 
SOCIAL WORK REASEARCH AND STATISTICS

SYLLABUS AND STUDY MATERIALS)

PROJECT MSW

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WORK

PSG COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE, COIMBATORE

COPYRIGHT BELONGS TO ALL STUDENTS OF SOCIAL WORK DEPARTMENT

(2012 – 2014 BATCH)

COMPILED BY : T.M.SURESH

CONTENTS COMPILED BY : G.SANTHOSH, THIVYA VILASHINI

AND  ALL MSW STUDENTS

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Syllabus

Unit 1

Research

Characteristics Of Research

Types Of Research

The Research Process

Steps In Research Process

Scientific Research

Relevance Of Research In Social Work

Meaning Of Social Work research

Definition

Objectives Of Social Research

Phases Of Social Research

Social Work Research The Process

Scope Of Social Work Research

Goals And Limitations Of Social work Research

Principles

Hypothesis

Unit 2

Types Of Social Research

Research Design

Unit 3

Data Collection

Survey

Interview

Questionnaire

Case Study

Observation

Analysis And Presentation Of Data Analysis Of Data

Experimental Method

 Determining Sample Design

Types Of Samples

Unit 4

Tool For Data Collection (RESEARCH Instruments)

Data Analysis Methods Qualitative Data Analy

Quantitative Data Analysis

Rating Scales

Selecting The Level Of Data

Unit 5

Arithmetic Mean Or Mean

Median

Standard Deviation

Correlation

Karl Pearson' S Coefficient Of Correlation

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SYLLABUS

UNIT I: SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH:

The concept of social research-the process of research in social science - relationship between fact, theory, and research - scientific method-its applicability to social phenomenon - definition, meaning, scope of social work research - basic elements of scientific method - concept hypothesis and problem.

UNIT II: RESERCH DESIGN:

Method and types of social work research- pure and applied- qualitative and quantitative – survey and case study- participatory research and evolution research- different type of the research design - exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic of experimental research design.

UNIT III: TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION:

Sources of data collection - primary and secondary sources tools of data collection- observation, interview schedule and questionnaire- sampling procedure

UNIT IV: DATA PROCESSING:

Data processing: coding and tabulation of data- processing of the data obtained through scales- different types of scaling techniques- current analysis- hypothesis testing- analysis and interpretation-application of SPSS for data processing – essential of research

UNIT V: USES OF STASTISTICS:

Uses and limitation of statistics in social work research- meaning, uses and limitation of arithmetic , means, media and mode- standard deviation- correlation and chi square tests.

UNIT I: SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH:

The concept of social research-the process of research in social science - relationship between fact, theory, and research - scientific method-its applicability to social phenomenon - definition, meaning, scope of social work research - basic elements of scientific method - concept hypothesis and problem.

RESEARCH:

a way of examining your practice...

Research is undertaken within most professions.

More than a set of skills, it is a way of thinking: examining critically the various aspects of your professional work.

It is a habit of questioning what you do, and a systematic examination of the observed information to find answers with a view to instituting appropriate changes for a more effective professional service. 

## DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

When you say that you are undertaking a research study to find answers to a question, you are implying that the process;

  1. is being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies ( approaches);

  2. uses procedures, methods and techniques that have been tested for their validity and reliability;

  3. is designed to be unbiased and objective .

Philosophies means approaches e.g. qualitative, quantitative and the academic discipline in which you have been trained.

Validity means that correct procedures have been applied to find answers to a question. Reliability refers to the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability and accuracy.

Unbiased and objective means that you have taken each step in an unbiased manner and drawn each conclusion to the best of your ability and without introducing your own vested interest.

(Bias is a deliberate attempt to either conceal or highlight something).

Adherence to the three criteria mentioned above enables the process to be called 'research'.

However, the degree to which these criteria are expected to be fulfilled varies from discipline to discipline and so the meaning of 'research' differs from one academic discipline to another.

The difference between research and non-research activity is, in the way we find answers: the process must meet certain requirements to be called research. We can identify these requirements by examining some definitions of research.

The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. re is a prefix meaning again, anew or over again search is a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe. Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.

Research is a structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and create new knowledge that is generally applicable.

Scientific methods consist of systematic observation, classification and interpretation of data.

Although we engage in such process in our daily life, the difference between our casual day- to-day generalization and the conclusions usually recognized as scientific method lies in the degree of formality, rigorousness, verifiability and general validity of latter. 

## CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH:

Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions.

But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical.

-Controlled- in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome.

The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set up your study in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship.

This can be achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the research is done in a laboratory. However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is extremely difficult as research is carried out on issues related to human beings living in society, where such controls are not possible. Therefore in Hospitality and Tourism, as you cannot control external factors, you attempt to quantify their impact.

-Rigorous-you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigor varies markedly between the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences.

-Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow others.

-Valid and verifiable-this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.

-Empirical-this means that any conclusion drawn is based upon hard evidence gathered from information collected from real life experiences or observations.

-Critical-critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.

For a process to be called research, it is imperative that it has the above characteristics. 

## TYPES OF RESEARCH

Research can be classified from three perspectives:

  1. application of research study

  2. objectives in undertaking the research

  3. inquiry mode employed

## Application:

From the point of view of application, there are two broad categories of research: -pure research and -applied research.

Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or in the future. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the existing body of research methods.

Applied research is done to solve specific, practical questions; for policy formulation, administration and understanding of a phenomenon. It can be exploratory, but is usually descriptive. It is almost always done on the basis of basic research. Applied research can be carried out by academic or industrial institutions. Often, an academic institution such as a university will have a specific applied research program funded by an industrial partner interested in that program. 

## Objectives:

From the viewpoint of objectives, a research can be classified as

  * -descriptive

  * -correlational

  * -explanatory

  * -exploratory

Descriptiveresearch attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or programme, or provides information about , say, living condition of a community, or describes attitudes towards an issue.

Correlational research attempts to discover or establish the existence of a relationship/ interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation.

Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon.

Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study (feasibility study / pilot study).

In practice most studies are a combination of the first three categories. 

## Inquiry Mode:

From the process adopted to find answer to research questions – the two approaches are:

  * Structured approach

  * Unstructured approach

Structured approach:

The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as quantitative research. Here everything that forms the research process- objectives, design, sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of respondents- is predetermined.

It is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon by quantifying the variation.

e.g. how many people have a particular problem? How many people hold a particular attitude?

Unstructured approach:

The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as qualitative research. This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process.

It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without quantifying it.

Main objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or attitude.

e,g, description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of events, an account of different opinions different people have about an issue, description of working condition in a particular industry.

Both approaches have their place in research. Both have their strengths and weaknesses.

In many studies you have to combine both qualitative and quantitative approaches.

For example, suppose you have to find the types of cuisine / accommodation available in a city and the extent of their popularity.

Types of cuisine is the qualitative aspect of the study as finding out about them entails description of the culture and cuisine

The extent of their popularity is the quantitative aspect as it involves estimating the number of people who visit restaurant serving such cuisine and calculating the other indicators that reflect the extent of popularity. 

## THE RESEARCH PROCESS

The research process is similar to undertaking a journey.

For a research journey there are two important decisions to make-

  1. What you want to find out about

or what research questions (problems) you want to find answers to;

  1. How to go about finding their answers.

There are practical steps through which you must pass in your research journey in order to find answers to your research questions.

The path to finding answers to your research questions constitutes research methodology.

At each operational step in the research process you are required to choose from a multiplicity of methods, procedures and models of research methodology which will help you to best achieve your objectives.

This is where your knowledge base of research methodology plays a crucial role.

STEPS IN RESEARCH PROCESS:

  1.     1. Formulating the Research Problem

  1.     1. Extensive Literature Review

  1.     1. Developing the objectives

  1.     1. Preparing the Research Design including Sample Design

  1.     1. Collecting the Data

  1.     1. Analysis of Data

  1.     1. Generalization and Interpretation

Preparation of the Report or Presentation of Results-Formal write ups of conclusions reached

Scientific Research

Science aims at description, explanation and understanding of various objects or phenomena in nature and research are special endeavours, which involves systematic and critical investigation. Thus, towards increasing the stream of knowledge now it is easier to define scientific research. We may define scientific research as a systematic and critical investigation about the natural phenomena to describe, explain and finally to understand the relations among them.

What Is Research ?

When we observe certain objects or phenomena, often unaware of our biases, we do not question them and so we attribute our observations entirely to the objects or phenomena being observed. In this process, it is possible to arrive at right decision on the basis of wrong reasons or vice versa. This questions the process of observation. Was the observation error free? Every method of knowing has certain limitations. While observing are we aware of our limitations? Any study to create new knowledge or aims to increase existing fund of knowledge may it be through observation or by some other methods, is called research if it takes into account the biases, the errors and limitations. As such, research may be described as systematic and critical investigation of phenomena toward increasing the stream of knowledge.

Scientific Method

It is obvious that it would be impossible to comprehend the nature and content of research without an appreciation of a method. The method used in scientific research is usually designated as scientific method. According to George Lundberg (1946), scientific method consists of three basic steps, systematic observation, classification and interpretation of data. Through these steps, scientific method brings about not only verifiability of the facts, but also it lays the confidence in the validity of conclusions.

The definition requires some more explanations. First when Lundberg (1946) says that scientific method is systematic observation, he means in effect, the as they are desired to be and as such the investigators can have critical confidence in their conclusions. Second, the scientific method is concerned with 'classes of objects' not 'individual objects'. Universality and predictability are other features of scientific method. The method makes it possible to predict about a phenomenon with sufficient accuracy.

Use of Scientific Method in Social Work

Social work primarily deals with human behavior, which is, by and large, complex and dynamic in nature. One cannot, therefore investigate under guided conditions as in natural and physical sciences. This creates many problems to the researcher such as the problems of subjectivity and individualistic generalizations etc.

The problem arising out of the nature and content of social work do not seriously diminish the importance of scientific method for social workers. Notwithstanding the inherent limitations scientific method can be used for the study of problems related with social work so far as it helps to arrive at valid generalizations

RELEVANCE OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL WORK

Social work is a practice profession. As such, the major objective of social work research is to search for answers to questions raised regarding interventions or practice effectiveness. In other words social work research attempts to provide knowledge about what interventions or treatments really help or hinder the attainment of social work goals. In addition, it also helps in searching for answers to problems or difficulties faced by social work practitioners in the practice of their profession. Ultimately it helps building knowledge base for social work theory and practice .Social work research also deals with problems faced by professional social workers, social work agencies and community in its concern with social work functions. In other words in social work research the problems to Be investigated are always found in the course of doing social work or planning to do it (Dasgupta, 1968).It is obvious that in social work research the study of a problem is from the point of view of social work and that of professional social work. The designing of research problems, data collection and its interpretation will have to be attempted in a manner as would be useful to professional social work which would add new knowledge to the social work theory and practice and improve the efficiency of professional social workers

Social work research is regarded as the systematic use of research concepts, methods, techniques and strategies to provide information related to the objectives of social work programmes and practices. Thus the unit of analysis of social work research could be individuals, groups, families or programme of the agency. That is, social work research typically focuses on assessment of practitioner's work with individuals, groups, families, communities or appraisal of agencies or programmes that involve the continued efforts of practitioners with many clients. As such, there search design, data collection and analytic strategies in social work research vary as a function of unit of analysis and programme of agencies of social work practitioner. Social work research is the use of the scientific method in the search of knowledge, including knowledge of alternate practice and intervention techniques, which would be of direct use to the social work profession and thus enhance the practice of social work methods. Social work research focuses on or confines itself to select aspects of behavior and alternate models of behavior modifications. Social work research helps to find ways and means to enhance social functioning at the individual, group, community and societal levels. Social work research lays special emphasis on evaluation. This is one of the reasons that 'social work research is also understood as evaluative research. Under social work research, varieties of evaluative researches are undertaken. Some of the researches are on impacts or effects, efficacy and effectiveness. Evaluation of agencies and its projects and programmes are some of the specialized areas of social work research

MEANING OF SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH

In a very broad sense, social work research is the application of research methods to solve problems that social workers confront in the practice of social work. It provides information that can be taken into consideration by social workers prior to making decisions that affect their clients, programmes or agencies such as use of alternative intervention techniques or change or modification of programme/client/objectives and so forth. Following are some of the situations which call for application of social work research methods and techniques:

  * Social caseworker is interested in assessing the nature and extent of the problem of her client who has been facing marital maladjustment. She may be interested in obtaining information about the actual or potential effectiveness of the client. She may also be keen to know to what extent the intervention would be effective.

  * Group worker wishes to assess the extent to which the technique of role play is more or less effective than group discussion in increasing knowledge of drug abuse among school going children.

  * Community organizer wants to know the views of the community before he takes a decision to change the programme objectives.

  * Director of special school for mentally retarded children wants to know whether group therapy is as effective as individual therapy in increasing adaptability of mentally retarded children.

  * Social work administrator is concerned about effectiveness of implementation of new programme launched.

DEFINITION

According to C.A. Moser : "Social research is a systematized investigation to gain new knowledge about social phenomenon and problems."

According to P.V. Young: "Social research is a scientific undertaking which by means of logical methods, aim to discover new facts or old facts and to analyze their sequences, interrelationships, casual explanations and natural laws which govern them."

Characteristics of social research

• It is directed towards the solution of problems. The ultimate goal is to discover cause-and-effect relationship between social problems.

• It emphasis the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.

• It is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.

• It demands accurate observations and description. Researchers may choose from a variety or no qualitative description of their observations.

• It involves gathering new data from primary sources or using existence data for new purpose.

• Although social research activities may at time be somewhat random and unsystematic, it is more often characterized by carefully designed procedure that applies rigorous analysis.

• It requires expertise. The researcher knows what is already known about the problem and how others have investigated.

• It strives to the objective and logical applying every possible test to validate the procedure employed, data collected and conclusion reached.

• It involves the guests for answer to unsolved problems.

• It is characterized by patient and unhurried activity. Researcher must expect disappointment and discouragement as they pursue the answer to difficult question.

• It is carefully recorded and reported. Each important term is defined, limiting factors are recognized, procedures are described in detail, reference are carefully documented, results are objectively recorded and conclusions are presented with scholarly caution and restraint.

• It is interdisciplinary in nature

• It sometimes requires courage.

Objectives of social research

  * To facilitate the understanding of human behavior.

  * To acquire knowledge about social phenomena, events, issue, problems etc.

  * To identify functional relationship existing in the social phenomena.

  * To find out the natural laws that regulates or directs social phenomena.

  * To standardize the society concept, e.g. culture, struggle, generation gap, social distance etc.

  * To formulate solution to social problems.

  * To maintain social organization, remove social tension, misconception, etc

  * To develop social revival plan.

PHASES OF SOCIAL RESEARCH

Phases of social research consist of a series of steps necessary to efficiently carry out research on any social phenomena. These actions are closely related. They can be overlapped.

Phases of S.R. basically refer to scientific research process. There are nine phases of social research.

  * Sensing or realizing problem: -

The first step in SR process is observing the situation and sensing problem. New problems keep on emerging in the social environment. One should sense these development origins in the environment. At this stage, one may not know exactly what is happening but one can definitely sense that things are not going smoothly as they should be.

  * Problem identification:

Once one become aware of what is happening in the environment, he/she would then focus on the problem. The researcher singles out the problem for the study, i.e. what exactly are the problems in the situation. It is thus,problem-defining stage. Without a focused definition of problem, data tends to be irrelevant, expensive and confusing. Research problem should be specific.

  * Theoretical framework:

Once the problem is identified, the researcher carefully studies the earlier studies, if any which are similar to the study in hand. It helps to integrate information locally so that reason for the problem can be conceptualized. This helps to develop theoretical framework. This step essentially involves a review of related literature. It familiarizes the researcher with what is already known and what is still unknown and untested.

  * Hypothesis formulation:

After developing theoretical framework, the researcher develops hypothesis. It is drawn from the theoretical framework. A hypothesis is a tentative answer to question. It is an educated guess. It is generally based upon prior research. It is subjected to the process of verification or disconfirmation. Hypothesis is conjectured relationship between two or more variables expressed in the form of testable statements.

  * Research design:

It is the plan, structure and strategy for conducting research. It describes the general framework for collecting, analyzing and evaluating data. It helps to obtain answer to research questions and to control variance. It enables the researcher to answer research questions to validity, objectively, accurately and economically as possible. Design should be carefully worked out to yield dependable and valid answer to the research questions.

  * Collection of data:

At this stage, the researcher has to collect data as expected. Data can be obtained from primary source or secondary source. Questionnaire, interview, observation are major instruments to collect data. This step is also called fieldwork because researcher has to visit field for administering the research instruments to collect data.

  * Data analysis:

It is statistical analysis that has been collected, edited, coded and tabulated. In other words, data analysis means the categorizing, ordering, manipulating and summarizing of data to obtain answer to research's question. Its purpose is to reduce data to intelligible and interpretable form so that elations of research problem can be studied and tested. Different statistical techniques are used at this stage.

  * Interpretation and generalization:

Interpretation takes the result of data analysis, makes inference pertinent to the research relation studied and draws conclusion about the relations. Generalization is the act of giving general form to these conclusions.

  * Report preparation:

Finally the researcher has to prepare the report of his/her research. Its objective is to tell readers the problems investigated, the method used to solve problems, result of the investigation and the conclusion from the result.

Social Work Research: The Process

It must be borne in mind that the process of social work research is not completely identical to social research. In fact, there are many similarities between this process and the traditional research process. The process however, has some additional steps designed to suit the objectives of social work research. By following the process social work researchers are in a position to know precisely what intervention was applied and how much effect was produced. The process also links research and practice.

Social work research starts with problem identification and setting up of goals. This is followed by the process of assessment (or need assessment) of the client's problems. During these initial stages, the researcher strives to obtain a clear and specific understanding of the problem, using assessment tools such as interviewing (Monette, et. al., 1986).

After the problem is identified and needs are assessed, the next step is to set up goals to be achieved. The goals are required to be specific, precisely defined and measurable in some way. The third step in the process is to have a pre-intervention measurement, that is, measurement prior to intervention; the pre- intervention measurement is used as basis from which to compare the client's condition after the intervention is introduced.

Next stage in the process is to introduce intervention. It is important here to note that only a single, coherent intervention be applied during any intervention phase. In the last stage, we assess the effects of intervention by comparing the two measurements, that is, pre- intervention measurement and measurements during intervention.

SCOPE OF SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH

Social work profession has a scientific base, which consists of a special body of knowledge; tested knowledge, hypothetical knowledge and assumptive knowledge. Assumptive knowledge requires transformation into hypothetical knowledge, which in turn needs transformation into tested knowledge. Social work research has significant role in transforming the hypothetical and assumptive knowledge to tested knowledge

(Khinduka, l965). Not all concepts or theories that are used by professional social workers have been tested and validated. Concerted efforts through social work research are very much required to conceptually articulate and validate the concepts and theories, which will in turn strengthen the scientific base of professional social work. Identification of social work needs and resources, evaluation of programmes and services of social work agencies are some of the areas in which social work researches are undertaken. Social work research may be conducted to know the problems faced by professional social workers in social work agencies and communities in its concern with social work functions. Thus, social work research embraces the entire gamut of social work profession; concepts, theories, methods, programmes, services and the problems faced by social workers in their practice. The areas of social work research may be broadly categorized as follows:

1) Studies to establish identify and measure the need for service.

2) To measure the services offered as they relate to needs.

3) To test, gauge and evaluate results of social work intervention.

4) To list the efficacy of specific techniques of offering services.

5) Studies in methodology of social work.

Social work is a diverse profession, possible broad research areas could be

:i) Community Development

ii) Community Health (Including Mental Health)

iii) Child Welfare

iv) Women Welfare

v) Youth Welfare

vi)Aged Welfare

Vii) Welfare of SC &ST Groups

viii) Poverty Alleviation

ix) Physical and Mental Disabilities

X) Juvenile Delinquency

xi) Crime and Correction etc.

xii)Management of Social Welfare Department and Organisation

xiii) Disaster Management

xiv) Industrial Social Work

xv) Issues concerning Advocacy and Networking

The list is not exhaustive; it's only an exemplary list which enlists broad areas which is very frequently studied by social workers. Again, within one or more problem areas research might focus on individuals, families, groups, community organisations or broad social systems. It might deal with characteristics of a larger population, and the services available to them.

GOALS AND LIMITATIONS OF SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH

Social work research offers an opportunity for all social workers to make differences in their practice. There is no doubt about the fact that social worker will be more effective practitioner guided by the findings of social work research. Thus, social work research seeks to accomplish the same humanistic goals, as does a social work method. Social work research deals with those methods and issues, which are useful in evaluating social work programmes and practices. It explains the methodology of social research and illustrates its applications in social work settings. A substantive part of social work practice is concerned with the micro-level practice, such as working with individuals, groups, or a community. Social work research has to take into consideration the limitations of micro level design of study and techniques. Social work researches basically

A practice based research which mostly draws its inferences through inductive reasoning. That is, inferring something about a whole group or a class of objects from the factor knowledge of one or few members of that group/class. Thus, in practice based research

Inductive reasoning carries us from observation to theory through intervention/ assessment. Practitioners, for example, may observe that delinquents tend to come from family with low socio-economic status. Based on the assumption that the parent-child bond is weaker in low socio-economic families and that such parents, therefore, have less control over their children, the practitioners may inductively conclude that a weak parent-child bond leads to delinquency.

A substantive part of social work practice is concerned with the micro-level practice, such as working with individuals, groups, or a community. Practice based research has to take into consideration the limitations of micro level practice. Accordingly, practice based research has to have special design of study and techniques

PRINCIPLES

Determinism: the assumption that all phenomena, including psychosocial ones, have

Physical (as opposed to metaphysical) causes that are potentially amenable to scientific

Investigation and discovery

Positivism: the belief that valid knowledge about the objective world can be arrived at

Through scientific research

Rationalism: the belief that reason and logic are useful tools for scientific inquiry and

That, ultimately, truthful or valid accounts of human behavior will be rational or logically

Understandable

Empiricism: a preference to rely on evidence gathered systematically through observation

Or experiment and capable of being replicated (i.e., reproduced and verified) by

Others using satisfactory standards of evidence

Operations: the assertion that it is important to develop measures and treatments

That can be reliably replicated by others

Parsimony: a preference to seriously consider the simpler of the available and adequate

Explanations of a phenomenon prior to accepting a more complex account

Scientific skepticism: the point of view that all scientific claims (e.g., treatment x helps

Clients) should be considered to be of doubtful validity until substantiated by credible

Empirical data

Naturalism: the perspective that the world in which we live, the objects, people, and

Processes that occur within it, consist of natural phenomena, potentially understandable

Without any need to invoke supernatural or metaphysical forces

Realism: the point of view that the world has an independence or objective existence apart from the perceptions of the observed.

Hypothesis

Meaning and Definition

The word hypothesis is a compound of two words 'hypo' and 'thesis' where 'hypo' means under and 'thesis ' means reason or rational view. Thus, hypothesis is a below reasoned view. It is a view, which is not fully reasoned. In social research and other research, hypothesis is used to mean a statement about the relationship, which helps to be investigated. According to

F.N. Kerlinger, "Hypothesis is the most powerful tool man has invented to achieve dependable knowledge " Once the problem to be answer is defined, the researcher formulates theory. Theory formulation leads to hypothesis formulation. Data collection and analysis revolve around the hypothesis, when hypothesis comes to be true, it originates theory. Hypothesis is an educated guess about a problem's solution. It shows the relation between two or more variables, which need to be investigated for the truth. Non-hypothesis can be defined as logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables in testable statements. Hypothesis is always presented in declarative sentence form. They can be general or specific.

According to G.A. Lundberg: - "A hypothesis is a tentative generalization the validity of which remains to be tested. It may be any hunch, imaginative idea or intuition whatsoever, which becomes the basis of action or investigation."

According to W. Goode and P.K. Hatt: - "A hypothesis is a proposition, which can be put to test to determine its validity. It may seem contrary to, or in accordance with common sense."

Examples of Hypothesis

Family planning can reduce the growth of population. There is no relationship between working condition and job satisfaction of workers.

Types or research hypothesis

Null Hypothesis:

Null hypothesis is one, which indicates a definitive exact relationship between two variables. It is so called because this hypothesis usually reflect 'no difference' or 'no effect' situation. It means that there is no difference between two populations in aspect of some property and that the difference if any is only accidental and unimportant. The null hypothesis is akin to the principle that a man is innocent until he is proved guilty. It constitutes a challenge and the function of a research to give facts a chance to reflect this challenge. Example: - There is no difference between male and female in their productivity.

Statistically expressed: Ho : µ1 =µ2 Where,

Ho is null hypothesis

µ1 is the productivity of male worker. µ2 is the productivity of female worker.

Alternative hypothesis:

It is opposite of the null hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis is a statement, which expresses a relationship between two variables or indicates difference between groups. It is the statement of acceptance condition for each of the alternative courses of action or solution to problem. Example: male worker will have more productivity than female workers.

Statistically expressed: H1=µ1 > µ2 Where H1= alternative hypothesis µ1= the productivity of male worker µ2= the productivity of female worker Formulation of hypothesis

Formulation of hypothesis

Deductive method /approach/logic:

The deductive method is one in which the researcher develops hypothesis from theory and design a research strategy to test them. There, hypothesis formulation is preceded by theory formulation. A clear theoretical portion is developed prior to data collection.

Inductive method/approach/logic:

The inductive method is in which the researcher develops hypothesis from specific observation. Here, the researcher first collects data and then develops theory as a result of data analysis. It is based on the principle of developing theory after the data have been collected

Differences between Deductive and Inductive method

Difference | Deductive method | Inductive method

---|---|---

Precedence | It moves from | It constructs

|

theory to data. It | theory or principle

|

develops hypothesis | from specific

|

from | observation. It

Data | theory. | moves from data

|

to theory.

Flexibility | It collects quantative | It collects

|

data. | qualitative data.

|

It is a highly | It is a more

Generalization | structured approach. | flexible structured

|

approach to

|  | permit changes of

|  | research emphasis

Others | It has necessity to | as the research

collect samples of | progresses.

|

sufficient size in | It has less concern

|

order to generalize

|

conclusions. | with the need to

|

• It has need to | generalize.

|

explain casual

|

|

relationship

|

|

between variables. | •It gains an

|

• | It is application | understanding of

|

or controls to ensure | meanings of

|

validity of data. | human attach to

|

• | It is the | events.

|

operationalization of | •It is a realization

|

concepts to ensure | that the researcher

|

clarity of definition. | is a part of the

|  | |

research process.

|  | |

•It is a close

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understanding of

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the research

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context.

UNIT II: RESERCH DESIGN:

Method and types of social work research- pure and applied- qualitative and quantitative – survey and case study- participatory research and evolution research- different type of the research design - exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic of experimental research design.

Types of Social Research: -

Basic research:

It is also called fundamental research. It is undertaken to improve our understanding of certain problems that commonly occur in social setting and how to solve them. It undertaken for sole purpose of adding to our knowledge that is fundamental and generalizable. This type of research may have no immediate or planned Application. But it may later used in further research of an applied nature. Its objective is therefore, is not apply the findings to solve immediate problems at hand, rather to understand more about certain phenomena or problem that occur in social life or settings, and how they can be solved. It contributes to theory formation. This research work of professors, scholars and other researchers devoted to generate new knowledge in particular area of their interest can be called fundamental research. Basic research is essentially positive. It explains the phenomena as they are and as not they should be. It may verify or establish new one. It is an intellectual exercise.

Applied research:

It is also called action or decisional research. It is undertaken in response to a social problem, which requires a solution. Its major purpose is to answer

practical and useful question. The results are practically applied to solve immediate problems. It involves normative prescription. As applied research id concerned with knowledge that has immediate application. It is also called decisional research.

RESEARCH DESIGN

When particular research area has been defined, research problem is defined, and the related literature in the area has been reviewed, the next step is to construct the research design. It is fundamental to the success of any scientific research. Research design means an overall framework or plan for the activities to be undertaken during the course of a research study. It involves decisions regarding what, where, when, how much and by what means concerning a research study. It constitutes a blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. It serves as a framework for the study , guiding the collection and analysis of data, research instrument to be utilized and the sampling plan to be followed.

According to Kerlinger : "Research design is the plan , structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance."

According to Kinner and Taylor: " A research design is the basic plan which guides the data collection and analysis phase of the research project. It is the framework which specifies the type of information to be collected, the source of data and the data collection procedure."

Elements of research design

1. Problem:

A problem is an interrogative sentence or statement that asks what relation exists between two or more variables. The answer is what is being bought in the research. Research design is based on the research problem.

2.Methodology:

It deals with a choice of research design methods of measurement and types of analysis. All of these must be congruent. They must fit together. Methodology should be appropriate to the research problem.

3.Data gathering:

To implement general plan of research, methods of data collection must be used. There is always mutual inter plan of the problem and method. Problems dictate methods to a considerable extent. It can use internal or

external sources. The tools can be questionnaire, observation, interview, etc.

4.Report writing:

It involves preparation and presentation of the research report. A report is a presentation of the research findings directed to a specific audience to accomplish specific objective.

Purposes of research design:

To provide answer to research question:

Research design is invented to enable the researcher to answer research questions as , objective, accurately and economically as possible.

oTo control variance:

It enables the investigator to gather and analyze his data in certain ways, It is a control mechanism.

Types of research design:

1.Descriptive research design:

Descriptive research design is designed to describe something. It simply portrays an accurate profile of organizations, events, situation or any phenomena. It describes conditions or relationship that exists, opinion that are held, process that are going on, effects that are evidence or trends that are developing. It is the fact finding operation design to search for information. Investigators collect, classify and correlate data to describe that exists. But it does not answer why phenomena behave as they do. Descriptive research is appropriate in the following conditions:

  * Portraying the characteristics of social or any phenomena and determining the frequency of occurrence.

  * Determining the degree of to which variables are associated.

Purposes of descriptive research

  * To collect detailed factual information that describes existing phenomena.

  * To identify problems or justify current conditions and practice.

  * To make comparisons and evaluations.

  * To determine what others are doing with similar problems or situations and benefit from their experience in making future plans and decisions.

2.Exploratory research design:

It is designed to explore ideas and insights in order to obtain a proper definition of problems at hand. It is appropriate for the early stage of decision making process. It is designed to obtain a preliminary investigation of the situation with a minimum expenditure of time and cost.

Purpose of exploratory research

  * To identify problems and opportunities.

  * To develop a more precise formulation of a vaguely identified problems or opportunity.

  * To gain perspective regarding the breadth of variables operating in a situations.

  * To establish priorities regarding the potential significance of various problems or opportunities o To identify and formulate alternative courses of action.

  * To gather information on the problems associated with doing conclusive research.

  * To gain management and researchers perspective regarding the character of the problem situation.

3.Experimental research design:

It describes what will be when certain variables are carefully controlled or manipulated. The focus is on variable relationship. The purpose of experimental research is to investigate possible cause-and –effectrelationship as well as to understand the nature of functional relationship between caused factors and affect to be predicted. An experimental design involves the specifications of:

•Treatments that are to be manipulated.

•Test units to be used.

•Dependent variables to be measured.

•Procedures for dealing with extraneous variables.

Research proposal

A research proposal is an argument for the proposed study. It is comparable to the blue print that the architect prepares before the bids are let and buildings commences. By definition, a proposal is a persuasive presentation for consideration for something. Proposals are made by individuals or organizations

to individuals or organizations. They are usually written but they can be oral presentation or combination of both. The main purpose of research proposal is to explain and justify the proposed study to an audience. Many institutions require that proposal be submitted before any project is approved. This provides a basis for the evaluation of the project and gives the advisor a basis for assistance during the period of his direction. It also provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow.

Topic selection

A research proposal is prepared on a given topic. A research topic is essentially the specific problem area which requires an investigation. However, topic selection is not an easier job. It demands for rigorous mental exercise. It takes of great deal of searching problem topic. In university students need to submit a topic in a proposal form to his thesis advisor.

Sources of topic

  * A problem of the student's own interest based on his experience , judgment, etc.

  * Articles in different publications such as newspaper, journals, magazine, etc.

  * Library and other research studies.

  * Text/ reference book.

  * Advisor's suggestions.

  * Visiting organizations and interacting with the authorities.

Guidelines for topic selection

  * The student should immediately begin to think about his topic selection.

  * The size of the topic should not be too broad or too small.

  * The topic chosen should not be too complex.

  * Material and data on the topic should be available.

  * Topic should be researchable.

Format of the research proposal

1.Title:

It is the broad heading of the research proposal. It should be clearly stated at the beginning. The title should represent the proposed study. It should be short and unnecessary term should be avoided.

2.Background information:

  * This part of proposal gives useful information of the study that introduce briefly about it. It includes:

  * Background of the problem.

  * Description of the topic in general and how the researcher developed in it.

  * Background information on the organization to be studied.

  * Relevance of the proposed study.

3.Statement of the problem:

This is often a declarative statement but may be in the question form. This attempts to focus on a stated goal that gives direction to the research process. It must be limited enough in scope to make definite conclusion possible. The major statement may be followed by minor statement. This part includes:

  * Statement of general problem which being investigated.

  * Statement of detailed problem such as different variables and their associations.

4.Significance of the problem:

It is important that researcher point out how the solution to the problem or answer to the question can influence related theory or practice. i.e. the researcher must demonstrate why it is worth the time, effort and expenses required to carry out the proposed research. Failure to include this step in the proposal may well leave the researcher with a problem without significance- a search for date of little ultimate value.

5.Definitions, assumptions, limitations and delimitations

  * The researcher should define all unusual terms that could be misinterpreted. The variables to be considered should be defined in peripheral form.

  * The researcher should clearly state the assumptions of the study. Assumptions are statements or what the researcher believe to be facts but cannot verify.

  * The researcher works within some conditions called limitations. They are those conditions beyond the control of researcher that may be restriction on the conclusion of the study and their

  * Applications to other situations. It includes constraint like time, money, data, source, etc they must be clearly stated.

  * The researcher should also state the boundaries of the study. They are called delimitations.

6.Theoretical framework/ review of related literature:

This part contains a summary of the writings of recognized authorities and of previous research. This is called literature review. It provides evidence that the researcher is familiar with what is already known and what is unknown and untested. Once effective research is based upon post knowledge, this step helps to eliminate the duplications of what has been done and provides useful hypothesis and suggestions for significant investigation. This part should contain the following:

  * The variables considered relevant to the study should be identified.

  * A clear explanation of relationship between those variables should be explained.

  * The theorized relationship as visualized by researcher should be presented.

7.Statement of hypothesis / objective:

It is appropriate here to formulate hypothesis. They offer tentative answer to a question. It includes the followings:

  * Statement of research hypothesis which the researcher will try to test.

  * In the case of exploratory or descriptive studies, the specific objectives of the study should be presented. The statement or hypothesis / objectives in advance or the data gathering process is necessary for an unbiased investigation.

8.Research methods:

This section consists of three parts:

•Subjects:

The subject section details the population of the study from which the researcher plans to select the sample. It defines sample size and sampling methods.

•Procedures:

The procedures section outlines the research plan/design. It describes in detail what will be done, how it will be done, what data will be needed and what data gathering device will be used.

•Data analysis:

This section describes the method of data analysis. It performs test of hypothesis. The statistical tools to be applied are to be mentioned.

9.Reference/bibliography:

The published sources of information and literature consulted in the course of proposal preparation should be alphabetically listed

UNIT III: TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION:

Sources of data collection - primary and secondary sources tools of data collection- observation, interview schedule and questionnaire- sampling procedure

DATA COLLECTION

Data collection

Data collection is an important step in social research. It is also known as field work. It involves administrating the research tools to gather data. It connects link to the reality of the work for the researchers. Data collection consists of taking ordered information from reality and transferring to some recording systems so that social behavior can be understood and predicted. It is based on research design.

Data

Data are observations and evidence regarding some aspects of the problems/issue under study. According to John Geltang:

"A datum is what is observed, in manifest or phonotypical". Data provide information for decision making. Information reduces uncertainties in a decision making.

Types of data

Nearly endless varieties of data existence can be obtained but only few types are relevant to each research study. They can be classified on the basis source, quantification, function and others. By nature of data, there are two types of data: facts and opinion.

Facts

Facts describes tangible things. They measure anything that actually exists or can exist. Facts then described as things done

or a piece of information having objectives reality. Facts can be intangible as long as they can really be determined. Examples of facts:

•The distance between Dharan and Biratnagar is 42 km

•We have 8 planets

The information presented in the above example give us the accurate picture of the distance and the number of planets respectively. However, the data based on estimates or on samples may not be reliable facts.

Opinion

Opinions are how people perceive something. They are what people believe about something and what whose beliefs signify. They are the results of people attitudes, intensions, knowledge and motives. These all reflects people perception about matter. It can be an attitude or image. Attitudes are mental sets or predispositions to some manner. An image is what something is like.

Examples of opinion: I believe there is life on Mars.

Importance of data collection

  * Data collection completely fulfills the data requirements of a research project. It is the connecting link for the researchers to the world of reality.

  * It provides the sources of comparative data by which data can be interpreted and evaluated against each other. Based on the data collection, data are presented and analyzed.

  * It suggests the type and method of data for meeting the information needed. Several data collection methods are used to collect several types of data.

  * It serves as a source of future reference and evidence because they are used to prepare written records. They can now provide lots of material for the subsequent research.

  * It helps to takes ordered information from reality and transferring into some recording system so that it can be later examined and analyzed. It is from that pattern that social behavior can be predicted.

Sources of data collection

Data may be collected from several sources. It is not easy to list them in details. Researchers use these sources according to their data needs. However, the general classification of data collection sources can be presented under two groups:

Primary sources

It provides primary data. Primary data are first hand, original data collected by the researchers for the research project by hand. They are collected for meeting the specific objectives of the study. They can be obtained from families, representatives, organization, etc. interviews, questionnaire, observation are the major tools for collecting data from primary sources.

Secondary sources

It provides secondary data. Secondary data are already gathered by others. They are attained indirectly. The researcher

doesn't obtain them directly. They are collected by some other researchers before and have been processed at least once.

Types of secondary data

Internal secondary data

They are available from in-house source. The source like within the organization. Sources of such data include representative's report, shipment records, accounting data etc.

External secondary data

They are available from the sources outside the organization. Such sources include published report, library, computer, data books, etc.

Data collection methods/techniques

No matter what the basic design of the research, it is necessary to collect accurate data to achieve useful results. Researchers use a number of methods to collect data. They are as follows:

Survey

The term survey has two constituents, "sur" which means over and "view" which means to see. Thus, the word survey means to oversee, that is, to look over something from high place. A survey is a data collection method based on the study of a given population. It is a systematic gathering of information from the people for the purpose of understanding or predicting some aspect of their behavior.

The survey method gathers data from a relatively large number of cases at a particular time. It is not concerned with character of individuals. It is concerned with generalized statistics that

results when data are abstract from a number of individual cases. It is essentially cross sectional. National population census is an example of survey. Survey data are expressed in numbers or percentages.

Types of surveys

™ Census survey:

It covers the survey of entire population. It is very expensive and time and effort consuming. But it provides diverse range of data.

™Sample survey:

It covers the study of a sample group only. A part of the population or unit. It is less expensive and less time and effort consuming.

™Regular survey:

It is conducted after regular intervals. Generally, the government uses it to obtain data about economics problems etc.

™Ad Hoc survey:

It is conducted for certain purpose and is undertaken once for all. Mostly, it is conducted for testing hypothesis, getting missing or new information.

™Primary survey:

It is conducted in order to acquire directly the relevant facts and information. It is more reliable than secondary survey.

™Secondary survey:

It is conducted after the primary survey has been completed.

™Official survey:

It is conducted by government to serve general or specific information for formulating plans and policies.

™Non official survey:

It is conducted by non-government persons or agency.

™First survey:

It is conducted in area for the first time.

™Repetitive survey:

It is conducted subsequent to first survey. It is made for second or third time and so on.

™Open survey:

It is also called public survey. The repetitive survey is publicly available. It is of general importance.

™Confidential survey:

The result of the survey is not made public. Information is not revealed to the common people.

™Social survey:

It is conducted to collect facts about the social aspects of a community's position and activities.

™Public opinion:

It is conduced to know the views of the people in any subjects like legalized abortion, open prostitution, homosexual activities etc.

Interview

It is a technique of primary data collection. It is an oral method in which one person asks another person questions designed to obtain answer pertinent to the research problem. It is most commonly used direct method in the study of human behavior. The interview is a face to face interpersonal role situation in which one person asks another person being interviewed. The respondent question designed to obtain answer pertinent to the purpose of the research problem. The interview may be regarded as a systematic method by which one person enters more or less imaginatively with the inner life of another who is generally a comparative stranger to him.

The purpose of interview is to find out what's in or on someone else's mind.

According to Kerlinger "The interview is a face to face interpersonal role situation in which one person, the interviewer, asks a person being interviewed, the respondent, questions designed to obtain answers pertinent to the purpose of the research problem."

Research interview schedule

Interviewing itself is an art. But planning and writing an interview schedule is even more or so. The research interview

schedule is a guideline which the interviewer follows indicating which question should be asked. As interviewer asks the question, s/he records the response. A good interviewer will let the respondent do most of talking.

Formats or research interview schedule

There are three formats of interview schedule providing 3 kinds of information. They are:

Fixed – alternative item interview

It offers the respondents a choice among two or more alternatives. The responses are limited to stated alternatives. These items are called or full questions. The commonest kind of fixed –alternative items is dichotomous. If asks for yes-no,agree-disagree, and other two alternative items often a third alternative don't know or undecided is added.

Open-end item

Open-end item is an interview schedule that lists only the main question. It permits the respondent to answer the question in the way s/he likes. The contents of the schedule are dictated by the research problems. They impose no other restriction on the contents and the manner of respondents answer. Open-end questions are more flexible. They have possibilities of depth. Misunderstanding can be clear up through poling.

Example: Do you have any contacts with any members of the faculty outside of class?

If yes, how often is that?

Scale item

A scale is set of verbal items to each of which an individual responds by expressing degree of agreement or disagreement or some other mode or response. Scale items have fixed alternatives and place the responding individual at some point on the scale.

Example:

How do you rate your college library in relation to your needs?

1. Terrible | 2. Unsatisfaction 3. Satisfaction | 4. Very

---|---|---

good | 5. Excellent

|

Types of interview

¾Structured or standardized interview

It this interview, the questions, their sequence and their wordings are fixed. The same question is asked to everybody in the same manner. in general, the interviewer doesn't have flexibility to change the question, their format or order. Sometimes an interviewer may be allowed some liberty in asking question but relatively little. That liberty is specified in advance. Standardized interviews are interview schedule that have been carefully prepared to obtained information pertinent to the research problem.

¾Unstructured or unstandardized interview

In the interview, the sequence and wording of question are not fixed. The interviewer doesn't follow pre-planedlist of the question. The interviewer writes the response of the interview during the interview or after interview is

completed. It is more flexible and open. Ordinary no schedule is used. They don't mean that unstructured interview is casual. The interviewer will have a tentative list of question to be covered during the interview.

Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a format list of questions designed to gather respondent from respondent on a given topic. It is a formalized schedule for data collection. It is used when fractional information is designed. When opinion rather than facts are desired, opinionnaire or attitude scale is used. Questionnaire is a term used for almost any kind of instrument that has questions or items to which individuals respond. A questionnaire is a list of questions to number of persons for them to answer. It secures standardized results that can be tabulated created statistically.

Type of questionnaire

ƒOpen or open-ended question:

It calls for free response in the respondent's own words. It requires the respondents to provide their own answer to the question. No alternative answer is given.

ƒClose or close-ended question:

It is also called restricted questionnaire. It offers the respondent choice among two or more alternatives. Answer to each question is predetermined and included in the question form. The respondents mark yes or no or write a short response or check an item form the list of suggest response.

Types of close- questionnaire

™Dichotomous questionnaire:

It offers only two alternatives; positive and negative. The response would be yes or no; agree or disagree; and so on. It is also known as two way questionnaire.

™Multi chotomous questionnaire:

It is also called multiple choice questionnaires.

Questionnaire Design

A questionnaire is designed to collect right type of primary data of right quality. The design of questionnaire is more than art from than a scientific undertaking. Questionnaire design comes from the experience of the researchers who specialized in this area. The only way to develop this skill is to write a questionnaire, use it in a series of interviews, analyze its weakness and revise it.

There are no series of step, principle or guidelines with guarantee on effective and efficient questionnaire. An effective questionnaire is one that

¾Draws out accurate information

¾Cab be completed easily by interviewers

¾Flow well

Leaves the respondent feel satisfied for their worth while participation in the research

There are series of seven steps in questionnaire design as started below:

Review of preliminary considerations

It involves the review or research objectives and the listing of information needs. Decision regarding questionnaire design must built upon and be consistent with decision relation to other aspect of the research project previous decision regarding the type of research design and the source of data directly influence the character and role of the questionnaire in the research project. The questions on the questionnaire should flow logically from the list if information needs as well as a clear definition of the respondent group. Questionnaire is the device between information needed and the data to be collected.

Decision and question content

Once the preliminary consideration is reviewed the researcher is now ready to begin formulating the questionnaire. This stage decides what to include in individual questions. The contents of the question are influenced by the respondent's ability and willingness to respond accurately. Many types of data cannot be collected that result in inaccurate data. This is due to respondent being uniformed (they have no idea about the topic) or they are forgotten. Similarly, the respondents are unwilling to respond accurately because of three reasons:

•The situation is not appropriate for disclosing data

•Disclosure of data would be embarrassing

•Disclosure is a potential threat to the respondent's prestige

Decision on response formatOnce the problems related to the content of questionnaire have been analyses, the next issue concerns the type of questions use. It involves the degree of structure imposed on the person's response. The three types of questions range from unstructured to structured formats. They are open-ended questions, multiple choice questions and two-way questions. Each format has its merits and demerits.

Decision on questions wording

The heart of the questionnaire consists of questions asked. These questions represent links between the data and the information needs of the study. It is critical that researchers and respondents assign the same meaning to the question asked. If not serious measurement errors will be presented in the research result. The followings are nine general guidelines should be followed in designing the wording of the questions: use simple words, use clear words, avoid leading question, avoid biasing questions, avoid implicit alternatives, avoid implicit assumptions, avoid estimates, avoid double-barreled questions and consider frame of reference.

Decision on question sequence

It involves the establishment of questions in sequence that is the order of flow of questions in questionnaire. The sequence of he questions can influence the nature of the respondent's answers and be the cause of the serious errors in the survey findings. This aspect of questionnaire design draws heavily of the...................and experience of researcher. The researcher can se the following guidelines in this regard: use of simple and interesting questions, ask general questions first,

place uninteresting and difficult questions late in sequence and arrange questions in logically order.

Decision on physical characteristics

The physical appearance of questionnaire can be influential in securing the cooperation of the respondent. This is particularly the case with mail surveys. The quality of paper and printing often determines the respondent's first reaction to the questionnaire. With personnel and telephone interview, the questionnaire should be numbered serially. Three major points for consideration: securing acceptance of the questionnaire by respondents, making it easy to control the questionnaire and making of easy to handle questionnaire.

Protest, revision and final draft

Before the questionnaire is ready for field operation, it needs to be protested and revised. Protesting refers to initial testing of one or more aspect of the questionnaire design. Most questionnaire design requires at least one pretest and revision before they are ready for field operation. Pretests are best done by personnel interview even the survey is to be traveled by mail or telephone. The number of people is interviewed in the pretest can range from 15 to 30. When significant change is made in the questionnaire another pretest should be conducted. If the pretest result suggests minor changes, the questionnaire is ready for the final draft and distribution to the field operators.

Merits of questionnaire

  * It is versatile. Almost every problem of social research can be approached from the questionnaire stand point. Every social problem involves people. Therefore, ideas relative to the problem and solution can be obtained by asking these people about the problem

  * Many people can be studied only by questioning. Knowledge, opinions, motivation, and intentions are usually not open to observation. Similarly, it is not feasible to observe personnel activities such as burning teeth. So, it is feasible.

  * Questioning is usually faster and efficient than observation. Some events that take place over a time period would require lengthy observation, but a question on this behavior can be answered in a few seconds.

  * It is cheaper then observing. The researcher has not to stand time to observe the behavior of the respondent. A decrease in time usually lead to decrease in cost.

  * The person administrating the questionnaire has an opportunity to establish report, explain the purpose of the study and explain the meaning of items that may not be clear.

  * Other advantages

√Facilitates the study of larger population

√Early receipt of information is possible

√Provides valid information

√It is self-administrative

Disadvantages of questionnaire

  * ™Respondents would be unwilling to provide information. Questions about income or very personnel subject frequently meet refusal by respondent. The show little or no interest to the question.

  * ™Despite a willingness to cooperate, many people are unable to give accurate information of questions.

  * ™There can be influence on questioning process. Often respondent attempt to give answers that they think will please the researchers.

  * ™Filling out lengthy questions take a great deal of time and money.

Other disadvantages

  * ™It cannot be used in illiterate person.

  * ™Incomplete responses are possible

  * ™There is a possibility of wrong answer

  * ™Useless in depth problem

  * ™Uniform questions are not applicable to other people of different ethnicity, culture etc.

Case study

A case study refers to specific unit of analysis for the study. The unit may be a person, family, a social group, a social institution or committees. A case study involves intensive study of a relative small number of situations. It views a social unit as a whole. It places more emphasis on the full analysis of limited number of events or conditions another behavior. It is a longitudinal approach so in development over a period of time the case study processes deeply and analyses interactions between the factors that explain present status or that

influences change or growth. The purpose is to understand life cycle or an important part of life cycle of the unit.

Case study is the method of exploring and analyzing the life of social unit, be that unit a person, a family, institution, culture, group or even entire community.

Characteristics of Case Study

Case studies are in depth investigations of a given social unit resulting in a complete well organized picture of that unit.

It is a study of a unit as a whole. The unit may be a person, a family, a social group, an institution, a committee or situation.

It is quantitative analysis not based on scientific analysis.

It follows on typicalness rather than uniqueness.

It examines a small number of units across a large number of variables and conditions.

A generalization drawn from a single case cannot be applied to case in given population.

It is a longitudinal approach. It shows a development over a period of time.

It deals with both what and why of the subject. It describes the complex behavior pattern of a unit.

It identifies three factors:

Features which are common to all cases in a general group.

oFeatures which are not common to all cases but are common to certain subgroups.

Features which are unique to specific cases.

Steps/phases in case study

State the objectives. What is the unit or study and what characteristics and process will direct the investigation?

Design the approach. How will the unit be selected? What sources of data are available? What data collection method is used?

Collect the data.

Organize the information to form a coherent, well- integrated reconstruction of unit of study.

Report the result and discuss their significance.

Strength/merits of case study

  * ™Inferences are obtained from study of an entire situation.

  * ™A case study is description of a real event or situation where as a statistical study involves abstraction form real situation. Example: an average may be typical of a large group, but not descriptive of a single unit in the group.

  * ™More accurate data are obtained.

  * ™Case study is particularly useful as background information for planning major investigations in the social sciences.

  * ™It is source of important hypothesis.

  * ™The researcher gains many new insights into human behavior and becomes emotionally mature.

  * Limitations of case study

  * ¾Since case study gives detailed description of complete situations, it is difficult to develop formal method of observation and recording. Informal method tends to become subjective rather than objective.

  * ¾Lack of objectivity carries out into the analysis case data. This may lead to unwanted conclusions.

  * ¾In analyzing cases, investigators are inclined to generalize although the case study method does not lend itself to generalization. Case studies are limited in their representatives because of their narrow focus on a few units.

  * ¾It is highly expensive and time taking.

  * ¾It lacks sample method.

Observation

It is a method of gathering primary data physically or mechanically recording events or aspect of the phenomenon under investigation. It involves recording of the respondents' behavior. It is the process of recognizing noting people, objects and occurrence of events rather than asking for information. It can supplement the information collected through questionnaire and interview.

Observation is the process of recognizing and recording behavior of people, objects and events. Observation is systematic and deliberate study through eye, of spontaneous occurrence at the time they occur.

Example: instead of asking consumer what brand they buy or what television program they watch, the researcher arrange to

observe what product are brought and what program they watch.

Characteristics of good observations

Observation should be carefully planned, systematic and perceptive. Observers should know what they are looking for and what is irrelevant in a situation.

  * ™It should focus on wholeness of what is observed. Observers should not only be alert to significant details, they should also know that the whole is often greater than the sum of its parts.

  * ™It should be objective and bias-free. Observers should strive to eliminate their influence what see and report.

  * ™It should separate the facts from the interpretation of facts. Observers observe the facts and make their interpretation at a later time.

  * ™It should be checked and verified whenever possible by repetition or by comparison with those of other competent observers.

  * ™It should be carefully and expertly recorded. Observers use appropriate instruments to systematize, qualify and preserve the result of their observations.

  * ™Observations are collected in such a way that they are valid and reliable.

  *

Validity of observation

Validity is that trial or quality of a data gathering procedure that enables to measure what it supposed to measure. Validity generally results from carful planning of observation. For the researchers observation to achieve a satisfactory degree of validity. Observation should achieve content, criterion-relatedand construct validity. To achieve a satisfactory degree of content validity, the researcher should identify and sample truly significant incidents of behavior. For this, a subjective judgment of expert in the field may be taken. The experts help in selecting a limited number of observable incidents whose relationship to the qualities of interest is based upon should established theory.

Criterion-related and construct validity are also headed in observation. They depend upon purpose of the study and inference made regarding behavior. For instance, if certain behavior were considered to be evidence of persons being shy, construct validity is needed to demonstrate a relationship between the behavior and the underlying content.

Criterion related validity can be used when researcher wants to predict behavior from observing any action of the respondent.

Reliability of observation

Reliability is that quantity....of a data gathering technique that enables to measure the degree of consistency. Observation data are considered to be reliable when they assure consistency in measurement. When researchers are role observers, they unconsciously tend....... What they expect to see and to overlook those incidents that do not fit their theory. Their own values, feelings and even attitudes may distort their observations. To overcome this, it may be desirable to engage others who are well prepared as observers. The researchers should not be observer.

Recording observation

Observation should be recorded. If it does not distract or create a barrio between observer and those observed, simultaneously recording of observation should be done. This participate minimize the errors that results from faulty memory. When recording would more appropriately done after observation, it should be done as soon as possible while the details are still fresh in the mind of the observers.

Systematizing data collection from observation

To aid in the recording of information gained through observation, a number of device have been extensively used. They are:

™Checklist

¾It is a prepared list of behavior or items. It is the simplest of the device. The presence or absence of behavior may be indicated by checking yes or no, or the type of number of items may be indicated by inserting the appropriate word or number.

™Rating scale

¾It involves qualitative description of limited number of aspects of things or triats of person. The classification may set up in 5 or 7 categories in such terms as:

I | Superior | Always | Average | Fair | Inferior

---|---|---|---|---|---

II | Excellent | Good | Average | Below | Poor

|  | |  | average

|

III | Always | Frequently | Occasionally | Rarely | Never

|  | |  | |

™Scale specimen

It provides a method for evaluating certain observed level of performance or measure of a quality in question. It is not frequently encountered in behavioral measures

Analysis and presentation of data Analysis of data

Analysis means categorizing, ordering, manipulating, and summarizing of data to obtain answers to research questions. The purpose of analysis is to reduce data to intelligible and interpretable form so that the relations of research problems can be studied and tested.

Method of data analysis

Descriptive analysis:

It limits generalization to the particular group of individuals observed. No conclusions are extended beyond this group and any similarity to those outside the group cannot be assumed. The data describes one group and that group only. It provides valuable information about the nature of particular group of individuals.

Inferential analysis:

It is also called logical or statistical analysis. It is probably based. It always involves the process of sampling and the selection of a small group that is assumed to be related to the population from which it is drawn. The small group is called the sample and the large group is the population.

Presentation of data:

The presentation of data is the basic organization and classification of the data for analysis. After data collection is completed, the data will be in the raw form. It is necessary to arrange the data so that it makes some sense to researchers as well to the readers. Different types of data require different methods of summary and presentation. Data are presented in charts, graphs and tables.

Telephone Interviewing:

  * quick method

  * more flexible as interviewer can explain questions not understood by the respondent

  * depending on respondent's answer they can skip some Qs and probe more on others

  * allows greater sample control

  * response rate tends to be higher than mail

Drawbacks:

-Cost per respondent higher

-Some people may not want to discuss personal Qs with interviewer

-Interviewer's manner of speaking may affect the respondent's answers

-Different interviewers may interpret and record response in a variety of ways -under time pressure ,data may be entered without actually interviewing

Personal Interviewing:

It is very flexible and can be used to collect large amounts of information. Trained interviewers are can hold the respondent's attention and are available to clarify difficult questions.

They can guide interviews, explore issues, and probe as the situation requires.

Personal interview can be used in any type of questionnaire and can be conducted fairly quickly.

Interviewers can also show actual products, advertisements, packages and observe and record their reactions and behaviour.

This takes two forms-

Individual- Intercept interviewing

Group - Focus Group Interviewing

Intercept interviewing:

Widely used in tourism research.

-allows researcher to reach known people in a short period of time.

\- only method of reaching people whose names and addresses are unknown

-involves talking to people at homes, offices, on the street, or in shopping malls. -interviewer must gain the interviewee's cooperation

-time involved may range from a few minutes to several hours( for longer surveys compensation may be offered)

\--involves the use of judgmental sampling i.e. interviewer has guidelines as to whom to "intercept", such as 25% under age 20 and 75% over age 60

Drawbacks:

-Room for error and bias on the part of the interviewer who may not be able to correctly judge age, race etc.

-Interviewer may be uncomfortable talking to certain ethnic or age groups.

Focus Group Interviewing:

It is rapidly becoming one of the major research tool to understand people's thoughts and feelings.

It is usually conducted by inviting six to ten people to gather for a few hours with a trained moderator to talk about a product, service or organization.The meeting is held in a pleasant place, and refreshments are served to create a relaxed environment. The moderator needs objectivity, knowledge of the subject and industry, and some understanding of group and consumer behaviour.

The moderator starts with a broad question before moving to more specific issues, encouraging open and easy discussion to bring out true feelings and thoughts. At the same time, the interviewer focuses the discussion, hence the name focus group interviewing.

-often held to help determine the subject areas on which questions should be asked in a later, large-scale, structured-direct interview

Comments are recorded through note taking or videotaped and studied later to understand consumer' buying process.

This method is especially suited for managers of hotels and restaurants, who have easy access to their customers.

e.g. Some hotel managers often invite a group of hotel guests from a particular market segment to have a free breakfast with them. Managers get the chance to meet the guests and discuss what they like about the hotel and what the hotel could do to make their stay more enjoyable and comfortable.

The guests appreciate this recognition and the manager gets valuable information. Restaurant managers use the same approach by holding discussion meetings over lunch or dinner.

Drawbacks:

-Cost: may cost more than telephone survey

-Sampling: group interview studies keep small sample size to keep time and cost down, therefore it may be difficult to generalize from the results. - Interviewer bias.

## EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

Also called Empirical Research or Cause and Effect Method, it is a data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified with observation or experiment.

Experimental research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. e.g.

-Tenderisers( independent variable) affect cooking time and texture of meat( dependent variable) .

  * The effect of substituting one ingredient in whole or in part for another such as soya flour to flour for making high protein bread.

-Develop recipes to use products.

Such research is characterised by the experimenter's control over the variables under study and the deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects.

In such a research, it is necessary to get at facts first hand, at their source, and actively go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information.

-Researcher must provide self with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results.

  * Then work to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove the hypothesis.

-He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information.

Evidence gathered through experimental or empirical studies today is considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.

Lowe,Belle;1958,Experimental Cookery, John Willey & Sons, New York, pp 34-46 

##  DETERMINING SAMPLE DESIGN

Researchers usually draw conclusions about large groups by taking a sample A Sample is a segment of the population selected to represent the population as a whole.

Ideally, the sample should be representative and allow the researcher to make accurate estimates of the thoughts and behaviour of the larger population.

Designing the sample calls for three decisions: Who will be surveyed? ( The Sample)

  * The researcher must determine what type of information is needed and who is most likely to have it.

How many people will be surveyed? (Sample Size)

  * Large samples give more reliable results than small samples. However it is not necessary to sample the entire target population.

How should the sample be chosen? (Sampling)

  * Sample members may be chosen at random from the entire population

( probability sample)

  * The researcher might select people who are easier to obtain information from ( nonprobability sample)

The needs of the research project will determine which method is most effective 

## Types of Samples

## Probability samples

Simple random sample: Every member of the population has a known and equal chance of being selected.

Stratified random sample :Population is divided into mutually exclusive groups such as age groups and randomsamples are drawn from each group.

Cluster(area)sample: The population is divided into mutually exclusive groups such as blocks, and the researcher draws a sample of the group to interview. 

## Nonprobability samples

Convenience sample: The researcher selects the easiest population members from which to obtain information.

Judgment sample:  The researcher uses his/her judgement to select population members who are good prospects for accurate information.

Quota sample: The researcher finds and interviews a prescribed number of people in each of several categories.

TOOL FOR DATA COLLECTION (RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS)

The construction of a research instrument or tool for data collection is the most important asp of a research project because anything you say by way of findings or conclusions is based up the type of information you collect, and the data you collect is entirely dependent upon the questions that you ask of your respondents. The famous saying about computers- "garbage in garbage out"- is also applicable for data collection. The research tool provides the input into study and therefore the quality and validity of the output (the findings), are solely dependent

it.

Guidelines to Construct a Research Tool:

The underlying principle behind the guidelines suggested below is to ensure the validity of yo instrument by making sure that your questions relate to the objectives of your study.

Step I: Clearly define and individually list all the specific objectives or research Questions for your study.

Step II: For each objective or research questions, list all the associated questions That you want to answer through your study.

Step III: Take each research question listed in step II and list the information Required to answer it.

Step IV: Formulate question(s) to obtain this information

UNIT IV: DATA PROCESSING:

Data processing: coding and tabulation of data- processing of the data obtained through scales- different types of scaling techniques- current analysis- hypothesis testing- analysis and interpretation-application of SPSS for data processing – essential of research

PROCESSING AND ANALYSING DATA

Processing and analyzing data involves a number of closely related operations which are performed with the purpose of summarizing the collected data and organizing these in a manner that they answer the research questions (objectives).

The Data Processing operations are:

Editing- a process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible.

Classification- a process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics. Depending on the nature of phenomenon involved

a)Classification according to attributes: here data is analysed on the basis of common characteristics which can either be

descriptive such as literacy, sex, religion etc. or : numerical such as weight, height, income etc. Such classification can be either:

Simple classification: where we consider only one attribute, and divide the universe into two classes—one class consisting of items possessing the given attribute and the other class consisting of items which do not possess the given attribute.

Table 1. Hotel Employees with MBA Degree

Yes No Total MBA Degree 21 9 30

Manifold classification: Here we consider two or more attributes simultaneously, and divide the data into a number of classes.

Table 2. Educational Qualification of Hotel Employees

Yes No Total

M F M F M FMBA Degree 12 9 3 6 15 15

B.Sc. H&HA 15 15 0 0 15 15

b)Classification according to class –intervals: is done with data relating to income, age, weight, tariff, production, occupancy etc. Such quantitative data are known as the statistics of variables and are classified on the basis of class –intervals.

e.g. persons whose income are within Rs 2001 to Rs 4000 can form one group or class, those with income within Rs 4001 t0 Rs 6000 can form another group or class and so on.

The number of items which fall in a given class is known as the frequency of the given class.

Table 3. Pocket Money Received by IHM Students

Income Range Frequency %

Rs.1001-2000 10 50

Rs.2001-3000 8 40

Rs.3001-4000 2 10

Total 20 100

3.Tabulation-Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact form for further analysis. It is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows. Tabulation is essential because:

It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum.

It facilitates the process of comparison.

It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions.

It provides the basis for various statistical computations.

Tabulation may also be classified as simple and complex tabulation. Simple tabulation generally results in one-way tables which supply answers to questions about one characteristic of data only. Complex tabulation usually results on two-way tables (which give information about two inter-related characteristics of data), three –way tables or still higher order tables, also known as manifold tables.

Data Analysis Methods Qualitative Data Analysis:

Qualitative data analysis is a very personal process with few rigid rules and procedures. For this purpose, the researcher needs to go through a process called Content Analysis.

Content Analysis means analysis of the contents of an interview in order to identify the main themes that emerge from the responses given by the respondents .This process involves a number of steps:

Step 1.Identify the main themes. The researcher needs to carefully go through the descriptive responses given by respondents to each question in order to understand the meaning they communicate. From these responses the researcher develop broad themes that reflect these meanings People use different words and language to express themselves. It is important that researcher select wording of the theme in a way that accurately represents the meaning of the responses categorized under a theme.These themes become the basis for analyzing the text of unstructured interviews.

Step 2. Assign codes to the main themes: If the researcher wants to count the number of times a theme has occurred in an interview, he/she needs to select a few responses to an open- ended question and identify the main themes. He/she continues to identify these themes from the same question till a saturation point is reached. Write these themes and assign a code to each of them, using numbers or keywords.

Step 3.Classify responses under the main themes: Having identified the themes Next step is to go through the transcripts of all the interviews and classify the responses under the different themes.

Step 4.Integrate themes and responses into the text of your report: Having identified responses that fall within different themes, the next step is to integrate into the text of your report. While discussing the main themes that emerged from their study, some researchers use verbatim responses to keep the feel of the response. There are others who count how frequently a theme has occurred, and then provide a sample of the responses. It entirely depends upon the way the researcher wants to communicate the findings to the readers.

Quantitative Data Analysis:

This method is most suitable for large well designed and well administered surveys using properly constructed and worded questionnaire.

Data can be analysed either manually or with the help of a computer .

Manual Data Analysis: This can be done if the number of respondents is reasonably small, and there are not many variables to analyze.

However, this is useful only for calculating frequencies and for simple cross tabulations.

Manual data analysis is extremely time consuming. The easiest way to do this is to code it directly onto large graph paper in columns. Detailed headings can be used or question numbers can be written on each column to code information about the question.

To manually analyse data (frequency distribution), count various codes in a column and then decode them.

In addition, if you want to carry out statistical tests, they have to be calculated manually. However, the use of statistics depends on your expertise and the desire/need to communicate the findings in a certain way.

Data Analysis Using a Computer:

If you want to analyse data using computer, you should be familiar with the appropriate program. In this area, knowledge of computer and statistics plays an important role.

The most common software is SPSS for windows. However, data input can be long and laborious process, and if data is entered incorrectly, it will influence the final results

RATING SCALES

Rating is the term applied to the expression of opinion or judgement regarding some situations, object, person etc. These opinions are usually expressed on a scale or by categories of values, either quantitatively or qualitatively. For example, a teacher in assigning a mark or a grade to a pupil is applying a rating scale of proficiency of some sort to that pupil, or an individual in filling out a recommendation form for another person for a teacher's placement. Rating scales are probably one of the more commonly used scaling traits and attributes.

The rating scale in values qualitative description of a limited number of aspects of a thing or of traits of a person. The classification may be set up in five or seven categories in such terms as:

1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5

---|---|---|---|---

(a) Superior | Above Average | Average | Fair | Inferior

(b) Excellent | Good | Average Below | Average | Poor

(c) Always | Frequently | Occasionally | Rarely | Never

"The rating scale typically directs attention to different parts or aspects of the thing to be evaluated, but does not have as many items or categories as the check list or score card." – Good and Scates

"Rating is an essence, directly observation", | – Ruth Strang

---|---

A rating scale ascertains the degree, intensity, or frequency of a variable." | – Von Dallen

Tools of Research | 203

"Rating is a term applied to expression of opinion or judgement regarding some situation, object or character. Opinions are usually expressed on a scale of values, rating techniques are devices by which such judgments may be quantified." – A.S. Barr

A rating scale is a method by which we systematize the expression of opinion concerning a trait. The ratings are done by parents, teachers, a board of interviewers and judges and by the self as well.

There are two characteristics of a rating scale:

1.Description of the characteristics to be rated, and

2.Some methods by which the quality, frequency or importance of each item to be rated may be given.

These rating scales give an idea of the personality of an individual.

Advantages of Rating Scales

The following are the main advantages of rating scales:

1.Helpful in writing reports to parents.

2.Helpful in filling out admission blanks for colleges.

3.Helpful in finding out students' needs.

4.Helpful in making recommendations to employers.

5.Helpful in supplementing other sources of undertakings about the child.

6.Helpful in their stimulating effect upon the individuals who are rated.

Limitations of Rating scales

The following are the disadvantages of the rating scales:

1.People differ markedly in their ability to make ratings.

2.People differ in their reliability as subjects for ratings. Some are easier to rate than others. It appears that poor employers tend to be better analysed than are good ones.

3.Raters having one form of contact with the individual being rated (teachers of the same school subject) tend to agree more closely than do raters with more diversified contacts. By the same taken rating obtained from persons having predominantly one type of contact are much less useful outside that specific field.

4.The average or medium rating of a number of judges is superior to that a single judge, provided there not great differences in the capability of judges.

5.Immediate emotional reactions affect ratings.

6.Self-rating tend to be too high on desirable traits and too low on undesirable traits.

7.One tends to rate one's own sex higher than the opposite sex on desirable traits.

8.While close associates are likely to rate more reliably than are casual associates, long and intimate friendship bring marked decreases in the reliability of ratings. Persons tend to over- rate intimate friends all desirable traits and under-rate less desirable traits.

9.'General all round value' is frequently more reliably rated than are some of the more specific qualities involved.

10.Raters are frequently unable to justify ratings, or, are apt to give absurd rationalizations.

"The design of the rating technique must always take into account the existence of three elements; the judges who will do the rating, the phenomena to be rated, and the continuum along which they will be rated. If the design does not adequately define all three, as well as assure that (1) the judges, (2) The subjects, and (3) the continuum are logically related, them only unreliable and invalid results can be expected. All three components must be very carefully selected. According to Goode and Hatt".

Traverse Suggests the Following Rules for the Rating Process

1.Define several points on each scale with as great precision as possible.

2.Restrict each rating scale to a narrow range of behaviour that can be well defined.

3.Change the ends of the scale so that the 'good' end is not always at the top or always at the bottom of the scale.

4.Avoid words such as average in the middle range of the scale. The rater who does not wish to give too much effort to the rating procedure is likely to class too many as 'average'.

5.In the directions, indicate the need for honest rating, and wherever possible, state that low rating will not have only consequence for the person rated, either direct or indirect.

6.Assure the rater that his anonymity will be safeguarded.

Principles Governing Rating Scales

1.The specific trait or mode of behaviour must be defined properly. For example, if we want to rate a child's originality in performing a task, first of all we must formulate a definition of 'originality' in behaviourable terms and then try to rate it.

2.The scale should be clearly defined i.e. we are rating at a three; or five-points scale.

3.The trait to be rated should be readily observable.

4.Uniform standards of rating scale should be observed.

5.The rater should observe the rates indifferent situations involving the trait to be rated. This will bring reliability to the Judgement of the rater.

6.The number of characteristics to be rated should be limited.

7.In the rating scale card, some space may be provided for the rater to write some supplementary material.

8.The directions of using the rating scales should be clear and comprehensive.

9.Several judges may be employed to increase the reliability of any rating scale.

10.Well informed and experienced persons should be selected for rating.

Errors in Rating

(a) Generosity Error

Sometimes raters would not like to run down their own people by giving them mow ratings. The result is that high ratings are given in almost all cases such an error is known as generosity error.

(b) Stringency Error

The opposite of generosity error may be called stringency error. Some raters have a tendency to rate all individuals low.

(c) The Halo Error

'Halo' means a tendency to rate in terms of general impressions about the rate formed on the basis of some previous performance.

(d) The Error of Central Tendency

There is a tendency in some observers to rate all or most of the rates near the midpoint of the scale. They would like to put most of the rates as 'Average' etc.

(e) The Logical Error

Such an error occurs when the characteristics or the trait to be rated is misunderstood.

Types of Rating Scales

The following are the main types of rating scales:

1. Descriptive Rating

The rater puts a check (Ö) in the blank before the characteristic or trait which is described in word or phrase.

Example:

Has this pupil initiative?

. . . . . . . Shows marked originality.

. . . . . . . Willing to take initiative.

. . . . . . . Quite inventive.

. . . . . . . On the whole unenterprising.

. . . . . . . Very dependent on others.

2. Numerical Scale

Here numbers are assigned to each trait. If it is a seven-point scale, the number 7 represents the maximum amount of that trait in the individuals, 4 represents the average amount.

3. The Graphic Scale

This is similar to the descriptive scale and the difference lies only in the way it is written. This is also called "Behavioural Statement Scale." These are of two types:

(a) Simple Scale Example:

Responsibility of Completing Work

Very high | High | Average | Low | Very low

---|---|---|---|---

(a) Example:

Social Attitude

Anti-social | Self-centred | Has no positive | Usually | Strongly

---|---|---|---|---

|  | attitude | considerate | altruistic

|  | |

to others

|

4.The Percentage of Group Scale

Here the rater is asked to give the percentage of the group that possesses the trait on which the individual is rated. For example, for rating the self-confidence of an individual, the rater may check one of the following:

. . . . . . Falls in the top 1 per cent.

. . . . . . Falls in the top 10 per cent, but not in the top one per cent.

. . . . . . In the top 25 per cent but not in the top 10 per cent.

. . . . . . In the top 5 but per cent not in the top 25 per cent.

. . . . .. In the lower half, but not in the bottom 25 per cent.

. . . . . . In the bottom 25% but not in the bottom 10%.

. . . . . . In the bottom 10% but not in the bottom 1%.

. . . . . . In the bottom 1 per cent.

5. Man To Man Scale

An individual is asked to rate the ratee by comparing him to the person mentioned on the scale and assuming the ratee his position. For example, ABCDE are the persons who have been already rated is very persistent. Every one not easily stops, works quite steadily, somewhat changeable, and gives up easily.

Example: Is he generally a persistent person?A B C D E

Because of subjectivity element, the use of this type is very limited.

The Score Card

This is similar to the rating scales and usually provides for the appraisal of a relatively large number of aspects in numerical terms. It yields a total weighted score as the presence of each characteristic of aspect, or the rating assigned to each, has a predetermined point value. The rater is provided with a general standard of criteria in detail and he is asked to rate only a single unit of the total situation at a time. The general practice is to employ a number of rates and their scores combined and averaged.

Scaled Specimens

Certain standards of performances are evaluated through specimens. A number of graded samples are provided by Thorndike's hand-writing scales to which one may compare the handwriting to be evaluated. These are various intelligence test scoring manuals which provide scaled specimens for determining the mental age of children as revealed by their drawings.

The Opinion or Attitude Scales

Purpose: Attitude scales have been designed to measure attitudes of an individual or group of people towards issues, institutions and group of people (such as capital punishment, teacher training, religious education in schools, etc.).

SELECTING THE LEVEL OF DATA

If we are working with variables which do have a quantitative aspect we can use the data collecting process of measurement. In this process we attempt to achieve some quantitative estimate of the variable or, more realistically of the amount of the variable which each of our research subject has. We can aspire to four different levels of measurement – Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio–andthese are listed from the weakest level (nominal) to the strongest level (ratio).

Here is seldom any question In labelling nominal data for nonquantitative data are typically obvious to researcher and reader alike. However, for quantitative data, the distinction between ordinal and interval or ratio data is a critical one and moreover, one which different researchers see differently. Some research specialists or guides advise as a general principle in planning data analysis that the researcher considers the data ordinal, unless he can specifically identify a rationale other than the assignment of consecutive digits to consider them interval data. This rationale may be purely intellectual and based on the processes involved in selecting the various points one scale, or the rationale may be empirical and based on the data collected during pilot work from which the final instrument was derived. But there should be some specific set of reasons or data which can be cited when the researcher departs from treating his numerical data as ordinal data.

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Analysis of data means studying the tabulated material in order to determine inherent facts or meanings. It involves breaking down existing complex factors into simpler parts and putting the parts together in new arrangements for the purpose of interpretation.

A plan of analysis can and should be prepared in advance before the actual collection of material. A preliminary analysis on the skeleton plan should as the investigation proceeds, develop into a complete final analysis enlarged and reworked as and when necessary. This process requires an alert, flexible and open mind. Caution is necessary at every step. In case where a plan of analysis has not been made beforehand. Good. Barr and Scates suggest four helpful modes to get started on analysing the gathered data:

(i) | To think in terms of significant tables that the data permit.

---|---

(ii) | To examine carefully the statement of the problem and the earlier analysis and to study the

|

original records of the data.

(iii) | To get away from the data and to think about the problem in layman's terms.

(iv) | To attack the data by making various simple statistical calculations.

In the general process of analysis of research data, statistical method has contributed a great deal. Simple statistical calculation finds a place in almost any research study dealing with large or even small groups of individuals, while complex statistical computations form the basis of many types of research. It may not be out of place, therefore to enumerate some statistical methods of analysis used in educational research.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA

Statistics is the body of mathematical techniques or processes for gathering, describing orgainising and interpreting numerical data. Since research often yields such quantitative data, statistics is a basic tool of measurement and research. The research worker who uses statistics is concerned with more than the manipulation of data, statistical methods goes back to fundamental purposes of analysis. Research in education may deal with two types of statistical data application.

1.Descriptive Statistical Analysis, and

2.Inferential Statistical Analysis.

1.Descriptive Statistical Analysis

Descriptive statistical analysis is concerned with numerical description of a particular group observed and any similarity to those outside the group can not be taken for granted. The data describe one group and that one group only.

Much simple educational research involves descriptive statistics and provides valuable information about the nature of a particular group or class.

2. Inferential Statistical Analysis

Inferential statistical analysis involves the process of sampling, the selection for study of a small group that is assumed to be related to the large group from which it is drawn. The small group is known as the sample; the large group, the population or universe, A statistics is a measure based on a sample. A statistic computed from a sample may be used to estimate a parameter, the corresponding value in the population which it is selected.

DESCRIPTIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Data collected from tests and experiments often have little meaning or significance until they have been classified or rearranged in a systematic way. This procedure leads to the organisation of materials into few heads.

(i) | Determination of range of the interval between the largest and smallest scores.

---|---

(ii) | Decision as to the number and size of the group to be used in classification. Class interval is

|

therefore, helpful for grouping the data in suitable units and the number and size of these

|

class intervals will depend upon the range of scores and the kinds of measures with which

|

one is dealing. The number of class intervals which a given range will yield can be determined

|

approximately by dividing the range by the interval tentatively chosen.

Most commonly used methods of analysis data statistically are:

1.Calculating frequency distribution usually in percentages of items under study.

2.Testing data for normality of distribution skewness and kurtosis.

3.Calculating percentiles and percentile ranks.

4.Calculating measures of central tendency-mean, median and mode and establishing norms.

5.Calculating measures of dispersion-standard deviation mean deviation, quartile deviation and range.

6.Calculating measures of relationship-coefficient of correlation, Reliability and validity by the Rank-difference and Product moment methods.

7.Graphical presentation of data-Frequency polygon curve, Histogram, Cumulative frequency polygon and Ogive etc.

While analyzing their data investigations usually make use of as many of the above simple statistical devices as necessary for the purpose of their study.

INFERENTIAL DATA ANALYSIS

The primary purpose of research is to discover principles' that have universal application. But to study a whole population in order to arrive at generalization would be impracticable if not impossible.

A measured value based upon sample data is statistic. A population value estimated from a statistic is a parameter. A sample is a small proportion of a population selected for analysis. By observing the sample, certain inferences may be made about the population. Samples are not selected haphazardly, but are chosen in a deliberate way so that the influence of chance or probability can be estimated. Several types of sampling procedures are described each one is particularly appropriate in a given set of circumstances.

INFERENCE FROM STATISTICS TO PARAMETERS

The basic ideas of inference are to estimate the parameters with the help of sample statistics which play an extremely important role in educational research. These basic ideals of which the concept of underlying distribution is a part, comprise the foundation for testing hypotheses using statistical techniques.

The chain of reasoning from statistics to parameters is a part of what we call inferential statistics. The inference is from the statistics to the parameters. This chain of reasoning has been illustrated with help of the following diagram:

(a) | We have a population and want to make decisions about measures of the population namely

---|---

|

parameters.

(b) | We have a random sample and compute measures of the sample which are termed as statistics.

UNIT V: USES OF STASTISTICS:

Uses and limitation of statistics in social work research- meaning, uses and limitation of arithmetic , means, media and mode- standard deviation- correlation and chi square tests.

Arithmetic mean or mean :

Arithmetic mean or simply the mean of a variable is defined as the sum of the observations divided by the number of observations. If the variable x assumes n values x1, x2...xn then the mean, x, is given by

x =x1 +x2 +x3 +.... +xn n

=1 ån xin i =1

Merits and demerits of Arithmetic mean :

Merits:

1.It is rigidly defined.

2.It is easy to understand and easy to calculate.

3.If the number of items is sufficiently large, it is more accurate and more reliable.

4.It is a calculated value and is not based on its position in the series.

5.It is possible to calculate even if some of the details of the data are lacking.

6.Of all averages, it is affected least by fluctuations of sampling.

7.It provides a good basis for comparison.

Demerits:

1.It cannot be obtained by inspection nor located through a frequency graph.

2.It cannot be in the study of qualitative phenomena not capable of numerical measurement i.e. Intelligence, beauty, honesty etc.,

3.It can ignore any single item only at the risk of losing its accuracy.

4.It is affected very much by extreme values.

5.It cannot be calculated for open-end classes.

6.It may lead to fallacious conclusions, if the details of the data from which it is computed are not given.

Weighted Arithmetic mean :

For calculating simple mean, we suppose that all the values or the sizes of items in the distribution have equal importance. But, in practical life this may not be so. In case some items are more

98

important than others, a simple average computed is not representative of the distribution. Proper weightage has to be given to the various items. For example, to have an idea of the change in cost of living of a certain group of persons, the simple average of the prices of the commodities consumed by them will not do because all the commodities are not equally important, e.g rice, wheat and pulses are more important than tea, confectionery etc., It is the weighted arithmetic average which helps in finding out the average value of the series after giving proper weight to each group.

Definition:

The average whose component items are being multiplied by certain values known as "weights" and the aggregate of the multiplied results are being divided by the total sum of their "weight".

If x1, x2...xn be the values of a variable x with respective

---

Uses of the weighted mean:

Weighted arithmetic mean is used in:

a.Construction of index numbers.

b.Comparison of results of two or more universities where number of students differ.

c.Computation of standardized death and birth rates

Harmonic mean (H.M) :

Harmonic mean of a set of observations is defined as the reciprocal of the arithmetic average of the reciprocal of the given values. If x1,x2.....xn are n observations,

H.M = | |

n | |

---|---|---|---|---

n | æ | |

1 | ö

|

åç | |

÷

|

|

i =1 | è xi | ø

For a frequency distribution | HM. . = | |

N

|

---|---|---|---|---

|

n | æ 1 | ö

|

|  | åf

|  | ç | |

÷

|

|  | i =1 | è x i | ø

Merits of H.M :

1.It is rigidly defined.

2.It is defined on all observations.

3.It is amenable to further algebraic treatment.

4.It is the most suitable average when it is desired to give

greater weight to smaller observations and less weight to the larger ones.

Demerits of H.M :

1.It is not easily understood.

2.It is difficult to compute.

3.It is only a summary figure and may not be the actual item in the series

4.It gives greater importance to small items and is therefore, useful only when small items have to be given great

Geometric mean :

The geometric mean of a series containing n observations is the nth root of the product of the values. If x1,x2...,xn are observations then

G.M = n

x1. x2 ... xn

= (x1.x2...xn)1/n | log GM = | 1 | log(x1.x2...xn)

---|---|---|---

|

n

|

|

=1(logx1+logx2+...+logxnn

=ålog xi | n | ålog xi

---|---|---

|

GM = Antilog

|

n

|

For grouped data | GM = Antilog | éåf log xi ù

---|---|---

|

ê | |

ú

|

N

|  | ë | û

Merits of Geometric mean :

1.It is rigidly defined

2.It is based on all items

3.It is very suitable for averaging ratios, rates and percentages

4.It is capable of further mathematical treatment.

5.Unlike AM, it is not affected much by the presence of extreme values

Demerits of Geometric mean:

1.It cannot be used when the values are negative or if any of the observations is zero

2.It is difficult to calculate particularly when the items are very large or when there is a frequency distribution.

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3.It brings out the property of the ratio of the change and not the absolute difference of change as the case in arithmetic mean.

4.The GM may not be the actual value of the series.

Combined mean :

If the arithmetic averages and the number of items in two or more related groups are known, the combined or the composite mean of the entire group can be obtained by

---

The advantage of combined arithmetic mean is that, we can determine the over, all mean of the combined data without going back to the original data

Median :

The median is that value of the variate which divides the group into two equal parts, one part comprising all values greater, and the other, all values less than median.

Merits of Median :

1.Median is not influenced by extreme values because it is a positional average.

2.Median can be calculated in case of distribution with open- end intervals.

3.Median can be located even if the data are incomplete.

4.Median can be located even for qualitative factors such as ability, honesty etc.

Demerits of Median :

1.A slight change in the series may bring drastic change in median value.

2.In case of even number of items or continuous series, median is an estimated value other than any value in the series.

3.It is not suitable for further mathematical treatment except its use in mean deviation.

4.It is not taken into account all the observations

Merits of Median :

1.Median is not influenced by extreme values because it is a positional average.

2.Median can be calculated in case of distribution with open- end intervals.

3.Median can be located even if the data are incomplete.

4.Median can be located even for qualitative factors such as ability, honesty etc.

Demerits of Median :

1.A slight change in the series may bring drastic change in median value.

2.In case of even number of items or continuous series, median is an estimated value other than any value in the series.

3.It is not suitable for further mathematical treatment except its use in mean deviation.

4.It is not taken into account all the observations

Standard Deviation :

Karl Pearson introduced the concept of standard deviation in 1893. It is the most important measure of dispersion and is widely used in many statistical formulae. Standard deviation is also calledRoot-Mean Square Deviation. The reason is that it is the square–root of the mean of the squared deviation from the arithmetic mean. It provides accurate result. Square of standard deviation is called Variance.

Definition:

It is defined as the positive square-root of the arithmetic mean of the Square of the deviations of the given observation from their arithmetic mean.

The standard deviation is denoted by the Greek letter s (sigma)

7.6.2 Calculation of Standard deviation-Individual Series :

There are two methods of calculating Standard deviation in an individual series.

a)Deviations taken from Actual mean

b)Deviation taken from Assumed mean

Merits and Demerits of Standard Deviation: Merits:

1.It is rigidly defined and its value is always definite and based on all the observations and the actual signs of deviations are used.

2.As it is based on arithmetic mean, it has all the merits of arithmetic mean.

3.It is the most important and widely used measure of dispersion.

4.It is possible for further algebraic treatment.

5.It is less affected by the fluctuations of sampling and hence stable.

6.It is the basis for measuring the coefficient of correlation and sampling.

Demerits:

1.It is not easy to understand and it is difficult to calculate.

2.It gives more weight to extreme values because the values are squared up.

3.As it is an absolute measure of variability, it cannot be used for the purpose of comparison

CORRELATION

Introduction:

The term correlation is used by a common man without knowing that he is making use of the term correlation. For example when parents advice their children to work hard so that they may get good marks, they are correlating good marks with hard work.

The study related to the characteristics of only variable such as height, weight, ages, marks, wages, etc., is known as univariate analysis. The statistical Analysis related to the study of the relationship between two variables is known as Bi-Variate Analysis. Some times the variables may be inter-related. In health sciences we study the relationship between blood pressure and age, consumption level of some nutrient and weight gain, total income and medical expenditure, etc., The nature and strength of relationship may be examined by correlation and Regression analysis.

Thus Correlation refers to the relationship of two variables or more. (e-g) relation between height of father and son, yield and rainfall, wage and price index, share and debentures etc.

Correlation is statistical Analysis which measures and analyses the degree or extent to which the two variables fluctuate with reference to each other. The word relationship is important. It indicates that there is some connection between the variables. It measures the closeness of the relationship. Correlation does not indicate cause and effect relationship. Price and supply, income and expenditure are correlated.

Definitions:

1.Correlation Analysis attempts to determine the degree of relationship between variables- Ya-Kun-Chou.

2.Correlation is an analysis of the covariation between two or more variables.- A.M.Tuttle.

Correlation expresses the inter-dependence of two sets of variables upon each other. One variable may be called as (subject)

independent and the other relative variable (dependent). Relative variable is measured in terms of subject.

Uses of correlation:

1.It is used in physical and social sciences.

2.It is useful for economists to study the relationship between variables like price, quantity etc. Businessmen estimates costs, sales, price etc. using correlation.

3.It is helpful in measuring the degree of relationship between the variables like income and expenditure, price and supply, supply and demand etc.

4.Sampling error can be calculated.

5.It is the basis for the concept of regression.

Scatter Diagram:

It is the simplest method of studying the relationship between two variables diagrammatically. One variable is represented along the horizontal axis and the second variable along the vertical axis. For each pair of observations of two variables, we put a dot in the plane. There are as many dots in the plane as the number of paired observations of two variables. The direction of dots shows the scatter or concentration of various points. This will show the type of correlation.

1. If all the plotted points form a straight line from lower left hand corner to the upper right hand corner then there is

1.If all the plotted dots lie on a straight line falling from upper left hand corner to lower right hand corner, there is a perfect

negative correlation between the two variables. In this case the coefficient of correlation takes the value r = -1.

2.If the plotted points in the plane form a band and they show a rising trend from the lower left hand corner to the upper right hand corner the two variables are highly positively correlated.

1.If the points fall in a narrow band from the upper left hand corner to the lower right hand corner, there will be a high degree of negative correlation.

2.If the plotted points in the plane are spread all over the diagram there is no correlation between the two variables.

No correlation ( r = 0)

Merits:

1.It is a simplest and attractive method of finding the nature of correlation between the two variables.

2.It is a non-mathematical method of studying correlation. It is easy to understand.

3.It is not affected by extreme items.

4.It is the first step in finding out the relation between the two variables.

5.We can have a rough idea at a glance whether it is a positive correlation or negative correlation.

Demerits:

By this method we cannot get the exact degree or correlation between the two variables.

Types of Correlation:

Correlation is classified into various types. The most important ones are

i)Positive and negative.

ii)Linear and non-linear.

iii)Partial and total.

iv)Simple and Multiple.

Positive and Negative Correlation:

It depends upon the direction of change of the variables. If the two variables tend to move together in the same direction (ie) an increase in the value of one variable is accompanied by an increase in the value of the other, (or) a decrease in the value of one variable is accompanied by a decrease in the value of other, then the correlation is called positive or direct correlation. Price and supply, height and weight, yield and rainfall, are some examples of positive correlation.

If the two variables tend to move together in opposite directions so that increase (or) decrease in the value of one variable is accompanied by a decrease or increase in the value of the other variable, then the correlation is called negative (or) inverse correlation. Price and demand, yield of crop and price, are examples of negative correlation.

194

Linear and Non-linear correlation:

If the ratio of change between the two variables is a constant then there will be linear correlation between them.

Consider the following.

X | 2 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 10 | 12

---|---|---|---|---|---|---

Y | 3 | 6 | 9 | 12 | 15 | 18

Here the ratio of change between the two variables is the same. If we plot these points on a graph we get a straight line.

If the amount of change in one variable does not bear a constant ratio of the amount of change in the other. Then the relation is calledCurvi-linear (or) non-linear correlation. The graph will be a curve.

Simple and Multiple correlation:

When we study only two variables, the relationship is simple correlation. For example, quantity of money and price level, demand and price. But in a multiple correlation we study more than two variables simultaneously. The relationship of price, demand and supply of a commodity are an example for multiple correlation.

Partial and total correlation:

The study of two variables excluding some other variable is called Partial correlation. For example, we study price and demand eliminating supply side. In total correlation all facts are taken into account.

Computation of correlation:

When there exists some relationship between two variables, we have to measure the degree of relationship. This measure is called the measure of correlation (or) correlation coefficient and it is denoted by ' r' .

Co-variation:

The covariation between the variables x and y is defined as

---

n

x and y and ' n' is the number of pairs of observations.

195

Karl pearson' s coefficient of correlation:

Karl pearson, a great biometrician and statistician, suggested a mathematical method for measuring the magnitude of linear relationship between the two variables. It is most widely used method in practice and it is known as pearsonian coefficient of correlation. It is denoted by ' r' . The formula for calculating ' r' is

(i) r = C ov(x, y) where sx , sy are S.D of x and y sx .sy

respectively.

å xy

(ii) r =

n sx sy

S XY

(iii) r =

, X = x \- x , Y = y \- y

åX2 .åY2

when the deviations are taken from the actual mean we can apply any one of these methods. Simple formula is the third one.

The third formula is easy to calculate, and it is not necessary to calculate the standard deviations of x and y series respectively.

Steps:

1. | Find the mean of the two series x and y.

---|---

2. | Take deviations of the two series from x and y.

|

X = x - | |

, Y = y - | |

|

x | y

3.Square the deviations and get the total, of the respective squares of deviations of x and y and denote by X2 ,Y2respectively.

4.Multiply the deviations of x and y and get the total and Divide by n. This is covariance.

5.Substitute the values in the formula

Introduction:

After knowing the relationship between two variables we may be interested in estimating (predicting) the value of one variable given the value of another. The variable predicted on the basis of other variables is called the "dependent" or the ' explained' variable and the other the ' independent' or the ' predicting' variable. The prediction is based on average relationship derived statistically by regression analysis. The equation, linear or otherwise, is called the regression equation or the explaining equation.

For example, if we know that advertising and sales are correlated we may find out expected amount of sales for a given advertising expenditure or the required amount of expenditure for attaining a given amount of sales.

The relationship between two variables can be considered between, say, rainfall and agricultural production, price of an input and the overall cost of product, consumer expenditure and disposable income. Thus, regression analysis reveals average relationship between two variables and this makes possible estimation or prediction.

Definition:

Regression is the measure of the average relationship between two or more variables in terms of the original units of the data.

Types Of Regression:

The regression analysis can be classified into:

a)Simple and Multiple

b)Linear and Non –Linear

c)Total and Partial

a) Simple and Multiple:

In case of simple relationship only two variables are considered, for example, the influence of advertising expenditure on sales turnover. In the case of multiple relationship, more than

218

two variables are involved. On this while one variable is a dependent variable the remaining variables are independent ones.

For example, the turnover (y) may depend on advertising expenditure (x) and the income of the people (z). Then the functional relationship can be expressed as y = f (x,z).

b) Linear and Non-linear:

The linear relationships are based on straight-line trend, the equation of which has no-power higher than one. But, remember a linear relationship can be both simple and multiple. Normally a linear relationship is taken into account because besides its simplicity, it has a better predective value, a linear trend can be easily projected into the future. In the case of non-linear relationship curved trend lines are derived. The equations of these are parabolic.

c) Total and Partial:

In the case of total relationships all the important variables are considered. Normally, they take the form of a multiple relationships because most economic and business phenomena are affected by multiplicity of cases. In the case of partial relationship one or more variables are considered, but not all, thus excluding the influence of those not found relevant for a given purpose.

9.3Linear Regression Equation:

If two variables have linear relationship then as the independent variable (X) changes, the dependent variable (Y) also changes. If the different values of X and Y are plotted, then the two straight lines of best fit can be made to pass through the plotted points. These two lines are known as regression lines. Again, these regression lines are based on two equations known as regression equations. These equations show best estimate of one variable for the known value of the other. The equations are linear

MORE SOURCES IN SCRIBD AS PDF AND WORD DOCUMENTS ( LINK)

Research Models

Social Work Research

Research Methodology Important Question and Answer

Research Methodology 2

Research Methodology and Statistics

Research Methodology - Methods and Techniques 2004

Introduction to Social Work Research

Evaluvating Analtical Data

Research Methodology 1

Data processing

11th standard statistics book for sums

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