 
nIn

COMPUTER APPLICATION

AND MANAGEMENT

INFORMATION SYSTEM

For

[M.B.A., PGDMA, PGDBM, B.B.A., B.B.M., of various Indian & international Institutions. Also for C.A. Foundation Course.]

By

Atul Kumar

Department of Management [MBA]

Etawah, U.P.

Preface to the Latest Edition

The present edition of book has been revised to meet the

Requirements of the students & reader sand other professional Diploma. The book has been written strictly according to the Syllabus of COMPUTER APPLICATION AND MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM.

Its contains the full explanation to the topics asked in MBA and Other standard universities Examinations & Interviews.

Some of the exclusive feature of the book are; Every concept is supported by explained examples. Working rule, different steps Are also given for applications and every topics. Effort have been made to make the subject thoroughly exhaustive and nothing of importance has been omitted.

Answers of different questions asked in various universities are given. Answer to all the problems have been thoroughly checked.

We wish to express our sincere thank stores expected students and readers. Who has taken keen interest all along of this book.

The authors are very much helpful that the student & reader will Enjoy reading and understanding concepts from this book.

Suggestions for improvement of the book will be gratefully

acknowledged.

Authors

COMPUTER APPLICATION AND

MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM

UNIT-1

HARDWARE

Computer hardware is the physical parts or components of a computer, such as the monitor, keyboard, computer data storage, graphic card, sound card and motherboard.1] By contrast, [software is instructions that can be stored and ran by hardware.

Hardware is directed by the software to execute any command or instruction. A combination of hardware and software forms a usable computingsystem.

### Input Devices

An input device is any hardware device that sends data to a computer, allowing you to interact with and control it. The picture shows a Logitechtrackball mouse, which is an example of an input device.

The most commonly used or primary input devices on a computer are the keyboard and mouse. However, there are dozens of other devices that can also be used to input data into the computer. Below is a list of input devices that can be utilized with a computer or a computing device.

### Keyboard

A computer keyboard is one of the primary input devices used with a computer that looks similar to those found on electric typewriters, but with some additional keys. Keyboards allow you to input letters, numbers, and other symbols into a computer that can serve as commands or be used to type text.

### Printing Devices

A print device is a hardware device used for printing. Print device resolution is measured in dots per inch (DPI) The higher the DPI, the finer the resolution.

A print client is an application on a user's computer that submits print jobs to a print device. Print jobs are source code that contain both data and commands for print processing. Print jobs are classified into data types based on the modifications that the print server must make to the job to print correctly.

The printer is the software interface between a print device and the print clients. It is sometimes called a logical printer and typically resides on the print server for remote printing _._ For local printing or print jobs redirected to a remote print device, the printer software is located on the print client.

The printer software specifies the print device's interface with the operating system and is stored with a unique printer name in the Printers folder It includes the printer driver _._ Printer drivers are programs that enable applications to communicate properly with specific print devices.

### Voice Speech Devices

Voice may refer to any of the following:

 1. In chat based communication such as IRC, voice is a feature used in moderated chat where users with a microphone to talk to one another, and those without, to spectate. This form of chat is used to cut back on typed questions or comments.

2. Voice chat is a real-time online discussion using a microphone instead of typing.

3. Your voice can also be an input device with voice recognition to control your computer by talking to it to give it commands or type for you.

### Scanner

A scanner may refer to any of the following:

 1. When referring to hardware, a scanner or optical scanner is a hardware input device that optically "reads" and image and converts it into a digital signal. For example, a scanner may be used to convert a printed picture, drawing, or document (hard copy) into a digital file which can be edited on a computer. The picture shows an example of a flatbed scanner, the EpsonV300.

How is a scanner connected?

A scanner can be connected to a computer using many different interfaces although today is most commonly connected to a computer using a USB cable.

## How is a scanner connected?

A scanner can be connected to a computer using many different interfaces although today is most commonly connected to a computer using a USB cable.

## When was the first scanner created?

The earliest forms of scanners appeared in the 1860s. However, the scanner as we know it today was created in  by a man named Russell Kirsch at the United States National Bureau of Standards. The first image scanned by this device was a picture of Kirsch's son. This black and white image measured only 5x5 cm and had a resolution of 176 pixels on each side

### MICR

Short for Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition, MICR is a font capable of recognition using magnetically charged ink. Computers equipped with the right hardware and software can print or read the character printed in such ink.

MICR font is commonly used to print checks, deposit slips, mortgage coupons, etc. There are several MICR fonts, the MICR E-13B font is used in the Canada, Panama, Puerto Rico, UK, and the United States. The MICR CRC-7 was created according to the ISO standards and is a font used in France, Mexico, Spain, and most other Spanish speaking countries.

### OMR

Short for Optical Mark Reading or Optical Mark Recognition, OMR is the process of gathering information from human beings by recognizing marks on a document. OMR is accomplished by using a hardware device (scanner) that detects a reflection or limited light transmittance on or through a piece of paper.

OMR allows for the processing of hundreds or thousands of documents per hour. For example, students may recall taking tests or surveys where they filled in bubbles on paper (shown right) with a pencil. Once the form had been completed, a teacher or teacher's assistant would feed the cards into a system that grades or gathers information from them.

### BAR CODE READER

Lines of different widths and sizes representing data, that when read determine what the scanned object is. Barcodes are often used to help organize and index information or prices about an object. Barcodes used by the U.S. postal service that helps speed the delivery of mail is another perfect example of how a barcode could be used. The picture is an example of what a barcode of an address.

## Barcode readers and scanners

 A barcode reader (BCR)or scanner, also known as a point of sale (POS) scanner is a hardware input device capable of reading a barcode. It can also print out the details of the product or log information about that product into a database. A perfect example of a barcode reader is a supermarket barcode scanner that reads and logs the price of a product. In the picture is an example of a Barcode reader from HP.

Today, many smartphones with the proper apps are also capable of scanning and reading barcodes.

### DIGITAL CAMERA

A digital camera is a hardware device that takes pictures like a regular camera, but stores the image as data instead of printing it to film. Many digital cameras are capable of recording video in addition to taking photos. The picture is of a Casio QV-R62 with 6.0 Megapixelresolution, an example of a typical digital camera.

Note: A camera that is always connected to your computer with no storage could also be referred to as a digital camera. However, it is more appropriate to refer to this device as a webcam.

Note: A digital camera may be considered both an input and output device (sometimes referred to as an I/O device) as it can both take pictures (input) and send them to your computer (output).

### OUTPUT DEVICES

##   
Definition - What does Output Device mean?

An output device is any device used to send data from a computer to another device or user. Most computer data output that is meant for humans is in the form of audio or video. Thus, most output devices used by humans are in these categories. Examples include monitors, projectors, speakers, headphones and printers.

An output device refers to user-computer communication devices and devices used for communication between computers, devices and other peripherals, which may be used for input/output (I/O) purposes, like network interface cards (NIC), modems, IR ports, RFID systems and wireless networking devices, as well as mechanical output devices, like solenoids, motors and other electromechanical devices.

### VISUAL DISPLAY UNIT

VDU stands for "Visual Display Unit." A VDU displays images generated by a computer or other electronic device. The term VDU is often used synonymously with "monitor," but it can also refer to another type of display, such as a digital projector. Visual display units may be peripheral devices or may be integrated with the other components. For example, the Apple iMac uses an all-in-one design, in which the screen and computer are built into a single unit.

Early VDUs were primarily cathode ray tube (CRT) displays and typically had a diagonal size of 13 inches or less. During the 1990s, 15" and 17" displays became standard, and some manufacturers began producing displays over 20" in size. At the turn of the century, flat panel displays became more common, and by 2006, CRT displays were hard to find.

Today, it is common for computers to come with VDUs that are 20" to 30" in size. Thanks to the recent growth in LCD, plasma, and LED technology, manufacturing large screens is much more cost effective than before.

### PRINTER

A printer is an external hardware output device that takes the electronic data stored on a computer or other device and generates a hard copy of it. For example, if you created a report on your computer you could print several copies to hand out at a staff meeting. Printers are one of the most popular computer peripherals and are commonly used to print text and photos. The picture to the right is an example of an inkjet computer printer, the Lexmark Z605.

Types of printers

 Below is a list of all the different types of computer printers. Today, the most common printers used with a computer are Inkjet and Laser printers.

  *  3D printer

  * All-in-one (AIO) printer

  * Dot matrix printer

  * Inkjet printer

  * Laser printer

  * LED printer

  * Multifunction printer (MFP)

  * Plotter

  * Thermal printer

### PLOTTER

A plotter is a computer hardware device much like a printer that is used for printing vector graphics. Instead of toner, plotters use a pen, pencil, marker, or another writing tool to draw multiple, continuous lines onto paper rather than a series of dots like a traditional printer. Though once widely used for computer-aided design, these devices have more or less been phased out by wide-format printers. Plotters are used to produce a hard copy of schematics and other similar applications.

Advantages of plotters

  * Plotters can work on very large sheets of paper while maintaining high resolution.

  * They can print on a wide variety of flat materials including plywood, aluminum, sheet steel, cardboard, and plastic.

  * Plotters allow the same pattern to be drawn thousands of times without any image degradation.

Disadvantages of plotters

  * Plotters are quite large when compared to a traditional printer.

  * Plotters are also much more expensive than a traditional printer.

### STORAGE DEVICES

Alternatively referred to as digital storage, storage, storage media, or storage medium, a storage device is any hardware capable of holding information either temporarily or permanently. The picture shows an example of a Drobo, an external secondary storage device.

There are two types of storage devices used with computers: a primary storage device, such as RAM, and a secondary storagedevice, like a hard drive. Secondary storage can be removable, internal, or external storage.

### MAGNATIC STORAGE DEVICES

Magnetic storage or magnetic recording is the storage of data on a magnetized medium. Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetisation in a magnetisable material to store data and is a form of non-volatile memory. The information is accessed using one or more read/write heads.

As of 2017, magnetic storage media, primarily hard disks, are widely used to store computer data) as well as audio and videosignals. In the field of computing, the term magnetic storage is preferred and in the field of audio and video production, the term magnetic recording is more commonly used. The distinction is less technical and more a matter of preference. Other examples of magnetic storage media include floppy disks, magnetic recording tape, and magnetic stripes on credit cards.

### OPTICAL STORAGE DEVICES

Optical storage is data storage media written on and read with laser technology. The three most common optical media are CD, DVD and Blu-ray. CDs store about 300,000 pages of text or roughly 700 MB. DVDs are commonly used for movies and hold around 4.7 GB of memory. Blu-ray has five times the storage of DVD and is used for high-definition (HD) movies. On a single-layer disc, Blu-ray can hold 25GB of data, and a dual-layer disc can hold 9 hours of an HD movie or about 50GB of data. The expectation over time is for Blu-ray to replace DVD as the preferred optical media.

### FLASH MEMORY

Flash memory, also known as flash storage, is a type of nonvolatile memory that erases data in units called blocks. A block stored on a flash memory chip must be erased before data can be written or programmed to the microchip. Flash memory retains data for an extended period of time, regardless of whether a flash-equipped device is powered on or off.

Flash memory is used in enterprise server, storage and networking technology, as well as in a wide range of consumer devices, including USB flash drives, mobile phones, digital cameras, tablet computers, PC cards in notebook computers and embedded controllers. For instance, NAND flash-based solid-state drives are often used to accelerate the performance of I/O-intensive applications. NOR flash memory is often used to hold control code, such as the basic input/output system (BIOS), in a PC.

SOFTWARE

Software refers to computer programs which perform specific functions as instructed. It can be a single program or may refer to a number of programs collectively. These instructions are defined in proper step by step manner. It is important to mention that hardware becomes incapable for extending its capabilities without support of the software. These software programs assist computer systems and network to start and work.

### TYPE OF SOFTWARE

Practical computer systems divide software systems into three major classes[citation needed]: system software, programming software and application software, although the distinction is arbitrary, and often blurred.

System software

System software provides the basic functions for computer usage and helps run the computer hardware and system. It includes a combination of the following: • device drivers • operating systems • servers • utilities • window systems.

System software is responsible for managing a variety of independent hardware components, so that they can work together harmoniously. Its purpose is to unburden the application software programmer from the often complex details of the particular computer being used, including such accessories as communications devices, printers, device readers, displays and keyboards, and also to partition the computer's resources such as memory and processor time in a safe and stable manner.

Programming software Programming software usually provides tools to assist a programmer in writing computer programs, and software using different programming languages in a more convenient way. The tools include: • compilers • debuggers • interpreters • linkers • text editors An Integrated development environment (IDE) is a single application that attempts to manage all these functions.

Application software System software does not aim at a certain application fields.In contrast,different application software offers different function based on users and the area it served.Application software is developed for some certain purpose,which either can be a certain program or a collection of some programmes,such as a graphic browser or the data base management system. Application software allows end users to accomplish one or more specific (not directly computer development related) tasks. Typical applications include: • industrial automation • business software • video games • quantum chemistry and solid state physics software • telecommunications (i.e., the Internet and everything that flows on it) • databases • educational software • Mathematical software • medical software • molecular modeling software • image editing • spreadsheet • simulation software • Word processing • Decision making software Application software exists for and has impacted a wide variety of topics.

### INTRODUCTION TO LANGUES

# WHAT IS A COMPUTER LANGUAGE

A language is the main medium of communicating between the Computer systems and the most common are the programming languages. As we know a Computer only understands binary numbers that is 0 and 1 to perform various operations but the languages are developed for different types of work on a Computer. A language consists of all the instructions to make a request to the system for processing a task. From the first generation and now fourth generation of the Computers there were several programming languages used to communicate with the Computer.

## TYPES OF COMPUTER LANGUAGES

There are mainly two types of computer languages :-

  * Low Level Language

  * High Level Language

### ABOUT LOW LEVEL LANGUAGE

  * Low level languages are the machine codes in which the instructions are given in machine language in the form of 0 and 1 to a Computer system.

  * It is mainly designed to operate and handle all the hardware and instructions set architecture of a Computer.

  * The main function of the Low level language is to operate, manage and manipulate the hardware and system components.

  * There are various programs and applications written in low level languages that are directly executable without any interpretation or translation.

  * The most famous and the base of all programming languages "C" and "C++" are mostly used Low level languages till today.

  * Low level language is also divided into two parts are Machine language and Assembly language.

### MACHINE LANGUAGE

  * Machine Language is one of the low-level programming languages which is the first generation language developed for communicating with a Computer.

  * It is written in machine code which represents 0 and 1 binary digits inside the Computer string which makes it easy to understand and perform the operations.

  * As we know a Computer system can recognize electric signals so here 0 stands for turning off electric pulse and 1 stands for turning on electric pulse.

  * It is very easy to understand by the Computer and also increases the processing speed.

### ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

  * Assembly Language is the second generation programming language that has almost similar structure and set of commands as Machine language.

  * Instead of using numbers like in Machine languages here we use words or names in English forms and also symbols. The programs that have been written using words, names and symbols in assembly language are converted to machine language using an Assembler.

  * Because a Computer only understands machine code languages that's why we need an Assembler that can convert the Assembly level language to Machine language so the Computer gets the instruction and responds quickly.

### HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE

  * The high level languages are the most used and also more considered programming languages that helps a programmer to read, write and maintain.

  * It is also the third generation language that is used and also running till now by many programmers. They are less independent to a particular type of Computer and also require a translator that can convert the high level language to machine language.

  * The translator may be an interpreter and Compiler that helps to convert into binary code for a Computer to understand.

  * There is various high level programming languages like C, FORTRAN or Pascal that are less independent and also enables the programmer to write a program.

  * The Compiler plays an important role on the Computer as it can convert to machine language and also checks for errors if any before executing.

### COMPILER

A compiler is a program that translates a programme written in HLL to executable machine language. The process of transferring HKK source program in to object code is a lengthy and complex process as compared to assembling. Compliers have diagnostic capabilities and prompt the programmer with appropriate error message while compiling a HLL program. The corrections are to be incorporated in the program, whenever needed, and the program has to be recompiled. The process is repeated until the program is mistake free and translated to an object code. Thus the job of a complier includes the following:

1. To translate HLL source program to machine codes.  
2. To trace variables in the program  
3. To include linkage for subroutines.  
4. To allocate memory for storage of program and variables.  
5. To generate error messages, if there are errors in the program.

### INTERPRETER

The basic purpose of interpreter is same as that of complier. In compiler, the program is translated completely and directly executable version is generated. Whereas interpreter translates each instruction, executes it and then the next instruction is translated and this goes on until end of the program. In this case, object code is not stored and reused. Every time the program is executed, the interpreter translates each instruction freshly. It also has program diagnostic capabilities. However, it has some disadvantages as below:

1. Instructions repeated in program must be translated each time they are executed.

2. Because the source program is translated fresh every time it is used, it is slow process or execution takes more time. Approx. 20 times slower than complier.

### ASSEMBLER

Assembler is a computer program which is used to translate program written in Assembly Language in to machine language. The translated program is called as object program. Assembler checks each instruction for its correctness and generates diagnostic messages, if there are mistakes in the program. Various steps of assembling are:

1. Input source program in Assembly Language through an input device.  
2. Use Assembler to produce object program in machine language.  
3. Execute the program.

### OPERATING SYSTEM FUNCTOINS

There are Many Functions those are Performed by the Operating System But the Main Goal of Operating System is to Provide the Interface between the user and the hardware Means Provides the Interface for Working on the System by the user. The various Functions those are Performed by the Operating System are as Explained below:-

  * Memory management

  * Task or process management

  * Storage management

  * Device or input/output management

  * Kernel or scheduling

### Memory Management

Memory management is the process of managing a computer memory. Computer memories are of two types: primary and secondary memory. The memory portion for programs and softwares is allocated after releasing the memory space.

### Memory Management

Memory management is important for the operating system involved in multitasking wherein the OS requires switching of memory space from one process to another. Every single program requires some memory space for its execution, which is provided by the memory management unit. A CPU consists of two types of memory modules: virtual memory and physical memory. The virtual memory is a RAM memory, and the physical memory is a hard disk memory. An operating system manages the virtual memory address spaces, and the assignment of real memory is followed by the virtual memory address.

Before executing instructions, the CPU sends the virtual address to the memory management unit. Subsequently, the MMU sends the physical address to the real memory, and then the real memory allocates space for the programs or data.

### Task or Process Management

Process management is an instance of a program that is being executed. The process consists of a number of elements, such as identifier, program counter, memory pointer and context data, and so on. The Process is actually an execution of those instructions.

There are two types of process methods: single process and multitasking method. The single process method deals with the single application running at a time. The multitasking method allows multiple processes at a time.

### Device or Input/output Management

In a computer architecture, the combination of CPU and main memory is the brain of the computer, and it is managed by the input and output resources. Humans interact with the machines by providing information through I/O devices.

The display, keyboard, printer and mouse are I/O devices. The management of all these devices affects the throughput of a system; therefore, the input and output management of the system is a primary responsibility of the operating system

### Scheduling

Scheduling by an operating system is a process of controlling and prioritizing the messages sent to a processor. The operating system maintains a constant amount of work for the processor and thus balances the work load. As a result, each process is completed within a stipulated time frame.

Hence, scheduling is very important in real-time systems. The schedulers are mainly of three types:

  * Long term scheduler

  * Short term scheduler

  * Medium term schedule

## 2. Real-time Operating System

Real-time operating systems are also known as multitasking operating systems. The normal operating system is responsible for managing the hardware resources of a computer. The RTOS perform these tasks, but it is especially designed to run applications at a scheduled or precise time with high reliability.

### Real time operating system

Real-time operating system is designed for real-time applications, such as embedded systems, industrial robots, scientific research equipments and others. There are different types of operating systems in real time, such as soft real-time operating systems and hard real-time operating systems.

### Examples of RTOS

  * RTLinux

  * VxWorks

  * TRON

  * Windows CE

Hard Real-time System

The hard real time system is a purely time constant system. For a hard real time operating system, finishing the tasks within deadline is very important for an efficient system performance.

For example, for a given input, if a user expects the output after 10seconds, then the system should process the input data and give the output exactly after 10seconds. Here, the deadline is 10 seconds, and therefore, the system should not give the output after 11th sec or 9th sec.

Therefore, the hard real-time systems are used in army and defense.

Soft Real-time System

For a soft real-time system, meeting the deadline is not mandatory for every task. Therefore, a soft real-time system can miss the deadline by one or two seconds. However, if the system misses deadlines every time, this will degrade the system performance. Computers, audio and video systems are examples of soft real-time systems. Nowadays, Androids are being widely used for applications like automatic gate openers.

We hope you might have got a clear understanding about the different types of operating systems. Therefore, here is a very simple question for all the enthusiastic readers: What are the advantages of Linux operating system over Windows?

You can write your answers and feedback in the comment section given below.

Photo Credits

  * Real time operating system by avnet

  * Character User Interface Operating System by cslab.ece

  * Graphical User Interface Operating Systems by static.ddmcdn

  * Architecture of Operating System by technologyuk

  * Operating System functions by bp.blogspot

  * Memory Management by tutorialspoint

  * Process Management by presby.edu

  * Scheduling by montana.edu

  * Real Time Operating System by bp.blogspot

### Storage Management

Storage management is a function of the operating system that handles memory allocation of the data. The system consists of different types of memory devices, such as primary storage memory (RAM), secondary storage memory, (Hard disk) and cache storage memory.

### Scheduling

Instructions and data are placed in the primary storage or cache memory, which is referenced by the running program. However, the data is lost when power supply cut off. The secondary memory is a permanent storage device. The operating system allocates a storage place when new files are created and the request for memory access is scheduled.

### TYPE AND CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING SYSTEM

Computer Operating systems can be broadly classified into two types:

  1. Normal Operating System

  2. Real Time Operating System

1. Normal Operating System

The normal operating system is further classified into two types:

  * Character User Interface Operating System

  * Graphical User Interface Operating System

### Character User Interface Operating System (CUI)

### Character user interface Operating system

The CUI operating system is a text-based operating system, which is used for interacting with the software or files by typing commands to perform specific tasks. The command line operating system uses only keyboard to enter commands. The command line operating systems include DOS and UNIX. The advanced command line operating system is faster then the advanced GUI operating system.

### Graphical User Interface Operating System (GUI)

### Graphical User Interface Operating System

The graphical mode interface operating system is a mouse-based operating system (Windows Operating System, LINUX), wherein a user performs the tasks or operations without typing the commands from the keyboard. The files or icons can be opened or closed by clicking them with a mouse button.

In addition to this, the mouse and keyboard are used to control the GUI operating systems for several purposes. Most of the embedded-based projects are developed on this operating system. The advanced GUI operating system is slower than the command line operating system.

### Architecture of Operating systems

The operating systems control the hardware resources of a computer. The kernel and shell are the parts of the operating system that perform essential operations.

When a user gives commands for performing any operation, the request goes to the shell part, which is also known as interpreter. The shell part then translates the human program into a machine code, and then transfers the request to the kernel part.

### Architecture of operating system

When the kernel receives the request from the shell, it processes the request and displays the result on the screen. The kernel is also known as the heart of the operating system as every operation is performed by it.

Shell

The shell is a part of the software which is placed between the user and the kernel, and it provides services of the kernel. The shell thus acts as an interpreter to convert the commands from the user to a machine code. Shells present in different types of operating systems are of two types: command line shells and graphical shells.

The command line shells provide a command line interface while graphical line shells provide a graphical user interface. Though both shells perform operations, the graphical user interface shells perform slower than the command line interface shells.

Types of shells

  * Korn shell

  * Bourne shell

  * C shell

  * POSIX shell

Kernel

The kernel is a part of a software. It is like a bridge between the shell and hardware. It is responsible for running programs and providing secure access to the machine's hardware. The kernel is used for scheduling, i.e., it maintains a time table for all processes.

Types of Kernels

  * Monolithic kernel

  * Microkernels

  * Exokernels

  * Hybrid kernels

### ELEMENTS OF GUI BASED OPERATING SYSTEM

### As we discussed earlier, the Graphical User Interface has a visual environment using windows, buttons, and icons. As Microsoft Windows operating system is the most popular, we will discuss the different features of a GUI based operating systems with the help of Windows operating system.

### 1 Task Bar- Taskbar is a bar displayed at the bottom of the GUI desktop. It is used to launch and monitor running applications. The taskbar in Microsoft Windows may include the Start menu button, Quick Launch bar, taskbar buttons, and notification area.

### Taskbar elements

• The Start menu button gives access to installed programs, recent documents and OS settings.

• The Quick Launch bar contains shortcuts to applications. Microsoft Windows XP displays the Quick Launch bar by default, so it might already be part of your taskbar. Look for the Quick Launch bar directly to the right of your Start button. If your Quick Launch bar is disabled, you can display it by right clicking your taskbar, and selecting Toolbars Quick Launch option. Setting Taskbar Options In Windows, you can customize the taskbar according to your choice. To do so, right-click the Taskbar. The popup menu displays some of the commonly used options and the properties option. You can select the option you want by clicking on "Properties" to open the Taskbar and Start Menu properties dialog box. Some of the options are discussed below:

• Lock the taskbar: If selected, all sizing handles on the taskbar are hidden so you can't accidentally move or resize it.

• Auto-hide the taskbar: If you select this option, the taskbar will be hidden most of the time so as to not take up any space on the screen. To make it visible, move the mouse pointer to its position prior to hiding.

• Keep the taskbar on top of other windows: If selected, the taskbar is visible at all times, even when large maximized program windows are covering the rest of the screen.

• Group similar taskbar buttons: If selected, multiple taskbar buttons collapse into a single button so the buttons don't become too small on the taskbar.

• Show Quick Launch: If selected, Quick Launch toolbar is displayed to the right of the Start button.

### 2. Icons- Icon is a graphic symbol that denotes a program or a command or a data file or a concept in a graphical user interface. There are thousands of icons in windows Operating system. Some important icons are categorized into six groups as follows: .

### *File management icons are used for storing and retrieving files and folders within the system. E.g. My Computer, My Document, etc.

### * Database management icons are used for accessing different types of databases.

### * Office Icons are used for accessing office applications. E.g. Word, Excel, etc.

### * Internet access icons are used for upload and download files from the internet. E.g. Internet Explorer, FTP, etc.

### *Multimedia icons are used for accessing audio and video files. E.g. Windows Media Player, Sound Recorder, etc.

### * Utility Icons are used for managing the system. E.g. Backup, Control Panel, etc.

### 3 Menu

### 4 Running an Application Running an application in GUI based operating system is quite easy and can be done in many ways. Some of the ways are mentioned below:

### * If the application icon is available on the desktop, double-click it

### * Click on the Start Menu to open the list of applications installed. Choose the application you want to run and double-click it.

### 8Click on Start Menu then click on Run and type the name of the application in the textbox and press enter.

### * Operating System Simple Setting

### 4. Changing System Date and Time Follow these steps to adjust system date and time:

### * Click on the time that is displayed in the task bar. This will bring up the Date and Time Properties box. You can also right-click on the time by clicking on the "Adjust Date and Time" menu option. Or, click Start Control Panel Date and time to open the dialog box.

### *Change the date, month, year, time settings as you want.

### * Click "Apply" button to save the changes.

### 5. Changing Display Properties-

### To change the display property, right click on the desktop then select properties a new window will appear having following tabs:

### * Theme – Here you can change theme of the OS.

### * Desktop – Here you can change the background and colour scheme of the windows.

### *Screen Saver – Here you can change screen saver and power settings.

### *Appearance – Here you can change style, colour scheme, font of the windows and icons.

### *Settings – Here you can change screen resolution and colour scheme. All the tabs have "Advanced" button that can be clicked to open more options to be adjusted.

### 6. To Add and Remove a Windows Component Follow these steps to add or remove a windows component:

### * Click on Start Settings Control Panel Add or Remove Programs.

### * Add/Remove Windows Program dialog box appears.

### *Select the Add/Remove Windows Component icon on the left side of the dialog box.

### *Add/Remove Windows Component dialog box opens.

### * Select the component to be removed and click on "Next"

### *A message box will appear asking you to confirm you really want to remove the component. 7. Select the OK button to remove it.

### 7. Changing Mouse Properties Follow these steps to change mouse properties:

### * Click on Start Settings Control Panel Mouse.

### *Mouse Properties dialog box appears.

### *Change the shape of the Mouse Pointer, Mouse Buttons configuration, Pointer Options, etc. as per your choice.

### 8. To Add or Remove Printers To print, you need to connect a printer directly to your computer (when it is connected in this way, it's referred to as a local printer), or create a connection to a network or shared printer. To Add a Local Printer First, connect the printer to your computer following the manufacturer's instructions. Windows will attempt to automatically install the printer. If Windows can't automatically install it, or if you've previously removed the printer and want to add it again, follow these steps:

### *Click on Start Settings Control Panel Printers.

### * Printer dialog box appears.

### * Click Add a printer. To open the Add Printer Wizard.

### * Select Add a local printer option to open Choose a printer port page.

### * Ensure that the Use an existing port option button and the recommended printer port are selected, and then click Next.

### * On the Install the printer driver page, select the printer manufacturer and model, and then click Next.

### 9. Remove a printer-

### *Click on Start Settings Control Panel Printers.

### * Printers dialog box appears.

### *Right-click the printer that you want to remove, and then choose Delete.

### * If you are prompted for an administrator password or confirmation, type the password or provide confirmation.

### 10. File and Directory Management.

### 11. Creating and Renaming of Files and Directorie-

### A file object provides a representation of a resource that can be managed by the I/O system. Like other objects, they enable sharing of the resources, they have names, they are protected by object-based security, and they support synchronization. The I/O system also enables reading from or writing to the resource. 5 A directory is a hierarchical collection of directories and files. The only constraint on the number of files that can be contained in a single directory is the physical size of the disk on which the directory is located. Creating new files or folders Follow these steps to create new folders:

### *Open Windows Explorer, navigate to the drive or folder in which you want to create your new folder.

### * Right click anywhere in the white space and hover the mouse over new.

### * Click on folder from the sub-menu that appears.

### * You will then be prompted to name the folder, simply type in the name and then press enter (return) key. The same procedure may be followed for creating files.

### 12. Renaming Files and folders Follow these steps to rename files and folders:

### * Right click on the folder or file which you want to rename.

### *Then click on the sub-menu Rename.

### *Filename gets highlighted. Write the name of the file or folder you want and press Enter.

### 13. Common Utilities Utility software is a kind of system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize and maintain the computer. A single piece of utility software is usually called a utility or tool. Some of the utilities of OS are:

### *Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are broken across several locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.

### *Backup utilities can make a copy of all information stored on a disk, and restore either the entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event of accidental deletion).

### * Archive utilities output a stream or a single file when provided with a directory or a set of files. Archive utilities, unlike archive suites, usually do not include compression or encryption capabilities. Some archive utilities may even have a separate un-archive utility for the reverse operation.

### *Disk compression utilities can transparently compress/uncompress the contents of a disk, increasing the capacity of the disk.

UNIT-2

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Communications technology, also known as information technology, refers to all equipment and programs that are used to process and communicate information. Professionals in the communication technology field specialize in the development, installation, and service of these hardware and software systems. Individuals who enter this field develop an understanding in the conceptions, production, evaluation, and distribution of communication technology devices.

### NETWORK

A computer network is a set of connected computers. Computers on a network are called nodes. The connection between computers can be done via cabling, most commonly the Ethernet cable, or wirelessly through radio waves. Connected computers can share resources, like access to the Internet, printers, file servers, and others. A network is a multipurpose connection, which allows a single computer to do more.

### TYPE OF NETWORK

One way to categorize the different types of computer network designs is by their scope or scale. For historical reasons, the networking industry refers to nearly every type of design as some kind of _area network_. Common types of area networks are:

### LAN

A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per room), and occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby buildings. In TCP/IP networking, a LAN is often but not always implemented as a single IP subnet.

In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also typically owned, controlled, and managed by a single person or organization.

They also tend to use certain connectivity technologies, primarily Ethernet and Token Ring.

### MAN

  * Metropolitan Area Network \- A network spanning a physical area larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, such as a city. A MAN is typically owned and operated by a single entity such as a government body or large corporation.

### WAN

As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance. The Internet is the largest WAN, spanning the Earth.

A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A network device called a router connects LANs to a WAN.

In IP networking, the router maintains both a LAN address and a WAN address.

A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like the Internet) are not owned by any one organization but rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and management. WANs tend to use technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity over the longer distances.

Other local Networks

  * Campus Area Network \- A network spanning multiple LANs but smaller than a MAN, such as on a university or local business campus.

  * Storage Area Network \- Connects servers to data storage devices through a technology like Fibre Channel.

  * System Area Network (also known as Cluster Area Network) - Links high-performance computers with high-speed connections in a cluster configuration.

### NETWORK TOPOLOGY

A network topology is the arrangement of a network, including its nodes and connecting lines. There are two ways of defining network geometry: the physical topology and the logical (or signal) topology.

The physical topology of a network is the actual geometric layout of workstations. There are several common physical topologies, as described below and as shown in the illustration.

In the bus network topology, every workstation is connected to a main cable called the bus. Therefore, in effect, each workstation is directly connected to every other workstation in the network.

In the star network topology, there is a central computer or server to which all the workstations are directly connected. Every workstation is indirectly connected to every other through the central computer.

In the ring network topology, the workstations are connected in a closed loop configuration. Adjacent pairs of workstations are directly connected. Other pairs of workstations are indirectly connected, the data passing through one or more intermediate nodes.

If a Token Ring protocol is used in a star or ring topology, the signal travels in only one direction, carried by a so-called token from node to node.

The mesh network topology employs either of two schemes, called full mesh and partial mesh. In the full mesh topology, each workstation is connected directly to each of the others. In the partial mesh topology, some workstations are connected to all the others, and some are connected only to those other nodes with which they exchange the most data.

The tree network topology uses two or more star networks connected together. The central computers of the star networks are connected to a main bus. Thus, a tree network is a bus network of star networks.

Logical (or signal) topology refers to the nature of the paths the signals follow from node to node. In many instances, the logical topology is the same as the physical topology. But this is not always the case. For example, some networks are physically laid out in a star configuration, but they operate logically as bus or ring networks.

### EDI

EDI (Electronic Data Interchange) is the transfer of data from one computer system to another by standardized message formatting, without the need for human intervention. EDI permits multiple companies -- possibly in different countries -- to exchange documents electronically. Data can be exchanged through serial links and peer-to-peernetworks, though most exchanges currently rely on the Internet for connectivity.

An EDI message contains a string of data elements, each of which represents a singular fact, such as a price, product model number, and so forth, separated by delimiter. The entire string is called a data segment. One or more data segments framed by a header and trailer form a transaction set, which is the EDI unit of transmission (equivalent to a message). A transaction set often consists of what would usually be contained in a typical business document or form.

When sending an EDI document, both parties or trading partners must adhere to the same set of rules. These standards define where and how the information from the document will be found. Translation software processes the information differently for sent and received messages and performs a complete audit of each step to ensure information is sent or received in EDI format. When the translator on the receiving computer reads a document, it knows where to find the buyer's company name, order number, purchase items and price, for example. This information is then sent to the receiver's order entry system without necessitating manual order entry.

EDI applies to documents such as purchase orders, invoices, shipping notices and commission sales reports, as well as other important or classified information. For example, an insurance company can verify that an applicant has a driver's license through an EDI exchange.

### INTERNET

The Internet is generally defined as _a global_ network _connecting millions of_ computers. More than 190 countries are linked into exchanges of data, news and opinions.

The Internet, sometimes called simply "the Net," is a worldwide system of computer networks \- a network of networks in which users at any one computer can, if they have permission, get information from any other computer (and sometimes talk directly to users at other computers). It was conceived by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. government in 1969 and was first known as the ARPANet. The original aim was to create a network that would allow users of a research computer at one university to "talk to" research computers at other universities. A side benefit of ARPANet's design was that, because messages could be routed or rerouted in more than one direction, the network could continue to function even if parts of it were destroyed in the event of a military attack or other disaster.

The Internet, sometimes called simply "the Net," is a worldwide system of computer networks \- a network of networks in which users at any one computer can, if they have permission, get information from any other computer (and sometimes talk directly to users at other computers). It was conceived by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. government in 1969 and was first known as the ARPANet. The original aim was to create a network that would allow users of a research computer at one university to "talk to" research computers at other universities. A side benefit of ARPANet's design was that, because messages could be routed or rerouted in more than one direction, the network could continue to function even if parts of it were destroyed in the event of a military attack or other disaster.

### NETIQUETTES

Netiquette is a combination of the words network and etiquette, and is defined as a set of rules for acceptable online behavior. Similarly, online ethics focuses on the acceptable use of online resources in an online social environment.

Both phrases are frequently interchanged and are often combined with the concept of a 'netizen' which itself is a contraction of the words internet and citizen and refers to both a person who uses the internet to participate in society, and an individual who has accepted the responsibility of using the internet in productive and socially responsible ways.

Underlying this overall concept of socially responsible internet use are a few core pillars, though the details underneath each pillar are still subject to debate.

### At a high level using netiquette, applying online ethics, or being a good netizen means:

  * Recognizing that the internet is not some new world in which anything goes, but rather a new dimension or extension of our existing society.

  * Applying the same standards and values online as we are accustomed to applying in the rest of our lives. In simple terms this means that the values society has in place against such things as hate speech and bigotry, copyright violations and other forms of theft, child exploitation and child pornography, remain intact. As do the values around courtesy, kindness, openness, and treating others with the same respect we wish to receive.

  * Accepting that the laws which are currently in place to protect the rights and dignity of citizens apply online, and that where needed, laws are updated to reflect these rights in the extended environment. Theft online is still theft, stalking, bullying, harassing, tormenting online is still abusive, and so on.

  * Acknowledging that cultural differences remain, even when national boundaries no longer apply. This requires finding a way to accept that the social values and norms of _some_ netizens will not be the social values and norms of _all_ netizens.

  * For companies, being a good netizen, applying online ethics, or using netiquette also includes

    1. Respecting the rights to privacy assumed and possessed by citizens in their offline interactions.

    2. Maintaining transparency in their policies and actions so that consumers can easily and quickly understand how that company is using their information, protecting them from harm, and giving users a clear means of ownership and self-determination as to what is, and isn't shared about them.

Most internet users automatically apply the same responsible respectful behavior online as they do in every other environment and by nature apply netiquette an online ethics, and are good netizens. The minority that fail to apply societal values in some or any environment - including the internet \- are quickly identified as exceptions to be dealt with on a social, or criminal level.

### ARCHITECHCTURE

Computer architecture is a specification detailing how a set of software and hardware technology standards interact to form a computer system or platform. In short, computer architecture refers to how a computer system is designed and what technologies it is compatible with.

As with other contexts and meanings of the word architecture, computer architecture is likened to the art of determining the needs of the user/system/technology, and creating a logical design and standards based on those requirements.

A very good example of computer architecture is von Neumann architecture, which is still used by most types of computers today. This was proposed by the mathematician John von Neumann in 1945. It describes the design of an electronic computer with its CPU, which includes the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, registers, memory for data and instructions, an input/output interface and external storage functions.

There are three categories of computer architecture:

  * System Design: This includes all hardware components in the system, including data processors aside from the CPU, such as the graphics processing unit and direct memory access. It also includes memory controllers, data paths and miscellaneous things like multiprocessing and virtualization.

  * Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): This is the embedded programming language of the central processing unit. It defines the CPU's functions and capabilities based on what programming it can perform or process. This includes the word size, processor register types, memory addressing modes, data formats and the instruction set that programmers use.

  * Microarchitecture: Otherwise known as computer organization, this type of architecture defines the data paths, data processing and storage elements, as well as how they should be implemented in the ISA.

### FUNCTIONING OF INTERNET

National Science Foundation, which established the present-day structure of the Internet. The physical structure of the Internet resembles and is integrated with the telephone system. Long-distance data transport services are provided by large telecommunication companies, called network service providers (NSPs), through high-capacity, high-speed national and international fiber optic cables. These transport services are accessed through Internet service providers, ISPs. ISPs, the equivalent of regional Bell operating companies, provide the physical link to the NSPs for individuals and organizations. Telecommunications on the Internet are standardized by a set of communications protocols, the TCP/IP protocol suite, that describe routing of messages over the Internet, computer naming conventions, and commonly used Internet services such as e-mail. At present, the Internet consists of over 20 million computer worldwide and is continuing to grow at a rapid rate. Along with the growth of the Internet, higher speed access methods are offering a range of new services such as real-time video and voice communications. Medical education, teaching, and research, as well as clinical practice, will be affected in numerous different ways by these advances.

### BASIC SERVICE OVER INTERNET

Internet Services allows us to access huge amount of information such as text, graphics, sound and software over the internet. Following diagram shows the four different categories of Internet Services.

### WWW

The World Wide Web (abbreviated WWW or the Web) is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators (URLs), interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet.1] English scientist [Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989. He wrote the first web browser computer program in 1990 while employed at CERN in Switzerland.[2][3] The Web browser was released outside CERN in 1991, first to other research institutions starting in January 1991 and to the general public on the Internet in August 1991.

The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used without much distinction. However, the two are not the same. The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks. In contrast, the World Wide Web is a global collection of documents and other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URIs. Web resources are usually accessed using HTTP, which is one of many Internet communication protocols.

Many hostnames used for the World Wide Web begin with www because of the long-standing practice of naming Internet hosts according to the services they provide. For criminals, the Web has become a venue to spread malware and engage in a range of cybercrimes, including identity theft, fraud, espionage and intelligence gathering.

### FTP

### FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

File Transfer Protocol, is an Internet utility software used to uploaded and download files. It gives access to directories or folders on remote computers and allows software, data and text files to be transfer between different kinds of computers. FTP works on the basis of same principle as that of Client/ Server. FTP "Client" is a program running on your computer that enables you to communicate with remote computers. The FTP client takes FTP command and sends these as requests for information from the remote computer known as FTP servers. To access remote FTP server it is required, but not necessary to have an account in the FTP server. When the FTP client gets connected, FTP server asks for the identification in terms of User Login name and password of the FTP client (Fig. 3.1). If one does not have an account in the remote FTP server, still he can connect to the server using anonymous login.

Using anonymous login anyone can login in to a FTP server and can access public archives; anywhere in the world, without having an account. One can easily Login to the FTP site with the username anonymous and e-mail address as password.

(i) Objectives of FTP :  Provide flexibility and promote sharing of computer programs, files and data

 Transfer data reliably and more efficiently over network

 Encourage implicit or indirect use of remote computers using Internet

 Shield a user from variations in storage systems among hosts.

(ii) The basic steps in an FTP session  Start up your FTP client, by typing ftp on your system's command line/'C>' prompt (or, if you are in a Windows, double-click on the FTP icon).

 Give the FTP client an address to connect. This is the FTP server address to which the FTP client will get connected

 Identify yourself to the FTP remote site by giving the Login Name

 Give the remote site a password

 Remote site will verify the Login Name/Password to allow the FTP client to access its files

 Look directory for files in FTP server

 Change Directories if requird

 Set the transfer mode (optional);

 Get the file(s) you want, and

 Quit.

### TELNET

### Telnet (Remote Computing)

Telnet or remote computing is telecommunication utility software, which uses available telecommunication facility and allows you become a user on a remote computer. Once you gain access to remote computer, you can use it for the intended purpose. The TELNET works in a very step by step procedure. The commands typed on the client computer are sent to the local Internet Service Provider (ISP), and then from the ISP to the remote computer that you have gained access. Most of the ISP provides facility to TELENET into your own account from another city and check your e-mail while you are traveling or away on business.

The following steps are required for a TELNET session

 Start up the TELNET program

 Give the TELNET program an address to connect (some really nifty TELNET packages allow you to combine steps 1 and 2 into one simple step)

 Make a note of what the "escape character" is

 Log in to the remote computer,

 Set the "terminal emulation"

 Play around on the remote computer, and

 Quit.

### GOPHER

From about 1992 through 1996, Gopher was an Internet application in which hierarchically-organized text files could be brought from servers all over the world to a viewer on your computer. Especially in universities, Gopher was a step toward the World Wide Web's Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which effectively replaced it within a short time. With hypertext links, the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), and the arrival of a graphical browser, Mosaic, the Web quickly transcended Gopher. Gopher was developed at the University of Minnesota, whose sports teams are called "the Golden Gophers."

Although most Gopher browsers and files are text-based, Gopher browsers, notably HyperGopher, were developed that displayed graphic images (GIF and JPEG files) that were included in Gopher file directories. Two tools for searching Gopher file hierarchies were Veronica and Jughead.

Although the root directory for Gopher is sometimes still accessible at the University of Minnesota or elsewhere and despite some efforts to revive Gopher, virtually all Gopher servers are no longer active. It seems likely that almost all of the original Gopher content has been made accessible on the World Wide Web.

### IP ADRESS

Every machine on a network has a unique identifier. Just as you would address a letter to send in the mail, computers use the unique identifier to send data to specific computers on a network. Most networks today, including all computers on the Internet, use the TCP/IP protocol as the standard for how to communicate on the network. In the TCP/IP protocol, the unique identifier for a computer is called its IP address.

There are two standards for IP addresses: IP Version 4 (IPv4) and IP Version 6 (IPv6). All computers with IP addresses have an IPv4 address, and many are starting to use the new IPv6 address system as well. Here's what these two address types mean:

  * IPv4 uses 32 binary bits to create a single unique address on the network. An IPv4 address is expressed by four numbers separated by dots. Each number is the decimal (base-10) representation for an eight-digit binary (base-2) number, also called an octet. For example: 216.27.61.137

  * IPv6 uses 128 binary bits to create a single unique address on the network. An IPv6 address is expressed by eight groups of hexadecimal (base-16) numbers separated by colons, as in 2001:cdba:0000:0000:0000:0000:3257:9652. Groups of numbers that contain all zeros are often omitted to save space, leaving a colon separator to mark the gap (as in 2001:cdba::3257:9652).

### ISPs

An ISP (Internet service provider) is a company that provides individuals and other companies access to the Internet and other related services such as Web site building and virtual hosting. An ISP has the equipment and the telecommunication line access required to have a point-of-presence on the Internet for the geographic area served. The larger ISPs have their own high-speed leased lines so that they are less dependent on the telecommunication providers and can provide better service to their customers. Among the largest national and regional ISPs are AT&T WorldNet, IBM Global Network, MCI, Netcom, UUNet, and PSINet.

ISPs also include regional providers such as New England's NEARNet and the San Francisco Bay area BARNet. They also include thousands of local providers. In addition, Internet users can also get access through online service providers (OSP) such as America Online and Compuserve.

The larger ISPs interconnect with each other through MAE (ISP switching centers run by MCI WorldCom) or similar centers. The arrangements they make to exchange traffic are known as peering agreements. There are several very comprehensive lists of ISPs world-wide available on the Web.

An ISP is also sometimes referred to as an IAP (Internet access provider). ISP is sometimes used as an abbreviation for independent service provider to distinguish a service provider that is an independent, separate company from a telephone company.

### URL

A URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is a form of URI and is a standardized naming convention for addressing documents accessible over the Internet and Intranet. An example of a URL is https://www.computerhope.com/, which is the URL for the Computer Hope website.

The "http" stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol and is what enables the browser to know what protocol it is going to use to access the information specified in the domain. An "https" protocol is short for "Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure" and indicates that information transmitted over HTTP is encrypted and secure. After the http or https is the colon ( : ) and two forward slashes ( // ) that separate the protocol from the remainder of the URL.

Tip: A URL is not explicit to a HTTP or HTTPS addresses; FTP, TFTP, Telnet, and other addresses are also considered URLs and may not follow the same syntax as our example.

Most people realize that a space is not allowed in a URL. However, it is also important to realize, as documented in RFC 1738, the URL string can only contain alphanumeric characters and the !$-_+*'(), characters. Any other characters that are needed in the URL must be encoded.

Below is additional information about each of the sections of the http URL for this page.

### DOMAIN NAMES

A domain name is a unique name that identifies a website. For example, the domain name of the Tech Terms Computer Dictionary is "techterms.com." Each website has a domain name that serves as an address, which is used to access the website.

Whenever you visit a website, the domain name appears in the address bar of the web browser. Some domain names are preceded by "www" (which is not part of the domain name), while others omit the "www" prefix. All domain names have a domain suffix, such as .com, .net, or .org. The domain suffix helps identify the type of website the domain name represents. For example, ".com" domain names are typically used by commercial website, while ".org" websites are often used by non-profit organizations. Some domain names end with a country code, such as ".dk" (Denmark) or ".se" (Sweden), which helps identify the location and audience of the website.

Domain names are relatively cheap to register, though they must be renewed every year or every few years. The good news is that anyone can register a domain name, so you can purchase a unique domain name for your blog or website. The bad news is that nearly all domain names with common words have already been registered. Therefore, if you want to register a custom domain name, you may need to think of a creative variation. Once you decide on a domain name and register it, the name is yours until you stop renewing it. When the renewal period expires, the domain name becomes available for others to purchase.

NOTE: When you access a website, the domain name is actually translated to an IP address, which defines the server where the website located. This translation is performed dynamically by a service called DNS.

### WEB BROWSERS

A web browser, or simply "browser," is an application used to access and view websites. Common web browsers include Microsoft Internet Explorer, Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and Apple Safari.

The primary function of a web browser is to render HTML, the code used to design or "mark up" webpages. Each time a browser loads a web page, it processes the HTML, which may include text, links, and references to images and other items, such as cascading style sheets and JavaScript functions. The browser processes these items, then renders them in the browser window.

Early web browsers, such as Mosaic and Netscape Navigator, were simple applications that rendered HTML, processed form input, and supported bookmarks. As websites have evolved, so have web browser requirements. Today's browsers are far more advanced, supporting multiple types of HTML (such as XHTML and HTML 5), dynamic JavaScript, and encryption used by secure websites.

The capabilities of modern web browsers allow web developers to create highly interactive websites. For example, Ajax enables a browser to dynamically update information on a webpage without the need to reload the page. Advances in CSS allow browsers to display a (responsive website| responsive_web_design) layouts and a wide array of visual effects. Cookies allow browsers to remember your settings for specific websites.

While web browser technology has come a long way since Netscape, browser compatibility issues still remain a problem. Since browsers use different rendering engines, websites may not appear the same across multiple browsers. In some cases, a website may work fine in one browser, but not function properly in another. Therefore, it is smart to install multiple browsers on your computer so you can use an alternate browser if necessary.

### INTERNET PROTOCOL

The Internet Protocol (IP) is the method or protocol by which data is sent from one computer to another on the Internet. Each computer (known as a host) on the Internet has at least one IP address that uniquely identifies it from all other computers on the Internet.

When you send or receive data (for example, an e-mail note or a Web page), the message gets divided into little chunks called packets. Each of these packets contains both the sender's Internet address and the receiver's address. Any packet is sent first to a gateway computer that understands a small part of the Internet. The gateway computer reads the destination address and forwards the packet to an adjacent gateway that in turn reads the destination address and so forth across the Internet until one gateway recognizes the packet as belonging to a computer within its immediate neighborhood or domain. That gateway then forwards the packet directly to the computer whose address is specified.

Because a message is divided into a number of packets, each packet can, if necessary, be sent by a different route across the Internet. Packets can arrive in a different order than the order they were sent in. The Internet Protocol just delivers them. It's up to another protocol, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) to put them back in the right order.

### SEARCH ENGINES

A search engine is a software program or script available through the Internet that searches documents and files for keywords and returns the results of any files containing those keywords. Today, there are thousands of different search engines available on the Internet, each with their own abilities and features. The first search engine ever developed is considered Archie, which was used to search for FTP files and the first text-based search engine is considered Veronica. Today, the most popular and well-known search engine is Google. Other popular search engines include AOL, Ask.com, Baidu, Bing and Yahoo.

For users, a search engine is accessed through a browser on their computer, smartphone, tablet, or another device. Today, most new browsers use an Omnibox, which is a text box at the top of the browser that shows the address and is where you can also search on the Internet. You can also visit one of the major search engines home page to perform a search.

### EMAIL

E-mail is short for electronic mail, mail you can send or receive directly on your computer. Yes, with e-mail people can actually write you letters and send them to your computer, and you can turn on your computer and go pick up your mail whenever it's convenient. Many a love affair has begun through e-mail. I know. It's really fun, too. And useful, of course. E-mail can be a verb too, as in "I e-mailed my lover a letter from Lhasa."

Electronic mail, or email, is a very popular application in computer networks such as the Internet. Email appeared in the early 1970s and allows users to exchange text based messages. Initially, it was mainly used to exchange short messages, but over the years its usage has grown. It is now not only used to exchange small, but also long messages that can be composed of several parts as we will see later.

Before looking at the details of Internet email, let us consider a simple scenario illustrated in the figure below, where Alice sends an email to Bob. Alice prepares her email by using an email clients and sends it to her email server. Alice's email server extracts Bob's address from the email and delivers the message to Bob's server. Bob retrieves Alice's message on his server and reads it by using his favourite email client or through his webmail interface.

UNIT-3

OFFICE TOOLS FOR BUSINESS

Suite of products developed by Microsoft Corporation that includes Microsoft Word, Excel, Access, Publisher, PowerPoint, and Outlook. Each program serves a different purpose and is compatible with other programs included in the package. The suite of programs is compatible with both the Windows and Macintosh operating system. Microsoft Office is the most common form of software used in the western world.

### USE OF MS-OFFICE

Believe me, there are millions of employees in the corporate world who earns a decent package only with the degree they got and the Ms-office tools knowledge.

Excel: One of the most popular tools in Ms-office, famous for reports, dashboards, calculators, forms and even more. There are lot of functions (logical, statistics....), excel is used as one of the analytical tools.

Excel Formulae: There are many excel formulae which will help you to play with various excel books and sheets.

Automation: This is gaining a big momentum in corporate world, you can use VB (Visual Basic) to automate reports and every function of the corporate.

Shortcut keys: My friend will play in excel like anything, he use only short cut keys and do a lot in data analytics in excel. He just have a degree and sound knowledge in excel. He is in Dubai now earning 5–6 lakhs per month.

PowerPoint: The power of PowerPoint is the animation and visualization effects. Most of the organization announcements are made through PowerPoint and you can apply all your creative and innovative skills in PowerPoint.

Word: Most of the tasks you perform in Word can be done in Excel and PPT still, word has its own place when it comes to documentation, forms and so on.

Sources to learn:

The best way to learn is by practicing, if you have laptop or computer, have the MS-office package and then start using the functions (refer google for any doubts), ask in Quora, or any communities.

### MS WORD-

Microsoft Word or MS-WORD (often called Word) is a graphical word processing program that users can type with. It is made by the computer company Microsoft. Its purpose is to allow users to type and save documents.

Similar to other word processors, it has helpful tools to make documents.

  * Spelling & grammar checker, word count (this also counts letters and lines)

  * Speech recognition

  * Inserts pictures in documents

  * Choice of typefaces

  * Special codes

  * Web pages, graphs, etc.

  * Tables

  * Displays synonyms of words and can read out the text

  * Prints in different ways

  * The program is very popular.

  * Without configuration the program saved the document in a proprietary file format, so other programs could not open it. When the user sent his document to a friend, the friend needed a copy of Microsoft Word to read the document. Then that friend would probably also save documents in the same secret format of Word. This gave Microsoft Word a dominant position.

Microsoft Word allows you to create professional-quality documents, reports, letters, and résumés. Unlike a plain text editor, Microsoft Word has features including spell check, grammar check, text and font formatting, HTML support, image support, advanced page layout, and more.

Below is an overview of a Microsoft Word 2010 document.

## Where do you find or start Microsoft Word?

If you have Microsoft Word or the entire Microsoft Office package installed on Microsoft Windows, you can find Microsoft Word in your Start Menu.

Keep in mind that new computers do not include Microsoft Word. It must be purchased and installed before it can be run on your computer. If you do not want (or cannot afford) to purchase Microsoft Word, you can use a limited version for free at www.office.com.

If Microsoft Word is installed on your computer, but you can't find it in your Start Menu, use the following steps to manually launch Microsoft Word:

  1. Open My Computer.

  2. Click on or select the C: drive. If Microsoft Office is installed on a drive other than the C: drive, select that drive instead.

  3. Navigate to the Program Files (x86) folder, then the Microsoft Office folder.

  4. In the Microsoft Office folder, if there is a root, open that folder. Then open the OfficeXX folder, where XX is the version of Office (e.g., Office16 for Microsoft Office 2016). If there is no root folder, look for and open a folder having "Office" in the name.

  5. Look for a file named WINWORD.EXE and click or double-click that file to start the Microsoft Word program.

Early versions of Microsoft Word primarily created and used the .doc file extension, while newer versions of Word create and use the .docx file extension.

More recent versions of Microsoft Word can create and open the following types of files:

  * .doc, .docm, .docx

  * .dot, .dotm, .dotx

  * .htm, .html

  * .mht, .mhtml

  * .odt

  * .pdf

  * .rtf

  * .txt

  * .wps

  * .xps

  * .xml

### PARAGRAPH FORMATTING

We'll first spend some time discussing paragraph controls, such as justification, line spacing, and we'll conclude the lesson with how to control and format various list and list styles in Word 2013.

You can control paragraph behavior and appearance using the "Paragraph" tab. This tab has several notable features including increase/decrease indent, line spacing, borders, and more. There are many more options than are first apparent. To access that click on the icon at the bottom corner of the paragraph tab.

The "Paragraph" dialog will give you further, more fine-grained control. You can affect indenting, line spacing, as well as line and page breaks.

## Alignment

Alignment, also known as justification, determines how the documents text aligns with margins.

Left — line up the text or an image along the left margin. The right-hand side of the paragraph is free to float.

Center — When you center-justify, it means that the entire block of text will be aligned to the center, between the margins.

Right — line up the text on the right hand side (or move the graphic to the right margin).

Full — this means the left and right-hand sides of the paragraph and lined up. Word does this by adjusting spacing between words. This can often lead to awkward looking paragraphs with large holes in middle when working in narrow spaces.

In most cases, you will use left-justification for almost everything you write. Center is, of course, useful for centering titles and headlines. Full-justification is typically used in newspapers and many printed books because it creates nice square blocks of text.

## Indentation

We covered indents in the first lesson so you already know how to create a hanging indent if you want to affect the first line of a paragraph, but what if you want to indent an entire block of text. The increase and decrease indent buttons allow you to affect changes to a whole paragraph, such as if you want to block off a quote.

Alternatively, you can select the entire block of text you want to affect and tab until you have it where you want it.

## Line Spacing

"Line spacing" is used to set the horizontal spacing between lines.

Here you can see the results of various line spacing schemes, note you're probably never going to want to space your line more than two, unless you want to produce really long documents!

You can tweak line spacing using the options:

· "Exactly" indicate line spacing in points. A point is the smallest unit of measurement for lines or fonts.

· "Multiple" lets you pick a number greater than double or something in between. You can also set line spacing using the menu option.

## Shading and Borders

You should have no trouble getting the hang of shadows and borders, but for the sake of simplicity, check out the following screenshot for a quick run-down on the difference between shadowing text and highlighting it.

Borders, on the other hand, might be a little tricky. There's a whole trick to borders that can at first seem a little frustrating. The borders button gives you some rudimentary control over how borders appear, but you really need to dig into the "Borders and Shading" dialog to get the full appreciation for what you can do.

First, there are two tabs for borders, the one we're immediately concerned with is the first one, simple titled "Borders." Let's say you have a block of text and you want to draw a 1-point border around the whole thing, while having a ½-point dotted border between line breaks.

How is this accomplished? Normally you could simply select the border option from the dropdown menu on the "Paragraph" section.

However, you still need to add dashed lines. For that kind of overall control, you need to open up the "Borders and Shading" dialog and apply the style you want.

Once you choose a border style, simply click on each part of the "Preview" you want to affect. In the above screenshot, note how the outside border is a solid line, but between lines we were able to add our dashed line.

You probably won't spend your days and nights formatting your documents with borders and shading, but for those times you do, it's nice to know exactly what you want, and how to go about accomplishing it.

### PAGE FORMATTING

Word offers a variety of page layout and formatting options that affect how content appears on the page. You can customize the page orientation, paper size, and page margins depending on how you want your document to appear.

This section will show you how to change your page margins and page size, how to insert headers and footers, and how to add page numbers.

Page Margins

You can change the page margins of a document by using either the rulers on the sides of the page or the Page Setup dialog box.

To use the ruler method to change the page margins of a document:

  1. StepsActions

  1. Click inside the document to select it. A ruler will now run vertically across the top of the document, and horizontally down the left of the document.

  2. Move the mouse over the area where the white ruler changes to blue. The cursor will change to a double-ended arrow.

  3. Click the mouse and drag the margin to the desired location.

To manually set the page margins using the Page Setup dialog box:

  1. Steps Actions

  1. Click the Page Layout tab.

  2. Click the arrow in the bottom-right of the Page Setup group. The Page Layout dialog box will open.

  3. You can enter margin values in the Top, Bottom, Left, and Right boxes. The Preview pane allows you to view these changes.

  4. Click OK.

Page Size and Orientation

By default, the page size is set to Letter, and most people are accustomed to working with this size. However, Word provides many different page sizes that correspond to paper sizes, for example Executive, Tabloid, A3, A5. To change the size of your page:

  1. Steps Actions

  1. Click the Page Layout tab.

  2. Click the Size button from the Page Setup group. A menu will open, showing the available page sizes.

  3. Choose the size you want from the menu options.

Headers and Footers

A header is text that is added to the top margin of every page, for example a document title or page number. A footer is text that is added to the bottom margin of every page. Follow these steps to add headers or footers to your document:

  1. StepsActions

  1. Click the Insert tab.

  2. Click either the Header or Footer button from the Header & Footer group.

  3. Choose the style of header or footer you like from the menu options.

To remove a header or footer from your document:

  1. StepsActions

  1. Click the Insert tab.

  2. Click either the Header or Footer button from the Header & Footer group.

  3. Click Edit Header or Edit Footer.

Page Numbers

To add page numbers to your document:

  1. StepsActions

  1. Click the Insert tab.

  2. Click the Page Number button from the Header & Footer group.

  3. Choose the location of the page where you want the numbers to appear.

### BULLET AND NUMBERS

Do any of the following:

Change the style, color, or font size of bullets

  1. Select the bulleted list that you want to format.

  2. On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click the arrow next to Bullets   , and then click Define New Bullet.

  3. Do any of the following:

To change the bullet to | Do this

---|---

Another preset style | Click the style that you want.

A custom style | Click Bullet, and then click the bullet style that you want.

Another color | Click Font, and then in the Font color list, click the color that you want.

Another size | Click Font, and then in the Size list, enter the size that you want.

  4. Tip: A preview shows the results of your adjustments so that you can experiment before you decide.

Change a bullet to a picture

  1. Select the bulleted list that you want to format.

  2. On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click the arrow next to Bullets   , and then click Define New Bullet.

  3. Click Picture, click the picture that you want, and then click Insert.

Tip: A preview shows the results of your adjustments so that you can experiment before you decide.

Change the style, color, or font size of numbers

  1. Select the numbered list that you want to format.

  2. On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click the arrow next to Numbering   , and then click Define New Number Format.

  3. Do any of the following:

To change the number to | Do this

---|---

Another preset style | Under Number Format, in the Number style list, click the style that you want.

Another color | Click Font, and then in the Font color list, click the color that you want.

Another font size | Click Font, and then in the Size list, enter the size that you want.

  4. Tip: A preview shows the results of your adjustments so that you can experiment before you decide.

Change the starting number in a numbered list

  1. Click anywhere in a numbered list.

  2. On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click the arrow next to Numbering   , and then click Define New Number Format.

  3. Under Number format, in the Start at box, enter the number that you want to start with.

Tip: A preview shows the results of your adjustments so that you can experiment before you decide.

Adjust the spacing between a bullet or number and text

  1. Select the list that you want to format.

  2. On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click the arrow next to Numbering   , and then click Define New Number Format.

  3. Under Text position, in the Indent at box, enter the value that you want.

Tip: A preview shows the results of your adjustments so that you can experiment before you decide.

#### See also

 Create a bulleted or numbered list

###  PowerPoint

Do any of the following:

Change the style, color, or font size of bullets

  1. Select the bulleted list that you want to format.

  2. On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click the arrow next to Bullets   , and then click Bullets and Numbering.

  3. Do any of the following:

To change the bullet to | Do this

---|---

Another preset style | Click the style that you want.

A custom style or special character | Click the button under Customize, and then click the bullet style that you want, or use the keyboard to enter any character you want in the box.

Another color | In the Color list, click the color that you want.

Another size | In the Size box, enter the size as a percentage.

A picture | Click Picture, click the picture that you want, and then click Insert.

Note: You can not change the color of a picture bullet.

Change the style, color, or font size of numbers

  1. Select the numbered list that you want to format.

  2. On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click the arrow next to Numbering   , and then click Bullets and Numbering.

  3. Do any of the following:

To change the number to | Do this

---|---

Another preset style | Click the style that you want.

Another color | In the Color list, click the color that you want.

Another font size | In the Size box, enter the size as a percentage.

Change numbering in a numbered list

  1. Select the number that you want to change.

  2. On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click the arrow next to Numbering   , and then click Bullets and Numbering.

  3. In the Start at box, enter the number that you want to start with.

Adjust the spacing between a bullet or number and text

  1. Select the list that you want to format.

  2. On the View tab, select the Ruler check box to show the ruler.

The ruler displays the indent markers for the selected bullet.

  3. Drag the text indent marker   , which is on the bottom of the ruler, to a new position.

Note: Drag the upper half of the text indent marker to increase the space between the bullet and text. If you drag the lower half of the indent marker, the bullet indent marker and the text indent marker move together.

### HEADER AND FOOTER

Add title, page numbers, or dates to every page in a document using headers and footers. Headers and footers are areas in the top, bottom, and side margins of each page in a document.

  1. Choose Insert and select either Header or Footer.

  2. Select any built in format for your header or footer. After you choose a format, the header and footer area is shown in your document.

  3. Type the text you want in the header or footer.

  4. When you're done, choose Close Header and Footer.

Note: To edit any existing header or footer, open the Header & Footer Tools by double-clicking inside the header or footer area.

### FINDING AND REPLACING TEXT

Word offers several options for locating specific content in your document. You can search for and replace items such as text, images, captions, bookmarks, or certain types of formatting such as paragraphs or page breaks. You can use the Go To command to go to a particular instance of content in your document, and you can also extend your search by using wildcards, codes, or regular expressions to find words or phrases that contain specific characters or combinations of characters.

Notes:

  * Word Online currently includes only basic find and replace features. Open your document in the Word desktop application to use the advanced find and replace features, such as finding objects, finding formatting, using Go To, and using wildcards, codes, and regular expressions.

  * Some of the content in this topic may not be applicable to some languages.

Find and replace

Find text

You can quickly search for every occurrence of a specific word or phrase.

  1. On the Home tab, in the Editing group, choose Find. Or press Ctrl+F on your keyboard.

The Navigation pane is displayed.

  2. In the search box, type the text that you want to find. Any instances of the found text are highlighted in the document and listed in the Navigation pane.

  3. Browse through the results by using the up and down arrow controls.

Note: If you make a change in your document and the search results disappear, click the down arrow below the search box to view the list of results again.

Find and replace text

  1. On the Home tab, in the Editing group, choose Replace. Or press Ctrl+H on your keyboard.

  2. In the Find what box, type the text that you want to search for and replace.

  3. In the Replace with box, type the replacement text.

  4. Choose Find Next, and then do one of the following:

    * To replace the highlighted text, click Replace.

    * To replace all instances of the text in your document, click Replace All.

    * To skip this instance of the text and proceed to the next instance, click Find Next.

Note: In Word Online, there is no Find Next button. Browse through the results by using the up and own arrows to replace instances of highlighted text.

Find images, tables, comments, and other objects

To search for objects like tables, graphics, comments, footnotes, endnotes, or equations, do the following:

  1. On the Home tab, in the Editing group, click Find. Or press Ctrl+F on your keyboard.

The Navigation pane is displayed.

  2. Click the arrow on the right side of the search box, and then choose an option from the list.

The search results are displayed below in the search box.

  3. Select a result to see it in your document, or browse through all the results by clicking the arrow controls.

Looking for the Find and Replace dialog box?

To perform an advanced search by using the Find and Replace dialog box, do one of the following:

  * On the Home tab, in the Editing group, choose the arrow next to Find, and then select Advanced Find.

or

  * In the Navigation pane, click the arrow on the right side of the search box, and then choose Advanced Find.

In the Find and Replace dialog box, click More for detailed search options.

Note: For a smaller set of advanced search options, such as Match case or Find whole words only, in the Navigation pane, select the arrow on the right side of the search box, and then choose Options.

Find and replace specific formatting

You can search for and replace or remove character formatting in your document. For example, you can search for a specific word or phrase and change the font color, or you can search for specific formatting, such as bold or highlight, and change it.

  1. On the Home tab, in the Editing group, choose Replace. Or press Ctrl+H on your keyboard.

  2. If you don't see the Format button, click More.

  3. To search for text with specific formatting, type the text in the Find what box. To find formatting only, leave the box blank.

  4. Click Format, and then select the formats that you want to find and replace. For example, to find highlighted text, click Format > Highlight; to find bold text, click Format > Font, and then in the Find Font dialog box, select Bold in the Font style list.

  5. Click the Replace with box, click Format, and then select the replacement formats as described in step 4.

Note: If you also want to replace the text, type the replacement text in the Replace withbox.

  6. To find and replace each instance of the specified formatting, click Find Next, and then click Replace. To replace all instances of the specified formatting, click Replace All.

Find and replace paragraph breaks, tabs, page breaks, and other items

You can search for and replace special characters and document elements such as tabs, paragraph marks (carriage returns), and manual page breaks. For example, you can find all double line spaces (two paragraph marks) and replace them with single line spaces (one paragraph mark).

Tip: To show hidden formatting symbols, such as spaces, paragraph marks, and page breaks, click ¶ in the Paragraph group on the Home tab.

  1. On the Home tab, in the Editing group, click the arrow next to Find, and then click Advanced Find.

  2. If you don't see the Special button, click More.

  3. Click Special, and then click the item that you want.

  4. If you want to replace the item, click the Replace tab, and then type what you want to use as a replacement in the Replace with box.

  5. To find and replace each instance of the specified item, click Find Next, and then click Replace. To replace all instances of the specified item, click Replace All.

Find by using Go To

Go to a specific page, table, heading, line, or other item

  1. On the Home tab, in the Editing group, click the arrow next to Find, and then click Go To.

  2. In the Go to what box, click the type of item.

  3. Do one of the following:

    * To go to a specific item, type the appropriate identifying information for the item in the Enter item type box, and then click Go To.

    * To go to the next or previous item of the specified type, leave the Enter box empty, and then click Next or Previous.

Search by using wildcards

Search by using wildcards to find specific letters

Use wildcards to search for text. For example, you can use the asterisk (*) wildcard to search for a string of characters (for example, "s*d" finds "sad" and "started").

  1. On the Home tab, in the Editing group, click the arrow next to Find, and then click Advanced Find.

  2. Select the Use wildcards check box.

If you don't see the Use wildcards check box, click More.

  3. Do one of the following:

    * To choose a wildcard character from a list, click Special, click a wildcard character, and then type any additional text in the Find what box. For more information, see the table Wildcards for items you want to find and replace, below.

    * Type a wildcard character directly in the Find what box. For more information, see the table Wildcards for items you want to find and replace, below.

  4. If you want to replace the item, click the Replace tab, and then type what you want to use as a replacement in the Replace with box.

  5. Click Find Next or Find All and then click Replace, or click Replace All to replace all instances of the item.

Note: To cancel a search in progress, press ESC

EXCEL

Codenamed Odyssey, Excel is a software program from Microsoft that is part of the Microsoft Office suite of software programs. Developed by Microsoft and first released on September 30, 1985, Excel is capable of creating and editing spreadsheets that are saved with a .xls or .xlsx file extension. General uses of Excel include cell-based calculation, pivot tables, and various graphing tools. For instance, with an Excel spreadsheet, you could create a monthly budget, track business expenses, or sort and organize large amounts of data.

If you have Microsoft Office installed, but have never touched Excel before because you either didn't know how to use it or didn't know what it could do for you, then you MUST read this post on learning how to use Excel!

Microsoft Excel is a powerful spreadsheet application that can be used for anything from a simple database all the way up to a full fledged Windows application full with windows forms, macros, and add-ons. You can use Excel to calculate a car loan payment, graph data, manage customer records, keep an address book, etc.

Excel is currently used by most large financial institutions for daily financial data analysis. It has a huge range of financial functions, formulas, and add-ons that allows you to use Excel to store and analyze data in a simple, quick way.

In this tutorial, we're going to go through the basics of Excel: creating workbooks, using worksheets, entering data, using formulas, etc so that you can become comfortable with the software and begin to learn on your own by playing around with it.

## First Steps Into Excel

First, let's open Excel and take a look at the interface of the program. Open Excel and a new workbook will automatically be created. A Workbook is the top level object in Excel. It contains Worksheets, which hold all the actual data that you will be working with. A workbook starts off with three worksheets, but you can add or delete worksheets at any time as long as there is at least one worksheet in a given workbook.

Now depending on the version of Excel you are using, the following screen may look completely different. Microsoft has changed the interface wildly from Office 2003 to 2007 to 2010 and finally in 2013. Unfortunately, I have to pick a version to write this tutorial in and I'm currently choosing Excel 2010 because it's right in between 2007 and 2013 and all three versions use the new ribbon interface. Office 2013 just makes the look more clean, but the overall layout is still the same.

Across the top, you have the Excel ribbon with multiple tabs and also a bunch of little icons at the top in the Quick Access Toolbar. These little icons let you perform very common Excel functions like adding or deleting rows in the worksheet or freezing panes, etc.

If you want to customize the ribbon interface, i.e., add a button or option that you miss from an older version of Excel, you can do that by clicking on File and then clicking on Options.

Now click on Customize Ribbon at the bottom left and you'll be able to add or remove any possible option you could possibly want. By default, it shows you the popular commands, but you can click on the dropdown to see all the possible options for different tabs. Also, one option I really like is choosing Commands Not in the Ribbon from the dropdown. That way you can easily see which commands are already not on the ribbon and then add any you feel you'll need.

At the bottom of the screen, you'll see three sheets, named Sheet1, Sheet2, and Sheet3. This is the default number that every Excel workbook starts off with.

On older versions of Excel the task pane was located on the right side of the screen, however that has now been removed and all the functions have been moved to the File tab. This is where you can perform many common tasks such as opening a workbook, creating a new one, printing and more.

## Getting Started with Excel

The best way to learn anything is to actually do something useful and Excel is the best example of this! Let's say you are a high school or college teacher and you want to keep track of your student's grades, calculate their average and tell them the lowest grade they would need to get on their final exam in order to pass the class.

Sounds like a simple problem and it is (once you get the formula in your head)! Excel can do this for you very quickly, so let's see how.

First off, let's enter some data into the cells in Excel. In Excel, the columns are labeled starting from A and continuing to Z and beyond. A cell is simply a particular row number and column, i.e. A1 is the very first cell in an Excel worksheet.

Let's type Students into well A1 and then type A through E as the student names continuing down column A as shown below:

Now let's enter Test 1, Test 2, and Test 3 into cells B1, C1, and D1 respectively. Now we have a 5×4 grid, so let's fill out some fake test grades also as shown below:

Now let's learn some of the basics of formatting cells in Excel. Right now our table doesn't look very nice since the text and numbers are aligned differently and the headers are not visually separate from the data. First, let's center all the data so that things look nicer. Click on cell A1 and drag your mouse down to cell D6 to highlight the entire data set:

Then click on the Home tab and click on the Center Justify button. The grid is now nicely centered with all the data directly underneath the headings.

Now let's look more at how we can format Excel cells. Let's change the color of the first row to something else so that we can clearly separate the header from the data. Click on cell A1and drag the mouse while holding the button down to cell D1. Right click and select Format Cells.

Now there are two options you have at this point. You'll notice in the image above, a normal right-click menu that starts with Cut, Copy, etc, but you'll also notice a kind of floating toolbar right above the menu. This floating menu is kind of a popular options toolbar that lets you quickly change the font, change the text size, format the cell as money or percentage, lets you change the background or font color and add borders to the cell. It's convenient because you don't have to open the Format Cells dialog separately and do it there.

If you have to do some more advanced formatting not available in the quick toolbar, then go ahead and open the dialog. In this tutorial, I'll show you the dialog method just so we can see it. In the Format Cells dialog, click on the Patterns tab and select a color from the palette. I chose yellow to make it distinct.

Click OK and you'll now see that the color has been changed for the selected cells.

Let's also add some borders between the cells so that if we decide to print out the Excel sheet, there will be black lines between everything. If you don't add borders, the lines you see in Excel by default do not print out on paper. Select the entire grid and go to Format Cells again. This time go to the Border tab. Click on the Outside and Inside buttons and you should see the small display box directly below the buttons change accordingly with the borders.

Click OK and you should now have black lines between all of the cells. So now we've formatted our grid to look much nicer! You can do this type of formatting for your data also in the way you feel appropriate.

## Using Formulas and Functions in Excel

Now let's get to the fun part: using Excel functions and formulas to actually do something! So we want to first calculate the average grade for our 5 students after their 1st three exams. Excel has an average function that we can use to calculate this value automatically, but we're going to do it slightly differently in order to demonstrate formulas and functions.

Add a header called Sum in column F and Avg in column G and format them the same way we did the other header cells.

Now first we'll use Excel's sum function to calculate the sum of the three grades for each student. Click in cell F2 and type in "=sum(" without the quotes. The = sign tells Excel that we plan on putting some type of formula into this cell. When you type in the first parenthesis, Excel will display a little label showing you what types of variables this function takes.

The word SUM is a built-in function in Excel which calculates the sum of a specified range of cells. At this point after the first parenthesis, you can select the range of cells you want to sum up! No need to type the cells one by one! Go ahead and select cells B2 to D2 and you will see that the formula is automatically updated and is in blue.

After you select the range, type in the closing parenthesis (Shift + 0) and press Enter. And now you have the sum of the numbers! Not too hard right!? However, you might say that it would be a royal pain to do this for a set of 100 or 500 students! Well, there's an easy way to copy your formula automatically for the other students.

Click on cell F2 and then move your mouse slowly to the lower right edge of the cell. You'll notice that the cursor changes from a fat white cross to a skinny black cross and the bottom right of the cell is a small black box.

Click and hold your mouse down when it changes and then drag it to the row of the last student. And with that, Excel uses the same formula, but updates the current row cells so that the sum is calculated for each row using that row's data.

Next, click in cell G2 and type the = signs to denote we are starting a formula. Since we want to divide the sum by 3 to get the average, type the = sign and then choose the sum cell F2. Continue on with the formula by typing in "/3", which means divide by 3.

Press Enter and you now have entered your own average forumla! You can use parenthesis and perform all the math functions in this same way. Now do the same thing as we did with the average column and click the small black box at the lower right corner in cell G2 and drag it down to the bottom. Excel will calculate the average for the rest of the cells using your formula.

And lastly, let's put in one more formula to calculate what each student would have to get on the final in order to get an A in the class! We have to know three pieces of information: their current grade, the passing grade for the class and what percent the final is worth of the total grade. We already have their current grade which we calculated and we can assume a 70 is the passing grade and the final is worth 25% of the total grade. Here is the formula, which I got from this site.

_Final Grade = Exam Worth x Exam Score + (1 – Exam Worth) x Current Grade_

Final Grade would be the 70 since that is the passing score we are assuming, Exam Worth is .25 and we have to solve for Exam Score. So the equation would become:

Exam Score = (Final Grade – (1 – Exam Worth) x Current Grade)/ Exam Worth

So let's create a new header in column I and in cell I2, beging typing "=(70-(1-.25)*" and then select cell G2 and then continue on with ")/.25" and then press Enter. You should now see the grade required and also the formula in the formula bar above the column names. As you can see below, Student A needs to get at least a 49 to make sure they get a 70 passing score for their final grade.

Again, grab the bottom black box of the cell and drag it down to the bottom of the data set. And viola! You've now used Excel functions, created your own formulas in Excel and formatted cells to make them visually appealing.

### FORMULAE & FUNCTIONS

Before providing the basic Excel formulas list, let's define the key terms just to make sure we are on the same page. So, what do we call an Excel formula and Excel function?

  * Formula is an expression that calculates the value of a cell.

For example, =A2+A2+A3+A4 is a formula that adds up the values in cells A2 to A4.

  * Function is a predefined formula already available in Excel. Functions perform specific calculations in a particular order based on the specified values, called arguments, or parameters.

For example, instead of specifying each value to be summed like in the above formula, you can use the SUM function to add up a range of cells: =SUM(A2:A4)

You can find all available Excel functions in the Function Library on the _Formulas_ tab:

There exist 400+ functions in Excel, and the number is growing by version to version. Of course, it's next to impossible to memorize all of them, and you actually don't need to. The Function Wizard will help you find the function best suited for a particular task, while the Excel Formula Intellisense will prompt the function's syntax and arguments as soon as you type the function's name preceded by an equal sign in a cell:

Clicking the function's name will turn it into a blue hyperlink, which will open the Help topic for that function.

Tip. You don't necessarily have to type a function name in all caps, Microsoft Excel will automatically capitalize it once you finish typing the formula and press the Enter key to complete it.

##  10 Excel basic functions you should definitely know

What follows below is a list of 10 simple yet really helpful functions that are a necessary skill for everyone who wishes to turn from an Excel novice to an Excel professional.

### SUM

The first Excel function you should be familiar with is the one that performs the basic arithmetic operation of addition:

SUM( _number1_ , [number2],...)

In the syntax of all Excel functions, an argument enclosed in [square brackets] is optional, other arguments are required. Meaning, your Sum formula should include at least 1 number, reference to a cell or a range of cells. For example:

=SUM(A2:A6) \- adds up values in cells A2 through A6.

=SUM(A2, A6) \- adds up values in cells A2 and A6.

=SUM(A2:A6)/5 \- adds up values in cells A2 through A6, and then divides the sum by 5.

In your Excel worksheets, the formulas may look something similar to this:

Tip. The fastest way to sum a column or row of numbers is to select a cell next to the numbers you want to sum (the cell immediately below the last value in the column or to the right of the last number in the row), and click the AutoSum button on the _Home_ tab, in the _Editing_ group. Excel will insert a SUM formula for you automatically.

#### Useful resources:

  *  Excel Sum formula examples \- formulas to total a column, rows, only filtered (visible) cells, or sum across sheets.

  *  Excel AutoSum \- the fastest way to sum a column or row of numbers.

  *  SUMIF in Excel \- formula examples to conditionally sum cells.

  *  SUMIFS in Excel \- formula examples to sum cells based on multiple criteria.

### AVERAGE

The Excel AVERAGE function does exactly what its name suggests, i.e. finds an average, or arithmetic mean, of numbers. Its syntax is similar to SUM's:

AVERAGE(number1, [number2],...)

Having a closer look at the last formula from the previous section (=SUM(A2:A6)/5), what does it actually do? Sums values in cells A2 through A6, and then divides the result by 5. And what do you call adding up a group of numbers and then dividing the sum by the count of those numbers? Yep, an average!

So, instead of typing =SUM(A2:A6)/5, you can simply put =AVERAGE(A2:A6)

#### Useful resources:

  * Excel AVERAGE \- average cells with numbers.

  * Excel AVERAGEA \- find an average of cells with any data (numbers, Boolean and text values).

  * Excel AVERAGEIF \- average cells based on one criterion.

  * Excel AVERAGEIFS \- average cells based on multiple criteria.

  *  How to calculate weighted average in Excel

  *  How to find moving average in Excel

### MAX & MIN

The MAX and MIN formulas in Excel get the largest and smallest value in a set of numbers, respectively. For our sample data set, the formulas will be as simple as:

=MAX(A2:A6)

=MIN(A2:A6)

### COUNT & COUNTA

If you are curious to know how many cells in a given range contain numeric values (numbers or dates), don't waste your time counting them by hand. The Excel COUNT function will bring you the count in a heartbeat:

COUNT(value1, [value2],...)

While the COUNT function deals only with those cells that contain numbers, the Excel COUNTA function counts all cells that are not blank, whether they contain numbers, dates, times, text, logical values of TRUE and FALSE, errors or empty text strings (""):

COUNTA (value1, [value2],...)

For example, to find out how many cells in column A contain numbers, use this formula:

=COUNT(A:A)

To count all non-empty cells in column A, go with this one:

=COUNTA(A:A)

In both formulas, you use the so-called "whole column reference" (A:A) that refers to all of the cells within column A.

The following screenshot shows the difference:

#### Useful resources:

  * Excel COUNT function \- a quick way to count cells with numbers.

  * Excel COUNTA function \- count cells with any values (non-empty cells).

  * Excel COUNTIF function \- count cells that meet one condition.

  * Excel COUNTIFS function \- count cells with several criteria.

### IF

Judging by the number of IF-related comments on our blog, it's the most popular function in Excel. In simple terms, you use an IF formula to ask Excel to test a certain condition and return one value or perform one calculation if the condition is met, and another value or calculation if the condition is not met:

IF(logical_test, [value_if_true], [value_if_false])

For example, the following IF statement instructs Excel to check the value in A2 and return "OK" if it's greater than or equal to 3, "Not OK" if it's less than 3:

=IF(A2>=3, "OK", "Not OK")

#### Useful resources:

  *  IF function in Excel with formula examples

  *  How to use nested IFs in Excel

  *  IF formulas with multiple AND/OR conditions

### TRIM

If your obviously correct Excel formulas return just a bunch of errors, one of the first things to check is extra spaces in the cells referenced in your formula (You may be surprised to know how many leading, trailing and in-between spaces lurk unnoticed in your sheets just until something goes wrong!).

There are several ways to remove unwanted spaces in Excel, with the TRIM function being the easiest one:

TRIM(text)

For example, to trim extra spaces in column A, enter the following formula in cell A1, and then copy it down the column:

=TRIM(A1)

It will eliminate all extra spaces in cells but a single space character between words:

#### Useful resources:

  *  Excel TRIM function with formula examples

  * How to delete line breaks and non-printing characters

  * How to remove non-breaking spaces ( )

  * How to delete a specific non-printing character

### LEN

Whenever you want to know the number of characters in a certain cell, LEN is the function to use:

LEN(text)

Need to find out how many characters are in cell A2? Just type =LEN(A2) into another cell.

Please keep in mind that the Excel LEN function counts absolutely all characters including spaces:

Want to get the total count of characters in a range or cells or count only specific characters? Please check out the following resources.

#### Useful resources:

  *  Excel LEN formulas to count characters in a cell

  * Count a total number of characters in a range

  * Count specific characters in a cell

  * Count specific character in a range

### AND & OR

These are the two most popular logical functions to check multiple criteria. The difference is how they do this:

  * AND returns TRUE if all of the conditions are met, FALSE otherwise.

  * OR returns TRUE if any of the conditions is met, FALSE otherwise.

While rarely used on their own, these functions come in very handy as part of bigger formulas.

For example, to check the quantity in 2 columns and return "Good" if both values are greater than zero, you use the following IF formula with an embedded AND statement:

=IF(AND(A2>0, B2>0), "Good", "")

If you are happy with just one value being greater than 0 (either A2 or B2), then use the OR statement:

=IF(OR(A2>0, B2>0), "Good", "")

#### Useful resources:

  * Excel AND function with formula examples

  * Excel OR function with formula examples

### CONCATENATE

In case you want to take values from two or more cells and combine them into one cell, use the concatenate operator (&) or the CONCATENATE function:

CONCATENATE(text1, [text2],...)

For example, to combine the values from cells A2 and B2, just enter the following formula in a different cell:

=CONCATENATE(A2, B2)

To separate the combined values with a space, type the space character (" ") in the arguments list:

=CONCATENATE(A2, " ", B2)

#### Useful resources:

  *  How to concatenate in Excel \- formula examples to combine text strings, cells and columns.

### TODAY & NOW

To see the current date and time whenever you open your worksheet without having to manually update it on a daily basis, use either:

=TODAY() to insert the today's date in a cell.

=NOW() to insert the current date and time in a cell.

The beauty of these functions is that they don't require any arguments at all, you type the formulas exactly as written above.

#### Useful resources:

  * How to insert today's date in Excel \- different ways to enter the current date and time in Excel: as an unchangeable time stamp or automatically updatable date and time.

  *  Excel date functions with formula examples \- formulas to convert date to text and vice versa, extract a day, month or year from a date, calculate the difference between two dates, and a lot more.

##  Excel formulas tips and how-to's

Now that you are familiar with the basic Excel formulas, these tips will give you some guidance on how to use them most effectively and avoid common formula errors.

### Copy the same formula to other cells instead of re-typing it

Once you have typed a formula into a cell, there is no need to re-type it over and over again. Simply copy the formula to adjacent cells by dragging the fill handle (a small square at the lower right-hand corner of the cell). To copy the formula to the whole column, position the mouse pointer to the fill handle and double-click the plus sign.

Note. After copying the formula, make sure that all cell references are correct. Cell references may change depending on whether they are absolute (do not change) or relative (change).

For the detailed step-by-step instructions, please see How to copy formulas in Excel.

### How to delete formula, but keep calculated value

When you remove a formula by pressing the Delete key, a calculated value is also deleted. However, you can delete only the formula and keep the resulting value in the cell. Here's how:

  * Select all cells with your formulas.

  * Press Ctrl + C to copy the selected cells.

  * Right-click the selection, and then click _Paste Values_ > _Values_ to paste the calculated values back to the selected cells. Or, press the Paste Special shortcut: Shift+F10 and then V.

For the detailed steps with screenshots, please see How to replace formulas with their values in Excel.

### Enclose text values in double quotes, but not numbers

Any text included in your Excel formulas should be enclosed in "quotation marks". However, you should never do that to numbers, unless you want Excel to treat them as text values.

For example, to check the value in cell B2 and return 1 for "Passed", 0 otherwise, you put the following formula, say, in C2:

=IF(B2="pass", 1, 0)

Copy the formula down to other cells and you will have a column of 1's and 0's that can be calculated without a hitch.

Now, see what happens if you double quote the numbers:

=IF(B2="pass", "1", "0")

At first sight, the output is normal - the same column of 1's and 0's. Upon a closer look, however, you will notice that the resulting values are left-aligned in cells by default, meaning those are text strings, not numbers! If later on someone will try to calculate those 1's and 0's, they might end up pulling their hair out trying to figure out why a 100% correct Sum or Count formula returns nothing but zero.

### Don't format numbers in Excel formulas

Please remember this simple rule: numbers supplied to your Excel formulas should be entered without any formatting like decimal separator or dollar sign. In North America and some other countries, comma is the default argument separator, and the dollar sign ($) is used to make absolute cell references. Using those characters in numbers may just drive your Excel crazy :) So, instead of typing $2,000, simply type 2000, and then format the output value to your liking by setting up a custom Excel number format.

### Match all opening and closing parentheses in your formulas

When crating a complex Excel formula with one or more nested functions, you will have to use more than one set of parentheses to define the order of calculations. In such formulas, be sure to pair the parentheses properly so that there is a closing parenthesis for every opening parenthesis. To make the job easier for you, Excel shades parenthesis pairs in different colors when you enter or edit a formula.

### AUTO SUM

The AutoSum feature is used to sum the values of columns or rows with a single click. When you use it, Excel tries to guess which cells you are trying to sum up. I'll show you a few methods to use this tool and explain when you have to be careful if you want to avoid problems.

There are three places where you can access the AutoSum feature.

1. HOME >> Editing >> Autosum,

2. FORMULAS >> Function Library >> AutoSum,

3. Using the Alt \+ = keyboard shortcut.

### Example 1:

In the following example, there is a table with four names in the header. The table contains the number of points scored by each person each month.

Let's sum up the points for January. Click cell F2 and press the AutoSum button.

Excel will highlight the cells that will be summed up. Press Enter to confirm.

Do the same for February. To do this, click cell F3 and then use AutoSum.

Try the same for March (F4). This time when you click AutoSum, this time Excel will choose the cells above the currently selected ones, instead of those that are located to the left. Since you have more than one value above the selected cell, Excel decides to sum the column, not the row, as it did before.

To correct Excel, select cells (B4:E4) and press Enter.

## Summing everything at once

After you sum up points for April, you can count the totals for each person. To speed up your work, we will use the AutoSum feature to sum up all these cells with one click.

First, you need to delete all the unnecessary cells to restore the example to its original state. After you do this, select cells from B2 to F6 and click the AutoSum button.

As you can see Excel summed up rows, as well as columns

### COPYING FORMULA

Excel makes it easy to copy your formula across an entire row or column, but you don't always get the results you want. If you end up with unexpected results, or those awful #REF and /DIV0 errors, read about absolute and relative cell references to understand what went wrong. But don't worry: you don't need to edit your 5,000 line spreadsheet cell by cell before you can copy-paste again. There are easy ways to get the formula to update automatically based on its location, or to copy it exactly without changing a single value.

### Method1

### Copying a Formula into Multiple Cells by Dragging

  1.

1

Enter the formula into one cell. As with any formula, start with an = sign, then use whichever functions or arithmetic you'd like. We'll use a simple example spreadsheet, and add column A and column B together:

### Example Spreadsheet |

---|---

 | Column A | Column B | Column C

### row 1 | ### 10 | ### 9 | =A1+B1

### row 2 | ### 20 | ### 8 |

### row 3 | ### 30 | ### 7 |

### row 4 | ### 40 | ### 6 |

  2.

2

Press enter to calculate the formula. Once you hit enter on your keyboard, the formula will be entered and calculated. Only the result (19) will be displayed, but the spreadsheet will still have the formula stored.

### Example Spreadsheet |

---|---

 | Column A | Column B | Column C

### row 1 | ### 10 | ### 9 | ### 19

### row 2 | ### 20 | ### 8 |

### row 3 | ### 30 | ### 7 |

### row 4 | ### 40 | ### 6 |

  3.

3

Click on the lower right corner of the cell to be propagated. Move your cursor to the lower right corner of the cell you just edited. The cursor will become a bold + sign.[1]

  4.

4

Hold and drag along the column or row you're copying to. Keep your mouse button held down, and drag your cursor down the column, or across the row to be edited (highlight). The formula you entered will automatically be entered into the cells you've highlighted. Relative cell references will automatically update to refer to the cell in the same relative position. Here's our example spreadsheet, showing the formulas used and the results displayed:

### Example Spreadsheet |

---|---

 | Column A | Column B | Column C

### row 1 | ### 10 | ### 9 | =A1+B1

### row 2 | ### 20 | ### 8 | =A2+B2

### row 3 | ### 30 | ### 7 | =A3+B3

### row 4 | ### 40 | ### 6 | =A4+B4

### Example Spreadsheet |

---|---

 | Column A | Column B | Column C

### row 1 | ### 10 | ### 9 | ### 19

### row 2 | ### 20 | ### 8 | ### 28

### row 3 | ### 30 | ### 7 | ### 37

### row 4 | ### 40 | ### 6 | ### 46

  5.

5

Double click the plus sign to fill the entire column. Instead of click-and-dragging, move your mouse to the lower right corner, and double click when the cursor turns into a + sign. This will automatically copy the formula to the entire column. [2]

  * Excel will stop filling out the column if it sees an empty cell. If the reference data contains a gap, you will have to repeat this step to fill out the column below the gap.

###  Method2

### Copying a Formula into Multiple Cells by Pasting

  1.

1

Enter the formula into one cell. As with any formula, start with an = sign, then use whichever functions or arithmetic you'd like. We'll use a simple example spreadsheet, and add column A and column B together:

### Example Spreadsheet |

---|---

 | Column A | Column B | Column C

### row 1 | ### 10 | ### 9 | =A1+B1

### row 2 | ### 20 | ### 8 |

### row 3 | ### 30 | ### 7 |

### row 4 | ### 40 | ### 6 |

  2.

2

Press enter to calculate the formula. Once you hit enter on your keyboard, the formula will be entered and calculated. Only the result (19) will be displayed, but the spreadsheet will still have the formula stored.

### Example Spreadsheet |

---|---

 | Column A | Column B | Column C

### row 1 | ### 10 | ### 9 | ### 19

### row 2 | ### 20 | ### 8 |

### row 3 | ### 30 | ### 7 |

### row 4 | ### 40 | ### 6 |

  3. 3

Click on the cell to be propagated and copy it (CTRL+C).

  4. 4

Select the cells you want to copy the formula to. Click on one and drag up or down using your mouse or the arrow keys. Unlike with the corner drag method, the cells you are copying the formula to do not need to be adjacent to the cell you are copying from.

  5. 5

Paste (CTRL+V).

###  Method3

### Copying a Formula Exactly

  1.

1

Use this method to quickly copy a formula without changing the cell references.Sometimes, you have a large spreadsheet full of formulas, and you want to copy them exactly. Changing everything to absolute cell references (as described in the section on cell references) would be tedious, especially if you just want to change them back again afterward. Use this method to quickly move formulas with relative cell references elsewhere without changing the references.[3] Here's our example spreadsheet, which needs to have column C duplicated to column D:

### Example Spreadsheet |

---|---

 | Column A | Column B | Column C | Column D

### row 1 | ### 944 | ### Frogs | =A1/2 |

### row 2 | ### 636 | ### Toads | =A2/2 |

### row 3 | ### 712 | ### Newts | =A3/2 |

### row 4 | ### 690 | ### Snakes | =A4/2 |

  1.     * If you're just trying to copy the formula in a single cell, skip to the last step ("Try alternate methods") in this section.

  2.

2

Open the Find window. On most versions of Excel, you can find this by clicking the Home tab at the top of the Excel window, then clicking Find & Select in the "Editing" portion of the tab.[4] You can also use the keyboard shortcut, CTRL F.

  3.

3

Find and replace "=" with another character. Enter "=", click "Find All," then enter another character into the "Replace with" box. This will automatically turn all formulas (which always begin with =) into text strings beginning with some other character. Always use a character that you have not used in your spreadsheet. For example, replace it with # or &, or a longer string of characters, such as ##&.

### Example Spreadsheet |

---|---

 | Column A | Column B | Column C | Column D

### row 1 | ### 944 | ### Frogs | ##&A1/2 |

### row 2 | ### 636 | ### Toads | ##&A2/2 |

### row 3 | ### 712 | ### Newts | ##&A3/2 |

### row 4 | ### 690 | ### Snakes | ##&A4/2 |

  1.     * Do not use the characters * or ?, since these will make later steps more difficult.

  2.

4

Copy and paste the cells. You may now select any cells you wish to copy, then paste them into another location. Since they are no longer interpreted as formulas, they will be copied exactly.

### Example Spreadsheet |

---|---

 | Column A | Column B | Column C | Column D

### row 1 | ### 944 | ### Frogs | ##&A1/2 | ##&A1/2

### row 2 | ### 636 | ### Toads | ##&A2/2 | ##&A2/2

### row 3 | ### 712 | ### Newts | ##&A3/2 | ##&A3/2

### row 4 | ### 690 | ### Snakes | ##&A4/2 | ##&A4/2

  5.

5

Use Find & Replace again to reverse the change. Now that you have the formulas where you want them, use the "Find all" and "Replace with" options to reverse your change. In our example, we'll look for the character string "##&" and replace it with "=" again, so those cells become formulas once again. You can now continue editing your spreadsheet as usual:

### Example Spreadsheet |

---|---

 | Column A | Column B | Column C | Column D

### row 1 | ### 944 | ### Frogs | =A1/2 | =A1/2

### row 2 | ### 636 | ### Toads | =A2/2 | =A2/2

### row 3 | ### 712 | ### Newts | =A3/2 | =A3/2

### row 4 | ### 690 | ### Snakes | =A4/2 | =A4/2

  6.

6

Try alternate methods. If the method described above does not work for any reason, or if you are worried about accidentally changing other cell contents with the "Replace all" option, there are a couple other methods you can try:

  * To copy a single cell's formula without changing references, select the cell, then copy the formula shown in the formula bar near the top of the window (not in the cell itself). Press esc to close the formula bar, then paste the formula wherever you need it.[5]

  * Press Ctrl` (usually on the same key as ~) to put the spreadsheet in formula view mode. Copy the formulas and paste them into a text editor such as Notepad or TextEdit. Copy them again, then paste them back into the spreadsheet at the desired location.[6] Press Ctrl` again to switch back to regular viewing mode.

###  Method4

### Using Relative and Absolute Cell References

  1.

1

Use a relative cell reference in a formula. In an Excel formula, a "cell reference" is the address a cell. You can type these in manually, or click on the cell you wish to use while you are entering a formula. For example, the following spreadsheet has a formula that references cell A2:

### Relative References |

---|---

 | Column A | Column B | Column C

### row 2 | ### 50 | ### 7 | =A2*2

### row 3 | ### 100 |   
 |

### row 4 | ### 200 |   
 |

### row 5 | ### 400 |   
 |

  2.

2

Understand why they're called relative references. In an Excel formula, a relative reference uses the relative position of a cell address. For example: cell C2 has the formula "=A2", which is a relative reference to the value two cells to the left. If you copy the formula into cell C4, then it will still refer to two cells to the left, now showing "=A4".

### Relative References |

---|---

 | Column A | Column B | Column C

### row 2 | ### 50 | ### 7 | =A2*2

### row 3 | ### 100 |   
 |

### row 4 | ### 200 |   
 | =A4*2

### row 5 | ### 400 |   
 |

  1.     * This works for cells outside of the same row and column as well. If you copied the same formula from cell C1 into cell D6 (not shown), Excel would change the reference "A2" to a cell one row to the right (C→D) and 5 rows below (2→7), or "B7".

  2.

3

Use an absolute reference instead. Let's say you don't want Excel to automatically change your formula. Instead of using a relative cell reference, you can make it absolute by adding a $ symbol in front of the column or row that you want to keep the same, no matter where you copy the formula too.[7] Here are a few example spreadsheets, showing the original formula in larger, bold text, and the result when you copy-paste it to other cells:

### Relative Column, Absolute Row (B$1):  
The formula has an absolute reference to row 1, so it always refers to row 1. |

---|---

 | Column A | Column B | Column C

### row 1 | ### 50 | ### 7 | =B$3

### row 2 | ### 100 | =A$3 | =B$3

### row 3 | ### 200 | =A$3 | =B$3

### row 4 | ### 400 | =A$3 | =B$3

### Absolute Column, Relative Row ($B1):  
The formula has an absolute reference to column B, so it always refers to column B. |

---|---

 | Column A | Column B | Column C

### row 1 | ### 50 | ### 7 | =$B1

### row 2 | ### 100 | =$B2 | =$B2

### row 3 | ### 200 | =$B3 | =$B3

### row 4 | ### 400 | =$B4 | =$B4

### Absolute Column & Row ($B$1):  
The formula has an absolute reference to column B of row 1, so it always refers to column B of row 1. |

---|---

 | Column A | Column B | Column C

### row 1 | ### 50 | ### 7 | ### =$B$1

### row 2 | ### 100 | ### $B$1 | ### $B$1

### row 3 | ### 200 | ### $B$1 | ### $B$1

### row 4 | ### 400 | ### $B$1 | ### $B$1

4

Use the F4 key to switch between absolute and relative. Highlight a cell reference in a formula by clicking it. Press F4 on your keyboard, and $ symbols will automatically be added or removed. Keep pressing F4 until the absolute or relative references you'd like are selected, then hit enter.[8]

### FOMATING DATA

### #1: Give your worksheet a good title

The ultimate goal of your worksheet is to present information in a way others will understand, right? Give readers a head start by titling your worksheet clearly. A good title lets readers know immediately what the content of the worksheet is going to show them — that way, they won't have to work so hard. "2008 Projections" isn't bad, but it leaves a lot of things out. What kind of projections? Sales? Hired Employees? New Store Openings? Be as clear as you can and, if necessary, add a subtitle. And if you plan to circulate the worksheet by e-mail, be sure that you title the worksheet file with something that reflects the content of the sheet itself. That way, when people open the file, they'll know what to expect.

### #2: Wake people up with color

Sure, black and white does the trick. But. It's. Boring. For those of us who aren't numbers people to start with, pouring over a black-and-white grid stuffed with an ocean of numerals is torture. Jazz it up by splashing a little color on the page. Choose an energizing color — green, orange, purple — for your column heads. Do something special with the title — maybe format it in a complementary color, add a picture at the top, put a background behind it to make it pop. Just be sure the color you add doesn't actually detract from the readability of the page. You want the color and design of the worksheet to draw people into the page, not make them forget what they're looking at.

Excel makes it easy to add a picture to the background of the worksheet as well. This is really a neat effect, if you have a reason to use it. As a general rule, don't put pictures behind your data just for the fun of it — readers have to work harder to see what's in the foreground. But if you want to promote something fun, such as a summer sales competition, you can raise the energy by adding a special picture behind the scenes.

### #3: Let the format lead the eye

Have you ever felt your heart sink because you've got five minutes to prepare for a meeting and the worksheet you're looking at makes no sense? Chances are, the problem is one of three things:

  * You can't immediately tell what you're looking at.

  * You can't tell where to start on the page.

  * You don't have a context for the information.

The way in which you format your worksheet can solve all three of these potential problems for you. As a general rule, the largest items on your page will get the first look. Then, the eye will look for the next largest, and the next largest after that. The actual content — the data in the cells — is likely to be what your readers see last.

You can use this idea to your advantage when you plan the format of your page. Make the title stand out, good and bold, and make sure it says something clearly about the content you're showing. Next, enlarge the column and row heads just a bit and put them in a second color. Readers will quickly scan the column and row headings to get a sense of how the information on the worksheet is organized. This will help them see what's most important on the page and where they should begin.

If you have extra information you want to be sure readers see — for example, a note explaining why you're displaying projected 2008 data even though it's only 2007 — you can set it off by enclosing it in a border or using a second color. This will draw the reader's eye to the note after they've taken in the most important items on the page.

### #4: Apply a theme

Excel 2007 benefits from the hip new (or should I say, expanded and improved) themes feature that has been added throughout the core Office 2007 applications. Themes exist in Office 2003, but they were limited in design and functionality (and much less fun).

When you apply a theme to your Excel 2007 worksheet (by clicking the Page Layout tab and choosing Themes), you make a design choice that includes the font, color, table style, and effects of the information on your worksheet. The great thing about this feature is that you can dramatically change the look and feel of your information simply by opening the Themes gallery and clicking another choice.

### #5: Don't cram your charts

What would we do without charts in Excel? Charts are a saving grace for those who need to provide their information in the easiest possible way for readers to understand. A chart quickly shows readers what's most important in your data (or at least, what's most important in what you want to show right now) and presents each data item in relation to other items in the chart.

One mistake that Excel chart novices often make is to try to show absolutely everything under the sun in a single chart. You've got one shot, right? The best way to ensure that your readers will keep viewing your information is to make sure they understand what they're looking at. And that means paring your chart down to the essentials and not littering the bars or pie slices with all sorts of labels and percentages and other nonessential items. Show what you need to get your point across and no more. Your readers will thank you for it.

### #6: Diagrams are helpful

Excel 2007 includes another way to show your data visually. Now you can use SmartArt to create professional-looking diagrams for flowcharts, org charts, and much more. Creating a SmartArt diagram is similar to creating a chart — you choose the type of diagram you want to use, add your text, and then add bars, lines, suns, moons, whatever. You can tailor the diagram in an almost unlimited number of ways (including adding pictures to the shapes in the diagram).

### #7: Take advantage of conditional formatting

I admit that I am easily amused by simple, colorful things. So I love the improved conditional formatting in Excel 2007. This is another feature that's been dramatically enhanced and made easier to use in the newest version. Now you can use a variety of visualizations to help show trends in the data you're presenting. You can use symbols, color bars, and more. To add conditional formatting to your worksheet, select the cells you want to showcase and click Conditional Formatting in the Styles group of the Home tab. Select the style of formatting you want to apply, and Live Preview will show how the formatting will look on your data. Nice.

### #8: When in doubt, spell it out

If you are working on a complex worksheet and just can't see how everyone will understand what you want them to focus on without a note or two, you can easily add comments to cells in the worksheet. Simply select the cell or range you want to add a note to, right-click, and choose Insert Comment. A small text box opens on top of your worksheet so that you can type the note you want to add. Your readers will know a comment exists at that point in your worksheet because a small red triangle appears in the upper-right corner of the cell. When a reader hovers the mouse pointer over the triangle, the note opens.

### #9: Frame it

It's an old trick, but it still works — if you want to draw a reader's eye toward something on the page, box it. Newspapers do it, magazines do it, Web pages do it. If the design is done well, readers think they are getting something "extra" in that little box — and we all love getting something extra.

Select the cells you want to border and right-click on your selection. Choose Format Cells and select the Border tab. Test out different border styles and choose one that frames but doesn't overwhelm your worksheet design. Click OK when you've found the style you want to use.

One caveat: Use the box idea sparingly. If you create more than one box on the page, readers might get confused about which one to read first and maybe even give up on reading any of it.

### #10: Invite feedback

Finally, if you really want to make sure people are getting the message of your worksheet, _ask_. E-mail one or two coworkers and ask them to take a quick look at your data; then find out whether:

  * It was easy to understand what the worksheet is about.

  * They could clearly see what was most important on the page.

  * They have any suggestions for ways you could make it easier to understand.

So what's the result of all this? People will smile at you more when they pass you in the hallway, because you made their day easier — and helped them feel smarter — by making your information easier to understand. And who knows, you might even get a free lunch out of the deal.

### CREATING CHARTS

Charts are used to display series of numeric data in a graphical format to make it easier to understand large quantities of data and the relationship between different series of data.

To create a chart in Excel, you start by entering the numeric data for the chart on a worksheet. Then you can plot that data into a chart by selecting the chart type that you want to use on the Insert tab, in the Chartsgroup.

1. Worksheet data

2. Chart created from worksheet data

Excel supports many types of charts to help you display data in ways that are meaningful to your audience. When you create a chart or change an existing chart, you can select from a variety of chart types (such as a column chart or a pie chart) and their subtypes (such as a stacked column chart or a pie in 3-D chart). You can also create a combination chart by using more than one chart type in your chart.

Example of a combination chart that uses a column and line chart type.

For more information about the chart types that you can select in Excel, see Available chart types.

###  Get to know chart elements

A chart has many elements. Some of these elements are displayed by default, others can be added as needed. You can change the display of the chart elements by moving them to other locations in the chart, resizing them, or by changing the format. You can also remove chart elements that you do not want to display.

1. The chart area of the chart.

2. The plot area of the chart.

3. The data points of the data series that are plotted in the chart.

4. The horizontal (category) and vertical (value) axis along which the data is plotted in the chart.

5. The legend of the chart.

6. A chart and axis title that you can use in the chart.

7. A data label that you can use to identify the details of a data point in a data series.

###  Modify a basic chart to meet your needs

After you create a chart, you can modify any one of its elements. For example, you might want to change the way that axes are displayed, add a chart title, move or hide the legend, or display additional chart elements.

To modify a chart, you can do one or more of the following:

  * Change the display of chart axes You can specify the scale of axes and adjust the interval between the values or categories that are displayed. To make your chart easier to read, you can also add tick marks to an axis, and specify the interval at which they will appear.

  * Add titles and data labels to a chart To help clarify the information that appears in your chart, you can add a chart title, axis titles, and data labels.

  * Add a legend or data table You can show or hide a legend, change its location, or modify the legend entries. In some charts, you can also show a data table that displays the legend keys and the values that are presented in the chart.

  * Apply special options for each chart type Special lines (such as high-low lines and trendlines), bars (such as up-down bars and error bars), data markers, and other options are available for different chart types.

###  Apply a predefined chart layout and style for a professional look

Instead of manually adding or changing chart elements or formatting the chart, you can quickly apply a predefined chart layout and chart style to your chart. Excel provides a variety of useful predefined layouts and styles. However, you can fine-tune a layout or style as needed by making manual changes to the layout and format of individual chart elements, such as the chart area, plot area, data series, or legend of the chart.

When you apply a predefined chart layout, a specific set of chart elements (such as titles, a legend, a data table, or data labels) are displayed in a specific arrangement in your chart. You can select from a variety of layouts that are provided for each chart type.

When you apply a predefined chart style, the chart is formatted based on the document theme that you have applied, so that your chart matches your organization's or your own theme colors (a set of colors), theme fonts (a set of heading and body text fonts), and theme effects (a set of lines and fill effects).

You cannot create your own chart layouts or styles, but you can create chart templates that include the chart layout and formatting that you want.

###  Add eye-catching formatting to a chart

In addition to applying a predefined chart style, you can easily apply formatting to individual chart elements such as data markers, the chart area, the plot area, and the numbers and text in titles and labels to give your chart a custom, eye-catching look. You can apply specific shape styles and WordArt styles, and you can also format the shapes and text of chart elements manually.

To add formatting, you can use one or more of the following:

  * Fill chart elements You can use colors, textures, pictures, and gradient fills to help draw attention to specific chart elements.

  * Change the outline of chart elements You can use colors, line styles, and line weights to emphasize chart elements.

  * Add special effects to chart elements You can apply special effects, such as shadow, reflection, glow, soft edges, bevel, and 3-D rotation to chart element shapes, which gives your chart a finished look.

  * Format text and numbers You can format text and numbers in titles, labels, and text boxes on a chart as you would text and numbers on a worksheet. To make text and numbers stand out, you can even apply WordArt styles.

###  Reuse charts by creating chart templates

If you want to reuse a chart that you customized to meet your needs, you can save that chart as a chart template (*.crtx) in the chart templates folder. When you create a chart, you can then apply the chart template just as you would any other built-in chart type. In fact, chart templates are custom chart types — you can also use them to change the chart type of an existing chart. If you use a specific chart template frequently, you can save it as the default chart type.

##  Step 1: Create a basic chart

For most charts, such as column and bar charts, you can plot the data that you arrange in rows or columns on a worksheet into a chart. However, some chart types (such as pie and bubble charts) require a specific data arrangement.

  1. On the worksheet, arrange the data that you want to plot in a chart.

The data can be arranged in rows or columns — Excel automatically determines the best way to plot the data in the chart. Some chart types (such as pie and bubble charts) require a specific data arrangement.

How to arrange data on the worksheet

For this chart type | Arrange the data

---|---

Column, bar, line, area, surface, or radar chart

  | In columns or rows, such as: | Year | Apples | Oranges | Bananas

---|---|---|---

2013 | 800 | 600 | 50

2014 | 600 | 700 | 550

2015 | 50 | 90 | 150

Or:

Fruit | 2013 | 2014 | 2015

---|---|---|---

Apples | 800 | 600 | 50

Oranges | 600 | 700 | 90

Bananas | 50 | 90 | 150

Pie or doughnut chart | For one data series, in one column or row of data and one column or row of data labels, such as: | A | 1

---|---

B | 2

C | 3

Or:

A | B | C

---|---|---

1 | 2 | 3

For multiple data series, in multiple columns or rows of data and one column or row of data labels, such as:

A | 1 | 2

---|---|---

B | 3 | 4

C | 5 | 6

Or:

A | B | C

---|---|---

1 | 2 | 3

4 | 5 | 6

XY (scatter) or bubble chart | In columns, placing x values in the first column and corresponding y values and bubble size values in adjacent columns, such as: | X | Y | Bubble size

---|---|---

1 | 2 | 3

4 | 5 | 6

Stock chart | In columns or rows in the following order, using names or dates as labels:

high values, low values, and closing values

Like: | Date | High | Low | Close

---|---|---|---

1/1/2002 | 46.125 | 42 | 44.063

Or:

Date | 1/1/2002

---|---

High | 46.125

Low | 42

Close | 44.063

  2. Select any cell within the data range that you want to use for the chart.

Tip If you select only one cell, Excel automatically plots all cells that contain data that is adjacent to that cell. If the cells that you want to plot in a chart are not in a continuous range, you can select non-adjacent cells or ranges with Ctrl+Left-Click, as long as the selection forms a rectangle. You can also hide any rows or columns you don't want to plot in the chart.

Tip: To cancel a selection of cells, click any cell on the worksheet.

  3. On the Insert tab, in the Charts group, do one of the following:

    * Click the chart type, and then click a chart subtype that you want to use.

    * To see all available chart types, click   to launch the Insert Chart dialog box, and then click the arrows to scroll through the chart types.

Tip A ScreenTip displays the chart type name when you rest the mouse pointer over any chart type or chart subtype. For more information about the chart types that you can use, see Available chart types.

  4. By default, the chart is placed on the worksheet as an embedded chart. If you want to place the chart in a separate chart sheet, you can change its location by doing the following:

  * Click anywhere in the embedded chart to activate it.

This displays the Chart Tools, adding the Design, Layout, and Format tabs.

  * On the Design tab, in the Location group, click Move Chart.

  * Under Choose where you want the chart to be placed, do one of the following:

    * To display the chart in a chart sheet, click New sheet.

Tip If you want to replace the suggested name for the chart, you can type a new name in the New sheet box.

  1.     * To display the chart as an embedded chart in a worksheet, click Object in, and then click a worksheet in the Object in box.

  2. Excel automatically assigns a name to the chart, such as Chart1 if it is the first chart that you create on a worksheet. To change the name of the chart, do the following:

    * Click the chart.

    * On the Layout tab, in the Properties group, click the Chart Name text box.

Tip If necessary, click the Properties icon in the Properties group to expand the group.

  * Type a new name.

  * Press ENTER.

Notes

  * To quickly create a chart that is based on the default chart type, select the data that you want to use for the chart, and then press ALT+F1 or F11. When you press ALT+F1, the chart is displayed as an embedded chart; when you press F11, the chart is displayed on a separate chart sheet.

  * If you no longer need a chart, you can delete it. Click the chart to select it, and then press DELETE.

##  Step 2: Change the layout or style of a chart

After you create a chart, you can instantly change its look. Instead of manually adding or changing chart elements or formatting the chart, you can quickly apply a predefined layout and style to your chart. Excel provides a variety of useful predefined layouts and styles (or quick layouts and quick styles) that you can select from, but you can customize a layout or style as needed by manually changing the layout and format of individual chart elements.

###  Apply a predefined chart layout

  1. Click anywhere in the chart that you want to format by using a predefined chart layout.

This displays the Chart Tools, adding the Design, Layout, and Format tabs.

  2. On the Design tab, in the Chart Layouts group, click the chart layout that you want to use.

Note When the size of the Excel window is reduced, chart layouts will be available in the Quick Layoutgallery in the Chart Layouts group.

Tip To see all available layouts, click More   .

###  Apply a predefined chart style

  1. Click anywhere in the chart that you want to format by using a predefined chart style.

This displays the Chart Tools, adding the Design, Layout, and Format tabs.

  2. On the Design tab, in the Chart Styles group, click the chart style that you want to use.

Note When the size of the Excel window is reduced, chart styles will be available in the Chart Quick Styles gallery in the Chart Styles group.

Tip To see all predefined chart styles, click More   .

###  Change the layout of chart elements manually

  1. Click the chart element for which you want to change the layout, or do the following to select it from a list of chart elements.

    1. Click anywhere in the chart to display the Chart Tools.

    2. On the Format tab, in the Current Selection group, click the arrow in the Chart Elements box, and then click the chart element that you want.

  2. On the Layout tab, in the Labels, Axes, or Background group, click the chart element button that corresponds with the chart element that you selected, and then click the layout option that you want.

Note The layout options that you select are applied to the chart element that you have selected. For example, if you have the entire chart selected, data labels will be applied to all data series. If you have a single data point selected, data labels will only be applied to the selected data series or data point.

###  Change the format of chart elements manually

  1. Click the chart element for which you want to change the style, or do the following to select it from a list of chart elements.

    1. Click anywhere in the chart to display the Chart Tools.

    2. On the Format tab, in the Current Selection group, click the arrow in the Chart Elements box, and then click the chart element that you want.

  2. On the Format tab, do one or more of the following:

    1. To format any selected chart element, in the Current Selection group, click Format Selection, and then select the formatting options that you want.

    2. To format the shape of a selected chart element, in the Shape Styles group, click the style that you want, or click Shape Fill, Shape Outline, or Shape Effects, and then select the formatting options that you want.

    3. To format the text in a selected chart element by using WordArt, in the WordArt Styles group, click a style. You can also click Text Fill, Text Outline, or Text Effects, and then select the formatting options that you want.

Note After you apply a WordArt style, you cannot remove the WordArt format. If you do not want the WordArt style that you applied, you can select another WordArt style, or you can click Undo on the Quick Access Toolbar to return to the previous text format.

Tip To use regular text formatting to format the text in chart elements, you can right-click or select the text, and then click the formatting options that you want on the Mini toolbar. You can also use the formatting buttons on the ribbon (Home tab, Font group).

##  Step 3: Add or remove titles or data labels

To make a chart easier to understand, you can add titles, such as a chart title and axis titles. Axis titles are typically available for all axes that can be displayed in a chart, including depth (series) axes in 3-D charts. Some chart types (such as radar charts) have axes, but they cannot display axis titles. Chart types that do not have axes (such as pie and doughnut charts) cannot display axis titles either.

You can also link chart and axis titles to corresponding text in worksheet cells by creating a reference to those cells. Linked titles are automatically updated in the chart when you change the corresponding text on the worksheet.

To quickly identify a data series in a chart, you can add data labels to the data points of the chart. By default, the data labels are linked to values on the worksheet, and they update automatically when changes are made to these values.

###  Add a chart title

  1. Click anywhere in the chart to which you want to add a title.

This displays the Chart Tools, adding the Design, Layout, and Format tabs.

  2. On the Layout tab, in the Labels group, click Chart Title.

  3. Click Centered Overlay Title or Above Chart.

  4. In the Chart Title text box that appears in the chart, type the text that you want.

Tip To insert a line break, click to place the pointer where you want to break the line, and then press ENTER.

  5. To format the text, select it, and then click the formatting options that you want on the Mini toolbar.

Tip You can also use the formatting buttons on the ribbon (Home tab, Font group). To format the whole title, you can right-click it, click Format Chart Title, and then select the formatting options that you want.

###  Add axis titles

  1. Click anywhere in the chart to which you want to add axis titles.

This displays the Chart Tools, adding the Design, Layout, and Format tabs.

  2. On the Layout tab, in the Labels group, click Axis Titles.

  3. Do one or more of the following:

    * To add a title to a primary horizontal (category) axis, click Primary Horizontal Axis Title, and then click the option that you want.

Tip If the chart has a secondary horizontal axis, you can also click Secondary Horizontal Axis Title.

  * To add a title to primary vertical (value) axis, click Primary Vertical Axis Title, and then click the option that you want.

Tip If the chart has a secondary vertical axis, you can also click Secondary Vertical Axis Title.

  * To add a title to a depth (series) axis, click Depth Axis Title, and then click the option that you want.

Note This option is only available when the selected chart is a true 3-D chart, such as a 3-D column chart.

  4. In the Axis Title text box that appears in the chart, type the text that you want.

Tip To insert a line break, click to place the pointer where you want to break the line, and then press ENTER.

  5. To format the text, select it, and then click the formatting options that you want on the Mini toolbar.

Tip You can also use the formatting buttons on the ribbon (Home tab, Font group). To format the whole title, you can right-click it, click Format Axis Title , and then select the formatting options that you want.

Notes

  * If you switch to another chart type that does not support axis titles (such as a pie chart), the axis titles will no longer be displayed. The titles will be displayed again when you switch back to a chart type that does support axis titles.

  * Axis titles that are displayed for secondary axes will be lost when you switch to a chart type that does not display secondary axes.

###  Link a title to a worksheet cell

  1. On a chart, click the chart or axis title that you want to link to a worksheet cell.

  2. On the worksheet, click in the formula bar, and then type an equal sign (=).

  3. Select the worksheet cell that contains the data or text that you want to display in your chart.

Tip You can also type the reference to the worksheet cell in the formula bar. Include an equal sign, the sheet name, followed by an exclamation point; for example, =Sheet1!F2

  4. Press ENTER.

###  Add data labels

  1. On a chart, do one of the following:

    * To add a data label to all data points of all data series, click the chart area.

    * To add a data label to all data points of a data series, click anywhere in the data series that you want to label.

    * To add a data label to a single data point in a data series, click the data series that contains the data point that you want to label, and then click the data point that you want to label.

This displays the Chart Tools, adding the Design, Layout, and Format tabs.

  2. On the Layout tab, in the Labels group, click Data Labels, and then click the display option that you want.

Note Depending on the chart type that you used, different data label options will be available.

###  Remove titles or data labels from a chart

  1. Click the chart.

This displays the Chart Tools, adding the Design, Layout, and Format tabs.

  2. On the Layout tab, in the Labels group, do one of the following:

    * To remove a chart title, click Chart Title, and then click None.

    * To remove an axis title, click Axis Title, click the type of axis title that you want to remove, and then click None.

    * To remove data labels, click Data Labels, and then click None.

Tip To quickly remove a title or data label, click it, and then press DELETE.

##  Step 4: Show or hide a legend

When you create a chart, the legend appears, but you can hide the legend or change its location after you create the chart.

  1. Click the chart in which you want to show or hide a legend.

This displays the Chart Tools, adding the Design, Layout, and Format tabs.

  2. On the Layout tab, in the Labels group, click Legend.

  3. Do one of the following:

    * To hide the legend, click None.

Tip To quickly remove a legend or a legend entry from a chart, you can select it, and then press DELETE. You can also right-click the legend or a legend entry, and then click Delete.

  * To display a legend, click the display option that you want.

Note When you click one of the display options, the legend moves, and the plot area automatically adjusts to make room for it. If you move and size the legend by using the mouse, the plot area does not automatically adjust.

  * For additional options, click More Legend Options, and then select the display option that you want.

Tip By default, a legend does not overlap the chart. If you have space constraints, you might be able to reduce the size of the chart by clearing the Show the legend without overlapping the chart check box.

Tip When a chart has a legend displayed, you can modify the individual legend entries by editing the corresponding data on the worksheet. For additional editing options, or to modify legend entries without affecting the worksheet data, you can change the legend entries in the Select Data Source dialog box (Design tab, Data group, Select Data button).

##  Step 5: Display or hide chart axes or gridlines

When you create a chart, primary axes are displayed for most chart types. You can turn them on or off as needed. When you add axes, you can specify the level of detail that you want the axes to display. A depth axis is displayed when you create a 3-D chart.

When the values in a chart vary widely from data series to data series, or when you have mixed types of data (for example, price and volume), you can plot one or more data series on a secondary vertical (value) axis. The scale of the secondary vertical axis reflects the values for the associated data series. After you add a secondary vertical axis to a chart, you can also add a secondary horizontal (category) axis, which might be useful in an xy (scatter) chart or bubble chart.

To make a chart easier to read, you can display or hide the horizontal and vertical chart gridlines that extend from any horizontal and vertical axes across the plot area of the chart.

###  Display or hide primary axes

  1. Click the chart for which you want to display or hide axes.

This displays the Chart Tools, adding the Design, Layout, and Format tabs.

  2. On the Layout tab, in the Axes group, click Axes, and then do one of the following:

    * To display an axis, click Primary Horizontal Axis, Primary Vertical Axis, or Depth Axis (on a 3-D chart), and then click the axis display option that you want.

    * To hide an axis, click Primary Horizontal Axis, Primary Vertical Axis, or Depth Axis (on a 3-D chart), and then click None.

    * To specify detailed axis display and scaling options, click Primary Horizontal Axis, Primary Vertical Axis, or Depth Axis (on a 3-D chart), and then click More Primary Horizontal Axis Options, More Primary Vertical Axis Options, or More Depth Axis Options.

###  Display or hide secondary axes

  1. In a chart, click the data series that you want to plot along a secondary vertical axis, or do the following to select the data series from a list of chart elements:

    1. Click the chart.

This displays the Chart Tools, adding the Design, Layout, and Format tabs.

  2. On the Format tab, in the Current Selection group, click the arrow in the Chart Elements box, and then click the data series that you want to plot along a secondary vertical axis.

  2. On the Format tab, in the Current Selection group, click Format Selection.

  3. Click Series Options if it is not selected, and then under Plot Series On, click Secondary Axis and then click Close.

  4. On the Layout tab, in the Axes group, click Axes.

  5. Do one of the following:

  1. To display a secondary vertical axis, click Secondary Vertical Axis, and then click the display option that you want.

Tip To help distinguish the secondary vertical axis, you can change the chart type for just one data series. For example, you can change one data series to a line chart.

  2. To display a secondary horizontal axis, click Secondary Horizontal Axis, and then click the display option that you want.

Note This option is available only after you display a secondary vertical axis.

  3. To hide a secondary axis, click Secondary Vertical Axis or Secondary Horizontal Axis, and then click None.

Tip You can also click the secondary axis that you want to delete, and then press DELETE.

###  Display or hide gridlines

  1. Click the chart for which you want to display or hide chart gridlines.

This displays the Chart Tools, adding the Design, Layout, and Format tabs.

  2. On the Layout tab, in the Axes group, click Gridlines.

  3. Do the following:

    * To add horizontal gridlines to the chart, point to Primary Horizontal Gridlines, and then click the option that you want. If the chart has a secondary horizontal axis, you can also click Secondary Horizontal Gridlines.

    * To add vertical gridlines to the chart, point to Primary Vertical Gridlines, and then click the option that you want. If the chart has a secondary vertical axis, you can also click Secondary Vertical Gridlines.

    * To add depth gridlines to a 3-D chart, point to Depth Gridlines, and then click the option that you want. This option is only available when the selected chart is a true 3-D chart, such as a 3-D column chart.

    * To hide chart gridlines, point to Primary Horizontal Gridlines, Primary Vertical Gridlines, or Depth Gridlines (on a 3-D chart), and then click None. If the chart has a secondary axes, you can also click Secondary Horizontal Gridlines or Secondary Vertical Gridlines, and then click None.

    * To quickly remove chart gridlines, select them, and then press DELETE.

##  Step 6: Move or resize a chart

You can move a chart to any location on a worksheet or to a new or existing worksheet. You can also change the size of the chart for a better fit.

###  Move a chart

  * To move a chart, drag it to the location that you want.

###  Resize a chart

To resize a chart, do one of the following:

  * Click the chart, and then drag the sizing handles to the size that you want.

  * On the Format tab, in the Size group, enter the size in the Shape Height and Shape Width box.

Tip For more sizing options, on the Format tab, in the Size group, click   to launch the Format Chart Area dialog box. On the Size tab, you can select options to size, rotate, or scale the chart. On the Propertiestab, you can specify how you want the chart to move or size with the cells on the worksheet.

##  Step 7: Save a chart as a template

If you want to create another chart such as the one that you just created, you can save the chart as a template that you can use as the basis for other similar charts

  1. Click the chart that you want to save as a template.

  2. On the Design tab, in the Type group, click Save as Template.

  3. In the File name box, type a name for the template.

Tip Unless you specify a different folder, the template file (.crtx) will be saved in the Charts folder, and the template becomes available under Templates in both the Insert Chart dialog box (Insert tab, Chartsgroup, Dialog Box Launcher   ) and the Change Chart Type dialog box (Design tab, Type group, Change Chart Type).

Note A chart template contains chart formatting and stores the colors that are in use when you save the chart as a template. When you use a chart template to create a chart in another workbook, the new chart uses the colors of the chart template — not the colors of the document theme that is currently applied to the workbook. To use the document theme colors instead of the chart template colors, right-click the chart area, and then click Reset to Match Style.

### CREATING DATABASE

### Excel Database Overview

Excel Database Tutorial. Ted French

### MICROSOFT EXCEL DATABASE FILES

Related tutorial: Microsoft Excel 2003 Step by Step Database Tutorial.

At times, we need to keep track of information and a good place to this is in an Excel database file. Whether it is a personal list of phone numbers, a contact list for members of an organization or team, or a collection of coins, cards, or books, an Excel database file makes it easy to enter, store, and find specific information.

Microsoft Excel has built it tools to help you keep track of data and to find specific information when you want it. As well, with its hundreds of columns and thousands of rows, an Excel spreadsheet can hold an enormous amount of data.

The steps in this tutorial are:

  1. Entering the Data - How data is stored

  2. Entering Data Correctly \- How to avoid common errors

  3. Rows are Records - Organizing your data

  4. Columns are Fields- Organizing your data (con't)

  5. Creating the Table - Create the database

  6. Using the Database Tools \- Sorting and filtering data

  7. Expanding the Database - Adding new records

  8. Completing the Database Formatting - Formatting the title and cell color

02

### Tables of Data

Excel Database Tutorial. Ted French

### TABLES OF DATA

The basic format for storing data in an Excel database is a table.

Once a table has been created, Excel's data tools can be used to search, sort, and filter records in the database to find specific information.

### TO FOLLOW THIS TUTORIAL:

  * enter the data as it is shown in the image above.

### TIP - TO ENTER THE STUDENT ID'S QUICKLY:

  1. Type the first two ID's \- ST348-245 and ST348-246 into cells A5 and A6 respectively.

  2. Highlight the two ID's to select them.

  3. Click on the fill handle and drag it down to cell A13.

  4. The rest of the Student ID's should be entered into cells A6 to A13 correctly.

03

### Entering Data Correctly

Enter the data correctly for a list. Ted French

### LEAVE NO EMPTY ROWS OR CELLS

When enter the data, it is important to ensure that it is entered correctly. Other than row 2 between the spreadsheet title and the column headings, do not leave any other blank rows when entering your data. Also, make sure that you don't leave any empty cells.

Data errors, caused by incorrect data entry, are the source of many problems related to data management. If the data is entered correctly in the beginning, the program is more likely to give you back the results you want.

04

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### Rows are Records

A data record in an Excel database. Ted French

### ROWS ARE RECORDS

Each individual row of data, in a database is known as a record. When entering records keep these guidelines in mind:

  * Leave no blank rows in the table being created. This includes NOTleaving a blank row between the column headings and the first row of data.

  * A record can contain data about only one specific item.

  * A record must also contain ALL the data in the database about that item. There can't be information about an item in more than one row.

05

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### Columns are Fields

Field names in an Excel table. Ted French

### COLUMNS ARE FIELDS

While rows in an Excel database are referred to as records, the columns are known as fields. Each column needs a heading to identify the data it contains. These headings are called field names.

  * Field names are used to ensure that the data for each record is entered in the same sequence.

  * Make sure that all the data in a column is entered using the same format. If you start entering numbers as digits (such as 10 or 20) keep it up. Don't change part way through and begin entering numbers as words (such as ten or twenty). Be consistent.

  * Do not leave blank columns in the table.

06

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### Creating the Table

Using the Create List dialog box in Excel. Ted French

### CREATE THE TABLE

Once the data has been entered, it can be converted into a table. To do so:

  1. Highlight the cells A3 to E13 in the worksheet.

  2. Click on the Home tab.

  3. Click on the Format as Table option on the ribbon to open the drop down menu.

  4. Choose the blue Table Style Medium 9 option to open the Format as Tabledialog box.

  5. While the dialog box is open, cells A3 to E13 on the worksheet should be surrounded by the marching ants.

  6. If the marching ants surround the correct range of cells, click Ok in the Format as Table dialog box.

  7. If the marching ants do not surround the correct range of cells, highlight the correct range in the worksheet and then click Ok in the Format as Tabledialog box.

  8. The table should have the drop down arrows added beside each field name and the table rows should be formatted in alternating light and dark blue.

07

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### Using the Database Tools

Excel's Database Tools. Ted French

### USING THE DATABASE TOOLS

Once you have created the database, you can use the tools located under the drop down arrows beside each field name to sort or filter your data.

Sorting Data

  1. Click on the drop down arrow next to the Last Name field name.

  2. Click on the Sort A to Z option to sort the database alphabetically.

  3. Once sorted, Graham J. should be the first record in the table and Wilson . Rshould be the last.

Filtering Data

  1. Click on the drop down arrow next to the Program field name.

  2. Click on the check box next to the Select All option to clear all check boxes.

  3. Click on the check box next to the Business option to add a check mark to the box.

  4. Click OK.

  5. Only two students - G. Thompson and F. Smith should be visible since they are the only two enrolled in the business program.

  6. To show all records, click on the drop down arrow next to the Program field name.

  7. Click on the Clear Filter from "Program" option.

08

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### Expanding the Database

Entering New Records in an Excel Database. Ted French

### EXPANDING THE DATABASE

To add additional records to your database:

  * Place your mouse pointer over the small dot in the bottom right hand corner of the table.

  * The mouse pointer will change into a two - headed arrow.

  * When this happens, click and hold down the right mouse button and drag the pointer down to add a blank row to the bottom of the database.

  * Add the following data to this new row:

Cell \- Data  
A14 - ST348-255  
B14 - Christopher  
C14 - A.  
D14 - 22  
E14 - Science

09

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### Completing the Database Formatting

Formatting an Excel Database. Ted French

### TO COMPLETE THE DATABASE FORMATTING:

  1. Highlight cells A1 to E1 in the worksheet.

  2. Click on the Home tab.

  3. Click on the Merge and Centeroption of the ribbon to center the title.

  4. Click on the Fill Color (looks like a paint can) on the ribbon to open the fill color drop down list.

  5. Choose Blue, Accent 1 from the list to change the color of the background in cells A1 - E1 to dark blue.

  6. Click on the Font Color icon on the Formatting Toolbar (it is a large letter " A ") to open the font color drop down list.

  7. Choose White from the list to change the color of the text in cells A1 - E1 to white.

  8. Highlight cells A2 \- E2 in the worksheet.

  9. Click on the Fill Color on the ribbon to open the fill color drop down list.

  10. Choose Blue, Accent 1, Lighter 80 from the list to change the color of the background in cells A2 - E2 to light blue.

  11. Highlight cells A4 - E14 in the worksheet.

  12. Click on the Center option on the ribbon to center align the text in cells A14 to E14.

  13. At this point, if you have followed all the steps of this tutorial correctly, your spreadsheet should resemble the spreadsheet pictured in Step 1 of this tutorial.

10

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### Completing the Database Formatting

Database functions

Syntax: Dfunction(Database_arr , Field_str|num , Criteria_arr)

Where D _function_ is one of the following:

  * DAVERAGE

  * DCOUNT

  * DCOUNTA

  * DGET

  * DMAX

  * DMIN

  * DPRODUCT

  * DSTDEV

  * DSTDEVP

  * DSUM

  * DVAR

  * DVARP

Type: Database

Database functions are particularly handy when Google Sheets is used to maintain structured data, like a database. Each database function, _Dfunction_ , computes the corresponding function on a subset of a cell range regarded as a database table. Database functions take three arguments:

  * Database_arr is a range, embedded array or array generated by an array expression that is structured so that each row after Row 1 is a database record, and each column is a database field. Row 1 contains the labels for each field.

  * Field_str|num indicates which column (field) contains the values to be averaged. This can be expressed as either the field name (text string) or the column number, where the left-most column would be represented as 1.

  * Criteria_arr is a range, embedded array or array generated by an array expression that is structured such that the first row contains the field name(s) to which the criterion (criteria) will be applied, and subsequent rows contain the conditional test(s).

The first row in Criteria specifies field names. Every other row in Criteria represents a filter, which is a set of restrictions on the corresponding fields. Restrictions are described using Query-by-Example notation, and can include a value to match or a comparison operator followed by a comparison value. Examples of restrictions are: "Chocolate", "42", ">= 42", "<> 42". An empty cell means no restriction on the corresponding field.

A filter matches a database row if all the filter restrictions (the restrictions in the filter's row) are met. A database row (record) satisfies Criteria if and only if at least one filter matches it. A field name may appear more than once in the Criteria range to allow multiple restrictions that apply simultaneously (for example, temperature >= 65 and temperature <= 82).

DGET is the only database function that doesn't aggregate values. DGET returns the value of the field specified in the second argument (similarly to a VLOOKUP) only when exactly one record matches Criteria; otherwise, it returns an error indicating no matches or multiple matches

### FILTERING

If your worksheet contains a lot of content, it can be difficult to find information quickly. Filters can be used to narrow down the data in your worksheet, allowing you to view only the information you need.

#### To filter data:

In our example, we'll apply a filter to an equipment log worksheet to display only the laptops and projectors that are available for checkout.

  1. In order for filtering to work correctly, your worksheet should include a header row, which is used to identify the name of each column. In our example, our worksheet is organized into different columns identified by the header cells in row 1: ID#, Type, Equipment Detail, and so on.

  2. Select the Data tab, then click the Filter command.

  3. A drop-down arrow   will appear in the header cell for each column.

  4. Click the drop-down arrow for the column you want to filter. In our example, we will filter column B to view only certain types of equipment.

  5. The Filter menu will appear.

  6. Uncheck the box next to Select All to quickly deselect all data.

  7. Check the boxes next to the data you want to filter, then click OK. In this example, we will check Laptop and Tablet to view only those types of equipment.

  8. The data will be filtered, temporarily hiding any content that doesn't match the criteria. In our example, only laptops and tablets are visible.

Filtering options can also be accessed from the Sort & Filter command on the Home tab.

#### To apply multiple filters:

Filters are cumulative, which means you can apply multiple filters to help narrow down your results. In this example, we've already filtered our worksheet to show laptops and projectors, and we'd like to narrow it down further to only show laptops and projectors that were checked out in August.

  1. Click the drop-down arrow for the column you want to filter. In this example, we will add a filter to column D to view information by date.

  2. The Filter menu will appear.

  3. Check or uncheck the boxes depending on the data you want to filter, then click OK. In our example, we'll uncheck everything except for August.

  4. The new filter will be applied. In our example, the worksheet is now filtered to show only laptops and tablets that were checked out in August.

#### To clear a filter:

After applying a filter, you may want to remove—or clear—it from your worksheet so you'll be able to filter content in different ways.

  1. Click the drop-down arrow for the filter you want to clear. In our example, we'll clear the filter in column D.

  2. The Filter menu will appear.

  3. Choose Clear Filter From [COLUMN NAME] from the Filter menu. In our example, we'll select Clear Filter From "Checked Out".

  4. The filter will be cleared from the column. The previously hidden data will be displayed.

To remove all filters from your worksheet, click the Filter command on the Data tab.

### Advanced filtering

If you need to filter for something specific, basic filtering may not give you enough options. Fortunately, Excel includes many advanced filtering tools, including search, text, date, and number filtering, which can narrow your results to help find exactly what you need.

#### To filter with search:

Excel allows you to search for data that contains an exact phrase, number, date, and more. In our example, we'll use this feature to show only Saris brand products in our equipment log.

  1. Select the Data tab, then click the Filter command. A drop-down arrow will appear in the header cell for each column. Note: If you've already added filters to your worksheet, you can skip this step.

  2. Click the drop-down arrow for the column you want to filter. In our example, we'll filter column C.

  3. The Filter menu will appear. Enter a search term into the search box. Search results will appear automatically below the Text Filters field as you type. In our example, we'll type saris to find all Saris brand equipment.

  4. When you're done, click OK.

  5. The worksheet will be filtered according to your search term. In our example, the worksheet is now filtered to show only Saris brand equipment.

#### To use advanced text filters:

Advanced text filters can be used to display more specific information, such as cells that contain a certain number of characters, or data that excludes a specific word or number. In our example, we've already filtered our worksheet to only show items with Other in the Type column, but we'd like to exclude any item containing the word case.

  1. Select the Data tab, then click the Filter command. A drop-down arrow will appear in the header cell for each column. Note: If you've already added filters to your worksheet, you can skip this step.

  2. Click the drop-down arrow for the column you want to filter. In our example, we'll filter column C.

  3. The Filter menu will appear. Hover the mouse over Text Filters, then select the desired text filter from the drop-down menu. In our example, we'll choose Does Not Contain... to view data that does not contain specific text.

  4. The Custom AutoFilter dialog box will appear. Enter the desired text to the right of the filter, then click OK. In our example, we'll type case to exclude any items containing this word.

  5. The data will be filtered by the selected text filter. In our example, our worksheet now displays items in the Other category that do not contain the word case.

#### To use advanced date filters:

Advanced date filters can be used to view information from a certain time period, such as last year, next quarter, or between two dates. In this example, we will use advanced date filters to view only equipment that has been checked out today.

  1. Select the Data tab, then click the Filter command. A drop-down arrow will appear in the header cell for each column. Note: If you've already added filters to your worksheet, you can skip this step.

  2. Click the drop-down arrow for the column you want to filter. In our example, we will filter column D to view only a certain range of dates.

  3. The Filter menu will appear. Hover the mouse over Date Filters, then select the desired date filter from the drop-down menu. In our example, we'll select Today to view equipment that has been checked out on today's date.

  4. The worksheet will be filtered by the selected date filter. In our example, we can now see which items have been checked out today.

If you're working along with the example file, your results will be different from the images above. If you want, you can change some of the dates so the filter will give more results.

#### To use advanced number filters:

Advanced number filters allow you to manipulate numbered data in different ways. In this example, we will display only certain types of equipment based on the range of ID numbers.

  1. Select the Data tab on the Ribbon, then click the Filter command. A drop-down arrow will appear in the header cell for each column. Note: If you've already added filters to your worksheet, you can skip this step.

  2. Click the drop-down arrow for the column you want to filter. In our example, we'll filter column A to view only a certain range of ID numbers.

  3. The Filter menu will appear. Hover the mouse over Number Filters, then select the desired number filter from the drop-down menu. In our example, we will choose Between to view ID numbers between a specific number range.

  4. The Custom AutoFilter dialog box will appear. Enter the desired number(s) to the right of each filter, then click OK. In our example, we want to filter for ID numbers greater than or equal to 3000 but less than or equal to 4000, which will display ID numbers in the 3000-4000 range.

  5. The data will be filtered by the selected number filter. In our example, only items with an ID number between 3000 and 4000 are visible.

### SORTING DATA

As you add more content to a worksheet, organizing this information becomes especially important. You can quickly reorganize a worksheet by sorting your data. For example, you could organize a list of contact information by last name. Content can be sorted alphabetically, numerically, and in many other ways.

#### Types of sorting

When sorting data, it's important to first decide if you want the sort to apply to the entire worksheet or just a cell range.

  * Sort sheet organizes all of the data in your worksheet by one column. Related information across each row is kept together when the sort is applied. In the example below, the Contact Name column (column A) has been sorted to display the names in alphabetical order.

  * Sort range sorts the data in a range of cells, which can be helpful when working with a sheet that contains several tables. Sorting a range will not affect other content on the worksheet.

#### To sort a sheet:

In our example, we'll sort a T-shirt order form alphabetically by Last Name (column C).

  1. Select a cell in the column you want to sort by. In our example, we'll select cell C2.

  2. Select the Data tab on the Ribbon, then click the A-Z command to sort A to Z, or the Z-A command to sort Z to A. In our example, we'll sort A to Z.

  3. The worksheet will be sorted by the selected column. In our example, the worksheet is now sorted by last name.

#### To sort a range:

In our example, we'll select a separate table in our T-shirt order form to sort the number of shirts that were ordered on different dates.

  1. Select the cell range you want to sort. In our example, we'll select cell range G2:H6.

  2. Select the Data tab on the Ribbon, then click the Sort command.

  3. The Sort dialog box will appear. Choose the column you want to sort by. In our example, we want to sort the data by the number of T-shirt orders, so we'll select Orders.

  4. Decide the sorting order (either ascending or descending). In our example, we'll use Largest to Smallest.

  5. Once you're satisfied with your selection, click OK.

  6. The cell range will be sorted by the selected column. In our example, the Orders column will be sorted from highest to lowest. Notice that the other content in the worksheet was not affected by the sort.

If your data isn't sorting properly, double-check your cell values to make sure they are entered into the worksheet correctly. Even a small typo could cause problems when sorting a large worksheet. In the example below, we forgot to include a hyphen in cell A18, causing our sort to be slightly inaccurate.

### Custom sorting

Sometimes you may find that the default sorting options can't sort data in the order you need. Fortunately, Excel allows you to create a custom list to define your own sorting order.

#### To create a custom sort:

In our example below, we want to sort the worksheet by T-Shirt Size (column D). A regular sort would organize the sizes alphabetically, which would be incorrect. Instead, we'll create a custom list to sort from smallest to largest.

  1. Select a cell in the column you want to sort by. In our example, we'll select cell D2.

  2. Select the Data tab, then click the Sort command.

  3. The Sort dialog box will appear. Select the column you want to sort by, then choose Custom List... from the Order field. In our example, we will choose to sort by T-Shirt Size.

  4. The Custom Lists dialog box will appear. Select NEW LIST from the Custom Lists: box.

  5. Type the items in the desired custom order in the List entries: box. In our example, we want to sort our data by T-shirt size from smallest to largest, so we'll type Small, Medium, Large, and X-Large, pressing Enter on the keyboard after each item.

  6. Click Add to save the new sort order. The new list will be added to the Custom lists: box. Make sure the new list is selected, then click OK.

  7. The Custom Lists dialog box will close. Click OK in the Sort dialog box to perform the custom sort.

  8. The worksheet will be sorted by the custom order. In our example, the worksheet is now organized by T-shirt size from smallest to largest.

### Sorting levels

If you need more control over how your data is sorted, you can add multiple levels to any sort. This allows you to sort your data by more than one column.

#### To add a level:

In our example below, we'll sort the worksheet by T-Shirt Size (Column D), and then by Homeroom Number (column A).

  1. Select a cell in the column you want to sort by. In our example, we'll select cell A2.

  2. Click the Data tab, then select the Sort command.

  3. The Sort dialog box will appear. Select the first column you want to sort by. In this example, we will sort by T-Shirt Size (column D) with the custom list we previously created for the Order field.

  4. Click Add Level to add another column to sort by.

  5. Select the next column you want to sort by, then click OK. In our example, we'll sort by Homeroom # (column A).

  6. The worksheet will be sorted according to the selected order. In our example, the orders are sorted by T-shirt size. Within each group of T-shirt sizes, students are sorted by homeroom number.

If you need to change the order of a multilevel sort, it's easy to control which column is sorted first. Simply select the desired column, then click the Move Up or Move Down arrow to adjust its priority.

POWERPOINT

Microsoft PowerPoint is a powerful presentation software developed by Microsoft. It is a standard component of the company's Microsoft Office suite software, and is bundled together with Word, Excel and other office productivity tools. The program uses slides to convey information rich in multimedia. The term slide refers to the old slide projector, which this software effectively replaces.

### FORMATTING TEXT ON SLIDE

Formatting text

The functions for formatting text in PowerPoint are very similar with other Microsoft programs, especially Microsoft Word. Select the text you want to format and click on the Format menu \--> Font to make changes such as font size, style type and effects:

or you can use the Formatting toolbar to make one change at a time:

Formatting Bulleted and Numbered Lists

To format a list, highlight the list or the part of the list that you want to format and then click on Format-->Bullets and Numbering. On the Bulleted dialog you can select the type and color of bullets you want on your list, or even choose to use a special character or picture that you have saved as a bullet:

If you want a numbered list, click on the Numbered tab and select the type of numbering you want (numerical, alphabet, Roman). You can also use the Start at feature to make the list start from a number other than 1. This is a very handy feature especially if you have a very long list and you want to split it into two slides.

If you don't highlight the list before making your selections, PowerPoint will automatically apply your selections only on the line that your cursor is when you make the selections.

### INSERTING CHARTS

### Inserting charts

PowerPoint uses an Excel worksheet as a placeholder for entering chart data. Therefore, when you insert or edit a chart in PowerPoint, an Excel window will automatically open. The process is user-friendly, but if you are totally unfamiliar with Excel, you might want to review our Cell Basics lesson from our Excel 2010 tutorial.

#### To insert a chart:

  1. Select the Insert tab.

  2. Click the Insert Chart command in the Illustrations Group. The Insert Chart dialog box will appear.

  3. Select a category from the left pane of the dialog box, and review the charts that appear in the center. If you are unsure about which chart best fits your needs, review the interactive on the previous page.

  4. Select the desired chart.

  5. Click OK. An Excel window will open with a placeholder for your data.

If a slide layout has a content placeholder, you can also click the Insert Chart command to insert a new chart.

#### To enter chart data:

The data that appears in the Excel spreadsheet is placeholder source data that you will replace with your own information. The Excel source data is used to create the PowerPoint chart.

  1. Enter your data into the Excel spreadsheet. If you are not sure how to enter data into an Excel spreadsheet, review our Cell Basics lesson from our Excel 2010 tutorial.

  2. If necessary, click and drag the lower-right corner of the blue line to increase or decrease the data rangefor rows and columns. Only the data enclosed by the blue lines will appear in the chart.

  3. Close Excel. You do not need to save the spreadsheet. The PowerPoint chart will update to reflect the new source data.

You can edit the chart data at any time by selecting your chart and clicking the Edit Data command in the Data group on the Chart Tools Design tab.

#### Copying and pasting existing Excel data

If you already have an Excel worksheet with data you want to use for a PowerPoint chart, you can transfer the data by copying and pasting it. When the Excel window opens, open your existing worksheet, select and copy the data, and paste it into the worksheet in place of the placeholder data. Be sure to drag the blue line to surround all the data you want to include in the chart.

### ADDING TABLES

### Introduction

Tables are another tool you can use to display information in PowerPoint 2010. A table is a grid of cells arranged in rows and columns. Tables can be customized and are useful for various tasks such as presenting text information and numerical data.

In this lesson, you will learn how to insert tables, apply table styles, and format tables using various commands.

### Working with tables

In PowerPoint, tables are useful for organizing and presenting data. To use tables in your slide show, you'll need to know how to insert them, apply table styles, and format them.

#### To insert a blank table:

  1. On the Insert tab, click the Table command.

  2. Hover your mouse over the diagram squares to select the number of columns and rows in the table.

  3. Click your mouse. The table will appear on the slide.

  4. You can now place the insertion point anywhere in the table to add text.

To make sure your table looks good with the slide layout, you can also insert a table using the placeholder. Click the Insert Table icon in the placeholder, then enter the desired number of rows and columns.

#### To move a table:

  1. Place the cursor over the edge of the table. The cursor will turn into a cross with arrows  .

  2. Click and drag the table to the desired location.

  3. Release the mouse button to drop the table in the new location.

### Modifying tables

#### To resize a table:

  1. Position the mouse over one of the sizing handles located around the edge of the table. The cursor will become a pair of directional arrows   .

  2. Click, hold, and drag your mouse to make the table larger or smaller.

  3. Release the mouse. The table will be resized.

#### To add a column or row:

  1. Place the insertion point in a cell adjacent to the location where you want to add a row or column.

  2. Select the Table Tools Layout tab, and locate the Rows & Columns group.

  3. If you want to insert a new row, select either Insert Above or Insert Below. If you want to insert a new column, select either Insert Left or Insert Right.

  4. A new row or column will appear.

#### To delete a row or column:

  1. Select the row or column by placing the insertion point in any cell in that row or column.

  2. Select the Table Tools Layout tab.

  3. In the Rows & Columns group, click Delete. A drop-down menu appears.

  4. Select Delete Rows or Delete Columns.

### Modifying the table style

#### To apply a table style:

  1. Click anywhere on the table. The Table Tools tab will appear on the Ribbon.

  2. Select the Table Tools Design tab, and locate the Table Styles.

  3. Click the More drop-down arrow to see all of the table styles.

  4. Hover the mouse over the various styles to see a live preview.

  5. Select the desired style.

#### To change table styles options:

Once you've chosen a table style, you can turn various options on and off to change the appearance of the table. There are six options: Header Row, Total Row, Banded Rows, First Column, Last Column, and Banded Columns.

  1. Click anywhere on the table. The Table Tools tab will appear.

  2. Click the Table Tools Design tab.

  3. Hover the mouse over each option in the Table Style Options group to see an explanation of what it does, and check or uncheck the desired options.

Depending on the table style you're using, certain table style options may have somewhat different effects. You may need to experiment to get the exact look you want.

#### To add borders to a table:

  1. Select the cells you want to add a border to.

  2. From the Table Tools Design tab, select the desired Line Style, Line Weight, and Pen Color.

  3. Click the Borders drop-down arrow.

  4. From the drop-down menu, select the desired border type.

  5. The border will be added to the selected cells.

### Modifying a table using the layout tab

When you select a table in PowerPoint 2010, Design and Layout tabs appear under Table Tools on the Ribbon. Using commands on the Layout tab, you can make a variety of modifications to the table.

Click the buttons in the interactive below to learn about the different ways you can modify a table with the Layout tab.

### CLIPPING

  1. In your PowerPoint presentation, select the Insert tab.

  2. Click Screenshot.

  3. A drop down menu will appear with the option to take a screenshot of a window open on your desktop, or take a screen clipping of only a portion of your screen.

  4. Select the option that suits your need.

  5. The screenshot or screen clipping will insert straight into your PowerPoint presentation.

  6. Adjust sizing and placement of the image as needed.

### SLIDE-SHOW

You've probably had a few PowerPoint photo slideshows in your email already. They seem to be a popular topic for messages coming from friends and relatives with too much spare time on their hands. But have you ever tried creating one? It's easier than you think, and it might actually be a good way to share pictures – just don't abuse the slideshows with cute kitty images!

1. Open up PowerPoint, click the Insert tab and then the Photo Album button. Select New Photo Album to open the Photo Album settings menu.

2. In this new window, click the File/Disk button to select the photos you want to use in your slideshow. Remember you can select multiple files simultaneously by holding the Ctrl key while selecting them with your mouse.

3. Once you've selected all the photos, they'll be listed in the "Pictures in album" box. You can rearrange them, preview them, rotate them and also adjust their brightness and contrast values.

4. The options under "Album Layout" at the bottom of the window let you choose how many photos you want to have on each slide and select a frame or border to decorate each one of them. You can also choose the theme for your slideshow here, but my advice is to leave it for later because this menu doesn't allow you to preview the result.

5. The Picture Options let you set all images to black and white, and also insert a caption below them. Note this captions is just the file name, so if you want to customize it you'll need to edit each one of them manually.

6. When you're done configuring the Photo Album options, click the Create button and PowerPoint will automatically create a presentation with all your pictures.

7. The only thing left is to choose a theme for your slideshow. Click the Design tab and select one from the drop-down menu. Try picking one that fits with the topic in your photos.

Done! Now it's time to save it to PPT and share it by email. You can do this the traditional way (saving the file to your hard drive first, and then sending it with a third-party email client) or use the built-in Save & Send feature in PowerPoint, which automatically saves the file and sends it with the associated email client.

### SLIDE ANIMATION

You can animate the text, pictures, shapes, tables, SmartArt graphics, and other objects in your PowerPoint presentation to give them visual effects, including entrances, exits, changes in size or color, and even movement. Build a slide presentation that animates bullet points or even production credits.

Animation is a great way to emphasize a point, control information flow, and increase viewer interest. You can apply animation effects on individual slides, the slide master, or custom slide layouts.

  1. Select the object or text on the slide that you want to animate.

An "object" in this context is any thing on a slide, such as a picture, a chart, or a text box. Sizing handles appear around an object when you select it on the slide. (For animation purposes, a paragraph within a text box is also an object, but it won't have sizing handles when you select it; instead the entire text box has sizing handles.)

  2. On the Animations tab of the ribbon, click Add Animation, and pick an animation effect.

To make sure that animations play when you present your slide show, make sure that when you go to Slide show > Set Up Slide Show that the Show without animation box is cleared. If this box is checked, animations will show when you preview your slide show, but not when you present it.

To apply additional animation effects to the same object, see Apply multiple animation effects to one object, or to add a motion path, see Add a motion path animation effect.

Some entrance and exit effects (such as Flip, Drop, and Whip) and some emphasis effects (such as Brush Color and Wave) are available only for objects that contain text. If you want to apply an animation effect that isn't available for this reason, try adding a space character inside your object.

###  3D animation effects

Office Insiders can add animation effects to 3D objects:

  * Arrive or Leave

  * Turntable and Swing

  * Jump & Turn

This feature is only available to Office 365 subscribers who have joined the Office Insider program. If you are an Office 365 subscriber, make sure you have the latest version of Office.

### 2:18

### Change the speed of the animation effect

The speed of the effect is determined by the Duration setting.

  1. On the slide, select the animation effect that you want to change.

  2. On the Animations tab, under Timing options, in the Duration box, enter the number seconds that you want the animation effect to last.

(Maximum: 59 seconds. Minimum: .01 seconds. You can type a duration or use the up or down arrows to select a standard incremental value.)

### Change how the animation effect starts

  1. On the slide, select the animation effect that you want to change.

  2. On the Animations tab, under Timing options, open the Start list, and choose one of the three options described below:

To start the animation effect | Select

---|---

When you click the slide | On Click

At the same time as the previous animation effect in the list. (One click starts two or more animation effects at the same time.) | With Previous

Immediately after the previous animation effect in the list finishes playing. (No additional click is required to make this animation effect start.) | After Previous

  3.

### Set the time between animation effects

The Delay option determines how much time elapses before a specific animation effect begins—either after you click or after a prior animation effect concludes.

### Change the order of the animation effects on a slide

To reorder a set of animations on a slide:

  1. Open the Animation pane: On the Animations tab, in the Advanced Animation group, select Animation Pane.

  2. In the Animation pane, select the animation effect that you want to reorder.

  3. On the Animations tab of the ribbon, in the Timing group, under Reorder Animation select one of these options:

  * Select Move Earlier to move the effect up one place in the animation order.

  * Select Move Later to move the effect down one place in the animation order.

You can select an option multiple times, if necessary, to move your selected effect to the appropriate place in the animation order.

### Remove an animation effect

When you animate an object (such as a bullet point or a picture), a small numeral appears just to the left of that object. This numeral indicates the presence of an animation effect and its place in the sequence of animations on the current slide.

To remove an animation

  1. Select the numeral of the animation that you want to remove.

  2. Press the Delete key on your keyboard.

For a more complete discussion, see Change or remove an animation effect.

### Copy animation effects from one object to another

Avoid having to manually animate several objects in the same way: Use the Animation Painter to copy animations from one object to another. For full details and a quick video demonstration, see Duplicate animations with the Animation Painter.

### Animation demonstration

For a five-minute video that shows a lot of animation features, see Training: Add animations to slides.

## More about animating text and objects

There are four different types of animation effects:

  * Entrance effects make an object fade gradually into focus, fly onto the slide from an edge, or bounce into view.

  * Exit effects include making an object fly off of the slide, disappear from view, or spiral off of the slide.

  * Emphasis effects include making an object shrink or grow in size, change color, or spin on its center.

  * You can use Motion Paths to make an object move up or down, left or right, or in a star or circular pattern (among other effects). You also can draw your own motion path.

You can use any animation by itself, or combine multiple effects. For instance, to make a line of text fly in while it grows, apply a Fly In entrance effect and a Grow/Shrink emphasis effect to it. Click Add Animationto add effects, and use the Animation Pane to set the emphasis effect to occur With Previous.

The gallery of animation effects on the Animations tab shows only the most popular effects. Get even more possibilities by clicking Add Animation, scrolling down, and clicking More Entrance Effects, More Emphasis Effects, More Exit Effects, or More Motion Paths.

## Transitions and animations

In PowerPoint, animations are not the same as transitions. A transition animates the way one slide changes to the next. To add a transition, see Add, change, or remove transitions between slides

UNIT-4

INFORMATION SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION

A computer information system is a system that a branch of Science composed of people and computers that processes or interprets information. The term is also sometimes used in more restricted senses to refer to only the software used to run a computerized database or to refer to only a computer system.

### CONCEPT OF DATA AND INFORMATION

Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in a formalized manner, which should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing by human or electronic machine.

Data is represented with the help of characters such as alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) or special characters (+,-,/,*,<,>,= etc.)

What is Information?

Information is organized or classified data, which has some meaningful values for the receiver. Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based.

For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following characteristics −

  * Timely − Information should be available when required.

  * Accuracy − Information should be accurate.

  * Completeness − Information should be complete.

Data Processing Cycle

Data processing is the re-structuring or re-ordering of data by people or machine to increase their usefulness and add values for a particular purpose. Data processing consists of the following basic steps - input, processing, and output. These three steps constitute the data processing cycle.

  * Input − In this step, the input data is prepared in some convenient form for processing. The form will depend on the processing machine. For example, when electronic computers are used, the input data can be recorded on any one of the several types of input medium, such as magnetic disks, tapes, and so on.

  * Processing − In this step, the input data is changed to produce data in a more useful form. For example, pay-checks can be calculated from the time cards, or a summary of sales for the month can be calculated from the sales orders.

  * Output − At this stage, the result of the proceeding processing step is collected. The particular form of the output data depends on the use of the data. For example, output data may be pay-checks for employees.

### OPERATION SUPPORT SYSTEM (OSS)

An operational support system (OSS) is a set of programs that help a communications service provider monitor, control, analyze and manage a telephone or computer network. As the traditional voice telephone systems converges with packet-oriented Internet traffic (including VoIP), broadband applications such as teleconferencing and DSL, more sophisticated systems like OSS are needed activities like ordering and tracking network components (including IP addresses), usage and traffic patterns, billing and reporting.

### MANAGEMENT SUPPORT SYSTEM (MSS)

Recently, due to development of Internet technology, online teaching has become very popular. Building good interpersonal relationships between teachers and students is important for the students' performance in online teaching. In this study, we propose an impression management support system for teachers in Computer-Mediated Communication instruction. The system suggests improvements in instruction to teachers to give good impressions and to develop interpersonal relationships with students. As the first step to realize the system, we performed an experiment to investigate impression factors in email instruction. From the experiment, we found that seven e-mail elements which become the factors of the impressions.

### TRANSACTION PROCESSING SYSTEM (TPS)

A transaction process system (TPS) is an information processing system for business transactions involving the collection, modification and retrieval of all transaction data. Characteristics of a TPS include performance, reliability and consistency.

TPS is also known as transaction processing or real-time processing.

##

A transaction process system and transaction processing are often contrasted with a batch process system and batch processing, where many requests are all executed at one time. The former requires the interaction of a user, whereas batch processing does not require user involvement. In batch processing the results of each transaction are not immediately available. Additionally, there is a delay while the many requests are being organized, stored and eventually executed. In transaction processing there is no delay and the results of each transaction are immediately available. During the delay time for batch processing, errors can occur. Although errors can occur in transaction processing, they are infrequent and tolerated, but do not warrant shutting down the entire system.

### PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM (PCS)

process control system: A system consisting of a computer, process control equipment, and possibly a process interface system. Note: The process interface system may be part of a special-purpose computer.

A process control system monitors the manufacturing environment and electronically controls the process or manufacturing flow based on the various set-points given by the user; here's more to process controls, and process control systems application design and tuning.

### ENTERPRISE COLLABORATION SYSTEM (ECS)

An Enterprise Collaboration System (ECS) is an information system used to facilitate efficient sharing of documents and knowledge between teams and individuals in an enterprise. ECS tools include the Internet, groupware, various forms of software and hardware and internal and external networks. ECS functions optimally in a collaborative working environment (CWE).

ECS solutions include a variety of enterprise communication tools, including email, video conferencing, project management software and collaborative software. ECS has facilitated the creation of the modern "e-professional" by enabling achieved goals of project teams, workgroups and participants. ECS allows team members to work from different physical locations, divisions, departments or remote areas.

### MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYTEM (MIS)

A management information system is a set of processes that allows companies to move information through their business operations. Business owners and managers use the information to make decisions, among other things. The expanding variety and use of information technology—particularly computers—allows companies to automate this critical business function.

Many tasks in the business environment involve the use of computers. Employees input data in software applications and programs that allow other individuals to view the information. Owners and managers rely on computers to access the information from the management information systems.

Computers can process certain types of business data quicker and more accurately than employees. Accounting and finance departments, for example, typically input data and allow the computer and software application to generate reports based on the financial numbers.

Using computers can restrict employee access to business or financial information in the management information systems. Most computers or software applications require usernames and passwords to access data. This prevents individuals from filtering or altering information prior to review by owners and managers.

### DECESION SUPPORT SYSTEM (DSS)

Broadly speaking, decision support systems are a set of manual or computer-based tools that assist in some decision-making activity. In today's business environment, however, decision support systems (DSS) are commonly understood to be computerized management information systems designed to help business owners, executives, and managers resolve complicated business problems and/or questions. Good decision support systems can help business people perform a wide variety of functions, including cash flow analysis, concept ranking, multistage forecasting, product performance improvement, and resource allocation analysis. Previously regarded as primarily a tool for big companies, DSS has in recent years come to be recognized as a potentially valuable tool for small business enterprises as well.

A decision support system (DSS) is a computer-based application that collects, organizes and analyzes business data to facilitate quality business decision-making for management, operations and planning. A well-designed DSS aids decision makers in compiling a variety of data from many sources: raw data, documents, personal knowledge from employees, management, executives and business models. DSS analysis helps companies to identify and solve problems, and make decisions.

### EXECUTIVE INFORMATION SYSTEM (EIS)

An executive information system (EIS) is a decision support system (DSS) used to assist senior executives in the decision-making process. It does this by providing easy access to important data needed to achieve strategic goals in an organization. An EIS normally features graphical displays on an easy-to-use interface.

Early executive information systems were developed as computer-based programs on mainframe computers to provide a company's description, sales performance and/or market research data for senior executives. However, senior executives were not all computer literate or confident. Moreover, EIS data was only supporting executive-level decisions but not necessarily supporting the entire company or enterprise.

Current EIS data is available company- or enterprise-wide, facilitated by personal computers and workstations on local area networks (LANs). Employees can access company data to help decision-making in their individual workplaces, departments, divisions, etc.. This allows employees to provide pertinent information and ideas both above and below their company level.

The typical EIS has four components: hardware, software, user interface and telecommunication.

Executive information systems can be used in many different types of organizations to monitor enterprise performance as well as to identify opportunities and problems.

### ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the science of mimicking human intelligence using computers. The Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence degree course is a computing degree that allows students to specialise in AI through their project work and a number of specialist AI modules.

The Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence course contains broad coverage of all major Computer Science topics as well as specialist modules in artificial intelligence, taught by world leading experts. Our research constantly feeds into our teaching curriculum meaning you will learn cutting edge techniques of this fascinating topic.

The first two years of the Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence course are identical to those of the Computer Science course. This provides sound foundations for the third year when topics such as robotics, intelligent agents, reasoning in uncertain systems, computer vision and neural networks are studied to an advanced level.

Other third year options allow staff to teach to their own particular interests, which enables students to learn about the latest developments in established and emerging areas in the field.

An additional year of professional placement is an available option highly recommended by both the Department and former students.

### APPLICATION OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

A long time ago machines and computers were invented to reduce manual efforts and time so as to perform the tasks efficiently. After a lot of growth and development in the field, we have finally come to a stage where almost everyone has access to technology. However, this is actually just a beginning because the upcoming advancement is going to take a much bigger and better shape in the form of Artificial Intelligence.

Although AI is a branch of computer science, today there's no field which is left unaffected by this technology. The aim is to teach the machines to think intelligently just the way humans do. Till now, the machines have been doing what they were told to do but with AI they will be able to think and behave like a human being. The study focuses on observing the thinking and learning a pattern of humans and then the outcome is used to develop intelligent softwares and systems.

Today tech giants like Google, Microsoft, and IBM are highly involved in studying developing the technology which has already started bringing a revolutionary change. Although it is going to shape our future, yet we need to know how it's affecting our present life. So, in order to give you a glimpse of the same, we are here with a list of top 10 industrial applications of AI, which is as follows:

## 1. Journalism

In today's digital world, reading blogs and articles has become a common practice for most of us but hardly do we realize that some of them are actually written by machines. Although it can't be used for writing in-depth articles but the simple reports that don't require much analysis can be easily prepared by AI.

Companies like AP and Yahoo! are using AI to prepare simple reports related to sports and elections that would take a lot of time if done manually. According to Automated Insights which introduced Wordsmith, many data-driven entities including real estate and e-commerce are using this platform. Well considering this trend, it won't be wrong to say that soon we may witness the generation of fully automated writings and that too in different tones.

## 2. Entertainment

### Recommended: 10 Innovations in Video Games that are Ruling the Industry

Use of Artificial Intelligence is quite popular in the entertainment industry. Whether it's the video games or music apps, we all are well aware of the concept. Talking about games, the idea is not new and is being utilised from the very beginning but today it has just grown exponentially. Games like Middle Earth, Far Cry are known for imparting personalities to the characters where they find objects, shoot, take cover and do everything possible for victory.

Similarly, for music and movies, the users are recommended to watch or listen to certain creations based on the decisions made in the past. If the user is frequently clicking on a specific genre then that will be regarded as the section that he/she may take interest in and it will be displayed in a separate section, saying 'you may also be interested in'.

## 3. Online Retail Stores

With the introduction of online retail stores, people have started making the online purchase a habit which is quite at its peak right now. These websites also use artificial intelligence in certain ways like recommending the customers what to purchase depending upon his/her past purchases or items put in the search box. Another way is providing chat bots for seeking guidance or for solving queries.

Reports say that AI is going to make shopping more personal for the shoppers and simplify things for the retailers. In the next few years, this technology will be playing a significant role in the retail industry. Well, it will be interesting to see what the future holds for the online retail stores.

## 4. Automobiles

It's a well-established fact that Google's Driverless cars and Tesla's Autopilot features have already paved their way towards the introduction of AI in automobiles. Whether it's self-parking, detecting collision, blind spot monitoring, voice recognition, or navigation, it's almost like the car is acting as an assistant to the owner and teaching different ways of a safe driving.

Elon Musk, popularly known as the founder of Tesla Motors, tweeted that soon a day will come when people will be able to 'Summon' their car wherever they want to and it will reach there on its own using navigation and track the location of the person. He is even working on introducing a fully automated transportation system that will use levitation for the commute.

## 5. Banking & Finance

Owing to the increase in the amount of financial data, a lot of financial services have resorted to Artificial Intelligence. Robots are much quicker in analyzing market data to forecast change in stock trends and manage finances as compared to the human counterparts. They can even use algorithms to offer suggestions to the clients involving simple problems.

Similarly, banks are using AI to keep a track of the customer base, addressing their needs, suggesting them about different schemes and what not. Often when there is a suspicious transaction from the users' account, they immediately get a mail to confirm that it's not an outsider who is carrying out that particular transaction.

## 6. Healthcare

Artificial Intelligence is also performing a lot of important work for the healthcare industry. It is being used by doctors in assisting with the diagnosis and treatment procedures. This reduces the need for multiple machines and equipment which in turn brings down the cost.

Sedasys System by Johnson & Johnson has been approved by FDA to deliver anesthesia to patients automatically in standard procedures. Apart from this, IBM has introduced Watson which is an artificial intelligent application. It has been designed to suggest different kinds of treatments based on the patients'' medical history and has been proved to be very effective.

## 7. Manufacturing

Manufacturing is one of the first industries that has been using AI from the very beginning. Robotic parts are used in the factories to assemble different parts and then pack them without needing any manual help. Right from the raw materials to the shipped final products, robotic parts play an imminent role in most of the entities.

However, artificial intelligence is going to make more modifications in a way that more complicated goods will be manufactured and assembled with the help of machines like automobiles and electronic goods.

## 8. Online Customer Service

Several websites offer customers to chat with their representative in case of a query or grievances. However, most of the time these are not humans; rather these are chat bots that are trained to respond and extract the required knowledge from the site and present it to the customer.

These bots utilise natural language processing to interpret the customer's query by focusing on the keywords and then in response, the required data is fetched. However, it's not quite easy for a robot to understand it because there's a huge difference between the human and machine language. Reportedly, progress is being made on that front too and hopefully, soon we'll be having a robot that could communicate with humans on its own.

## 9. Home Appliances

### Also Read: 10 Real Life Instances of Internet of Things

All the smart devices and gadgets used in our daily lives that feature IoT technology also make use of Artificial Intelligence. The technique is to learn the behavior and usage pattern shown by the user and then accordingly the appliance starts behaving in a similar manner on its own without needing any instructions.

If we talk about specific electronic appliances, then thermostat and smart light features utilize AI quite interestingly. It can set the temperature of your home just the way you want it at different hours of the day. Likewise, the light effects can be modified with the amount of dimness and brightness as preferred by the user at different time periods.

## 10. Smartphones

The most common application of AI can be seen in our mobile phones in the form of Virtual Personal Assistants. Siri, Cortana, and Google Now are some very commonly used digital assistants that are found in iOs, Android and Windows phones. These can answer whatever you ask them like "What movie is going to be released this Friday?" or "Who is Stephen Hawking?"

These applications collect information in order to interpret what is being asked by the user and then the required data is fetched to suit the user's preferences. There is a huge amount of learning involved on the part of these assistants and a lot of information is tracked to ensure efficiency.

## Conclusion

Artificial Intelligence has been growing in all the technologically relevant fields but it is also spreading in the areas where nobody had imagined it to be. This may sound like a progress but it can be equally disruptive in future. It is believed that AI is a very sensitive issue and if not handled with care, it could end up imparting 'Superintelligence' to machines which would make them even more intelligent than humans.

 In a recent report, Mr. Stephen Hawking said, "It will bring great disruption to our economy, and in the future, AI could develop a will of its own that is in conflict with ours."

So, the bottom line is that it's great to have a machine by our side which can imitate human intelligence but at the same time we have to think to what extent we are letting that thing take over.

### NEURAL NETWORKS

In information technology, a neural network is a system of hardware and/or software patterned after the operation of neurons in the human brain. Neural networks \-- also called artificial neural networks -- are a variety of deep learning technologies. Commercial applications of these technologies generally focus on solving complex signal processing or pattern recognition problems. Examples of significant commercial applications since 2000 include handwriting recognition for check processing, speech-to-text transcription, oil-exploration data analysis, weather prediction and facial recognition.

A neural network usually involves a large number of processors operating in parallel and arranged in tiers. The first tier receives the raw input information -- analogous to optic nerves in human visual processing. Each successive tier receives the output from the tier preceding it, rather than from the raw input -- in the same way neurons further from the optic nerve receive signals from those closer to it. The last tier produces the output of the system.

Each processing node has its own small sphere of knowledge, including what it has seen and any rules it was originally programmed with or developed for itself. The tiers are highly interconnected, which means each node in tier n will be connected to many nodes in tier n-1 \-- its inputs -- and in tier n+1, which provides input for those nodes. There may be one or multiple nodes in the output layer, from which the answer it produces can be read.

Neural networks are notable for being adaptive, which means they modify themselves as they learn from initial training and subsequent runs provide more information about the world. The most basic learning model is centered on weighting the input streams, which is how each node weights the importance of input from each of its predecessors. Inputs that contribute to getting right answers are weighted higher.

### FUZZY LOGICAL CONTROL SYTEM

A fuzzy control system is a control system based on fuzzy logic—a mathematical system that analyzes analog input values in terms of logical variables that take on continuous values between 0 and 1, in contrast to classical or digital logic, which operates on discrete values of either 1 or 0 (true or false, respectively).

Fuzzy logic is widely used in machine control. The term "fuzzy" refers to the fact that the logic involved can deal with concepts that cannot be expressed as the "true" or "false" but rather as "partially true". Although alternative approaches such as genetic algorithms and neural networks can perform just as well as fuzzy logic in many cases, fuzzy logic has the advantage that the solution to the problem can be cast in terms that human operators can understand, so that their experience can be used in the design of the controller. This makes it easier to mechanize tasks that are already successfully performed by humans.

Fuzzy controllers are very simple conceptually. They consist of an input stage, a processing stage, and an output stage. The input stage maps sensor or other inputs, such as switches, thumbwheels, and so on, to the appropriate membership functions and truth values. The processing stage invokes each appropriate rule and generates a result for each, then combines the results of the rules. Finally, the output stage converts the combined result back into a specific control output value.

The diagram below demonstrates max-min inferencing and centroid defuzzification for a system with input variables "x", "y", and "z" and an output variable "n". Note that "mu" is standard fuzzy-logic nomenclature for "truth value":

Notice how each rule provides a result as a truth value of a particular membership function for the output variable. In centroid defuzzification the values are OR'd, that is, the maximum value is used and values are not added, and the results are then combined using a centroid calculation.

Fuzzy control system design is based on empirical methods, basically a methodical approach to trial-and-error. The general process is as follows:

  * Document the system's operational specifications and inputs and outputs.

  * Document the fuzzy sets for the inputs.

  * Document the rule set.

  * Determine the defuzzification method.

  * Run through test suite to validate system, adjust details as required.

  * Complete document and release to production.

As a general example, consider the design of a fuzzy controller for a steam turbine. The block diagram of this control system appears as follows:

The input and output variables map into the following fuzzy set:

 —where:

N3: Large negative.

N2: Medium negative.

N1: Small negative.

Z: Zero.

P1: Small positive.

P2: Medium positive.

P3: Large positive.

The rule set includes such rules as:

rule 1: IF temperature IS cool AND pressure IS weak,

THEN throttle is P3.

rule 2: IF temperature IS cool AND pressure IS low,

THEN throttle is P2.

rule 3: IF temperature IS cool AND pressure IS ok,

THEN throttle is Z.

rule 4: IF temperature IS cool AND pressure IS strong,

THEN throttle is N2.

### VIRTUAL REALITY

Virtual reality (VR) is a computer technology that uses virtual reality headsets or multi-projected environments, sometimes in combination with physical environments or props, to generate realistic images, sounds and other sensations that simulate a user's physical presence in a virtual or imaginary environment. A person using virtual reality equipment is able to "look around" the artificial world, and with high quality VR move around in it and interact with virtual features or items. The effect is commonly created by VR headsets consisting of a head-mounted display with a small screen in front of the eyes, but can also be created through specially designed rooms with multiple large screens.

VR systems that include transmission of vibrations and other sensations to the user through a game controller or other devices are known as haptic systems. This tactile information is generally known as force feedback in medical, video gaming and military training applications. Virtual reality also refers to remote communication environments which provide a virtual presence of users with through telepresence and telexistence or the use of a virtual artifact (VA). The immersive environment can be similar to the real world in order to create a lifelike experience grounded in reality or sci-fi. Augmented reality systems may also be considered a form of VR that layers virtual information over a live camera feed into a headset, or through a smartphone or tablet device.

### EXPERT SYSTEM

An expert system is a computer program that uses artificial intelligence (AI) technologies to simulate the judgment and behavior of a human or an organization that has expert knowledge and experience in a particular field.

Typically, an expert system incorporates a knowledge base containing accumulated experience and an inference or rules engine \-- a set of rules for applying the knowledge base to each particular situation that is described to the program. The system's capabilities can be enhanced with additions to the knowledge base or to the set of rules. Current systems may include machine learning capabilities that allow them to improve their performance based on experience, just as humans do.

The concept of expert systems was first developed in the 1970s by Edward Feigenbaum, professor and founder of the Knowledge Systems Laboratory at Stanford University. Feigenbaum explained that the world was moving from data processing to "knowledge processing," a transition which was being enabled by new processor technology and computer architectures.

Expert systems have played a large role in many industries including in financial services, telecommunications, healthcare, customer service, transportation, video games, manufacturing, aviation and written communication. Two early expert systems broke ground in the healthcare space for medical diagnoses: Dendral, which helped chemists identify organic molecules, and MYCIN, which helped to identify bacteria such as bacteremia and meningitis, and to recommend antibiotics and dosages.

UNIT-5

INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR BUSINESS

Small businesses must be concerned with producing quality goods or services and also with turning mountains of data into actionable information. To contain costs and achieve a competitive advantage, many small-business leaders consider information systems as they formulate corporate, tactical and operational strategies. To best leverage data as a company asset, the business must adopt an information strategy, which may require the implementation of a variety of business information systems that process business transactions and empower business leaders to make more informed and faster decisions.

### APPLICATIONS-

### ENTERPRISES RESOURCE PLANNING (ERP)

Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is an industry term for the broad set of activities that help an organization manage its business. An important goal of ERP software is to integrate back office business processes and facilitate the flow of information within an organization so business decisions can be data-driven.

ERP software suites are built to collect and organize data from various levels of an organization and connect business activities across departments. A structured approach to ERP can help a company standardize and automate its business processes and improve the efficiency of operations. In addition to saving time and money, an integrated approach to managing business processes ensures that everyone is working with the same data and watching the same key performance indicators (KPIs).

Organizations tend to realize they need ERP software when they begin outgrowing their business systems, especially when business sytems are composed of disparate applications collected over time. As the gap widens between what business software is capable of doing and what business processes need, pain points begin to emerge and this often leads to a search for ERP software capable of integrating workflows. There is no one-size-fits-all model for ERP software, and companies have a variety of deployment options.

### Types of ERP software: On premises and cloud

Legacy ERP systems tend to be architected as large, complex, homogeneous systems which do not lend themselves easily to a cloud service delivery model. As such, most ERP systems, particularly those from large legacy vendors, are run on premises. Deployment of a new ERP system in-house can involve considerable business process re-engineering, employee retraining and back-end support for database integration, data analytics and ad hoc reporting.

As more companies begin to store data in the cloud, however, ERP vendors are responding with cloud-based services to perform some functions of ERP -- particularly those relied upon by mobile users. Cloud-based ERP modules are build to be loosely coupled, which can can reduce the cost and complexity of a deployment. In some cases, companies are using hybrid cloud deployments in which part of the ERP software suite runs on premises and part runs in the cloud.

Some companies are reluctant to put mission-critical systems and applications in the cloud for a variety of reasons, including perceived security risks or loss of data control. Other companies in highly regulated industries or government agencies may be restricted by where systems and data can be located geographically.

### Multi-tiered ERP systems

The most common ERP deployment, either on-premises or cloud-based, is a standard monolithic system from one vendor, generally a large legacy vendor. However, many organizations now run multiple ERP systems under one environment, commonly known as two-tier (or multi-tier) ERP. Reasons for this include geographic differences in the organization, different divisions running different systems or company mergers for which various systems have been brought into one environment.

These deployments often have one large, "Tier 1" ERP that runs across the organization and includes functions that are critical to the organization as a whole, and one or more other ERPs, called Tier 2, that run less critical functions, or ones that are specific to departments.

### Key ERP software modules

The ERP software modules that a company selects often depend upon the specific business processes it wants to improve, and also upon whether the company sells products or services. Businesses that sell products often have manufacturing, supply chain and distribution functions that the ERP modules must address. For organizations that sell services, ERP capabilities that support service level agreements (SLAs), field services and sales operations are very important.

In order for an ERP software deployment to be useful, software modules needs to be loosely coupled and integrate easily with other software systems the organization uses. Core modules included in many ERP software products include:

 Finance \- gathers financial data and generates reports such as ledgers, trail balance data, overall balance sheets and quarterly financial statements.

 Human resource management \- gathers data and generates reports about such things as employee recruitment, performance reviews, training and professional development, performance reviews, mediation and exit interviews.

Inventory management \- gathers data and generates reports about non-capitalized assets and stock items.

 Supply chain management \- gathers data and generates reports about materials, information, and finances as they move in a process from supplier to manufacturer to wholesaler to retailer to consumer.

### ERP vendors

There are many ERP vendors with a wide variety of functions and on-premises or cloud deployment options.

The most widely deployed legacy platforms are SAP, Oracle and Microsoft Dynamics, all of which have multifunction ERP systems and on-premises and cloud deployment options. Their customers range from large enterprises to small and medium-sized businesses.

Other leading vendors have multifunction systems, including Epicor Software Corp., Infor, IFS World, Sage Software Inc., SYSPRO USA, IQMS and QAD Inc. Leading ERP cloud vendors include NetSuite Inc., Kenandy Inc., Acumatica Inc. and Plex.

Many of the smaller ERP vendors have specialized capabilities for business processes, such as supply chain, financials, engineering, research and development and HR, as well as functions that focus on specific industries like manufacturing, retail, healthcare or public sector.

### ERP support

ERP vendors have a variety of support models for ERP systems, depending on licensing contracts with customers.

Support services usually have multiple levels -- from phone support to consulting -- and associated costs, and include services like bug fixes, incident resolution, patches, and updates and upgrade assistance.

Support services are generally handled by the ERP vendors, although there are independent firms that offer third-party support for some vendors' ERP systems.

### CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT (CRM)

Customer relationship management (CRM) is a term that refers to practices, strategies and technologies that companies use to manage and analyze customer interactions and data throughout the customer lifecycle, with the goal of improving business relationships with customers, assisting in customer retention and driving sales growth. CRM systems are designed to compile information on customers across different channels -- or points of contact between the customer and the company -- which could include the company's website, telephone, live chat, direct mail, marketing materials and social media. CRM systems can also give customer-facing staff detailed information on customers' personal information, purchase history, buying preferences and concerns.

CRM software consolidates customer information and documents into a single CRM database so business users can more easily access and manage it. The other main functions of this software include recording various customer interactions (over email, phone calls, social media or other channels, depending on system capabilities), automating various workflow processes such as tasks, calendars and alerts, and giving managers the ability to track performance and productivity based on information logged within the system.

### CRM software

  * Marketing automation: CRM tools with marketing automation capabilities can automate repetitive tasks to enhance marketing efforts to customers at different points in the lifecycle. For example, as sales prospects come into the system, the system might automatically send them marketing materials, typically via email or social media, with the goal of turning a sales lead into a full-fledged customer.

  * Sales force automation: Also known as sales force management, sales force automation is meant to prevent duplicate efforts between a salesperson and a customer. A CRM system can help achieve this by automatically tracking all contact and follow-ups between both sides.

  * Contact center automation: Designed to reduce tedious aspects of a contact center agent's job, contact center automation might include pre-recorded audio that assists in customer problem-solving and information dissemination. Various software tools that integrate with the agent's desktop tools can handle customer requests in order to cut down the time of calls and simplify customer service processes.

  * Geolocation technology, or location-based services: Some CRM systems include technology that can create geographic marketing campaigns based on customers' physical locations, sometimes integrating with popular location-based GPS apps. Geolocation technology can also be used as a networking or contact management tool in order to find sales prospects based on location.

### The CRM technology market:-

### The four main vendors of CRM systems are Salesforce.com, Microsoft, SAP and Oracle. Other providers are popular among small- to mid-market businesses, but these four tend to be the choice of large corporations.

On-premises CRM puts the onus of administration, control, security and maintenance of the database and information on the company itself. With this approach the company purchases licenses up front instead of buying yearly subscriptions. The software resides on the company's own servers and the user assumes the cost of any upgrades and usually requires a prolonged installation process to fully integrate a company's data. Companies with complex CRM needs might benefit more from an on-premises deployment.

### SECUIRITY AND ETHICAL CHALANGES OF IT

Ethical and Societal Dimensions. The vital role of information technologies and systems in society raises serious ethical and societal issues in terms of their impact on employment, individuality, working conditions, privacy, health, and computer crime, as illustrated in Figure 13.2. Employment issues include the loss of jobs—a result of computerization and automation of work—versus the jobs created to supply and support new information technologies and the business applications they make possible. The impact on working conditions involves the issues of computer monitoring of employees and the quality of the working conditions of the jobs that use information technologies heavily. The effect of IT on individuality addresses the issues of the depersonalization, regimentation, and inflexibility of some computerized business systems. Employees' heavy use of computer workstations for long periods raises issues about and may cause work related health disorders. The use of IT to access or collect private information without authorization, as well as for computer profiling, computer matching, computer monitoring, and computer libel and censorship, raises serious privacy issues. Computer crime issues surround activities such as hacking, computer viruses and worms, cyber theft, unauthorized use at work, software piracy, and piracy of intellectual property. Managers, business professionals, and IS specialists can help solve the problems of improper use of IT by assuming their ethical responsibilities for the ergonomic design, beneficial use, and enlightened management of information technologies in our society.

Ethical Responsibility in Business. Business and IT activities involve many ethical considerations. Basic principles of technology and business ethics can serve as guidelines for business professionals when dealing with ethical business issues that may arise in the widespread use of information technology in business and society. Examples include theories of corporate social responsibility, which outline the ethical responsibility of management and employees to a company's stockholders, stakeholders, and society, and the four principles of technology ethics summarized in Figure 13.4.

Security Management. One of the most important responsibilities of the management of a company is to ensure the security and quality of its IT-enabled business activities. Security management tools and policies can ensure the accuracy, integrity, and safety of the information systems and resources of a company and thus minimize errors, fraud, and security losses in its business activities. Examples mentioned in the chapter include the use of encryption of confidential business data, firewalls, e-mail monitoring, antivirus software, security codes, backup files, security monitors, biometric security measures, computer failure controls, fault-tolerant systems, disaster recovery measures, information system controls, and security audits of business systems.

### BUSINESS ETHICS

Business ethics are moral principles that guide the way a business behaves. The same principles that determine an individual"s actions also apply to business.

Acting in an ethical way involves distinguishing between "right" and "wrong" and then making the "right" choice. It is relatively easy to identify unethical business practices. For example, companies should not use child labour. They should not unlawfully use copyrighted materials and processes. They should not engage in bribery.

### TECHNOLOGY ETHICS

Technology ethics are principles that can be used to govern technology including factors such as risk management and individual rights. The following are common areas of technology ethics.

Access Rights

Access to empowering technology as a right or freedom.

 Accountability

The rules of accountability for decisions made by technology.

Digital Rights

Protection of intellectual property rights, privacy and personality rights.

Environment

How to govern technologies that have potential to damage shared resources.

Existential Risk

Technologies that represent a threat to global quality of life or extinction of advanced life on earth.

Freedom

Technology provides tools that can be used to monitor and control societies raising broad questions related to freedom.

Health & Safety

Health and safety risks posed by technologies.

Human Enhancement

Human genetic engineering and human-machine integration.

Human Judgement

When do decisions require human judgement and when can they be automated?

Over-Automation

When does automation decrease quality of life?

Permanent Records

Retention of personally identifiable information.

Precautionary Principle

Who decides that a new technology is safe?

Privacy

Protection of privacy rights.

Security

What due diligence is required to ensure information security?

Self Modifying Technology

The unpredictable nature of certain types of artificial intelligence such as recursive self-improvement.

Self Replicating Technology

Are self replicating systems likely to become grey goo?

Technology Predictability

Questions around algorithms and artificial intelligence that humans may view as largely unpredictable and cryptic. For example, is it a violation of due diligence for an organization to implement technologies that it doesn't understand?

Technology Proliferation

Ethics, governance and risk management tend to lag the spread of a new technology.

Technology Transparency

Transparency is the practice of clearly explaining how a technology works and what data it collects.

Terms Of Service

Ethics related to legal agreements such as terms of service.

### CYBERCRIME

Cybercrime, also called computer crime, is any illegal activity that involves a computer or network-connected device, such as a mobile phone. The Department of Justice divides cybercrime into three categories: crimes in which the computing device is the target, for example, to gain network access; crimes in which the computer is used as a weapon, for example, to launch a denial of service (DoS) attack; and crimes in which the computer is used as an accessory to a crime, for example, using a computer to store illegally-obtained data.

Cyber crimes are any crimes that involve a computer and a network. In some cases, the computer may have been used in order to commit the crime, and in other cases, the computer may have been the target of the crime.

Computer Viruses

Computer viruses are computer programs that, when opened, put copies of themselves into other computers' hard drives without the users' consent. Creating a computer virus and disseminating it is a cyber crime. The virus may steal disk space, access personal information, ruin data on the computer or send information out to the other computer user's personal contacts.

The most common way for a virus to infect a computer is by way of an email attachment. An example would be if you received an email with an attachment. You open this attachment, and the virus immediately spreads through your computer system. In some cases, if the virus is opened by a computer on a system network, such as your place of employment, the virus can immediately be spread throughout the network without needing to be sent via email.

There are numerous reasons that a person would create a virus to send out to another computer or computers. It may be to steal information or money, to sabotage that system or to demonstrate the flaws that the other computer system has. In some cases these viruses are able to be removed from the user's computer system, and in some cases they are not. Therefore, it is easy for us to understand how these viruses cause significant financial harm every year. The punishment for those who damage or gain unauthorized access to a protected computer can be prison time and the repayment of financial losses.

Cyberstalking

Cyberstalking is the use of the Internet or electronics to stalk or harass an individual, an organization or a specific group. There are many ways in which cyberstalking becomes a cyber crime. Cyberstalking can include monitoring someone's activity realtime, or while on the computer or device in the current moment, or while they are offline, or not on the computer or electronic device. Cyberstalking becomes a crime because of the repeated threatening, harassing or monitoring of someone with whom the stalker has, or no longer has, a relationship.

Cyberstalking can include harassment of the victim, the obtaining of financial information of the victim or threatening the victim in order to frighten them. An example of cyberstalking would be to put a recording or monitoring device on a victim's computer or smartphone in order to save every keystroke they make so that the stalker can obtain information. Another example would be repeatedly posting derogatory or personal information about a victim on web pages or social media despite being warned not to do so. Cyberstalking has the potential punishment of a prison sentence.

Identity Theft

Identity theft is a form of stealing someone's personal information and pretending to be that person in order to obtain financial resources or other benefits in that person's name without their consent. Identity theft is considered a cyber crime. The personal information stolen can include the person's name, social security number, birth date or credit card numbers. This stolen information is then used to obtain new credit cards, access bank accounts or obtain other benefits, such as a driver's license.

### PRIVACY ISSUES

### Problems with Large Databases:-

• Spreading information without consent

• Some large companies use medical records and credit records as a factor in important personnel decisions

• Spreading inaccurate information

• Mistakes in one computer file can easily migrate to others

• Inaccurate data may linger for years.

### Private Networks Issues:-

• Employers may legally monitor electronic mail

• In 2001, 63% of US companies monitored employee Internet connections including about twothirds of the 60 billion electronic messages sent by 40 million e-mail users.

• Most online services reserve the right to censor content

• These rights lead to contentious issues over property rights versus free speech and privacy.

### The Internet and the Web Issues:-

• Most people don't worry about email privacy on the Web due to illusion of anonymity

• Each e-mail you send results in at least 3 or 4 copies being stored on different computers.

• Web sites often load files on your computer called cookies to record times and pages visited and other personal information

• Spyware - software that tracks your online movements, mines the information stored on your computer, or uses your computer for some task you know nothing about.

### E-Mail Netiquette Issues:-

• Promptly respond to messages.

• Delete messages after you read them if you don't need to save the information.

• Don't send messages you wouldn't want others to read.

• Keep the message short and to the point. • Don't type in all capital letters.

• Be careful with sarcasm and humor in your message.

### Internet Content & Free Speech Issues:-

• Information on internet includes hate, violence, and information that is harmful for children • How much of this should be regulated?

• Do filters solve problems or create more?

• Is web site information used for course work and research reliable ?

### Information Ownership Issues:-

• Illegal software copying (pirating)

• Infringement of copyrights by copying of pictures or text from web pages

• Plagiarism by copying text from other sources when original work is expected

### CYBER LAW

Cyber law is the part of the overall legal system that deals with the Internet, cyberspace, and their respective legal issues. Cyber law covers a fairly broad area, encompassing several subtopics including freedom of expression, access to and usage of the Internet, and online privacy. Generically, cyber law has been referred to as the Law of the Internet.

### IT ACT 2000

The Information Technology Act, 2000 (also known as ITA-2000, or the IT Act) is an Act of the Indian Parliament (No 21 of 2000) notified on 17 October 2000. It is the primary law in India dealing with cybercrime and electronic commerce. It is based on the United Nations Model Law on Electronic Commerce 1996 (UNCITRAL Model) recommended by the General Assembly of United Nations by a resolution dated 30 January 1997.

Due to increasing crime in cyber space, Govt. of India understood the problems of internet user and for safeguarding the interest of internet users, this act was made.

The following are its main objectives and scope:-

1. It is objective of I.T. Act 2000 to give legal recognition to any transaction which is done by electronic way or use of internet.

2. To give legal recognition to digital signature for accepting any agreement via computer.

3. To provide facility of filling document online relating to school admission or registration in employment exchange.

4. According to I.T. Act 2000, any company can store their data in electronic storage.

5. To stop computer crime and protect privacy of internet users.

6. To give legal recognition for keeping books of accounts by bankers and other companies in electronic form.

7. To make more power to IPO, RBI and Indian Evidence act for restricting electronic crime.

Scope

Every electronic information is under the scope of I.T. Act 2000 but following electronic transaction is not under I.T. Act 2000

1. Information technology act 2000 is not applicable on the attestation for creating trust via electronic way. Physical attestation is must.

2. I.T. Act 2000 is not applicable on the attestation for making will of any body. Physical attestation by two witnesses is must.

3. A contract of sale of any immovable property.

4. Attestation for giving power of attorney of property is not possible via electronic record.

Highlights the main chapters of I.T. Act 2000 or its main provisions:-

There are 13 chapters in law and all provision is included in this chapters.

1. Chapter II

Any contract which is done by subscriber. If he signs the electronic agreement by digital signature. Then it will be valid.

In case bank, the verification of digital signature can be on the basis of key pair.

2. Chapter III

This chapter explains the detail that all electronic records of govt. are acceptable unless any other law has any rules regarding written or printed record.

3. Chapter IV

This chapter deals with receipts or acknowledgement of any electronic record. Every electronic record has any proof that is called receipt and it should be in the hand who records electronic way.

4. Chapter V

This chapter powers to organization for securing the electronic records and secure digital signature. They can secure by applying any new verification system.

5. Chapter VI

This chapter states that govt. of India will appoint controller of certifying authorities and he will control all activities of certifying authorities.

"Certifying authority is that authority who issues digital signature certificate."

6. Chapter VII

In this chapter powers and duties of certifying authority is given. Certifying authority will issue digital signature certification after getting Rs. 25000. If it is against public interest, then C.A. can suspend the digital signature certificate.

7. Chapter VIII

This chapter tells about the duties of subscribers regarding digital signature certificate . It is the duty of subscriber to accept that all information in digital signature certificate that is within his knowledge is true .

8. Chapter IX

If any body or group of body damages the computers , computer systems and computer networks by electronic hacking , then they are responsible to pay penalty upto Rs. 1 crore . Fore judgment this , govt. can appoint adjucating officer .

9. Chapter X

Under this chapter, cyber regulation appellate tribunal can be established. It will solve the cases relating to orders of adjudicating officers.

10. Chapter XI

For controlling cyber Crime, Govt. can appoint cyber regulation advisory committee who will check all cyber crime relating to publishing others information. If any fault is done by anybody, he will be responsible for paying Rs. 2 lakhs or he can get punishment of 3 years living in jail or both prison and penalty can be given to cyber criminal.

11. Chapter XII

Police officers have also power to investigate dangerous cyber crime under IPC 1860 , Indian Evidence Act 1872 and RBI Act 1934 .

Advantages of I.T. Act 2000

1. Helpful to promote e-commerce

• Email is valid

• Digital signature is valid.

• Payment via credit card is valid.

• Online contract is valid

Above all things validity in eye of Indian law is very necessary. After making IT act 2000 , all above things are valid and these things are very helpful to promote e-commerce in India .

2. Enhance the corporate business

After issuing digital signature, certificate by Certifying authority, now Indian corporate business can enhance.

3. Filling online forms :-

After providing facility, filling online forms for different purposes has become so easy.

4. High penalty for cyber crime

Law has power to penalize for doing any cyber crime. After making of this law, nos. of cyber crime has reduced.

Shortcoming of I.T. Act 2000

1. Infringement of copyright has not been included in this law.

2. No protection for domain names.

3. The act is not applicable on the power of attorney, trusts and will.

4. Act is silent on taxation.

5. No, provision of payment of stamp duty on electronic documents.

