A new method of cognizing world appears, which is the method of Computer Modelling. Computer Modelling method has been used more and more popularly.

But the basic model method was used much earlier

A model is an small object simulating a large and comlex object.

Before a great building beginning to be constructed, the Architect may draw a designing picture or build a small woody building of the real building. Utilizing the picture or small model, he can modify and improve his design of the building. The picture or the woody small woody building is called a model

So called Modelling is the process of making the model. This process may be also called Simulation. The thing (as a real building)to be simulated is named Original Thing .So Modelling is the method of using a model to simulate the original thing.

In the world , there are many things which are similar with each other . For example, there are many real cars which are similar in their basic structure and function. But it is possible to use one model of car to simulate the basic structure and function of many real cars.

Man' cognition of the world, usually begin from sensible stage and raise up to rational stage. This process is also expressed in Simulation or Modelling. So a good model is a correct expression of Man's rational understanding.

In the history of science, the method of model (not computer modelling) had got great success. Galileo (1564-1642)'s Law of Falling Body and Newton's law of mechanics ,all excluded the resistant force of air . This situation does not exist in real world. So they used the method of Model.

In Biology, scientists often used Model Plant or Animal. Gregor Johann Mendel(1822-1884)used Pea as his Model plant . Thomas Hunt Morgan(1866-1945)used fruit fly as his Model animal. Both of them discovered rules of inheritance successfully.

In many sciences, mathematical model has been used popularly and successfully. Mathematical model may express accurately the quantitative relationship between factors in a special process. Newton's Law and Einstein 's Law are all expressed as mathematical models

In 20th century, along with the rapid development of computer science, a new method of model appears which is computer modelling, or computer simulation.

Computer modelling may be applied in the research of very complex and dynamic processes. The main characters of computer modelling are:

  1. Mathematical model can express a single process. Computer model can express hundreds or thousands processes

  2. Mathematical model can involve several factors of a simple process. Computer model can involve hundreds or thousands factors in a complex process

  3. Mathematical model usually is used in static process. Computer model can be used in dynamic process

  4. Mathematical model usually cannot t be put into application directly. Computer model can be applied directly in real things.

But, all computer model must be based on experiments. The conjunction of computer model and experiments are mainly two:

1) Establishment of Computer model must be based on large amount of experiments

2) The validation of computer model must be based on new experiments. If the validation is not reach the satisfactory standard, the model must be modified or improved. This is a iterative process. The modification of model should not be stopped until the result of validation is satisfied.

So, there is the Synthesis of Modelling and Experiments.

In modern period , almost all great success in science and technical field have applied the method of computer modelling ,as Atomic bomb , Utilization of Atomic energy , Space exploration, robot engineering, etc. .

Computer modelling has been successfully applied in agricultural sciences, as crop management, crop breeding, crop protection, livestock science and fishing science, food security science, etc.

I myself and the research group of mine established two large scale computer models :①Rice Cultivation Computer Simulation ,Optimization and Decision making Model (RCSODS);② Wheat Cultivation Simulation ,Optimization and Decision making Model (WCSODS) . Both of them have been applied successfully in more than ten provinces in China to increase the yield of crops and benefit of farmers, and at the same time to improve the environment of agriculture.

I have the confidence that the advanced science and technology of computer modelling will be applied in more and more fields of science ,as Medical science, Ecology and Environment Protection science, etc.

  4. Synthesis of Rational and Irrational thinking

What the above sections discussed are all Man's rational thinking .But , it is incomplete to understand Man' cognition only in the extent of rational thinking.

In ancient Chinese philosophy, irrational thinking occupied an important location. The earliest philosophic book in ancient China was Book of Change (《易经》)

In Book of Change, three Lines (爻) compose a Trigram(卦)。The explanations of three lines are : Heaven ,Earth and Man —three Talents(三才)。

In Book of Change, different combinations of three Lines construct Eight Trigrams ( 八卦)。 Different combinations of Eight Trigrams formed 64 Hexagrams, which could explain all phenomena in the world.

In the explanation of Trigrams, the property of irrational is more than that of rational. For example , in the Trigram Quan (乾), the third line means :

If cultivated man works diligently all day and has a mind of vigilance at night, then he will not be in dangerous situations.

This is a description of Man's experience and feeling of daily life, not too much rational analysis.

In ancient Greece, Socrates had more irrational thinking. He said that if soldiers fight bravely, he is a man of virtue. This is a irrational thinking, rather than a rational thinking.

Began with Plato and Aristotle, Western philosophy has been developing in the direction of rational thinking. It seems that rational thinking is the only thinking method in philosophy.

In the West , Arthur Schopenhauer,(1788—1860)was the first philosopher who advocated irrational thinking. In his famous work The World as Will and Presentation, he presented the idea that all man's action or natural movement are controlled by their Will His philosophy was named Voluntarism.

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche(1844~1900) was another important philosopher who advocated irrational thinking . His works were written as beautiful poems, apparently different from the writing style of Kant and Hegel, which are difficult to be understood.

In late 19th century and early 20th century, there appeared three philosophic schools which had great influence upon the world. One was the Psychoanalysis school of Sigmund Freud(1856—1939). The second was Life philosophy school of Henri Bergson (1859—1941). The third was Phenomenon school of Edmund Husserl (1859~1938) .

Sigmund Freud presented the theory of subconsciosness;. He regarded that subconscious is Man's Instinct, which is not controlled by Man's rational thinking. So, it is irrational. His theory becomes a important scientific basis of Psychology.

Henri Bergson regarded that existence is the stream of life. Cognizing the stream, Man can only use his Intuition, but not rational thinking.

Edmund Husserl presented the concept of Intentionality which means a structure of Man's ideology being composed of Activity of Intention and Object of Intention.

According to his theory ,Man's Intentionality could be classified into three types:①Rational cognition( used in science and philosophy ;②Intuition cognition(used in art and philosophy;③Imaginary cognition (used in religion and myths).. The second and the third types are all irrational thinking.

In 20th century , philosophers of Existentialism philosophy ,which has great influence upon the world, as Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), Jean-Paul Sartre,(1905—1980), all of them inherited the irrational thinking of Phenomenology.

So, it may be seen that irrationalism has been becoming a very important school in Western philosophy.

In modern China, Irrationalism is usually criticized in philosophic circle. So, how to evaluate the irrational thinking is a problem in China.

If we regard that the goal of philosophy is not only to cognize the world, Philosophy should also answer the question of Man 's goal and Man's essence. Then, in Man's life, there are four important goals: Truth, Good , Beauty and Love. You may think: Does rational thinking could solve the problems of all these four goals.

In fact, only in the field of Truth, the rational thinking is effective. In the fields of Good, Beauty and Love, we must use Man's irrational thinking.

In the field of Good, does the friendship between children certainly come from their rational thinking?

In the field of Beauty, we appreciate the beauty of flower and bird's song, does we use the rational thinking?

In the field of Love, a young man and a pretty girl love each other at their first sight. Does it come from their rational thinking?

So ,irrational thinking is a very important thinking method of human being The view of Synthesis Philosophy is : Man's cognition is the Synthesis of Rational thinking and Irrational thinking.

Chapter 8 What is Man's Essence and Goal?

Basic tasks of philosophy are discussing Man's Outlooks of the world and Life. This chapter discusses Outlook of Man's Life.

Life time of a person is short. Is there a goal of life of a person? This is the problem of Outlook of Life of a person

Life time of Human being is very long. Is there a developing direction or a goal of Human being? This is the problem of Outlook of Life of Human being

Hunan being is composed of billions of persons. The goal of Human being is composed of the goals of billions persons. So, essentially, the Outlook of Human being is coordinated with Outlook of various persons.

If asking various persons: what is your goal of life? There will be various answers.

A scientist might answer: my goal is to explore the Truth of nature.

A philosopher might answer: my goal is to discover the essence of the world and Man's life.

A revolutionist might answer: my goal is to struggle for the well-being of people.

An officer might answer: my goal is to serve for people.

A writer might answer: my goal is to write novels or poems to describe the Beauty of life.

A musician might answer: my goal is to sing the Man's touching feeling.

A mother might answer: my goal is to cultivate my beloved son and daughter

A soldier might answer: my goal is to defend my beloved motherland.

A teacher might answer: my goal is to educate my beloved students

More common people might answer: my goal is only to hope that my family will be safe and happy.

There are various answers. But in summary, these goals may be concluded as for words: Truth, Good, Beauty and Love (including love of oneself )

Above are the goals of individual persons. As to the goal of Human being , it should be answered based on the essence of Human being.

Why Human being could exceed other animals and become the owner of the earth. The reason is that Human being has some special characters which make him different from other animals. The primary forms of these character exist in some other higher animals such as chimpanzee (black orang), monkey, etc. But the high form of these characters can only be found in Human being.

So, these characters may be said as the Essences of Human being, as follows:

①Human being has high Rational ability (Truth)

②Human being has the will of Liberty and Sociality (Good)

③Human being has the Aesthetic ability (Beauty)

④Human being has the mutual Love between each other.(Love)

These four characters makes Human being has the ability to conquer various natural disasters and all other animals, and finally became the owner of the earth. So the combination of these four characters is the Essence of Human being.

2. Man's Pursuit of Truth

1) Meaning of Truth

What is Truth?

Briefly speaking, Man's pursuit of Truth is Man's pursuit of knowledge. So called knowledge is Man's cognition of the nature and the world, and Man's cognition of the methods of utilizing or conquering the nature

Truth is Man's rational pursuit. Cognition and utilization of fire of original human being is Truth. Cognition and utilization of atomic energy of modern Man is also Truth. These two have no essential difference.

The basic task of natural science is to pursuit Truth. The task of social science and philosophy is also to pursuit Truth. Of course, they also have the task to pursuit Good.

As a individual person, from his childhood age, has the desire of pursuing Truth. In China , there is a saying : it is never too late to learn . In the whole life of a person , he is pursuing Truth continuously .

Ancient Chinese and Western philosophers had many statements on pursuing Truth(or Knowledge).

Confucius said: Be clever and interested in study, and not ashamed to seek for knowledge from others more ignorant than him.

Socrates said: Knowledge is the Virtue.

Plato put Reason and Idea at a very high position of his philosophy.

Aristotle was a scientific talent with very wide knowledge. His whole life was to pursuit Truth.

Pursuing Truth is the goal of many persons; It is also the goal of human being. Why it is the case?

2) Origin of Truth

Truth is Man's rational pursuit. Reason is product of Man's brain..

## In 1876, Friedrich Von _Engels_ ,(1820-1895)wrote in his article The Part Played by Labor in the Transition from Ape to Man:

## First labor, after it and then with it speech – these were the two most essential stimuli under the influence of which the brain of the ape gradually changed into that of man, which, for all its similarity is far larger and more perfect.

It's a pity that Engels had not explained this problem by the theory of Natural Selection presented by Charles Darwin (1809-1882) .

There was common ancestor of human being and apt. Human being is a species of animal. These characters which determine his essence must be able to be inherited. The main characters of human being are :①highly developed brain;②upright body ③skillful hands;④vocal organ with multi tone. But Chimpanzee also has upright body. Monkey's hands are also skillful. Parrot also has developed vocal organ. So the main difference between human being and other animals is that human being has highly developed brain.

According to the researches of Anthropology, the history of evolution of human being passed the following periods:

  1. Early ape man: 5 -1.6 million years ago . The brain volume was 400-800 ml.

  2. Late ape Man: 1.6 million to 200 thousand years ago . Beijing ape and Nanjing ape existed in this period. The brain volume was 1200 ml

  3. Early Homo sapiens period: 100 thousand years ago

  4. Late Homo sapiens period: 10-30 thousand years ago.

  5. Modern human being: 10 thousand years ago . The brain volume is 1350-1400 ml.

So , from early ape to modern man , the brain volume increased from 400 ml to 1400 ml , more than 3 times

The evolution of brain not only expressed in volume, more important is the enhancement of drain's functions..

Man's brain has strong abilities of memory, comparison, abstraction, learning, reasoning, imagination, calculation, speaking, etc. Man's brain's ability is much higher than the most advanced computer

Man's brain is the most important genetic character making Man different from other animals. How does this character come from? Engels and other scholars regarded that labour, utilization of tools and the discovery of fire are the causes of Man's advanced brain. But this opinion had been denied by modern genetic science which proved that acquired characters cannot be inherited . According to modern Biology, the advanced human brain was a result of inheriting and evolutional process, which is the joint result of mutation of genes and natural selection.

In the long period of more than 5 million years ,Man had been struggling with various natural disasters. What Man depended was not his physical ability but mental ability. Some men groups who had their genes which made them possessing high mental ability would survive. The offspring of them would have high mental ability. Generations by generations, Man's brain had been becoming more and more advanced.

Since Man had advanced brain, it was possible for him to use tools, to do labour and use fire for cooking food.

Man's advanced brain had the ability of study and communication. So Man was able to speak and to transfer his ability to his offspring. Those transferring was progress of civilization.

So in the process of Man's evolution, there were two mechanisms: one was genetic progress and the other was civilizational progress.

In this section of Man's pursuing Truth, we discuss more on the evolution of Man's brain. It does not mean that Man's brain is only related to Truth. Man's advanced brain relates to Good, Beauty and Love also. But from the view of Man's evolution, the raising of man's mental and rational ability was the most important factor.

For the view of genetics, besides advanced brain , man's upright body .skillful hands and advanced vocal organ were all important characters which made Man different from other animals. Especially, Man's advanced vocal organ made Man having the ability of speaking and communication which promoted greatly Man's ability of pursuing Truth

3. Historical and Practical meaning of Man's pursuing Truth

In ancient China, traditional civilization paid attention to pursuit Truth. Book of Change was a philosophic classic 3000 years ago. It used two different Lines : Yin (- -) and Yang (---) ,as the basic elements of the world . Different combinations of three Lines construct Eight Trigrams ( 八卦)。 Different combinations of Eight Trigrams formed 64 Hexagrams, which could explain all phenomena in the world. This was the method of pursuing Truth in ancient China.

Confucius paid much attention to Study. He said:

It is a pleasure to acquire knowledge, and as you go on acquiring, to put into practice what you have acquired (Analects of Confucius,1)

Mo Zi and his students had deep exploration in the fields of logic, mathematics, mechanics, optics, etc.

Ancient China had high accomplishment in the fields of agriculture, medicine, art and military affairs .But, unfortunately, up to late 19th century; China had not established its system of natural science.

In ancient Greece, philosophers paid much attention to Logic, mathematics, natural science and Epistemology in philosophy. After the Renaissance and Enlightenment Movement, in recent 500 years, natural sciences have been developing rapidly.

In recent 100 years, the decline in China's national strength has the direct relation with the backward of science.

After May 4th Movement in 1919 , the ideas of Science and Democracy were introduced into China. People in China understood that Science (Natural and Social Science ) are the only correct road to reach Truth.

After 1949, we may not say that government did not pay attention to Science . In some fields ,as atomic bomb, hydrogen bomb, missile, etc .China got noticeable successes. But in a long period(about 17-18 years),scientists were suffered in various mass movements , Natural sciences were forced to be guided by certain philosophic thinking . In the field of social sciences, Marxism became the only correct theory. Especially in the period of Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), all Chinese traditional thinking and all Western thinking (besides Marxism) were denied and criticized. All of these policies made a great backward of China's civilization.

Since 1978, the reform and open-up policy was implemented; the situation has been improving .but not completely.

Pursuing Truth is the most important essence of human being. The real progress of China must depend on the effort to have all natural scientist , social scientists and philosophers playing their fully enthusiasm . Let them in a more tolerant political environment , to explore the mystery of nature, the rules of a reasonable society and the true meaning of life

3. Man's Pursuit of Good

1) Meaning of Good

In ancient Chinese philosophy ,"Good"occupied an very important location.

In Historical Classics (《尚书》),it said:

Virtue is just good governance. Governance is to culticate people .

The kernel of Confucius philosophy is Kindheartedness. His saying of "Do not do to others what you do not wish yourself." Is regarded as the Golden Rule of Ethics by Western philosophers

Mencius's theory of Good Human Nature and Xun Zi's theory of Evil Human Nature was an important argument in ancient Chinese philosophy.

In Western philosophy, from ancient to modern time, Good has been the main content .

Socrates(469-399 BC ) said : Virtue is knowledge. This saying has two meanings: one is that Virtue (same meaning as Good) is the highest knowledge; the other is that Good is knowledgeable

In 18th century ,Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)established a rational morality system . He regarded that problems of "to be"and "should to be"must be separated. He presented the idea that Liberty (or Liberal Will) is the Upmost Good and man's highest Good.

In 20th century, philosophic school of Existentialism regarded that the problem of Existence is the basic problem of philosophy, which is just the problem of Liberty .So it is also a problem of Good.

In summary, there are two main meanings of Man's pursuit of Good: one is to have a full liberal will of Man (Liberty), and the other is to have a friendly and harmony relation between people. It may be said that Good is the synthesis of Man's Liberty and Man's Sociality.

In this book, I am not going to discuss the meanings of Good in detail. Readers who interested in this problem might read my another book: Good Philosophy and Common Value

2) Origin of Good

(1) Origin of Man's Sociality .

In the work of Charles Darwin (1809-1882) The Descent of Man , There are detailed discussion on the origin of man's Sociality .

Combining the examples in Darwin's work and the facts we see in daily life, the following opinions are presented:

A, Many animals have their Sociality .or herding instinct as inns, bees , wild geese ,wild horses, etc. Those animals closed to human being in biological system , as baboons, monkeys have rather strong Sociality .According to Darwin, many baboons could cooperated together to move a big stones so as to search the eatable insects below the stone

Man is the highest animal of Sociality. In the long process of evolution, the Sociality of those lower animals was the earliest origin of man's Good。 .

B, But Man's Sociality is not same as the Sociality of other animals. Man's Sociality, besides the instinct factor, has the factor of Man's Reason. Besides the genetic factor, Man 's Sociality has the factor of civilizational progress.

We may imagine, in the period of apt and Homo sapiens, the group with stronger Sociality will have the higher living ability. Man depended not only his instinct, and also his reason would build stronger Sociality.

Man's Sociality produced various requirements of Man's virtue or morality.as the courage to protect his own group, the control of personal desire, etc. At the same time, various rules in a group would be established, as mutual help in the group, compiling with credit, not to invade other's right, the harmony relation in the group. These factors constructed Man's idea of Good.

C, There is another character making Man's Sociality different from that of other animals, which is the Man's family nature. .

It could not be said that other animals do not have their lower nature of family Birds could built nest to cultivate the young birds. Mother mammals could take care of her young mammals carefully. But there are no animal could form a complete family composed of father, mother, sons and daughters. All dogs and cats cannot cognize who is his father or mother.

Family nature is a higher character compared with Sociality. The fact that Man has the character of Family nature is related to Man's advanced brain and high rational ability, including the abstract ability and memory ability ,which made Man could cognize his father ,mother ,brother and sister. In a family, the relationship is more close involving intimate Love with each other. While struggling with natural disasters or other human groups , Man's Family nature made him more strong and powerful .

Both the Sociality and Family nature are the origin of Man's Good

(2)Origin of Man's nature of Liberty

Analysis on the origin of Man's morality was made by Charles Darwin He paid more attention to Man's , Sociality ,less to Liberty .But ,from the Renaissance , philosophers in the West paid more attention to Man's Liberty.

As to the Origin of Good, Man's Liberty had more long-term and profound origin. Liberty came directly from instinct of Life. It may be said that any individual of any organism (plant or animal) has the instinct of living which was the most primitive origin of Liberty.

Due to the highly developed brain, Man had the rational thinking ability which other animals do not have. Man had the talents of pursuing Truth , Good ,Beauty and Love ,which made Man obtaining highly developed Liberty. In the West ,from ancient to modern period ,many famous philosophers, as Epicurus(341-270 BC), Immanuel Kant(1724-1804), Freiedrich Hegel(1770-1831), Jean-Paul Sartre,(1905—1980),all pointed out that Man Liberal Will is the main character which made Man different from other animals. Liberty is Man's connate nature.

In summary, Man's nature of Good contains two factors: Sociality and Liberty. Man's pursuit of Good is the combination of Sociality and Liberty. Man's Sociality and Liberty are the combination of the instinct of Man and Man's rational and civilizational progress. Man's pursuit of Good was a very important nature and ability of Man's existence and success on the earth.

3.) The Historical and Practical meaning of Man's Pursuit of Good

Man' nature of Good (combination of Sociality and Liberty) has close relation to philosophy, ethics, politics, economics, sociology, etc.

Both Sociality and Liberty are Man's innate nature. Mencius's theory of Good Nature talked on Man's Sociality. Xun Zi 's theory of Evil Human Nature talked on Man's Liberty or Individuality . Zhuang Zi was the philosopher in ancient China who had the deepest understanding of Man' Liberty.

In the West , Immanuel Kant's statement of Man's Liberal Will and Good Will was the deep expression of Man's nature of Good.

The highest ideal of Man' future of Karl Marx is :

we shall have an association in which the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all.。

This is a deep statement of Man's Liberty

In contemporary world, there are two progressive thoughts: Liberalism and Socialism. If we understand the dual nature of Good, the fusion of these two thoughts may be the common direction of Man's future.

After the establishment of PRC in 1949, in political life, national interests and collective interests have been emphasized more. Man's personal liberty and will are paid less attention. Principles of Democracy and Rule of Law have not been well implemented.

In economic life, there exist serious corruption and low efficiency of administration .There are serious problems of environmental pollution and poverty gap.

In the period of reform and open up policy today, how to implement Democratic Politics and Rule of Law In political life, how to pay more attention to Man's personal liberty, right and will? In economic life, how to balance the efficiency and justice? How to narrowing the gap between the rich and the poor? These problems are all related to the idea of Good.

So, pursuit of Good has very important meaning for improving Man's political and economical life in China, also in other countries.

4. Man's Pursuit of Beauty

1) Meaning of Beauty

Western Beauty philosophy emphasizes the discussion of the problem of the Essence of Beauty.

Ancient Greek philosopher Pythagoras presented the view that Beauty is harmony.

Plato presented the view that Beauty is the Idea of Beauty.

Aristotle presented the view that Beauty is completeness.

In the Middle Ages of Europe, Christian philosopher August presented the view that Beauty is created by God.

In 17-18th centuries, Western philosophers were classified into two schools: one was Empiricism, the other was Rationalism. In 18-19th centuries, Kant and Hegel was the synthesizer of Western recent philosophy.

The recent Western philosophers, in the aspect of Beauty, all took Perception as the kernel idea, which is named by the author: Theory of Perception.

  1. The view of Beauty of Empiricism

The main representative of Empiricism was John Locke(1632-1704). He wrote:

Whence has it all the materials of reason and knowledge? To this I answer, in one word, from EXPERIENCE. In that all our knowledge is founded; and from that it ultimately derives itself.

(An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding, Book 2.Chap.1)

In the field of Beauty philosophy, the main philosophers of Empiricism were the British philosophers Shaftesbury (1671-1713). Francis Hutcheson (1694-1747), etc.

Shaftesbury, according to the Empiricism theory of Locke, presented an idea that : Beauty is also a perception of Man ,which is sensed by Man's Inner Eyes. His opinion is that while Man sees some forms or listens some sounds, he could recognizes the beauty, refinement and harmony. The distinguishing ability can only come from inner eyes, which means, from the human nature.

  2. The view of Beauty of Rationalism

Alexander Gottlied Baumgarten (1714-1762) was a German Rationalistic philosopher. He is recognized as the founder of Aesthetics. His opinion is:

The purpose of Aesthetics is the perfection of sensuous knowledge itself. Its perfection is Beauty. Its imperfection is Ugly

(Theoretical Aesthetics)

So , in his opinion , the essence of Beauty is the perfection of sensuous knowledge..

What is the difference between" Beauty is perception of Man " of Empiricism and "Beauty is the perfection of sensuous knowledge" of Rationalism.?

The understanding of the author is that Perception and Sensuous Knowledge are two related but different concepts.

While Man sees forms or listens sounds,(saying of Shaftesbury) ,these are the Perception, but not Sensuous Knowledge.

For example, while we see the color and form of plum flower. It is Man's Perception. While we know that it is the flowers of plum tree which blossom in the winter and has the valuable character of not being afraid of cold, these are the Sensuous Knowledge

So , Sensuous Knowledge is established on the basis of Perception and is the rational extraction of Perception..

While Man's Sensuous Knowledge attains perfection, it is Beauty. This definition of Beauty can summarize all high level arts , as painting ,music ,poem ,drama, noval ,etc .

It may be said that the perfection of Rational Knowledge is Science. The perfection of Sensuous Knowledge is Beauty or Art.,

  3. Hegel's opinion on Beauty— Beauty is the perceptual embodiment of Rationality

Freiedrich Hegel(1770-1831) was one of main philosopher of Western Rationalism philosophy.

On Beauty, his opinion was that Beauty is the perceptual embodiment of Rationality. The meaning of this saying is that Beauty needs Rationality as its premise. The Rationality, which he mentioned, is Man's thinking or ideal. Hegel pointed out that if Man's rationality (thinking or ideal) could be expressed by sensuous forms (could be seen or listened), it is Beauty.

The view of Hegel is different from the view of Baumgarten. The Beauty that Baumgarten mentioned does not require Rationality as its premise. But the Beauty that Hegel mentioned has this requirement. .

It may be said that both of these two opinions have their correctness. The opinion of Baumgarten can be used in a more wide extent including natural beauty and art beauty, if they appear the perfection of sensuous knowledge. Some arts, as poem, drama, novel, etc. do have certain Rationality as their premise. Hegel is correct

  4. Modern Beauty Philosophy

Henri Bergson (1859—1941), the founder of Life Philosophy, presented the opinion that the intuition is the only method to understand Beauty. Intuition is not a cognitive method of rationality, but a cognitive method of perception . It cognizes Beauty directly from the perception.

Edmund Husserl (1859~1938) was the founder of Phenomenology. The theory of Phenomenology was an important breakthrough of Epistemology. Husserl presented the concept of "Intentionality" which is the combination of Intentional activity and intentional object. His theory is that Man has different types of Intentional activities. To pursue the Truth, Man uses the methods as observation, analysis, experiment, judgment, etc. To pursue Beauty, Man uses the methods as perception, feeling, intuition, etc.

In summary, as to the understanding of Beauty, a common opinion of Western philosophers is to emphasize the concept of Perception.

If we compare Science and Art, it may be recognized that the opinion of Western philosophy is reasonable. In Science , Man obtains the cognition of Truth through observations ,experiments and theoretical extraction . But in Art , Man obtains the cognition of Beauty through perception or intuition

B. Theory of Imagery in Chinese Beauty Philosophy

"Imagery"(意象) is the kernel idea in Chinese Beauty philosophy. This is the common opinion of ancient and modern Chinese scholars. The idea of Imagery is different from the idea of Perception

The idea of Imagery began in Zhou's Book of Change(《周易》) ,which was composed of two books: one is Book of Change(《易经》) and the other is Appendices of Book of Change(《易传》).

The text of Book of Change is composed of three parts:Images, Explanation and Meanings. There are 64 Hexagrams in the book . Taking the first Hexagram –Qian (乾, Creative) as a example,

Its Image is Qian above(≡)and Qian below(≡)

Its Explanation is that the Creative works great , successful and perseverant.(元亨利贞).

Its meaning is that how Great the Creative is ! It is Strong and Justice.

(大哉乾乎,刚健中正)

In the period of Wei-Jin, Wang Bi (王弼) was a talent young philosopher. His famous theory was: To understand the meaning and forget the image.

What he meant was not to deny the image, but to understand the Meaning through the Image. This is the meaning of "Imagery '' in Chinese Beauty philosophy..

In ancient China, all arts ,as poem ,painting , calligraphy, music , sculpture, etc. involved the idea of Imagery : expressing the inner meaning through the outside image.

In the later history, the idea of Imagery has been developing , but does not leave the basic meaning of it

In modern China, different scholars presented different theories of Beauty. There are Theory of Subjectiveness (Li Ying吕莹 ,Gao Ertai 高尔泰), Theory of . Objectiveness(Cai Yi,蔡仪) ,Theory of Unity of Subjectiveness and Objectiveness( Zhu Guangqian ,朱光潜 ),etc.

  3. Origin of Beauty

Why Does Man have the requirement of Beauty? Where does Man's Sense of Beauty come from?

There were several origins of Beauty

(1)Pursuit of Beauty of Animals

In Charles Darwin's work The Descent of Man, There is a special chapter: Sex Selection .introducing many interesting facts of animals:

  1. Insects: Only male cicadas can sing and female cicadas cannot. Sing of male cicadas attracts strongly the female. Male butterflies have very beautiful colours ,but the colour of females is usually faint

  2. Fishes :Many kinds of male fish have beautiful colours

  3. Birds: The singings of many kinds of bird ,as canary, robins, lark are very attractive

  4. Mammals: Male antelopes have very beautiful skin colour, but the females do not. Some monkeys are very colourful

In summary, due to sex selection, male animals often show their beauty to attract the females. At the same time, the females have the sense ability to accept the beauty of the males

(2) Why there are similarity of beauty appreciations between Man and animal ?

Why the singings of insects and birds attract themselves, and also attract Man ? Why do female butterflies like the colour of male butterflies ,and Man also like it ? Why the opening of the wings of male Peacock attracts the females and also attracts eyes of Man

All these facts tell us that Man's sense of Beauty had a origin of very long period. So Man's feeling of Beauty had its very old evolutionary origin.

(3) Why as Pythagoras said: Beauty is harmony? Why as Aristotle said, some special forms: symmetry, order, clearness are appreciated by Man.

In my opinion, these forms, as harmony of natural environments, symmetry of the body of Man and animals, order of seasonal change and clearness of colours of males or females, were all beneficial to the existence of the original Man. In the long process of Human evolution, Man created the feeling of Beauty of them.

(4) Civilization reason of pursuing Beauty of the minority nations.

In the book The Original Agricultural Types of minorities in Southern China, there are many descriptions on natural worship and religious belief of minority nations. The objects of their worship are mainly animals, as buffalo, sheep, deer, white chicken, etc. These are named Totem Worship. Minority people have the feeling of reverence and also the sense of Beauty upon those Totems.

All minority people like dancing and singing. Recording in the historical book , in southern China , Nuo dancing is very popular, The dancers wear skin of bear with facial decoration.120 boys of the age of 10-12 are selected . They are dancing and singing at same time.

We may image that the original people would feel great happiness in those dancing and singing which carry to them the strong will of living and encouragement to fight with natural disasters.

So, Pursuit of Beauty is the requirement of Man's living and development. .

In summary, Man's Pursuit of Beauty came from the genetic factor in the long period of biological evolution, and also from the civilizational factor of Man's living and progress. Man's pursuit of Beauty came from the synthesis of these two factors.

So, Beauty is not only the objective factor, and also not only the subjective factor. Beauty is the synthesis of objective and subjective factors.

3) Meaning of Man's Pursuit of Beauty

Chinese is a nation who pursued Beauty from ancient time. Book of Poetry was a collection of ancient lyric poetry. It was also one of the courses that Confucius taught his students.

If we say that China's science lags behind western countries, but , comparing with the West ,China's literature, poetry, painting, music ,drama ,architecture ,etc. certainly are excellent . So, Man's nature of pursuing Beauty had been well developing in the China's history .

From the discussion of the origin of Man's pursuit of Beauty, it may be seen that Beauty has two functions: Artistry and Utility. Man's appreciation of beautiful painting or music is related to Artistry of Beauty. Natural Beauty ,as colorful flowers or bird's singing formed from sex selection is related to Utility of Beauty.

In ancient China ,there were two theories of Beauty: one was "Poetry should express one's ambition"( Legend of Spring and Autumn Period written by Zuo 《左传》), the other was"Poetry should be beautiful"( Cao Pi .曹丕) . The former theory emphasized Utility of Beauty; the latter theory emphasized Artistry of Beauty,

In 30th of 20 century, an argument happened in Chinese literature and art circles. What is the purpose of art? One side of writers advocated that art should serve for human life. Another side of writers advocated that art should serve for art itself. .

In 40th of 20 century, Mao Zedong presented the idea that art and literature should serve for workers , farmers and soldiers . After 1949, the country leaders advocated that art and literature should serve for country and people.

It cannot say that those advocatory are incorrect at all. But the over emphasizing of the Utility of Beauty must decline the artistic level of art and literature.

This situation went to the peak during Cultural Revolution. All excellent Chinese traditional and Western art and literature were criticized and denied.

After 1978, the situation is going better. But due to the long time influence of Left Wing's theory, after the establishment of PRC , there have been few excellent products of art and literature appeared.

I do not object to certain requirement of Utility of art and literature. But the main function of art and literature is to satisfy the enjoyment of Beauty for people. In the period of peaceful construction of a country, People certainly have more and more requirement of enjoyment of Beauty. To satisfy people's requirement itself is the social responsibility of art and literature.

We hope that there will appear a lot of excellent novels , poems ,dramas , music , paintings ,architectures ,etc. in China and also in other countries in the world.

5. Man's Pursuit of Love

1)Meaning and Location of Love

In spiritual life, generally, people regard that the goals of Man's pursuit are: Truth, Good and Beauty. Pursuit of Truth is to cognize the essence of objective things in the world so as to improve Man's living and development. Pursuit of Good is to fulfil Man's will of Liberty and to establish a harmony society. Pursuit of Beauty is to feel pleasure of human life.

From the rational view, Truth, Good and Beauty are suitable to be said as Man's highest demands. But if from both rational and irrational views, besides Truth, Good , Beauty ,is there another Man's demand ,which has the equal importance as the above Three.

My answer is: yes, there is another Man's highest demand, that is Love.

Love is Man's kindhearted feeling. The opposite of Truth is False. The opposite of Good is Evil. The opposite of Beauty is Ugly. The opposite of Love is Hate or Apathy.

Love had very high location in both ancient Chinese and Western philosophy.

In ancient China, Confucius said :

Kindheartedness is loving men.

This is the kernel thinking of Chinese moral philosophy.

There are two meanings of Confucius's " Loving men ",one is its ethical meaning : one should love others; the other is its emotional meaning: one should have the feeling of Love with others.

Mo Zi said:

Universal love is different from Different love.

Universal Love is the kernel thinking of Mo Zi.

In Tang dynasty, Han Yu said:

Fraternity is so called Kindheartedness.

(Han Yu: On the origin and nature of the truth)

Fraternity has the meaning similar to Universal Love

In the periods of ancient Greece and Middle Ages of Europe, Philosophers also paid very high attention to Love.

Plato said:

Love is the most ancient and the greatest. Love is the highest happiness.

(Plato : Symposium)

The famous philosopher in Middle Ages Aurelius August(354-430)said:

Comparing with Belief and Hope, Love is the greater gift of the God. The Holy Spirit pours Love into our heart.

(Handbook of Belief, Hope and Love)

In 18th century , David Hume(1711-1776)was a active supporter of the idea of Benevolence, which has basically the same meaning as Kindhearted Love .

In 19th century , German philosopher Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach(1804-1872) said:

The highest and the most important principle must be the Love between men and men.

Love is the absolute essence of mankind

(Collection of Philosophy Works of Feuerbach)

If we put philosophy aside and read the book of literature, we'll find that Love is the common theme of novels , poetries ,dramas ,etc..

All famous literature works as The Romance of West Chamber; (西厢记)。The Peony Pavilion(牡丹亭), The Dream of Red Mansion( 红楼梦) in China and Romeo and Juliet, The Lady of the Camellias, Anna Karenina ,etc in the West ,took Love as their themes .

Philosophy discusses Human Nature using rational thinking. Literature expresses Human Nature based on Man's feeling . So on the problem of Human nature, philosophy should not neglect the window of literature.

In summary, whether in view of philosophy, or of literature, we must take Love as one of Man's most important natures. Love should be one of Man's highest goals.

The next question is: is Love a independent human nature? Someone might say: Love is already involved in the idea of Good. Someone might say: Love and Beauty are the same thing.

Limited by the volume of this book, I 'll not discuss this problem in detail (readers might read the other book written by me: Philosophy of Love .Its English edition will be published one year later).

Here I like to explain this problem briefly.

Love has linkage with Good. Good is a virtue of Man which helps man to have harmony relationship. So Good could not be separated from Love. Confucius 's saying: "Kindheartedness is loving men " combined Love and Good together.

Most Western philosophers regarded that Good behaviour should conform to rational rules .But Love is an emotion and a irrational factor .So Love and Good are not the same thing.

For example , in the famous epic of Homer, Iliad, there was a story of love murder. Two men had a duel with each other to win the love of a beautiful lady, Helen. Their loves for Helen were sincere, but their duel was a irrational behavior deviated from the principle of Good.

This example shows that Love and Good is not the same thing. Of course, generally speaking, Love must conform to the principle of Good.

Love also has linkage with Beauty. In Greek mythology, there was a God of Love, Venus. She was also a God of Beauty .Love and Beauty was combined together at her.

But Love and Beauty are not the same concept. While a man looks at the TV, he 'll see some beautiful ladies . He might appreciate their Beauty. But he 'll never love them ,as he loves his wife and daughter. In a garden, people might appreciate the beauty of flowers, but they'll not put their deep Love upon these flowers.

In summary, Love has linkage with Truth , Good and Beauty. But Love is Man's feeling, which does not completely belong to Truth, Good and Beauty

Love is Man's independent pursuit and goal of life.

2) Origin of Love

Where does Man's Love come from? Why Man has feeling and Love?

Same as the discussion of origin of Truth, Good and Beauty, we begin with the comparison between Man and animals.

  1. Animals also have feeling and Love

In The Descent of Man, Charles Darwin introduced many facts and concluded that animal, same as Man, have the feeling of pleasure and pain. They understand what is happiness and what is trouble.

You may find in daily life that dogs and cats are playing together happily.

You may also find that a dog loves his master and often protects his master if necessary

Many animals have their motherly love. Someone has found that an mother monkey took care of her baby monkeys and drives flies for them .

Someone found that a mother long arm monkey died of grief for the death of her baby monkey.

From these facts, we have to recognize that the origin of Man's Love came from the inheritance of animals

  2. Man's feeling and Love are more rich and strong than that of animals

Although Man's feeling inherited from animals, but accompanying the development of Man's brain, Man's intellectual and feeling abilities apparently exceeded animals.

The advanced ability expressed in speaking. The multi syllable vocal organ and language is a special ability of human being. Some animals also could express their feeling using different sounds. Someone found that dog has 4-5 different sounds of bark. Chicken have 12 different sounds. But Man, due to his special vocal organ, could have countless different voices. Combining with Man's intellectual ability, Man got the ability of speaking which formed Man's language. Man's speaking ability greatly enhanced Man's thinking ability and at the same time enhanced ability for expressing his emotion and Love. Finally Man could express his emotion and Love by poetry and music.

In ancient China, The book of Poetry collected thousands of poetries, which expressed strongly Love between young man and his beloved lady or vice versa.

So, Man's Love was the combined product of inheritance from animals and civilizational progress of human being..

3) Historical and Realistic Meaning of Man's pursuit of Love

In ancient China, there was the tradition of Love in human society which was mainly expressed in two aspects, one was Filiality ( Filial Love) in family , the other was Kindhearted Politics(Love for people)

Confucianism advocated actively the Filiality, or Filial Love in family

Confucius said:

As a son, he rested in filiality .As a father, he rested in kindness

(The Great Learning )

Mencius said:

If each man would love his parents and show the due respect to his elders, the whole empire would enjoy tranquility.

(Mencius, C hap.7)

In aspect of Kindhearted Politics, Mencius had a famous saying:

Treat with the reverence the elders in your own family, so that the elders in the other's families shall be similarly treated. Treat with the kindness the young in your own family, so that the young in the other's families shall be similarly treated.

(Mencius, Chap.1)

Mencius told people: everyone should love all elders and the young in the society

Mencius's thinking conformed the principle in modern social security policy

In my opinion, the Filial Love in family in all families and the Kindhearted Love for the people were two very important spiritual factors for maintaining a basically stable and harmony society in more than 2000 years history of China

Of course, there were also many facts deviated from Love in the history of China

  1. In many wars, the number of soldiers killed were astonishing. In 200BC ,the General Bai Qi (白起) commanded to kill 400 thousands enemy soldiers

  2. Ancient punishment was very cruel, as separating one' body by 4 horses

  3. The emperors had the absolute authority. If he wanted the death of a officer , the officer must die

In the period of Republic of China (POR), countless of revolutionaries were killed by he government

In the period of 1949-1976, the leader emphasized Class Struggles, many intellectuals, officers and common men were criticized and punished cruelly.

After 1978 ,China is coming to the period of Reform and Open up Policy, situation in becoming much better, But there are some problems existing in the society:①Serious corruption,② Serious inequality between rich and poor,③ Serious Pollution of environments, etc.

So, the idea and spirit of Love (love for people, love for the nature) are still very important in China today. Of course ,it is also important in all countries in the world .

6. Synthesis of Truth, Good ,Beauty and Love

Four goals of Man: Truth, Good, Beauty and Love are not separated with each other. They unite together as a synthetic whole. I'll discuss this problem in two aspects.

  1. Synthesis of Truth ,Good ,Beauty and Love from the view of their common origin

We may imagine, in the long period of 5 million to 10 thousand years ago , the complete process of evolution from early Apt Man to modern human being .

In east and south Africa, and east Asia, in the region between forest and grassland, how did Apt man struggled with the cruel natural condition and wide animals? Why Man could get success in the struggles and become the master of the earth? What did Man depend on ?

According to the research of Charles Darwin and many other biologists, the main reasons that Man could get success were :through Man's genetic variations and natural selection , Man obtained some special physical and social characters which made Man superior to all other animals. They were:

  1. Highly advanced brain and the rational ,speaking and sensible abilities related with brain

  2. Man' s liberal will and strong sociality

  3. Man's strong aesthetic ability

  4. Man's strong emotion and nature of mutual love. Man 's spirit of willing to devote oneself to his family and group

Owing to Man's highly advanced brain, it was possible for Man to create various tools, to do various labour .to discover and use fire and to have cooked food. Tools, labour, fire and cooked food were the earliest civilization of human being. Advance brain helped Man to gradually cognize nature and to reform nature. So pursuit of Truth was the most important nature of human being.

But, only depending on advance brain , Man was not able to struggle with natural disasters and animals . Man must have strong liberal will and sociality which was the strong energy to do the struggles.

Owing to get more powerful vitality and cohesion in the group, Man developed rich aesthetic ability and the ability to have pleasure. We may image that those group liked singing and dancing would have stronger vitality and cohesion.

In company with development of brain, Man's emotion ability must be enhances. Those groups owned strong Love within their family members and social members would have stronger fighting force.

While Man struggled with natural disasters and wild animals , those group owning more advanced brain ,more strong liberal will and sociality ,.more rich aesthetic ability and more Love within their family and group members would win the success in the competition between different groups .

The genetic characters of pursuit of Truth, Good, Beauty and Love would be inherited generationally. Up to late period of Man's history, the factors of civilizational progress became more important than genetic factor.

Under the dual factors of genetics and civilizational progress, finally Man obtained the following characters:

  1. Progress of Man's rational ability: Man's nature of pursuing Truth

  2. Progress of Man's liberal will and sociality: Man's nature of pursuing Good

  3. Progress of Man's aesthetic ability: Man's nature of pursuing Beauty

  4. Progress of Man's emotional ability. Man's nature of pursuing Love.

These four human natures had been developing synthetically in the process of genetics and civilizational progress of human being.

In summary, Man's synthetic nature of pursuing Truth, Good , Beauty and Love was inherited 5 million years ago ,in the process of Man's evolution and also from the long period of Man's civilizational progress.

  2. Synthesis of Truth ,Good ,Beauty and Love from the view of their inner relations

The essences of Man's basic goals: Truth, Good, Beauty and Love are closely related with each other.

  1. Synthesis of Truth and Good

There were many statements in the history of philosophy on the relation between Truth and Good , The earliest was the saying of Socrates(469-399 BC ): Virtue is knowledge. Immanuel Kant(1724-1804)regarded that both Theoretical Reason and Practical Reason belong to Pure Reason . They are two facets of Pure Reason and united together as a whole.

In practical life, Truth is the exploration of natural and social rules. Good is the exploration of Man's liberal will and harmony of social relation. Man's will should follow natural and social rules. For example, while Man understand the objective rules in the natural ecological systems, man should maintain the balance of ecological system and protect natural environment and biological species consciously. This is an important content of Good. In the aspect of human relation, social science (Truth) tells people there are objective rules in the good relation which are conform to the Good of human nature: Liberty, Equity, Mutual Love, etc. This is the synthesis of Truth and Good.

  2. Synthesis of Truth and Beauty

On Beauty, there are two opinions: Objectiveness and Subjectiveness. The theory of Objectiveness regards that Beauty is an objective form (symmetry, bright, rhythm, etc.). Theory of Sbjectiveness regards that Beauty gives Man pleasure. These two theories have the sameness at one point: Beauty should conform to objective rules:, Objective forms of Beauty are natural objective rules. Making Man feel pleasure is the objective rule of Human nature. Human nature itself also follows natural rules.

Albert Einstein (1879-1955) regarded that all truths of natural sciences have the character of Beauty .In Newton's the Mechanical theory, Einstein's Theory of Relativity , Theory of Quantum mechanics, the structure of DNA , we may find the Beauty of simplicity, unity and gracefulness

  3. Synthesis of Truth and Love

Pursuit of Truth is the continuous exploration of natural rules. The process of exploration is very difficult and hard mental labor. It is impossible for scientists to have achievements without strong love for Truth. You may imagine that Madame Curie and her husband were working in a very rough and simple laboratory and stirring uranium hardly to find the new element of Radium. You may understand the relation between Love and Truth.

Love is Man's most noble emotion. Love itself is the Truth of the nature. Love is the strong energy to push forward the progress of human being.

  4. Synthesis of Good and Beauty

It may be recognized by everyone that Man's Good nature is Man 's most beautiful Virtue .

In Hugo's famous novel Notre Dame de Paris, Quasimodo was a very ugly man. But, he had very beautiful heart of Love, which touches everyone. This is a typical example of the synthesis of Good and Beauty.

  5. Synthesis of Good and Love

Good is closely related with Love. Confucius famous saying: kindheartedness means loving men, explained the relation between Good and Love clearly

All Good behaviours involve the factor of Love. All behaviours of Love are Good Sometimes, these two could have contradiction.as sex murder, etc. At such time , Love should obey Good.

  6. Synthesis of Beauty and Love

Although Beauty and Love are not the same conceptions, they relate with each other very closely.

From ancient to modern time ,from the east to the West ,many famous literature works (poetries , novels, dramas, etc.) are all excellent models of the synthesis of Beauty and Love. In the famous Chinese drama The Peony Pavilion, the love story of Du Liniang (杜丽娘) and Liu Mengmei (柳梦梅) has been touching countless Chinese young men and ladies . Miss Du died for Love and awaked to live again for Love .This drama was written by very beautiful poetries accompanying with very touching music, building an excellent synthetic art with the complete synthesis of Love and Beauty.

In summary, there are very rich contents related to the synthesis of Truth, Good, Beauty and Love, the four main goals of Man .

These four goals , from the rational view angle, Truth is the strongest , Good is the next , Beauty is the less and Love is the weakest . But from the irrational view angle, Love is the strongest, Beauty is the next, Good is the less and Truth is the weakest. If we combines the rational and irrational views together, then, Truth , Good ,Beauty and Love have the same importance for human being . These four goals build a wholeness of Man's Goal of Life.

Chapter 9 How is History developing?

The task of philosophy is to make researches on outlook of the world and human life. The world is consisted of natural world and human world. History of Man is the important content of human world. So, philosophy involves the cognition of Man's history.

The real process of Man's history is the research object of History Science. The rules and goals of Man's history is the research object of Philosophy of History

  1. Review of History of History

For the purpose of explaining the opinions of Synthesis Philosophy on History, It's necessary to have a brief review on Philosophy of History in Chinese and Western philosophy

  1. Chinese Philosophy of History

In ancient Chinese philosophy, there were rich contents of philosophy of history. There were following theories:

  1. Theory of Destiny

The thinking of the theory of Destiny was very old in China .In the ancient book─Book of History(《尚书》),it wrote:

_King of Xia had made many c_ **rimes. The Heaven orders me to kill him ( Declaration of Tang)**

While Zhou (周)dynasty was established instead of Shang (商)dynasty. Book of History wrote:

King of Shang had a lot of crimes. the Heaven orders me to kill him

(Declaration of Tai)

②Theory of People Orientation

The thinking of the theory of People Orientation originated very early.

Book of History(尚书) wrote:

People are the basis of the state. The stability of the basis makes the peace of state

Many ancient Chinese philosophers supported the theory of People Orientation.

Confucius said:

When the people have plenty, the prince will be plenty. If the people are not plenty, the prince will not be plenty. (Analects of Confucius, Chap.13)

Mencius was the philosopher who had the clearest thinking of the theory of People Orientation. He said:

Those who govern others are supported by them. (Mencius, Chap 5)

So, the emperor who held the policy of People Orientation would have a longer ruling period

③Theory of Kindhearted Politics

Mencius said:

Let the prince be kindhearted, there will be no one who is not kindhearted . Let the prince be righteous, there will be no one who is not righteous. Let the prince be upright, there will be no one who is not upright. Once rectify the prince, and the kingdom will be firmly settled.

(Mencius, Chap.7)

These sayings means that only when the governor himself is upright ,kindhearted and righteous, then all officers and the people will be upright ,kindhearted and righteous. Kindhearted Emperor must have a long ruling period.

④Theory of Five Elements

In China's Warring States period, Zou Yan(邹衍) presented the theory of Five Elements(metal, wood, water, fire and earth) to explain the changes of dynasties. His opinion was that Five Elements overcome each other. For example, Xia dynasty which held the virtue of Wood must be overcome by Zhou dynasty which held the virtue of Metal.

⑤Theory of Inaction .

Lao Zi presented the Theory of Inaction of Governor. He said:

Act in accordance with the principle of inaction., the world will be kept in order everywhere (Dao De Jin, Chap.3)

The meaning of Inaction of the governor is to reduce interference of people's life

⑥Theory of Rule by Law.

In China's Warring States period , the Legalists presented the Theory of Ruling by Law. They advocated to rule the people by strict and uniform laws. Their theory helped the emperor of Qin (秦) obtaining great success to unify China

In ancient Chinese philosophy of history, there were some unreasonable factors (as Theory of Five Elements). But there were some valuable thinking, as theories of People Orientation , Kindhearted Policy ,etc.

  2. Philosophy of History in the West

In ancient Greece, Plato (427-347 BC ) ,according his theory of Idea, presented his ideal picture of a state. His ideal state is composed of virtue of the ruler, courage of the soldiers and self control of the people. He was the first philosopher who presented an ideal goal of a state or a country.

Aristotle(384-322 BC) presented his theory of Greek State. He regarded that a state is composed of two parts of people, one is the knowledgeable citizens, the other is labourers without enough knowledge . The part of citizen is composed of three classes: Rich Class, Middle Class and Poor Class. The Middle Class is the most elite and stable class. The government should be managed by the Middle Class.

In the Middle Age, Aurelius Augustinus354-430)presented Historical Theology. He emphasized the absolute authority of God

During the period of Enlightenment Movement , Machiavelli (1469—1527) criticized Historical Theology. Based on the historical facts of experiences and lessons , he presented the theory that the governance of a country should mainly depend on Law and Military.

In 17th century , British philosopher John Locke(1632-1704)presented his opinions that Liberty ,Equity and Property ownership are the Natural Right of Man .

In 18th century French philosopher Charles Montesquieu (1689-1755) ,in his famous work The Spirit of Law, presented the Theory of Law and Theory of Separation of Three Powers.

French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778),in his famous work The Social Contract and Discourse pointed out that the essence of country is a social contract between people and government..

The great synthesizer of Recent West philosopher was Immanuel Kant(1724-1804)and Friedrich Hegel(1770-1831).

Kant presented his opinion that the basic contradiction in Human history was the confrontation and unity of Man's Sociality and Non-sociality. He took Liberty as the highest principle of Man's Practical Reason, and the basic spirit of Liberty and Law is united. As to Man's future ,he had an optimistic prediction that Man will be going forward in the direction of endless progress.

Hegel was a Historical Rationalist. He regarded that Reason dominates Man's history. The final goal of Man is Liberty.

Karl Marx (1818-1883)presented his Historical Materialism. The main opinions of him was:① Social existence determines social consciousness②Class struggle is the driving force of historical development..

As to these two theories, we'll discuss in detail in later part of this chapter.

From 20th century , there appeared many new theories in Historical philosophy :

  1. Non rationalism: Arthur Schopenhauer,(1788—1860)presented his opinion that history was the product of Man' s will

  2. Frankfurt School: Herbert Marcuse(1898-1979)presented that Desire for Love is the highest ideal of Human civilization. The ideal society is the Generalization of Man's desire of Love

Jürgen Habermas (1929-)presented the theory of Social intercourse . He regarded that the theory of Karl Marx that only emphasized Man's production relation is not complete. It should be instead by Man's intercourse activities

  3. Structuralism: Louis Althusser (1918-1990 )presented the opinion that Hegel's theory of Mono Factor Causation of History should be instead by the theory of Structural Factor Causation, which means that history was determined by many factors

④Historical Non-determinism:Karl Popper(1902-1994)regarded that history science is different from natural science . History has the character of high complexity and is impossible to be predicted

In summary, there are three main problems in history philosophy:

  1. Are there some rules in the development of history?

  2. What is the motive force of history?

  3. Is there certain goal of Man's history?

These three problems will be discussed below..

2. Rules of Historical development

Are there rules in historical development? To answer this question, the only way is to observe history itself and to search certain rules which could explain completely the long and short term of various historical changes. The following are the discussions in several aspects

  1. Basic function of Economics and Sciences

Even though Western philosophers had many criticism at theories of Karl Marx .But some Western philosophers,(as Joseph Schumpeter(1883-1950), Louis Althusser (1918~1990 ),etc affirmed the contribution of Karl Marx on his Historical Materialism

In Marx's book  A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (), he wrote:

Social Ideology does not determines social existence, In opposite, social existence determines social Ideology

The summation of production relations constitute social economic structure which forms the realistic base of superstructure , as law, politics and certain social Ideology.

In the period of Marx, he did not emphasize the function of science and technology. But after Marx, especially since 20th century, science and technology have playing more and more important rules in the progress of production.

In 80th of 20 century , Deng Xiaoping(邓小平) presented a opinion: science and technology is the first productive force (or productivity).

Economy and science/technology have been playing the decisive function. This opinion conforms to the facts in long period of human history.

Man got the ability to create stone tools and then Man began the original society .Man got the ability to create iron tools and have extra products, then Man entered the slave society or feudal society (some historian regarded that China did not have a period of slave society). Man began to invent machine and large scale production became possible, then Man entered the capitalist society.

The change of production mode has led on the change of the politics and civilizations, etc.

Since 20th century, science/technology has been developing very rapidly. The world economy has been also developing rapidly. At the same time, the world politics and civilization have been changing deeply.

Deng Xiaoping was not a philosopher .But " Science and technology is the first productive force" is a philosophic problem .

A question is: Science/technology belongs to economic basis , or to superstructure?

If in the early period of human being, the utilizations of stone or iron were closely related with labour and production (belonging to economic structure, that Marx emphasized ) . But in modern period, the new discovery or progress in science/technology all came from the wisdom and effort of individual scientists

Electricity was the most important productive power since 19th century, But the decisive factor for Man to be able to use electricity was the discovery of Law of electromagnetic induction by British physicist Michael Faraday(1791-1867). This was an achievement of scientific research.

Computer is the most important scientific progress in 20th century.

The principle of the modern computer was first described by British mathematician and pioneering computer scientist Alan Turing(1912-1954).The earliest computer was designed in 1938 by American scientist working in the United States Navy .

Discovery of computer changed the whole economic basis of the world. Man has been going from industrialized period into a information period

The above facts show that, apparently, science/technology belongs to the superstructure. Science could not be separated from education. Many scientific achievements come from universities. Education certainly belongs to superstructure.

At the same time, as Deng Xiaoping said, science and technology is the first productive force, which is the main factor of productive form. From this point of view, science/technology also belongs to economic basis of a society.

So, in modern period , science/technology combines the superstructure and economic basis together.

It could not be said (as Marx 's theory told us ) that the economic basis determines the superstructure. Superstructure also determines economic basis. Superstructure and economic basis are mutual determinative. They are functioning synthetically.

The following picture shows the mutual or synthetic relations between different factors in human society.

Science—Technology—

Education

Civilization - ideology

Politics

Fig 1 Relations between different factors in a society

  2. Determinative function of Politics

According Marx's theory, the economic structure forms the base of superstructure, including politics and ideology.

But historical facts show that, in many cases , politics had no direct relation with economic structure

Following are some examples:

  1. Marx predicted that while capitalist productivity reached a high level , its production relation will become the limitation of productivity, then lead proletarian revolution and the society will come to socialism.

But the historical fact was: the country that realized the success of proletarian revolution was Russian, the most backward country of capitalism,

In the late period of 20th century , the economy of Soviet Union (SU) reached a quite high level ,both industry and agriculture were in large scale. According Marx's theory, socialist production form should be suitable to such level of production. But , due to policy mistakes of SU's ruling party in a long period, in 1991, the disintegration of the Soviet Union happened

The main reason of disintegration of the Soviet Union is politics. Politics (not Economics) played a determinative function .

  2. Before 1949, the economic level of China was even more backward than Russia. It was a Semi feudal society. The percentage of capitalist industry in whole national economy was below 10%. According to the theory of Marx, Capitalism must be a suitable production mode. But after 1949, the ruling party has been CCP (Chinese Communist Party), who takes Socialism (not Capitalism ) as his political and economic goals. This fact is difficult to be explained by economic factor. It only can be explained by political factors. The political policies of CCP, as armed struggle route, the strategy of using the rural areas to encircle the cities, etc. played the determinative function.

(3) From 1949 to 1976(end of Cultural Revolution), the economic development was very slow. Living standard of people was quite low. After Cultural Revolution, especially after 80th years, economics of China has been developing rapidly. In only 20 years, China becomes one of the largest economic entities in the world. How to explain this fact? People will recognize that the political policy of reform and open up has been playing the determinative function.

3) Leading function of Ideology and Culture

In human history, there were many facts showing the determinative function of ideology and culture.

  1. Confucianism and China's ancient feudal society

From Wudi (武帝) of Han dynasty, the emperors in different dynasties all took Confucianism as the orthodox ideology., The thought of Confucius and Mencius were very suitable for consolidation of feudal society and maintenance of feudal order. But the period of Confucius was 551-479 BC. The period of Mencius was 372-289 BC. And the period of Wudi was 156-87 BC, about 400 years later than Confucius and about 200 years later than Mencius.

So , Confucianism played a leading function in consolidation and development of Chinese ancient feudal society.

  2. European Enlightenment Movement and Western Capitalism

Friedrich _Engels_ ,(1820-1895)said : The end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern capitalism had a great man as its mark, who was Italian poet Dante(1265-1321) in 13-14 century。

Dante was a representative person of Enlightenment Movement. The great geographic discovery was in 15-16 century. Watt invented the first steam engine in 1769 and then began the industrial revolution in England,400 yeas later than Enlightenment Movement.

So , Enlightenment movement played leading function of development of capitalism .

  3. May 4th Movement and Chinese Revolution

In 1911, ROC (Republic of China) was established. The Qing dynasty was overthrown. But all ideology, civilization and social customs had not been changed. In 1919 the May 4th Movement of New Civilization introduced comprehensively Western thinking and civilization, especial the ideas of Science and Democracy. All the leaders of CCP (China Communist Party) were the progressive young men growing in the May 4th Movement, as Mao Zedong , Zhou Enlai , Deng Xiaopin , etc. It is recognized that May 4th Movement was the real beginning of modern China.

This is a good example showing the leading function of ideology and civilization in the development of history.

  3. Synthetic function of Multi-factors in Historical Development

In summary, the mechanism in historical development is the synthetic function of multi-factors: Science/technology, Economics, politics, ideology , civilization, etc. Science/technology and economic plays the basic function. Politics plays the determinative function, and ideology and civilization plays the leading function.

From the view of long period of history, science /technology and economics are more important factors.

From the view of short period of history, politics is the most important factor

From the view of changes of history, ideology and civilization are the most important factor.

Economic basis and superstructure are mutual restrictive and mutual promotive. Social existence and social ideology are also mutual restrictive and mutual promotive.

These are the approximate rules in historical development

  2. Motive Power in Historical Development

This section discusses mainly the theory of Class Struggle, since this theory had great influence upon Socialist countries ,as USSR , China ,etc.

Theory of Class Struggle was not presented firstly by Karl Marx. During the period of French Revolution ,some historians, as Augustin Thierry(1795~1856), François Guizot(1787-1874), Adol-phe Thiers(1797—1877),had explained history by the idea of Class Struggle..

But Karl Marx was the scholar who presented the theory that Class Struggle is the basic motive power of human historical development.

In The Communist Manifesto ,he wrote:

The history of all hitherto existing society (b) is the history of class struggles

He regarded that Class Struggle is the direct motive power of historical development.

Mao Zedong accepted this theory completely. He wrote:

In Class Struggle, some classes got success, some classes were destroyed. This is history. This is the history of civilization in some thousands years.

While talking on Chinese history, he wrote:

In China's feudal society, only the class struggle of peasants, peasant uprising and peasant war, were the real motive force of historical development (Selections of Mao Zedong)

The theory of Class Struggle had great influence upon modern China. All persons who had lived in 50-70th years of 20 century experienced the influence of this theory. After PRC (People's Republic of China) established in 1949, there were a series of political movements : counter revolutionary movement, movement against three evils (corruption, waste and bureaucracy(1951-52), movement against five evils(bribery, tax evasion, steal and cheat the state property, Jerry- built, theft of state economic Information), the movement for elimination of counter revolutionary , the movements for criticizing Hu Shi ( 胡适) and Hu Feng (胡风),anti-rightist movement, etc . Finally political movement came to its peak: the Cultural Revolution.

Only in the anti-rightist movement , more than 500 thousand intellectuals were classified as rightists. Among them, there were leaders of CCP(Chinese Communist Party), good friends of ruling party, famous writers ,natural and social scientists ,and many teachers of middle and primary schools. This movement was a serious attack upon all intellectuals in China. The impact is not completely eliminated even today.

The Cultural Revolution happened in 1966-1976 was a huge catastrophe of modern China, It made the death of many persons and also the destruction of many families. It also caused a great historical backward of modern China.

All those facts were related to the theory of Class Struggle. All those movements were carried on according the theory of Class Struggle.

So it is necessary to discuss whether the theory of Class Struggle conforms the truth of history or not.

The discussions are as below:

1) In View of Historical Theory

Class struggle ,on doubt ,belongs to the field of Politics..So it is a part of superstructure.According to the theory of Karl Marx , superstructure is determined by economic basis . And according to he theory of Synthetic function of Multi-factors in historical development mentioned above. Class Struggle is impossible to be the only or main power of historical development. Science/technology , economics ,political reform or improvement , ideology ,civilization ,etc ,all these factors are motive power of historical development. The importance of them is not less than Class Struggle.

Under certain condition, Class Struggle may be one of motive powers of historical development. But it is not the only, and also not the main motive power of history

  3. In view of background of the theory of Class Struggle

Karl Marx (1818-1883)and Friedrich _Engels_ ,(1820-1895),both live in 19th century, from the Netherlands revolution (1566—1609),up to 19th century, there were many times of class struggle, including struggle between bourgeoisie class and aristocratic class, class struggle bêtween proletariat class and bourgeoisie class. Not only Karl Marx , many other historians pointed out the fact of class struggle. This was the special background of the theory of class struggle.

But even in the period mentioned above , the historical development was not only class struggle, rapid progression of science /technology , raid promotion of economic productivity , continuous improvement of politic system , all are great motive power of historical development in that period .

3)In view of world history

As to the statement of Karl Marx: The history of all hitherto existing society (b) is the history of class struggles. Engels had pointed out that this statement is not suitable for the period of human original society.

After the period of original society , up to today ,the situations of human history have been very complex. There were many various struggles.

There were struggles between city-states ,as Peloponnesian War in ancient Greece, which was the war between two states : Athen and Sparta .

There were struggles between different nations, as in 4th century the struggle between Germanic people and Italian people.

There were struggles between different religions ,as in 11th century , the Christian Church launched a crusade war against Muslims of Islam religion .

There were struggle between the imperialism and the independent countries , as the Opium War between Britain and China in 19th century and Chinese Anti-Japan War .in 1931-1945

There were struggles between different countries, as the first World War in 1914-1918.

There were stuggles between Fascism and international and Anti- Fascism countries as the second World War in 1939-1945.

Some struggles did related to class struggle, but many struggles did not . In World War II , countries of one side were Germany , Italy ,Japan , They may be said to be ruled by Bourgeois class . Countries of the other side, as USA , Britain ,etc. may be said to be ruled by Bourgeois class. But USSR was said to be ruled by Proletarian class. So apparently, it was not a struggle of classes.

The history after World War II ,up to today , was also difficult to explain using the theory of Class Struggle. As to the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the main reason was internal factors. You cannot not say that it was the success or fail of certain classes.

Let us look at the history of USA, in more than 200 years , USA has been getting great progress in economy, scientific/technology and political improvement . All those achievements are not the result of Class Struggle.

In summary, I don't deny that Class Struggle played a certain function in history. But it is not reasonable to explain all the historical facts by the theory of Class Struggle.

A more reasonable conclusion is: in the short time of drastic changes in the political system of a country , Class Struggle may play a important function . But in the long period of historical development, especially in the normal and stable period , the synthetic function of progresses in science , technology , economics ,political reform and civilization plays the most important role.

  4. In View of Chinese Historical Development

Let us now review the History of China. In more than 2000 years ,China has experienced many dynasties: Xia(夏) , Shang(商),Zhou(周), Period of Spring and Autumn (春秋时期),Period of War States(战国时期) , Qin(秦) ,Han(汉) , Wei(魏) ,Jin(晋) ,Period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties(南北朝),Sui(隋) ,Tang(唐) ,Five Dynasties(五代),Song(宋) ,Yuan(元),Ming(明) ,Qing(清) , ROC(Republic of China) and PRC (People's Republic of China).

In China's history , how to evaluate the statement of Mao Zedong :

In China's feudal society, only the class struggle of peasants, peasant uprising and peasant war were the real motive force of historical development.

Generally, in the early period of a new dynasty, the emperors would have more policies beneficial to people. But due to the Hereditary system of the rulers, the later emperors were often muddleheaded or disable. Owing to the system of Ruling of Man , instead of Ruling of Law the officers must be corrupt . Exploitation of people must be increasing. People's resentment must be deepening. All these would increase the inner contradiction of the ruling class and the peasant rebellion.

Peasant movement had certain function in the change of dynasties,. But the real situations of changes of dynasties were qauite complex. In most cases , it was caused by the inner struggle in the ruling class. The establishers of new dynasties (as the first emperors of Qin , Han ,Sui ,Tang ,Song ,Ming) were nobles ,military officers or regional officers . The establishment of Yuan and Qing dynasties were the results of national struggles. The new rulers often utilized the peasant movement as their help .

So the changes of dynasties were usually the synthetic results of inner contradiction in the ruling groups and also the help of peasant movements.

Only depending on peasant movement , it was impossible to establish a new dynasty. From the view point of historical progress , the contribution of Li Zicheng (李自成, a leader of peasant movement )was far behind the Emperor of Qing dynasty ,Kuangxi (康熙) . The contribution of Hong Xiuquan(洪秀全, a leader of peasant movement ) was far behind Ceng Guofan (曾国藩, a high officer who pushed forward the Westernization Movement in China in Qing dynasty ) .

It should be mentioned that peasant movement often carried great destruction to the society and the people.

So , we may have a suitable evaluation of peasant movement in China's history . But it is not correct to have a high evaluation of those movements

In more than 2000 years of China's history. There were great progress and achievements of civilization. Ancient China produced many famous book on agriculture and medicine.

On agriculture, there were The most famous ones were :<Lv's Spring and Autumn>(《吕氏春秋》) in Qin Dynasty.<Book of Fansheng>(《氾胜之书>》)in West Han Dynasty,<Important Technologies for Serving People>(《齐民要术》)in North Wei Dynasty,<Agricultural Book of Chen Fu>(《陈旉农书》)in South Song Dynasty,<Complete book of agriculture>(《农政全书》)in Ming Dynasty etc

On medicine , there were < Shen Nong's herbal classic>(《神农本草经》),< Huangdi's Internal Classic> (《黄帝内经》) in Pre-Qin Perod ,< Treatise on febrile and miscellaneous diseases《(伤寒杂病论》)in Han Dynasty,< Valuable Prescriptions> (《千金方》)in Tang Dynasty,<Pulse Classic>(《脉经》)<A-B Classic of acupuncture and Moxibustion> (《针灸甲乙经》),< Compendium of Materia Medica>(《本草纲目》)in Ming Dynasty etc .

On China's ancient literature , there were Book of Poetry (诗经),Proses in Han dynasty, Poetries in Tang and Song dynasty , singing drama in Yuan dynasty , novels in Ming and Qing dynasties All of those literature achievements attained the worldwide high level .

These civilizational achievements were an very important part of China's history. But they had no relation with peasant movement.

The establishment of PRC was the success of revolution. But after the establishment of a new country, the country should enter into a peaceful period of construction. The country should be ruled of Law . But the leader took a incorrect policy to carry on a series of Class Struggle ,including Cultural Revolution , finally brought a great disaster to modern China.

In summary, from many facts in Chinese and World history , it should be said that Class Struggle is the main motive power of historical development . The motive powers of history are the synthetic function of the progress of science/technology .development of economics, reform and improvement of politics and achievements of civilizations .

4, Goal of Human History

Is there a certain goal of human historical development? This is also a problem argued in historical philosophy.

As to the goal of human history, in Western philosophy, there were some different theories:

  1. Kant's theory of Historical Improvement

Kant regarded that Human being will be going on I the direction of continuous improvement..

  2. Hegel's theory of End of History

Hegel regarded that the German world is the end of human history.

  3. Marx's Theory of Communism

Marx regarded that the course of human history is: Original society →Slavery society →Feudal society →Capitalist society →Socialist society→Communist society

Communist society is the final goal of human being.

  4. Popper's Theory of Historical Unpredictability

Modern British philosophy Karl Popper(1902-1994)regarded that due to the high complexity of human history ,It is impossible to predict the future of human history.

The theory of Hegel and Marx may be said as Historical determinism , which means that there is objective rules and certain goal of human history

The theory of Popper may be said as Historical indeterminism, which means that there is no certain final goal oh human history.

Based on the facts from ancient to modern human history, a more reasonable view may be the synthesis of Historical determinism and Historical indeterminism. It means that human history will be developing in the direction of endless improvement But the road of development is unpredictable. This view is close to Kant's theory

In view of reasonable analysis ,from birth of human being .Man had the Instinct to live and to improve his living condition. Man had the nature of pursuing four basic goals: Truth ,Good ,Beauty and Love , This is the essence of Man ,which will not be changed . Due to Man's essence, Man must continuously improve the relation between Man and Nature and improve the relation between Men .Under various political systems in different counties, all Men will be certainly going on in the direction of more democracy ,liberty ,equity and happiness. So the future of human being will be certainly in the direction of endless improvement .

In view of Man's real history ,began with the period that reminded in the records of archaeological objects and written texts of history . In the fields of science and technology, economic , politics ,civilizations ,etc. although there were many wars and disasters ,but Man has been developing in the direction of improvement continuously .

But, what is the real ways of human future development? Is it as some western scholar predicted that all countries will be going on in the direction of Capitalism? Or, as Karl Marx predicted that all countries will be going on in the direction of Communism? Up to now, it is unpredictable. It is also not necessary to be predicted.

As to the direction and goals of Man' s historical development, based on human nature, it may be said that Man must be going on in the direction of more perfect Synthesis of Truth ,Good, Beauty and Love.

Truth : Man will be continuously raise his level of wisdom, Man will continuously get progress in various fields of science. Man will have endless breakthroughs in cognizing structure and movement of matter, in exploration the secret of Cosmos , in prevention and cure of diseases, etc.

Good: Man will eliminate poverty worldwide and attain universal rich and happiness. Man will have a peaceful mutual respect and cooperation between multi- nations, multi- religions and multi-civilizations. Man will finally eliminate war. All Men will play their liberal will. Those common value ,as Democracy ,Liberty ,Equity ,Rule of law , Harmony, etc. will be popularized worldwide.

Beauty: Man will protect all elite civilizational traditions, Man will protect and build a more beautiful ans sustainable earth. Man will create more elite arts , as literature, music , painting ,architecture, movie ,drama ,etc.

Love: Man will realize comprehensively the Love for oneself , Love for lovers ,Love for kids , Love for friends Love for society ,Love for one's mother-country .Love for all human being . The sunshine of Love will sprinkle the whole earth

According to the synthetic view of Historical determinism and Historical indeterminism mentioned above, we believe the great goal Man will certainly be realized ,but when and how to realize it , up to now, it is impossible to predict.

Chapter 10 How is Contemporary World developing?

This chapter will use the thinking of Synthesis philosophy to analysis some important problems in contemporary development of the world.

  1. Synthesis of multi-civilization of the world

There are more than 2000 nations in contemporary world. Among them, there are seven nations that have more than 100 million population: Chinese, Indian, American, Bangladesh, Russians, Brazilians, Japanese, There are 65 nations that have more than 10 million population. There are 305 nations that have more than 1 million population.

Civilization is the compound form of social ideology, including religion, morality, philosophic thinking, education, political system, art and literature, etc. Same civilization may involve many nations, So, the extent of civilization is broader than that of nation. For example, French, British (Anglo-Saxon), German are not same nation , but their civilization all belong to the Western civilization.

According to the statement of famous American scholar , Samuel Huntington , the world civilization includes 8 main types : Hindu civilization, Islamic civilization, Japanese civilization, Orthodox civilization, Chinese (Confucian )civilization, Western civilization, Africa civilization and Latin American civilization.

Accompanying the communication between different nations, there must be the communication and fusion of different civilizations, which usually pushed forward the progress of human civilization. Some important fusions of multi-civilizations were as follows:

  1. 3th century BC, Crusade of Alexander the Great carried the fusion of Greek civilization, Egypt civilization and Persian and other oriental civilization. This fusion made the world to know the great ancient Greek civilization, and also made the world to accept the Arabic numerals. .

(2)Greek civilization and Rome civilization both belong to Indo European culture. Judaism, Christianity, Islam, all belong to the Semitic culture. In 2-3th century AD, The Rome rulers accepted Christianity as the official religion, and then the great fusion of Indo European culture and Semitic culture were formed, which became the dominant culture of the West.

(3)In the period of East Han dynasty (1-2th AD), Buddhism which belonged to Indo European culture began to come to China. Gradually , Buddhism fused with Daoism and philosophy of Lao Zi (老子)and Zhuang Zi (庄子) and formed Chinese Buddhism—the Chan Sect (禅宗)。Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming dynasty (宋明理学) was the fusion of Confucianism and Buddhism, It has great influence upon the cultures in Japan , Korea and other South East countries in Asia.

(4)In 18-20th centuries, the Western culture, through Colonialism and missionary activities, had conflict and also fusion with cultures in different countries, forming a new great fusion of civilization worldwide. .

The Pluralism of civilization existed in the past history and will exist in the long period of future. The fusion of different civilization has been and will be pushing forward the progress of human being.

It should be recognized that in the Pluralism of civilization, there exists the difference of progress and backwardness. For example, Science is more advanced than Superstition, Democracy is more advanced than Autocracy, and Liberty is more progressive than Slavery. Began on the European Enlightenment movement ,those advanced idea of Science ,Democracy ,Liberty , Human Right ,Rule of Law ,Humanity, etc. undoubtedly are the dominant progressive direction of human culture. Those advanced culture should be applied not only in the Western countries, but also in all countries in the world. Why the May 4th Movement in 1919 are regarded as the beginning of modern China? Since it introduce Science and Democracy, these two important advanced ideas into China. Today, in the period of Reform and Open up of China, we should continue to carry forward the those progressive ideas of Science, Democracy, Liberty, Equity, Human Right , Rule of Law ,etc.

Although many advanced ideas came from the West, but we need to accept all elite culture from other civilizations in the world. In my opinion, there were many elite ideas in ancient Chinese culture, that are worthy to be accepted in the world advanced culture. These are: the philosophic thinking of " Harmony but not the same", the Humanity thinking of "Kindheartedness is loving men ", The social moral thinking of "Do not do to others what you do not wish yourself " ,etc. These thinking are valuable for all people in the world.

  2. Synthesis of North and South Economy

After World War II, The world has been apparently divided into two parts: Developed countries ( North world) and Developing countries(South World )

Developed countries located in Europe, North America, Australia Japan. Developing countries located in Asia, Africa , Latin America.

Developing countries occupied 2/3 of the world land and 3/4 of world population. The economic level and people's living standard of developing countries apparently lags behind developed countries.

The formation of these two groups of countries was not due to geographic and resource conditions. China and India both have vast land and rich resources. It was also not due to people's intelligence and diligence. Chinese young students often get study records better than local students in American and European universities.

The main reason of the formation of these two groups of countries is: in 17-19 centuries, European and American countries implemented Industrial revolution and Capitalist system much earlier than the developing countries. They adopted the policy of imperialism, invaded countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America and forced those countries to become their colony or semi-colony. They plundered the material and human resources from their colonies and semi-colonies. These invading and plundering severely suppressed the economic development of these colonial countries.

The invading and plundering of the developed countries had made certain progress of the world economy. But it was the inglorious history of the world.

After World War II, through continuous struggles of people in the colonial countries, they obtained independence one after another. But due to the long period of being invaded and plundered, their economic level lag behind apparently those developed countries comprehensively.

Some West scholars pointed out that developed countries have monopoly advantage in five aspects: science/technology, finance, global natural resources, media communication and weapons of mass destruction.

After the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991, a Western scholar said: History comes to the end.

If you see the severe imbalance between developed countries and developing countries, could you agree that human history has already come to the end?

History comes to today; the world economy is appearing a new pattern. The developed countries, including USA, European countries, Japan, etc., all appear a trend of economic atrophy. Today, even the living level of people in developed countries is higher than people in developing countries, but there still exist comprehensively inequality between i rich and poor. The market in developed countries itself in not broad enough to accommodate the great productivity of those big enterprises in developed countries. They must depend on the broad market of developing countries.

So in contemporary world, only the economic prosperities of developing countries could rescue the economic development of developed countries.

This is the reason that all developed countries are paying much attention to the huge market of China, India and other developing countries.

Of course, the economic prosperities of developing countries is also a hard task. Developing countries could get limited help from developed countries, but mainly, they should depend on their own effort.

In the recent more than 30 years, the economic development of China and India have given great encouragement and also valuable experience to all other developing countries.

In summary, in 21th century, the joint and synthetic economic development of the developed (the North) counties and the developing (the South) countries will be the dominant trend of world economy.

  3. Synthesis of Capitalism and Socialism

Synthesis of Capitalism and Socialism is not a problem of only China. It is a global problem.

Austria philosopher Joseph Schumpeter(1883-1950) was a important representative of modern Western economics .In his famous book Capitalism and Socialism and Democracy, he had clear statement on this problem. He was not a Marxian, but he had deep research on Marxism.

He had clear answers to the following problems:

  1. Could Capitalism exist continuously?

His answer was: No, I do not regard that Capitalism could exist continuously. Of course, his meaning is that if Capitalism does not reform, it could not exist continuously.

② Could Socialism carry on ?

His answer was: Yes, Socialism could carry on. Of course, the Socialism he mentioned was not the type of the Soviet Union which he called Immature Socialism. He certainly against the highly controlled economic system of the Soviet Union. The Socialism what he called is Socialism under Mature condition, which is the Socialist policies in Western countries.

Those Socialist policies include Macro-economic regulation. progressive income tax system, antimonopoly law of large enterprises., the diversification of investment structure of shareholding system, national social security system, people 's democracy and the popularization of education, etc. All these policies get great success in Western countries.

Let us see China. In 50-70th years of 20 century ,China implemented highly centralized management of the economic system of the Soviet Union's style, the economic development had been very slow. Especially people's living standard remained at a very low level. Not only comparing with Western countries, there was huge gap. Even comparing with Four Small Dragons( Taiwan region , Hong Kong region ,South Korea and Singapore, there was apparent gap.

Since 1979, China has been implementing the Reform and Open up policies presented by Deng Xiaoping. The essence of the new policies is to reform the old and rigid economic system and adopt the beneficial factors of Capitalism .Someone were afraid to talk on Capitalism. Deng Xiaoping presented the idea of "not to argue",which opened the road to adopt Capitalism factors in Socialist economics

The practice in recent more than 30 years has proved that the thinking of Deng Xiaoping is correct. Under the guidance of his thinking, China's economy has been getting great success.

West countries introduced socialist factors and China introduced Capitalist factors, both obtained great success. This fact shows that synthesis of Capitalism and Socialism is a common developing trend of the world.

Of course, Synthesis is not equal to Sameness. Western countries will insisted on their Capitalist system but adopt some Socialist factors. China will insist on its Socialist system, but adopts some Capitalist factor.

There is a thought in China and in the world: China is better to be a Capitalist country.

In view of history, Socialism was an advanced thinking born in Capitalist society. Capitalism began on 16-17th century in West Europe. Early Capitalism had been showing great vitality in economic development. But at the same time, it also showed serious exploitation of workers and also great inequality between rich and poor. Then there appeared the Socialist theories. The Soviet Union (SU) was the first Socialist country. But due to the misunderstanding of Socialism, economic development of SU was far behind the Western Capitalist countries.

In the same time, the countries in North Europe implemented the policy of Democratic Socialism. They have been getting noticeable success.

According the experiences of North European countries and China after 1979, Socialist country should adopt the principle of Market economy , should apply the principle of Democracy and Rule of Law, and should paid fully attention to people's liberty...

As to the problem of whether china should be a capitalist country, in the author's opinion, we should make research in China's special national conditions. China is a developing country of more than 1.3 billion population; most of them have a low living standard. The regional difference is great. Under these conditions, a pure capitalist system may cause serious inequality between rich and poor and political instability.

A socialist country with China's own characters may be the optimum direction of China. Of course, China should study all beneficial experiences from Western countries, should adopt the principle of market economics and principles of Democracy and Rule of Law. China should pay high attention to people's liberty and human rights.

4) Synthesis of Man and Nature.

In contemporary period, the most serious problem is not war , but environments and resources

The main problems of human environments and resources are as follows:

  1. Warming of climate

Accompanying rapid development of global industrialization the content of CO2 in atmosphere is increasing apparently. Before industrialization, concentration of CO2 in atmosphere was about 275 ppmv. It was 270-285 ppmv in 1870-1880, 300 ppmv in 1900. In 1990, it raised to 353 ppmv. In other word, it raised 28% within 2 centuries. The increase of concentration of Greenhouse gases, as CO2,, CH4 (Methane) N2O(Nitrous Oxide) and CFC8 (Chlorofluorocarbons ) is causing the climatic warming of whole world . Climatic warming has exacerbated the drought and flood disaster and also plant diseases and insect pests, which are serious threat to agricultural production. Climatic warming has raised the sea level, flooded coastal lowland, causing serious threat to seashore cities. Climatic warming destroys Ozone layer of atmosphere, increases Ultraviolet rays, which is great threat to human health

  2. Pollution of soil and acceleration of desertification.

The fertility of soil of agricultural land in 110 countries has been decreasing. Due to excessive cultivation of arable land and over grazing of pastures, the global soil resources are losing and desertification are accelerating

  3. Air pollution

Problem of acidic rain exists not only in Europe and North America, but also in many developing countries. Acidic rain is harmful to crops, fruits, forestry, etc. In recent years, the problem of fog and haze is becoming a serious problem in many cities of China

(4) Shortage of water resources

. The water resources has not increased, but water consumption has been increasing rapidly. From 1900 to 1995, the water consumption increased 6 times. There are serious pollutions of fresh water resources. In developing countries, 80-90 % of human diseases relate with water pollution.

  5. Decrease of Forest area

Due to human activities, the original forest area has decreased from 5.5 billion hectares to 2.8 billion hectares. The decrease of forest area caused serious soil erosion and drought and flooding disasters.

(6) The disappearance of biological diversity

Biological diversity is the substantial basis of human existence. Man obtained all food and Industrial raw materials from biological diversity. According to researches, there were 3 million biological species on the earth, but now it only remains 1.5 million.

Today, Man has entered the Nuclear age. Due to the restriction of nuclear weapon itself, world war is not the biggest threat to human being. But the great destruction of natural resources is becoming the main threat to human existence

Recently, ecologists presented the theory of Ecological Integrity. Its kernel thinking is : Man should take the integral interest of whole world ecology as his highest value, but not only the human interest .

The author regards that this is a breakthrough oh human philosophic thinking. From the ancient age, human being always took Man himself as the centre of the world and not considered enough the integral interest of the whole earth. But the countless facts shows that if Man does not consider the integral interest of the earth, finally, Man would destroy his own future.

So Man needs to have the thinking of Synthesis of Man and Nature, Synthesis of Man's interest and the integral interest of the earth. Only this thinking could help Man to have a harmonious, sustainable and bright future.

Main References

  1. Chinese Philosophy and History

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Four Books and Five Classics(四书五经),Shenyang Press,1996

Book of Changes(易经) ,Shanxi Ancient Works Press,1999

Lao Zi (老子),Liaoning National Press,1996

The Analects of Confucius(论语),Shandong Friendship Press,1988

Mo Zi(墨子),Shanghai Ancient Works Press,1995

Zhuang Zi(庄子),Jilin Literature and History Press,2004

Mencius(孟子),Bashu Book.Co.1996

Xun Zi(荀子),Yue Lu Book Co.,1990

Han Feizi(韩非子),Yuanfang Press,2004

Chunqiu Fanlu(春秋繁露),Dong Zhongsu(董仲舒), China Economy Press,2002

Lun Heng(论衡),Wang Chong(王充),Guizhou People Oress,1993

Wang Bi Collection(王弼集校释),China Book Co.1987

Bao Puzi(抱朴子内篇),Ge Hong,China Social Scenece Press,1995

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Liu Yixi Collection (刘禹锡全集),Shanxi Ancient Works Press,,2000

Zhengmong(正蒙), Zhang Zai(张载), Shanghai Ancient Works Press,2000

Two Cheng Collection(二程全集).China Book Co.1981

Lu Jiuyuan Collection(陆九渊全集),China Book Co.1980

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Huang Zhongxi Collection(黄宗羲全集) ,Zhejiang Ancient Works Press,2002

Dai Zheng Collection(戴震全集) , Shanghai Ancient Works Press,,1980

Introdution of Ancient Chinese Literatures, Zhang Taiyan(章太炎), Shanghai Ancient Works Press,1997

Liang Qichao Collection(梁启超全集), Baihua Literature and art Press.2002

Sun Zhongshan Collection(孙中山全集) , Unification Press,1997

Duxiu Collection(独秀文存),Chen Duxiu,Anhui Press,1987

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Liang Suming Collection(梁漱溟全集),Qunyan Press,1993

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Outline of Chinese Philosophy(中国哲学史大纲),Hu Shi,East Press,2004

New Edition of History of Chinese Philosophy(中国哲学史新编),Feng Youlan(冯友兰) ,People Press,1998

History of Chinese Philosophy(中国哲学史), Liu Wenying(刘文英), Nankai Press.2002

New Edition of History of Chinese Philosophy(新编中国哲学史), Lao Siguang(劳思光) ., Guangxi Normal University Press,2005

Wisdom of China(中国的智慧),Zhang Dainian(张岱年) ,Shanghai People Press,1999

Chinese Modern philosophy(中国现代哲学),Zhang Wenru(张文儒),Beijing University Press,2001

Synthetic Creativity(综合创新),Study of Zhang Dainian(张岱年学记),Liu Fubei(刘鄂培),Qinghua University Press,2002

Brief History of China(简明中国通史), Lv Zhenyu(吕振羽),People Press,1955

2)Chinese Classic Books in English

Book of Changes , Translated by Wand Rongpei.etc Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2007

The Books of Tao and Teh, Translated by Gu Zhengkun,China Translation Co,2007

The Discourses and Sayings of Confucius ,Translated by Gu Hongming. Yunnan People Press,2011

Chuang Tzi, Translated by Feng Youlan ,Foreign LanguageTeaching and Reserch Press,2012

The Great Learning, Translated byJames Legge, Foreign LanguageTeaching and Reserch Press,2011

The Doctrine of The Mean , Translated byJames Legge, Foreign LanguageTeaching and Reserch Press,2011

Mo Zi Says,Edited by Cai Xiqing, Xinolingua Press,2011

The Works of Mencius, Translated byJames Legge, Foreign LanguageTeaching and Reserch Press,2011

Xun Zi Says , Edited by Cai Xiqing, Xinolingua Press,2012

A Short History of Chinese Philosophy, Feng Youlan ,Jiangsu Literiture and Art Press,2012

On Contradiction , Mao Zedong, Selections of Mao Zedong,,People Press,1986

On Practice, Mao Zedong, Selection of Mao Zedong, People Press,1986

Confucian Filiality, Gao Wangzhi,CN Times Books Inc.2013

(Referenced in this book with some modification by the author.)

  2. Western Philosophy

1)Books in English (from the webs of Towerbabel, Baidu, Jingdong, etc.)

The Republic ,Plato

Symposium ,PLato

Nicomachean Ethics,Aristotle

Medititaion of First philosophy,Descartes

Leviathan,Hobbes

An Essay Concerning Human Understanding,Locke

# TwoTreatises of Government, Locke

An Enquiry concerning the Principle of Morals ,Hume

A Treatise of Human Nature ,. Hume

The Critique of Pure Reason,Kant_

The Critique of Pratical Reason,Kant_

The Critique of Judgement , Kant

Considerations on Representative Government,Mill

Menifest of the Communist Party,Marx

Talk about the problem of Dialectics,Lenin

The History of Western Philosophy, Russell,Simon & Schuster,1972

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Routledge of History Philosophy,C.C.W.Taylor, translated by Han Dongfei,etc,China People University Press,2003

Text book of History of Philosophy, Wilhelm Windelband, translated by Han Donghui,Commercial Press,1997

A Beief History of Philosophy, Will Durant, translated by Xiao Yao,Chinese Friendship Press,2004,

Collection of Plato, translated by Wang Xiaoyang ,People Press,2003

Metaphysics, Aristotle, translated by Wu shoupeng , Commercial Press,1996

New Tool , Francis Bacon, translated byXu Baokui, Commercial Press,1984

Letters on Philosophy, Voltaire, translated by Gao Daguan ,Shanghai People Press,2002.

The Social Contract, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, translated by He Zhaowu, Commercial Press,2003 Commercial Press,1984

The Phenomenology of Mind , Freiedrich Hegel, translated by He Ling, Commercial Press,1997

Science of Logic , Freiedrich Hegel, translated by Liang Zhixue,People Press,2002

Selection of Marx and Engels,People Press,1975

Collection of Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche,Edied by Liang JIe, Reform Press,1995

# **Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis,** Sigmund Freud, translated by Peng Shen,Shanxi People Press,2001

#

General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology, E.Edmund Husserl, translated by Li Youzheng, Commercial Press,1997

Being and Time , Martin Heidegger, translated by Chen JIaying,Sanlian Book Co.2000

_Existentialism Is a Humanism_ ,Jean-Paul Sartre,translated by Zhou iliang ,Shanghai Literature Translation Press,1988

Collection of Michel Foucault , translated by Pi Xiaozhen,Shanghai Fareast Press,1998

The Protestant Ethic and the spirit of Capitalism , Max Weber, translated by Yu Xiao,Sanlian Book Co.,1987

# Specters of Marx ,Jacques Derrida,. translated by He Yi,China People University Press,1999

Philosophical Apprenticeships, Hans-Georg Gadamer,translated by Xia Zhengping, Shanghai Literature Translation Press,2004

Capitalism ,Socialism and Democracy, Joseph Alois Schumpeter. translated by Wu Liangjian , Commercial Press,2002

History of Western Esthetics, Zhu Guangqian ,People Press,1964

Essentials of Western Contemporary Philosophy, Zhao Dunhua,Beijing University Press,2001

History of Western Philosophy,Edited by Ye Xiushan ,Jiangsu People Press,2004

Moderm Western Philosophy,Liu Fangtong,People Press,1990

  3. Moral Philosophy

Ethic (in English), Baruch de Spinoza,Tower Babel

Basis of Moral Metaphysics, Immanual Kant, translated by Sun Xiaowei ,China Social Science Press,2009

The System of Ethic, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, translated by Liang Zhixue, Commercial Press,2010

TheTheory of Moral Sentiment (in English),Adam Smith, Tower Babel

The Elements of Moral Philosophy,James Rachels, translated by Yang Zhongyuan , China People University Press,2009

Chinese Hostory of Ethic , Cai Yuanpei,Shanghai Ancient Book Press,2005

Theory of Good and Evil, Ni Suxiang,Wuhan University Press,2001

Research on View of Value,Chen Zhanglong,Nanjing Normal University Press,2004

Virtues of Chinese People,edited by Jing Huiming, China People University Press,2006

The History of Western Ethic Thoughts, Song Xuren ,China People University Press,2004

Confucian Filiality(in English), Gao Wangzhi,.CN Times Books,2013

Discussion of Chinese Traditional Moral Philosophy, Qing Daokuan , Unification Press,2009

4.Political Philosophy,

Politics,Aristotle, translated by Wu Shoupeng, Commercial Press,2010

Human Right and Liberty, John Locke, translated by Shi Rui , Tianjing Social Science Press,2011

Metaphysics Principle of Law, Immanual Kant , translated by Shen Suping, Commercial Press,2003

On Liberty, John Stuart Mill , translated by Xu Baokui, Commercial Press,2010

Lectures of the History of Political Philosophy,.John Rawls, translated by Yang Tongjing,China Social Science Press,2007

Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, Joseph A. Schumpeter,translated by Wu Liangjian , Commercial Press,2002

A Theory of Justice, ,.John Rawls, translated by He Huaihong , China Social Science Press,1999

The Rise and Decline of Western Liberalism , Anthony Arblaster, ranslated by Cao Haijun,Liling People Press,2004

History of Western Political Philosophy,Wang Yan ,World Knowledge Press,2010

Politics,Andrew Heywood, translated by Zhang Lipeng ,China People University Press,2006

On Democray of America, Tocqueville, translated by Zhang Xiaoming,,Beijing People Press,2007

History of Western Democracy, Ying Kefu,China Social Scence Press,1997

Chinese Traditional Political Philosophy,Zhou Guitian, et.al.,Hebei People Press,2001

5.Comparison of Chinese and Western Philosophy and Culture

Chinese Philosophy and Western Philosophy, Xiong Shili,Shanghai Book Co.Press,2008

Eastern ans Western Culture and Philosophy,Liang Shuming, Commercial Press,2012

Comparison of Chinese and Western Philosophy,Zhang Zailing,North West University Press,1997

Comparison of Chinese and Western Culture,Xu Xingyan,Beijing University Press,2004

Unity of Heaven and Man and the Seperation of Subject and Object,Ling Keji,Social Science Literature Press,2010

Comparison of Chinese and Western Culture,He Yi, Metallurgical Industry Press,2007

Compound Discussion of Chinese and Western Philosophy,Chen Shiquan ,Shanghai Ancient Works Press,2007

Chinese and Western Philosophy of Life and Death, Feng Fuxiang,Beijing University Press, 2002

6. Works of Sciences and World History

Mathematic Principle of Natural Philosophy, Issac Newton ,translated by Wang Kedie, Shanxi Press,2001

Origin of Species , Charles Darwin, translated by Su Degan ,etc , Shanxi Press,2001

The Descent of Man , Charles Darwin,,translated by Pan GUangdan ,etc ,Commercial Press,2003

New Guide to Science, I.Asimov.translated by Zhu Lan ,etc , Jiangsu Press,1984

The Course of Science, Wu Guosheng, Hunan Science and Technology Press,1995

General Physics, Chen Shouzhu ,etc , People Press,1961

Solar System ,Zhang Shuli ,etc, Meteorology Press, 1999

Breakthrough in Science.Zhao Shuzhi ,etc ,Science Press,1998

The General History of the World, Zhou Yiliang,etc , People Press,1972

Brief History of the World, Historical Department of Beijing University,1974

7. Works of Philosophy of the Author

Essay on Synthesis Philosophy , Gao Liangzhi,China Culture Press,2007

Strolling on Western Philosophy 2nd Edition , Gao Liangzhi,Wuhan University Press,2014

A Brief Discussion on Chinese Philisophy,2nd Edition , Gao Liangzhi,Wuhan University Press,2014

Love Philosophy, Gao Liangzhi,,Zhejiang University Press,2011

Good Philosophy and Common Values, Gao Liangzhi,China Culture Press,2014

Beauty Philosophy, Gao Liangzhi,Wuhan University Press,2014

Does Man have Soul? —Soul Philosophy and Scientic Rational Belief, Gao Liangzhi, Zhejiang University Press,2015

(Other references are noted in the related chapters of this book)

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