
First published in Lausanne, Switzerland in 2014 by the AISTS (International Academy of Sports Science and Technology) at the EPFL (Swiss Federation Institute of Technology Lausanne) Reprography
Selections and editorial matter copyright © Geert Hendriks, Keith Gilbert, Daniel Oyon, Claude Stricker 2014;  
Individual chapters copyright © individual contributors 2014

Cover photography © International Olympic Committee

All rights reserved. Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review as permitted under the applicable copyright legislation, no part of this book may be reproduced by any process without written permission from the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Collected Insights from the Field of Sport, Volume 1: Football and Society  
Editors, Geert Hendriks, Keith Gilbert, Daniel Oyon, Claude Stricker.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-291-94412-9

**AISTS (International Academy of Sport Science and Technology)**

EPFL  
Innovation Park Bâtiment C  
1015 Lausanne  
Switzerland

info@aists.org  
Tel: +41 (0)21 693 85 93

# Collected Insights  
from the Field of Sport

## Volume 1: Football and Society

* * *

EDITORS:

> Geert HENDRIKS
> 
> Keith GILBERT
> 
> Daniel OYON
> 
> Claude STRICKER

## Table of Contents

* * *

### Introduction

#### Football and Society

##### Geert Hendriks & Keith Gilbert

* * *

### Chapter 1 - Hooliganism

#### Content Analysis on the Media Expression of Hooligan Behaviour in Turkish Association Football Derbies: Case Study of Fenerbahçe SK – Galatasaray SK from 2000-2010

##### Doğan Deyvi Mizrahi & Joseph Maguire

* * *

### Chapter 2 - Transport and Legacy

#### 2014 FIFA World Cup Brazil and Rio 2016 Summer Olympic Games: Main Transport and Legacy Challenges

##### Marcelo Henrique Lutterbach Penna & Philippe Bovy

* * *

### Chapter 3 - Development through Sports

#### Development through sports following the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa: A critical analysis of the investment in sports related development programmes

##### Sara Holmgren & Joseph Maguire

* * *

### Chapter 4 - Young Players

#### Young Players Impact on Team Performance on Professional Football Teams

##### Luis Rosas & Bill Gerrard

* * *

### Chapter 5 - Women's Football

#### Migration in the Portuguese Women's National Football Team: enabling and constraining factors and motivation

##### Catia Reliquias Teresa & Joseph Maguire

* * *

### About the Contributors

* * *

### About the AISTS

# Introduction

* * *

## Collected Insights  
from the Field of Sport

### Football and Society

#### Geert Hendriks & Keith Gilbert

## ' _Football is an incredible game. Sometimes it's so incredible, it's unbelievable_ '

_Thomas Walt Landry_

## Football and Society

There is no doubt that across the world the game of football (or ' _soccer_ ') is substantial in its influence, scope, financial value and enjoyment status. An estimate of over 240 million around the world play football and over 1 billion watch it on a regular basis . Both traditional and social media reports daily on football matches, players and football-related stories around the world.

Whatever the news, football is widely followed and players have achieved almost religion status in many countries. Although the game itself is quite simple, its organisation, fan base and management have become very complex and as such the game is well developed, well promoted and well funded compared with other major sports. Football brings nations together but also divide. On one hand, issues related to hooliganism, racism, homophobia, gambling, violence and corruption within its management easily overshadow the game of football. On the other hand, football clubs are places where young people gather and partake in sports activities that are rewarding physically and mentally as well as foster social equity and the inclusion of minority groups.

Such clubs range, as we know, from those designed for children's football and games to the very elite sports clubs of which we are always reminded through media outlets. However, what all the clubs have in common is that within them the game of football is played at varying standards and with differing successes and can be structured or non-structured depending on whether it is played within a club or outside of a club environment and played socially by groups of friends in the park.

## Collected Insights

However, we feel that what clubs and its stakeholders have in common is a distinct lack of academic research being undertaken by well-educated field experts. As such this book is the first of its kind from the International Academy of Sports Science and Technology (AISTS) and provides practical insight in several aspects of the management of football. It does not provide a total solution to the many problems within the game but it aims to be a showcase of what can be achieved with the cooperation of academics and higher education participants. The studies in this book are derived from relevant so-called ' _Research Papers_ ' that have been produced by the participants and visiting professors of the AISTS postgraduate programme, the AISTS MSA (Master of Advanced Studies in Sports Administration).

In point of fact, institutionally, AISTS has as one of its three pillars the notion of applied research in the sports discipline and the chapters within this book relate to the practices of football and offer real world solutions to real world problems. It has been put together to avoid that postgraduate participant work goes unnoticed, unpublished and become discarded after the labours of both participants and academics have completed their work. In most if not all instances the papers are discarded and rarely published and as such there are thousands of studies/theses produced across the world every year which go without notice and contain significant results which could be utilised by academics, students, sports teams, organisations and the public. It is hopeful that this book will be the first of a new genre which reports on the AISTS MSA participant led projects.

## Anthology

The five AISTS MSA Research Papers chosen for this book have been reviewed by academics and also edited by the editorial team. They cover an assortment of topic areas and what follows is an anthology of the chapters.

#### Chapter 1

Chapter 1 titled ' _Content Analysis on the Media Expression of Hooligan Behaviour in Turkish Association Football Derbies: Case Study of Fenerbahçe SK – Galatasaray SK from 2000-2010_ ' by Doğan Deyvi Mizrahi (AISTS MSA 2010) and Professor Dr Joseph Maguire (Loughborough University). This chapter argues that hooliganism in football is not a new phenomenon, yet it seems to be a more prominent part of the reporting of the game. The media has taken upon itself to report more and more on the topic of hooliganism that occurs at football matches. The language used to address this phenomenon has an influence on the way in which it is interpreted. Forms of hooliganism and its portrayal in the media are seen throughout all of Europe. In the country of Turkey, hooliganism is something that is not new to the sport of football or its fans. Yet, Turkey tends not to be a country of focus in regards to the mass media and their discussions on the topic. There is an intense rivalry between two of the biggest football clubs in Istanbul (Turkey). Fenerbahçe Spor Kulübü and Galatasaray Spor Kulübü have been playing in some of the most passionate derby matches for years as a part of the ' _Turkish Süper Lig_ '. The fans of the two teams are great supporters and look forward to the local derby matches. It is at these matches that their support for their respective teams can lead to acts of hooliganism. This chapter reviews how the media has portrayed these events over a 10-year period to try and analyse if the language used to do so could in fact be encouraging the increase of this phenomenon in Turkey.

#### Chapter 2

Chapter 2 titled ' _2014 FIFA World Cup Brazil and Rio 2016 Summer Olympic Games Main Transport and Legacy Challenges_ ' is written by Marcelo Henrique Lutterbach Penna (AISTS MSA 2011) and emeritus Professor Philippe Bovy (EPFL - Swiss Federal Institute of Technology at Lausanne). As FIFA awarded Brazil in 2007 the right to host for the second time its World Cup in 2014 and IOC selected Rio de Janeiro in 2009 to host the 2016 Summer Olympic Games, a unique opportunity was given to the country and the city of Rio de Janeiro to capitalize on the mega-events and position itself in an uprising economy in the mind-set of the world's population. However, due to the mega- events socioeconomic and cultural dimensions, if not properly conducted they can result in high financial debts, severe image problems and local population burden. This chapter identifies the most significant transport requirements and challenges for these two mega-events. Analysis of official and non-official secondary data, and interviews with mega-events transport specialists were conducted. The main study indicated the importance of much enhanced airport operations for both events and how knowledge is built and successfully transferred for sustainable sports mega-events and also that Rio 2016 relies on the 2014 World Cup as partial test event for transportation and logistics, the importance of having a binding Olympic Host City contract and how the Olympic Games are capitalizing investments on vital transport infrastructures for Rio 2016 and its long term urban development.

#### Chapter 3

In contrast Chapter 3 by Sara Holmgren (AISTS MSA 2013) and Professor Dr Joseph Maguire (Loughborough University) reviewed and analysed the current literature to conclude whether or not the investment in preparing and hosting the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa could be seen as legitimate or not from a socio-cultural perspective. This was achieved through looking at the FIFA initiated development programmes as well as the overall development through the event, and further comparing the findings with possible alternative investments within the country, the author aimed to verify or dismiss the following hypotheses:

  1. In order to benefit the society of poor people in South Africa, the investment would have been better placed in pure development programmes.
  2. The subjective social benefits would have been the most significant difference with regards to effects of pure development programmes and development through sport.

The overall objective of identifying any possible evidence following the investment in the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa, either positive or negative, was approached through a thorough literature review. For the conclusion, the authors found both hypotheses to be verified, drawing on the information collected through the literature review. Furthermore, in their chapter the authors recommend that developing nations in similar situations primarily look at possible investments in governmental development programmes. Indeed, it appears as if a sense of national pride and unity wants to be achieved through sport, parts of these investments could be distributed towards development of the national teams of the nation. This would be a more economically responsible act of promoting sport and national pride than to prepare and host a mega event of the size of the FIFA World Cup.

#### Chapter 4

The purposes of the research for Chapter 4 by Luis Rosas (AISTS MSA 2013) and professor Dr Bill Gerrard (Leeds University Business School), was to analyse how team performance on a professional football team can be influenced by young players (under 23) appearances, based on the last 5 seasons of the Spanish First League, and how does this effect is related to academy strategies on professional clubs. The author discarded the idea that rookie players have an impediment to having positive results in the sport and from this starting point the research analyses three fundamental points: professional club strategies guidelines regarding the formation or acquisition of players, academy amount and continuity of players on a team, and athletes situation on the path they have to follow to be able to fulfil their dreams and become professional football players. The research method used for the research was based on existing information available on the Internet and individual teams websites. The data was gathered, organized and then analysed in clear tables, figures and graphics. Research findings indicated that young players (under 23 years old) on a team can have a positive effect on team performance. Teams with more than 20% of ' _rookie_ ' players added continuity on the player's part throughout the seasons and presented benefits in points and success indicators.

#### Chapter 5

Positive team performance was influenced by teammates shared knowledge, experience and constructive results among time and players. Interestingly the main purpose of Chapter 5, written by Catia Reliquias Teresa (AISTS MSA 2011) and Professor Dr Joseph Maguire ((Loughborough University), was to determine the opportunities, constraints and enabling factors of the migration process of the Portuguese Women's National Football Team players. Special attention was given to motivations and long term plans of the players. 12 national team members answered a survey containing questions relating to motivations, difficulties, career objectives, long term plans and benefits from their football player careers. Interviews were carried out with the purpose of further deepening the understanding of player's choices or opinions. The hiring club provides financing for the relocation, accommodation, living expenses and a salary. Players migrate due to the desire to compete at a higher level and wish to obtain academic or economic benefits from it. The only difficulty mentioned by the players was the separation from family and friends.

## In Conclusion

In this short book we have negotiated a multiplicity of subject matter connected with researching the management and organsation of football. We feel that one role for the post-graduate participants and academics remains to produce studies which tests ideas and also challenges the individuals who read the chapters to continue to improve the connection between research, work practices and the development of sport. We believe that practitioners should be utilising the research methods postulated in this book to support their own work practices and professional development.

Hopefully this work will stimulate the issue of football research into mainstream sports discourse. We need to stay ahead of the game otherwise we will get lost in the complexities of the multi-faced management of the sport.

# Chapter 1 - Hooliganism

* * *

## Content Analysis on the  
Media Expression of  
Hooligan Behaviour in  
Turkish Association Football

### Case Study of Fenerbahçe  
SK – Galatasaray SK from 2000-2010

#### Doğan Deyvi Mizrahi & Joseph Maguire

### ' _Some people think football is a matter of life and death. I assure you, it's much more serious than that._ '

_Bill Shankly_

## Introduction

If you read newspaper articles surrounding many association football matches it appears that the negative influence of football hooliganism is becoming more of a common factor. As the rivalries between football clubs and nations grows stronger and more competitive and through globalization the world appears to become smaller and smaller, more and more football hooligan incidents occur on and off the stadia grounds at pre-game and post-game incidents.

There are socio-economic, cultural, political, racial and in some cases even religious undertones behind this hooliganism. All of these combined factors tend to lead to the media conclusion that football hooliganism hurts the true spirit of football as well as its ever-growing popularity.

As mentioned by Dunning et al ' _Indeed, at particular times and places, such as England in the 1980s, they have constituted a threat to the popularity of the game and perhaps even to its continuing viability as a top-level spectator sport_ ' (Dunning, Murphy and Waddington, 2000, p.141). Previous incidents have led governments, namely that of the United Kingdom to ban substances that are thought to increase the likelihood of hooliganism occurring such as alcohol consumption as well as installing closed circuit television (CCTV) into stadia (Lawrence,1985) in order to keep track of the problem supporters. Security precautions are taken at the maximum level possible to protect the brand name and integrity of the top-level competitions although it seems that such prevention of incidents may not be possible at a complete level or still leave areas within the stadia or outside unprotected.

The sport rivalry can transform into another dimension when the historical background between competing clubs, especially those from within the same city is added into the mix. The so-called ' _derby_ ' match is one in which two association football teams from within the same city play each other. No matter where in the league standings each team sits, these matches hold an increased significance to the fans. They draw much more attention with higher stakes both from sporting and spectator sides due largely in part to the confinements of the city, no matter how large geographically in reality the city may be. So far, extensive amounts of scientific work have been done on trying to identify and understand the source(s) of hooliganism. The work done largely considers the UK and in particularly clubs playing and participating in derbies surrounding the English Premier League (EPL).

However, although the research seems to show dominance in one area of study it is hard to say that the UK is representative of all the hooligan behavior throughout Europe. South Eastern Europe has a growing reputation for intense spectator passion over the years. This has developed into fans forming ' _gangs_ ' in some areas which in turn results in bad behavior. Specific cases of this have turned up in Turkey, a country that spreads across two continents and is home to a rich, although sometimes overlooked, association football history, league system and one of the most passionate fan bases in the world.

To demonstrate the passion as well as dedication to the football system in Turkey one need not look any further then the city of Istanbul. A city with a rich history divided by the mighty Bosporus Strait and home to the ' _Big 3_ ' association football teams that are a part of the first tier Süper Lig (hereafter SL), in the Turkish Football League. Between the three teams it is hard to distinguish where the largest rivalry lies but what is clear is that there can only be one team that sits at the top as the ' _greatest_ ' in the history of the league. In more than 50 years of existence only five teams have won the League title despite over 60 different teams vying for it. Of these 51 titles that have been won, 44 of them are claimed by the ' _Big 3_ '. Up until the end of the 2009 - 2010 season there was a tie for the ' _winningest team_ ' in the history of the league with seventeen titles a piece for both the Fenerbahçe Spor Kulübü (hereafter FB) and Galatasaray Spor Kulübü (hereafter GS). The intense rivalry that has developed over a hundred years to try and claim the title of the ' _greatest_ ' team in the history of the SL is one that has led to numerous incidents of hooliganism from the fans of both clubs.

The purpose of this study was to provide a written content analysis on one of the world' s most fierce derbies between two pioneer clubs of Turkish football, FB and GS. The city of Istanbul has been witnessing this compelling rivalry that has made itself famous even outside the borders of Turkey. GS finds itself situated on the European side of the city. The club has a more aristocratic background through being established by a high school. Their rivals to the east, FB play from the Asian side of Istanbul which is known for it' s more traditional and secular background. The differences in the team backgrounds have created entertainment and attention before giving birth to hooligan incidents in the beginning of 1990s.

There are several factors that have created the tension filled atmosphere between the spectator groups that flood together, even outside of the stadia. This chapter will look at the media' s account, approach and effect to this phenomenon. The aim is to analyse the derby matches played between 2000 and 2010 in the media focusing on the articles written in build-up to the matches, on the match days themselves and post-matches in order to detect patterns of the terms, concepts and notions used to understand better the depiction of hooligan behavior produced by the media. There are two beliefs in the presentation of hooliganism by the media. The first is that hooliganism is getting stronger and in turn communicated on more in the media which can lead to encouraging increased participation in these acts. The second is that it is not happening more but rather the occurrences are exploited by the media which in turn can have the same effect as above. This chapter will look at how hooligan acts have been portrayed by the media in a 10 year period from 2000 – 2010 and try to analyze if the language used to do so could in fact be encouraging an increase in participation of this phenomenon in Turkey football.

## Historical perspectives of football hooliganism

In order to conduct this research study it was important to review the previous concepts and knowledge on hooliganism. There are several questions which need answering as highlighted in the following literature review First, what is the context of the country and its teams in which this phenomenon takes place? Secondly, how do social scientists make sense of hooliganism and define a hooligan? Thirdly, what do we know about the media' s approach to football related disorder and what themes come out from the media' s influence on the hooligan incidents? Gaining a better understanding of these questions helped us to conduct the analysis of the newspaper articles. The aim was to gain a better understanding of the media' s ability to influence the perceptions of these events and the individuals who conduct them.

## Development of the Republic of Turkey

Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, in English the Republic of Turkey is a country with a long history. Its official establishment came out of the War of Independence after the fall of the Ottoman Empire in the First World War (WWI). Originally the country was to be divided between the winning nations such as France, Great Britain and Greece. The citizens of the country did not like being split up and being under the command of other powers; this sparked the Turkish National Movement. The movement as told in every history class in Turkey was started in May, 1919 by Atatürk, a soldier of the Ottoman Empire. He was sent by the Sultan to Anatolia as the Inspector General of the Turkish Army due to the unpleasantness of the outcomes of the war and the splitting up of the country.

Ataturk travelled in this mission with the idea in mind to keep the Turkish population of the Ottoman Empire together in one country. He started this movement claiming that the sovereignty of the country belonged to its people and it is not for the Sultan to decide who they belong to. Ataturk started the nationalism movement within what is now Turkey. The people fought in different fronts of the country to reclaim it for themselves. The movement saw in the end the formation of the Republic of Turkey a country based on the honor and pride of its people.

Within a country the population develops on their own through the influences they face on a daily basis. These influences can come from the ' _social conditions and cultural contexts in which they live their lives_ ' as well as many ' _outside influences_ ' around them (Coakley 1994, p. 7). The Turkish population through these political and world developments has, as mentioned, developed a strong sense of pride when it comes to their country and their land. Foreigner football fans although welcome, need to be aware that there are many things you cannot do in the country as it is a sign of disrespect and the Turkish population will not tolerate misbehavior. As stated in a recent television program on football hooliganism in Turkey by Danny Dyer, ' _.....if you don't know the customs in Turkey, it can cost you your life_ ' (2006). This is something that goes for foreigners as well as the local population.

The city with the largest population, Istanbul has its streets and buildings decorated with the national flag. The children of the country are reminded of the story of Atatürk every time they go to school where his picture hangs in each of the classrooms. Dyer' s program continues in support of this view in his television program, ' _Turkey is a very nationalistic country where the culture is based on pride and honor_ ' (2006). This can be further demonstrated by the meaning of the word Turk which describes the inhabitants of the country. Its classical meaning coming from the Old Turkic language means strong or mighty, a reminder of where their roots come from (Dictionary.com, LLC 2010).

Turkey is a country of many characteristics, one that covers two continents and has many international influences. The societal development of a country sees influences of wars, religion, power, prestige, and income (Maguire 2010). The outside influences of the country are many and the resistance of some and acceptance of others are the factors for the development of the country and its people. The education in the country, when received holds a high standard, but the further East you travel the less accessible it is and the less important it is viewed as. Turkey is a country which is bordered by Iraq, Iran, Bulgaria, Greece, Armenia, Syria, and Azerbaijan.

These countries and their own political issues often find a way through the borders of Turkey, leaving the country to fight its own battles and those of others. Inside the country it is faced with many questions, it claims Islam as its national religion although it also sees its population practice Judaism and Christianity. All of which add influence and conflict to the shaping of the Turkish identity.

The country itself was developed out of a war, which could explain in part the pride and the willingness of the people to fight for it and what they believe in, even if it is against fellow Turks. With about 80% of the population living below the poverty line in the country times are not always easy (Dyer 2006). The majority of the population often struggles to get by and must find ways to survive, be it crime or what is often the other alternative violence. According to Paul Okan a film maker in Turkey, ' _.....life is pretty tough in Turkey, people work hard and don't make enough money and they don' t feel in control. But when they go to the stadium it's their own turf and they can actually affect the outcome_ ' (Dyer 2006). One other part of the country that developed strongly within its passion is its devotion to sport namely that of association football. Through its passion, the Turkish in turn support their teams very strongly which can lead to some extreme outcomes from the fan bases. One recent example of these extreme outcomes is the stabbing to death of two Leeds United fans by GS fans in 2000 before the UEFA Cup semi-final match in Istanbul. Although always not as severe, the examples of the kind of behaviors committed by the two big club' s fans are many. Before the rivalry between the football fans is discussed further, a history of the development of FB and GS will be discussed to get a better understanding of the teams.

## Historical Perspective of the Football Teams

The two big teams from Istanbul have very different histories which allow people living in Istanbul to clearly associate what they see as their identity with either of the two clubs. The two very different ideologies of these clubs have come into existence over the years leading to this segregation of football supporters. The following depicts each club' s history including how they were established and a brief description of the ' _typical_ ' fan.

#### Fenerbahçe Spor Kulübü

FB was founded more than a century ago in 1907 in Istanbul by Mr. Nurizade Ziya Songülen, Mr. Ayetullah and Mr. Necip Okaner. Due to the strict Ottoman rule of the day which did not allow for sports clubs to be formed, especially football clubs, the club' s founding was done in secret to keep a low profile and avoid any trouble that could come out of them getting caught (Lorien Network, 2010).

Until a change of legislation in 1908, Fenerbahçe' s sporting activities were run under strict secrecy. After this date however, a new law was enacted which required that clubs must be registered in order to exist legally. From that day on, the club took its place amongst the top of the Turkish club' s and achieved great sporting success (Lorien Network, 2010). FB was formed as a sport club with men' s and women' s teams in such sports as basketball and volleyball. Even with that the club' s biggest focus was always on the sport of football to the extent that, success of the club started to be measured with the success in the football branch.

For example, the 2009 – 2010 season saw the success of both its basketball and volleyball teams, however FB finished second in the football league making it feel like a losing year to the fans of the club. The investments made on football for developing grassroots, building facilities, transferring of players and providing a wide range of merchandise; drew the attention of spectators in order to build a passionate fan base. What is important about FB and its fans is its location on the Asian side of Istanbul which sees it with stronger ties to Anatolia and their Islamic religious traditions, and in turn has the majority of fans demonstrating a more secular profile. This profile has a tendency to respect religious practices more, value the family tradition and ties, specifically towards women. FB fans see themselves as the ' _public_ ' team and mainly come from low-income families with limited education and modernism. They are also known for their well-organised stadium shows as well as the value and passion that they show to the club. However, with their passion also comes their impatience and the value they feel for the club can easily turn around into negative feedback towards the players if they feel they are playing without the passion and effort expected.

#### Galatasaray Spor Kulübü

On the other side of the Bosporus strait there is GS with a different historical background and history, especially from the perspective of the FB fan base. The story goes that during a hunting excursion, Bayezid, an Ottoman Sultan from the 15th Century, became a guest of an old wise man, Gül Baba – ( in English The Father of Roses), who presents the Sultan with two roses, one red and one yellow1 The Sultan, impressed by this gesture, offers the wise man whatever he wishes. Gül Baba shows him a piece of land overlooking the Bosporus, and asks him to build a school there, which initiated the founding of GS (Resmi Internet Sitesi 2010).

GS was founded in 1481 as one of the Sultani schools in order to educate future statesmen and diplomats of the Ottomans. In 1868, the school had a strong European influence and started to educate its students in French and turned into a modern school. At the beginning of the 20th century many of the non-traditional Turkish sports that were played for the first time in the Empire were done so at the GS School, for example gymnastics. A young GS student, Ali Sami Yen' s passion for football led him to begin thinking about establishing a club in 1903. Two years later, in 1905 the club was officially founded and GS played its first match against the French Faure School on November 26th, 1905 (Resmi Internet Sitesi 2010). GS produced prime ministers, ministers, diplomats, businessmen and scientists with a solid background in literature, foreign languages, natural sciences and philosophy, as well as sportsmen for the club that competed in several sports2 (Resmi Internet Sitesi 2010).

In line with the GS ideology that has been well-known for centuries of coming from an educational organization, GS football club has always pursued a Western approach with promoting grassroots, education and development. The members of the GS football family have largely come out of the GS schooling system from players to managers. They are taught through that system of the importance of the game, but also the importance of respect for the game. Therefore, it is right to argue that GS spectators and fan groups are coming from educated and high-income backgrounds with an amateur perspective of sports that exploits the spirit rather than competitiveness.

## Hooliganism in Association Football

Social scientists have long studied how a society develops. More recently they have moved in a stronger direction towards the study of how that society can affect or is affected by sport such as association football. The draw for social scientists to study these two topics is that they have been influenced by each other over the years. Although social construction can be explained on its own, it is also a topic that is often used to break down and try to understand the how and why behind people and sport.

As mentioned above social identity is constructed by the influences a person has while growing up in their society. In turn these influences are also the mitigating factors in the how and why they participate in sport. One is introduced to sport with a certain level of passion and intensity while participating, when combined with society and social upbringing this can lead to an intense way of supporting your sports team. This intense support can often be seen in the sport of association football in actions which are labelled as different types of hooliganism. Indeed you could argue that ' _....one has to look at the norms or standards that present football hooligans express and at the social structures within which these norms or standards are produced_ ' (Dunning, Murphy and Williams, 1988, p.15).

Even though societies in Europe have different cultural and historical backgrounds, the phenomenon of football hooliganism can be seen almost throughout the entire continent. The source of the incidents may vary however; the outcomes are similar as they constitute a growing discontent. In order to get to the bottom of the problem, sociologists in the UK have been dedicating large resources for research. Also, governments have been working together to prevent such incidents with measures that are in line with the sociological reasons coming out of the research. Despite these combined efforts, the incidents continue to disrupt the society' s normal flow. Carnibella et. al. (1996, p.12) describes this phenomenon well in the following excerpt from his work:

' _Association football hooliganism, was once referred to as the "British Disease" , it has been for many years a major cause for concern throughout Europe – particularly in Germany, Holland, Italy and Belgium, as well as in the UK. Substantial disturbances at football matches have also been witnessed in Greece, the Czech Republic, Denmark and Austria. Recent debates in the European Parliament and at national government level in many European Community (EC) countries have highlighted a growing sense of frustration about the apparent inability to reduce or change the anti-social behavior of a minority of football supporters which constitutes the problem. Social scientists have been offering explanations of football hooliganism since the late 1960s, ranging from a concern with macro socio-political changes to the role of lead pollution and zinc deficiencies. This field was, once again, monopolized by the British, with most Universities having a least one post-graduate student writing a thesis in this area. Leicester University devoted an entire Centre to research on football fans, with De Montfort and Manchester quickly following their lead_ '.

Determining who these ' _hooligans_ ' are is important in being able to distinguish between them and the regular spectators. Some ' _hooligans_ ' are labelled as such simply for drinking during the match and shouting comments towards the players. A different view of who hooligans are is that they can be people who participate in acts of violence before, during or after the matches. As remarked by Dunning et al:

' _Almost everyone who drinks before or during a football match enjoys a release from inhibitions. [Some] of the effects ... – swearing, shouting, aggressive demonstrations, or even simple drunken mishaps - ... [are] counter to currently acceptable standards, creating the label of a hooligan_ ' . (Dunning, Murphy and Williams, 1988, p.14).

However, what the studies conducted show us is that the popular explanations about the football hooligan such as the unemployment, heavy consumption of alcohol and demonstration of masculinity are mostly insufficient since they can often be proven wrong or at least shown inconclusive. As Dunning, Murphy and Williams (1988) reveal regarding, the majority of football hooligans that there is data available on some of the hooligan firms such as West Ham' s Inter City Firm who do not consume alcohol to keep their heads clear in order to coordinate their activities. What this suggests is that to understand football hooliganism further one must, ' _....penetrate beneath the surface conditions and situational determinants of football hooligan behavior to the social roots which, in a fundamental sense, produce it._ ' (Dunning, Murphy and Williams, 1988, p.18). In other words, there is more to what meets the eye when it comes to who a hooligan is and what they do. The above studies which focus on the UK and its incidents of hooliganism can still be applied to the SL and its teams. In part this can be done because of the British influence on Turkish football which goes back to the establishment of two big teams in Istanbul as seen by their histories. One could make parallels to the passion of the fans supporting their teams and the creation of firms in the cities as well as the rules and regulations that are in place to detect and prevent hooliganism. In the case of the rules and regulations it was Margaret Thatcher' s government that implemented a ban of alcohol at football games and introduced CCTV in the stadiums (Lawrence 1985). Although Turkey is not a mirror image of the UK system they have in fact installed CCTV at its stadia and they also do not have alcohol in the stadia. Turkey' s security measures have even gone a step further in the searches conducted on spectators entering the stadium to watch the match. Turkish security guards remove lighters, coins and even house keys from those coming to watch, to try and ensure nothing can be thrown at any of the players or the referees, although the odd item still tends to find its way onto the field. Although Turkey has not been mentioned by Carnibella (1996) as one of the countries where football hooliganism is predominantly seen and constitutes a problem, there has been a growing imitation of Western Europe, namely the UK in football fan behavior causing uncontrollable expressions of passion in forms of anger and hatred.

The lack of information including in-depth studies about Turkish football prevents the country from often being stamped as one of the dangerous countries to watch a live match in. However, more and more as the research studies on Turkish football develop; the potential of aggression in this highly nationalistic and proud country comes to light. The amount of suspensions and sanctions given to clubs during one season is an important indicator to highlight the aggression and occurrence of hooliganism in Turkey. Despite all of these measures one can say the officials are far from preventing the incidents that happen in the stadia. This can be demonstrated with the bans and suspensions the two big teams received in the 2009-2010 season due to the collective actions of their fans. FB was sanctioned to play four of their home games without spectators as well as receiving 281, 500 Turkish Lira (TL) in fines, on the other hand GS received 425, 500 TL in fines (Federation 2010).

Actions of the hooligans in Turkey can be seen as frequent and even creative when compared to the other parts of Europe. In Turkey, hooligans do not have organized fights like the ones in the UK. Rather the hooligans fight opposing team fans as they meet each other going to the match. On the day of the derby, everything that is in the color of the opposing team becomes a target. Also, hooliganism in Turkey is not always between the two fan sides. Hooligans sometimes prefer to target players by throwing stones at the travelling team' s bus as well as a wide range of substances ranging from water bottles to cell phones on the playing field. Another common behavior of Turkish hooligans is swearing. In Turkish culture the mother figure is very important, so hooligans tend to directly target the mothers' of the opposition or their fans when they are angry at something. Also, what makes swearing different than the other actions is that swearing tends to be a more collective action whereas throwing substances and fights are mostly sparked by individuals or small groups.

## Hooliganism and the Media

In terms of portraying football hooliganism, the media can play a significant role. Media has the power to draw attention to particular incidents with their overall coverage of the event including the language used or the images shown to depict it. These hooligan actions have long been criticized because these methods used by the media give it a negative portrayal which in turn can influence the public perception. While doing so, the media uses certain concepts and themes to make them news worthy which can sometimes lead to little consideration of the reality and significance of the event Indeed as Poulton (2005, p.28) argues ' _Hysterical headlines, emotive language, evocative imagery and graphic photographs, all help to frame the football fan-cum-hooligan as a member of a homogenous group of "drunken, tattooed, crop-headed oafs"_ '. One needs to analyze what these concepts and themes are in order to gain a better understanding of the media' s approach to these incidents.

In his article Lawrence (1985, p.194) discusses that after the tragic incident of Heysel; there were four main themes that the press reports pointed out. These themes were gang warfare, animal nature, social conditions and lack of authority. As far as the gang warfare is concerned, Lawrence goes on to argue that media portrays the status ' _... achieved by the soccer hooligan by controlling the terraces at soccer grounds_ ' (1984, p. 194) which can be elaborated as a fight for the city. As applied to the teams in Istanbul, this phenomenon will be looked to see if the depictions of these events are represented in the same light in the Turkish media. The press tends to use the assumptions that these incidents are evoked and promoted due to the consumption of alcohol by spectators as well as the natural attraction to mob violence by these people (Lawrence, 1985, p.195).

As alluded to above, through social science research, these easy assumptions are not always the true causes of this hooligan behavior. The second most popular theory from the media as pointed out in Lawrence' s article was that of animal nature. Many of these articles referred to the disgust in regards to the people who participate in these events with one article referring to ' _.....the English soccer hooligan is quite possibly the lowest, least sensitive form of life_ ' (Lawrence 1985). Again in the analysis of articles this theme of the portrayal of the hooligan fan will be looked at to see if it is indeed a prominent theme in Turkish media.

Similar to the media study done by Lawrence (1985), Poulton (2005) conducts her own study of the media portrayal of football hooliganism, this time focusing solely on the English media and their portrayal of this group. The study refers to Hall' s work (1978) which found six main processes as portrayed by the media including the first of how press treatment of hooliganism can excite the phenomenon. The second is the media' s misuse of language leading to violence. Thirdly, is the dismissive labelling of hooligans to be lesser then the rest of us? The fourth theme creates a stigmatization of the label onto the supporters. The fifth theme is the overlooking of explanations for these causes by people and the tendency to refer to the easier explanation and ignoring the deeper themes.

Lastly, it is suggested that the media are responsible for causing moral panics by people (Poulton 2005). In terms of the Turkish media, these processes and themes would also be expected to be used in the portrayal of football hooliganism. As the development of Turkey took place through the terms and conditions of war, it has carried over this pride and battle behavior into the sporting world through its fans. Some of these fans are the ones participating in the hooligan acts and therefore the chosen language used to describe them may be depicted as such.

## Research Methodology

This project as reported in this chapter was conducted in two different stages. The first of which was by reviewing the previous knowledge at hand on football hooliganism in regards to a sociological standpoint. Articles regarding the topic were researched and read to gain an understanding of why hooligan behavior happens as well as its portrayal in the media. The research then continued on through a study of Turkish culture to see how the previous knowledge can apply to Turkey. It looked at the discrepancies between the information available and where that information was not applicable or lacking in regards to Turkey.

The study then turned to four major Turkish print newspapers and their coverage regarding the derbies played between GS and FB between the start of the 2000 – 2001 season to the end of the 2009 – 2010 season.

The newspapers that were used are: Hürriyet, Sabah, Milliyet and Radikal. These papers were chosen because they tend to have the best coverage both in sports news as well as the best sports journalists in Turkey. They all also had extensive archives of their sports articles to allow for a fair collection of articles from each paper. The focus for choosing the specific articles was divided into three categories those written one day prior to the kick off, on the match day itself and the post-match commentary. Over 1,000 articles were collected, read and reviewed for patterns of vocabulary, themes and concepts. The articles were then coded for key words that were appropriate to the context of this study such as ' _battle_ ' and ' _war_ ' to see how often they appeared in the articles which described the events surrounding the derbies. They were then looked at through a contextual means to see how these words were used to describe the games. This was done to distinguish between the words being used as descriptive words in a negative manner putting down and discouraging the hooliganism and them being used in a manner that can be interpreted as encouraging the behavior.

## Results of the study on Hooliganism

Before directly discussing the findings that arose from the media research, a good place to start to see the implications this phenomenon has on these teams is to look at all the penalties that the two teams received after the derby matches played in the last 10 years. When going back and taking a look into the Turkish Football Federation (TFF) books, one realizes that each team has faced with significant amount of sanctions as a result of the derbies. More or less after each match has been played between FB and GS, the TFF has given a punishment to the clubs for the actions of their fans. Some of the collective actions of the fans included such things as throwing substances on the playing field as well as improper cheering that included profanity. Judging simply from the sanctions, one can see that the hooliganism in these derby matches is increasing over time. In order to understand better the atmosphere behind these games, the magnitude and the frequency of the incidents is best seen with the table 1.

When closely analyzed, there are interesting conclusions that can be pointed out from the figures. Although the TFF has announced that throwing of substances and improper cheering will be sanctioned, and the amount of sanctions given leads to the assumption that the hooligans do not seem to care much. The TFF has given the referees instructions on what to do in cases where the fans are displaying the type of behavior that is frowned upon such as making announcements and stopping the game for a certain period of time. It is also within the referees' power to abort the game if things get out hand. For example if a player, trainer as well as the referee are hurt by a substance thrown onto the pitch during a match, they have the power to abandon the match.

##### **_Table 1 - Derby fine results of the two clubs_**  
**_(Federation, Turkish Football Federation Official Website 2010)_**

Yet, knowing the sanctions will also affect them and their team' s success, the hate for the opposing team usually prevails for the hooligans.

Even with the strict searches done at the entrance to the stadium, the hooligans still find ways to go in with substances they can throw on the field. The intelligence and unforeseen behaviours of the hooligans can bring the situation to an uncontrollable level. Turkish hooligans also throw substances which are not taken from their possession at the entrance such as their old cell phones and sometimes even resorting to using their shoes. Referring back to table 1, you can immediately see the ban that GS received in 2007 which is 201,000 TL in fines as well as five games without spectators. The derby match concerning this ban constitutes a good example for illustrating the substance throwing behavior of Turkish hooligans. FB came to play this match at the GS stadium already crowned as champions of the league that year. It seems it was too much for the GS hooligans to digest so they took actions into their own hands. The derby match has gone into the history books as the ' _Water War_ ' . This derby was the stage to one of the most extensive throwing of PET bottles in Turkish football history. The match was stopped several times by the referee to make announcements and waiting for the throwing to stop. Yet it was not possible to cool the anger of the hooligans.

When it comes to the improper cheering, as discussed above the hooligans tend to target the mothers' of opposing players or the referees since according to the customs in Turkey it is the strongest way to humiliate someone. As discussed in the literature review, mostly FB fans demonstrate a more secular profile which tends to emphasize the role of the female. The swearing implies the hate between two clubs, also the will to humiliate the other fans. The tension filled atmosphere of these matches' leads to swearing as quick as one bad decision from the referee or one bad foul from the opposing team. Most of the punishments that are seen in the table come from such collective actions of the fans. Swearing does not count as severe enough for suspending matches but it is a burden that has been prepossessing the clubs with high amount of fines for years.

Taking into account the characteristics of Turkish hooligans and TFF sanctions in the last 10 years, one can conclude that hooliganism in these derby matches is a phenomenon that is increasing despite the sanctions that try to deter hooligans from behaving as such. Especially, starting with 2004 there has been an enormous increase in penalties, which is way more than the inflation rates in Turkey. So when analyzing media' s portrayal of these incidents one has to not avoid this conclusion and look into if the media is also influencing this kind of behavior.

As far as the media' s account is concerned, the research shows that media is dedicating more and more coverage to these matches through the increased frequency of the reporting of the topic. More importantly after careful analysis of the four newspapers in the last 10 years, it is possible to say that there are some dominant and recurring themes and concepts when it comes to the fierce FB-GS derby. As the nature of the research presupposed, the pre-match, match day and post-match media coverage were analyzed separately in order to demonstrate the possible influences of each time frame to the hooliganism behavior that is occurring.

Although the areas of focus have their differences, there are two significant themes that come out of the research throughout the analysis. These two themes that are most prominent being repeatedly pointed out from the media are those of warfare and hatred. In relation to the social context of Turkey discussed above one could expect and understand this type of portrayal from the media.

#### Pre-match Problems

The pre-match media coverage content analysis conducted showed that through the articles there is a tension-oriented pattern throughout the 10 year cycle. The majority of the time the newspapers created an atmosphere of anxiety and anger before the matches with their choice of news to report and more prominent their usage of language. By dedicating a huge portion of the sports pages to the derby match coverage, they draw close attention of the readers to the games. This large coverage of the event makes in the news promotes the event as well as the media perspective on its portrayal as it occupies a large portion of the sports section in the papers. Setting the scene before each match, the newspapers always refer to what the security precautions will be before and during the match. In Hürriyet, it describes the safety measures that will be taken as ' _giant precautions for the derby_ ' (Hürriyet Daily News 2005). In some cases they even specified the number of police officers that would be working at the match, in one of the articles from Sabah it mentions 3,600 officers will be assigned for the derby (Derinsu 2005). It was later compared in the same article to an EPL game between Liverpool and Aston Villa taking place at the same date where only 150 officers were scheduled to be working (Derinsu 2005). Talking about the safety issue so frequently allows the media to portray the image that something is indeed going to happen and it will become a huge issue at the matches. The media have the ability to influence the perception that it is more necessary than it may really be for these precautions. In doing so the media create an ambiance of danger which can increase the rage or thought of doing something bad for those who may be involved in hooligan behavior. It can also increase the perceptions of the ' _regular_ ' spectator that they need to be more cautious or look out for those who may be participating in this hooligan behavior, when that may in fact not be the case.

Another theme that stands out from the pre-match analysis is the usage of war vocabulary to define the rivalry and the teams. Almost all newspapers throughout the 10 year period, define the different sides with the word ' _front_ ' . This term is often used in reference to wars and preparations for battles which can imply that they are preparing for a war rather than a football match. Going further in the pre-match analysis, Hürriyet states ' _.....there is war in the middle_ ' (Hürriyet Daily News 2003). This quote has the ability to emphasize two things, the first as related to the reference above is the assumption that this is war not football. The description refers to the neutral zone of the middle of the pitch as actually the war zone, which eliminates the unclaimed territory perception that is associated with that area of the field. The second point refers to the match itself as the midfield will be the key position of the game suggesting the rivalry between the two clubs will be played out or battled for there. Further, a writer for Hürriyet uses the phrase ' _Commanders in FB but soldiers in GS_ ' (Yasin 2008). This is to say that the GS team is made of players who run more and fight for the ball whereas in FB more-talented and experienced players exist. It could also be interpreted as the writer favouring the experience on the FB team and them being able to command respect and play a more organized fashion of football. This compared to the ' _soldiers_ ' of the GS team who are less experienced and will be told what to do on the field.

Lastly, the usage of provocative language can be further argued as a media influence or creation of negative approaches in the minds' of the fans. The choice of words used in an article is at the disposal of the writer. They have the ability to choose words to frame a situation how they see fit. In doing so an image or feeling about a situation in created, such as for the derbies, which may already exist or which may be provoked by the influence of the media. To demonstrate the point, from the Sabah newspaper one of its writers states in his article ' _Chaos, fight and fanaticism is reflected through both teams' histories_ ' (Özdenak 2002). This choice of words can lead to an increased amount of tension in this anger-oriented theme that adds on to the already existing themes describing the match.

One sub-theme prominent in reference to the derby matches is the theme of revenge. It stems from the fans planning on taking actions out against the opposition' s fans due to the actions that happened at the previous match. Usually, the hooligans have a good memory for what has been done to them at the away matches and prepare for a reply. The media also refers to these ongoing fights in a way that lights the match before the fire. As a pre-match article from Sabah reveals ' _The 40-thousand "angry chorus" has revenge on their minds not courtesy nor the championship_ ' (Bilgiç 2005). This use of language can further trigger the tension filled atmosphere before the match by reminding everyone once again about the fighting that occurred between the fans. A writer from Radikal also touches on the subject by saying ' _........the most anticipated factor of the game is if the GS fans will reply to last year's inhuman behaviour_ ' (Çakı 2001). The statement in itself is a simple question if the revenge will happen made by the reporter, in part this may have been done because it is something that tends to happen regularly.

On the other hand it can be taken as a provocation or a challenge to see if it will happen. It could be seen as the reporter in fact challenging the GS fans to step up and take revenge on FB fans for what was done to them. Hürriyet further adds on to the phenomenon with comments on FB from one of its writers as ' _FB attacks like a bull when they see the red of GS_ ' (Sağıroğlu, Fenerbahçe Favori 2002). The emphasis concerning the playing field can easily be misunderstood or misinterpreted by the both team' s fans causing undesirable actions. It can encourage the FB hooligans who could now be feeling stronger and tougher after being called bulls while enraging the GS fans as the weak ones that get attacked and hunted down by FB fans. However, although one cannot make direct connections with this picture that is illustrated and the incidents that occur during and after the match, it is possible to imply through the use of language and the portrayals of the fans that in fact the media does not try to calm things down.

#### Match day Problems

On the match day, the approach of the media to describe the upcoming event does not change but rather turns to even more tension filled articles with more references to hooliganism and warfare. As the match time gets closer, rather than football analysis the writers turn to the supposedly more attractive events. This is shown in Hürriyet by printing in one of their articles ' _.....chaos is approaching for the loser_ ' as if to imply that they already know that the loser will face a huge punishment from their fans or even the opponent' s fans after a loss (Turgut 2003). The power the hooligans can have through the matches is acknowledged through Sabah with one of their writers claiming ' _.....[t]hat with the possibility of the match being aborted [due to the actions of hooligans] there are four outcomes for [a] derby_ '(Kanat 2006). As the tension peaks, the articles refer more to hooligans and the fights that happen before the match and in the game itself. Can Bartu, a former player of FB and current writer for Sabah was quoted in an article stating ' _..... [t]he eternal rivalry had its passion, now everyone is trying to turn it into a blood war_ ' (Bartu, Güzel Rekabet 2000) and his sentiments were echoed in another article at the next derby stating ' _..... [n]owadays war of anger makes the derby worthy_ ' (Bartu, Defanslar Zayıf 2000). These added quotes of support or understanding of the feelings from a former player who took part in these derbies could be interpreted as an encouragement to the hooligans to take part in these actions. The players recognise the importance of these matches off the pitch and they see how the fans react to them. For the hooligan who could be looking for justification or support in these actions that acknowledgment from a player could be a further motivation for the continuations of the actions. In Sabah, even the headline of ' _Yes football/No War_ ' presents the war element in the game with Hürriyet supporting the theme with its reference to terror psychology (Sabah 2003). It also demonstrates that the actions of hooliganism are getting to be a regular part of the derby event which for many does not add a positive aspect to the matches.

As discussed above, Turkey is a very nationalistic country in part due to the military and its extreme significance and power. The influence of this phenomenon can even be seen when it comes to hooliganism and the derby. Hürriyet has one writer stating in his article ' _[w]hen nationalism is in force, clubs are forgotten_ ' (Dlgün 2001). Again this is demonstrating that this phenomenon is getting stronger but does not necessarily have good support for it. At the same derby in the Hürriyet sport news, a different article mentions that ' _forwards lie in ambush_ ' referencing soldiers who wait for the enemy (Hürriyet Daily News 2001). In addition to that, Sabah defines the 2,700 fans that will travel to the away game as ' _....troops that are ready to attack_ ' (Sabah 2006). This statement again defines those involved in the match on and off the pitch as involved in a battle, while putting specific emphasis on the fans as troops or the soldiers who are willing to fight to defend their team. All of these references combined demonstrate the power of influence the media can have by affecting the mindset of fans and even people who are just reading the newspapers. This could be in a negative way that is influencing people' s thoughts far from the game that will be played on the field. The media's strong ability to frame information leads to these mindsets that become a part of the fans. It sets it up in their minds to expect something to happen at the game and that it will be big.

#### Post-match Problems

To some extent the post-match analysis differs from the results of the other two categories of analysis. There still exists some similar themes however, since the derbies have finished and any incidents have already happened, the description of the tension between the two fan bases is focused on less. The focus changes to a new direction with more coverage given to the humiliation the media associate with hooligan behavior in the majority of articles. The war context of the depiction is still a very relevant theme in the reports following the matches. One such example is seen in Milliyet where the writer makes an association between the derby match and that of ancient times in his article:

'It is as if we are not in Ali Sami Yen stadium but in Rome's Coliseum ...the atmosphere of every GS-FB derby is the same. The chase, the hunter, the lion, the canary, the stress, the smell of blood, the fear for life and even a modern cage. And inside the slaves, sorry the spectators' (Gökberk 2000).

This powerful statement depicts the aftermath of the battle between the two teams. The symbols of the lion which is GS' s mascot and the canary which is that of FB are used to show the battle between the two teams. To depict the spectators as slaves speaks volumes to how the view of the hooligan can easily be transferred to generalize on all the spectators of the matches. This writer does not take the time to distinguish between those who do and do not participate in the activities. Rather he depicts them all as the same when it comes to cheering on this grudge match between the two teams.

The media also make use of these matches as an outlet to make reference to hot topics on the political agenda as well as historical conflicts. Hürriyet had one article about the match stating ' _Neither the Iraq war nor the ultimatum, Turkey was locked to the derby signifying the importance of the match to people._ ' (Mert 2003). It also demonstrates how loyal these fans are to their teams, bringing in the warfare theme and confirming what previous authors have written as them being ' _good soldiers_ ' and standing by their troops in these important games (Sabah 2006). When reporting the incidents for the same game Hürriyet sport pages state in another article ' _[a]re we going to war, even in Greece we didn't see this hate?_ ' (Hürriyet Daily News 2003). This reference is towards the Turkey War of Independence fought against Greece and the ongoing discontent between these two nations. It emphasizes that although there is great hatred between those two nations, it does not match that between FB and GS. It confirms the nationalism of Turkish people and their strong pride, will not be tested, especially when it comes to ' _....their team_ '.

When referring to the incidents that happen inside the stadia, the usage of war vocabulary as a means to excite the phenomenon is common. In regards to the match Hürriyet sport pages use the headlines ' _Senior Lieutenant_ ' to reveal the winner of the derby, again reference the war context that is felt in these types of games (Hürriyet Daily News 2005). In addition the Sabah papers describes GS fans as a ' _powder barrel_ ' implying they are ready to explode at any moment with rage during the games (Atkaya 2007). Hürriyet publishes yet another article on the events making an association this time to the water bottles that were thrown on the field by the fans during one of the matches as ' _PET bottle grenades_ ' (Toroğlu 2006). In the same context, Milliyet has an article that refers to the substances thrown on the field as ' _prizes of war_ ' with a sarcastic tone to the article (Telli 2001).

Another thing that is done to communicate on this topic by the media is to include the players and the referees in the picture to argue that they add on to the phenomenon by raising the tension through the violence on the playing field. Can Bartu suggests that players were increasing the already tension filled atmosphere with their actions. Stating ' _Players were going down like they were shot after every foul_ ' (Bartu, Oscar; a Aday 2000). Continuing with that theme the referees were further discussed in articles by describing them as ' _the Biggest Power of the Crusades_ ' (Uluç 2000). The media is adding further to the war themes they have used during the previous days of reporting. By indicating actions these ' _soldiers_ ' are doing through the use of their vocabulary and depiction of these matches as field battles is in a sense encouraging the fans to cheer on their gladiators, soldiers and lieutenants in these field battles.

One other sub-theme that comes up from the articles is the offensive definitions of hooligans in order to humiliate them. One common style by writers is to describe the fans, but particularly the ones who are involved in hooliganism as lower level people. In Hürriyet for example this was depicted in such ways as writing the hooligans ' _swear like a trooper in the stances, hard to find fans so primitive and violent_ ' (Sağıroğlu, Dağ Fare Doğurdu 2000). The writers in Sabah take a different approach with comments on the fans such as ' _these men are terrorists_ ' (Özdemir 2001). This highly offensive comment puts the hooligans in a context in which their only aim is to create incidents without caring so much about the game and inflict terror on innocent people wanting to take in the derby. To conclude about the fans depiction Sabah news reporters also define them as ' _a bunch of pillages who create discord_ ' (Yaşar 2001). This offensive description of hooligans is a way to humiliate those who take part. In a way it can be seen as a factor which increases tensions among hooligans and results in more incidents as a reaction. This in turn may prove the point of the authors completing their self-fulfilling prophecy and continuing to give the hooligans a negative reputation. As discussed above, hooligans do not forget what the other party had done to them in the away games. This is also reflected onto the conflicts against the media. It is common that hooligans make it a point to cheer badly towards journalists who write unpleasant things about them. This is an important point which can be an additional influence for the bigger incidents that happen.

## Discussion

The findings illustrate the media depiction of Turkish hooliganism and some illustrations of the Turkish media' s feelings towards this phenomenon. The characteristics of hooligans and the behavior of the media in these findings are similar to which has come out of the previous studies of Lawrence (1985) and Carnibella (1996). As the research studies about hooliganism demonstrate and as discussed above, hooliganism is an increasing problem for association football. This can be seen in Turkish Football through the portrayal of increasing incidents and sanctions for the two pioneer clubs from Istanbul. The records show that over the years there has been an increase in sanctions towards the two clubs. The fines as well the stadium suspensions are supposed to be the means to control and decrease the undesirable fan behavior, although as seen previously in Table 1 it is not always successful. On the other hand, it needs to be noted that in recent years more focus has been put on preventing hooliganism from happening at matches. The increased actions towards those who participate in these behaviors could in fact be just that, not necessarily increased hooligan behavior but harder repercussions and better tracking of the incidents.

In regards to the media, connections can be made between the media' s reporting and informing style with hooliganism incidents that are happening. As expected, the social context that surrounds Turkey' s history is very much reflected in the media and in the way that it portrays its sport, in this case Association Football. The dominant ideology carried through the media when it comes to describe either the positive or negative actions surrounding the matches is warfare. This holds added value to the depiction of events in the Turkish Republic due to the fact that it was founded through a war, making it a common theme throughout the history of the country. The media uses the warfare theme even when describing something that is seen as positive such as a vital win in the football context. It continues to benefit from the established war concept when negatively conveying hooliganism and its derivatives. This finding goes back to support Lawrence' s discussion which found the same theme being dominant in the UK media after the Heysel tragedy (Lawrence 1985). This brings up the question of the media' s attitude towards hooliganism and football. Is it being realistic or populist in its portrayal of the derbies? What can be the underlying factor for the media to depict such contexts using the war theme whereas sport has a spirit that is portrayed as far from it? Going back to Poulton' s (2005) arguments, aspects of Hall' s six processes of the media can also be seen in Turkish media. As discussed above the Turkish media tries to excite the phenomenon by dedicating huge spaces in the paper for the derby as well as pointing out security issues using hysterical headlines and emotive language. The media uses specific types of vocabulary to depict hooligans as lesser people than ' _normal_ ' fans, labelling them with dismissive adjectives leading to cause moral panics. This is similar to the name and shame process that has been adapted in the UK after the incidents in Heysel (Lawrence 1985).

This phenomenon points out an interesting argument. From all of this there are two points of view that can be seen to what the media is trying to do. The first is they are framing these events and using language that is sparking the internal pride and warrior feeling that is inside the Turkish Hooligan and promoting these actions to take place, especially at derbies. The name and shame method could in fact be a way to gain recognition and in turn make the fellow hooligans proud of those who get caught. They could then recognize these fellow hooligans and know that they are true fans and will be there at the next ' _battle_ ' between the two teams to support each other. The second view is that in fact it is not media who exaggerates the incidents but rather the authorities in charge of the league who does this. This view stems from the fact that the incidents are increasing from the sanctions (Figure 1) over the past 10 years the study was conducted on. In fact it could be speculated that the media portrayal of hooliganism does not in fact encourage it, it may in fact just be noticed more now than in previous times. Or it could be the sanctions that are handed out by the authorities that spark the retaliation seen at the games. Those who participate do not like being told that they cannot do something, especially supporting their team, and they do not like to see their team – their soldiers – punished for something they did not do. With that in mind they wait for the next opportunity to retaliate and pay back those fans from the other team and show the authorities that they in fact are not to be messed with. Although in most cases it just ends up punishing their team again, leading to a vicious cycle of actions and punishments. However, it is still an issue to find out if the incidents would be less if media did not use such themes and vocabulary to excite the minds' of fans and cause panics.

## Conclusive Statements

Over the past 10 years in the derby matches between GS and FB it seems on record that there has in fact been an increase in hooliganism. The actual causes of the increase are still to be determined although some speculation has been made in this chapter. This increase in the hooligan behavior has been promoted in the media before the matches with extensive reporting done on the topic through negative depictions. These negative influences support the previously conducted studies which majorly cover the UK but are able to apply to the context of Turkey. In order to find more concrete means of the causes of these incidents further studies need to be conducted. One way in which this could be done is by obtaining official records from the Istanbul Security General Directorate in order to have a comparison of the media' s account of the incidents to theirs. This can better support the claim that incidents are increasing over the years. One of the major limitations this study has is the unreliability of media accounts when it comes to the actual number of incidents. The media reports on what they think will draw more attention at the time from readers. They also tend to report on the bigger, headline worthy incidents and could not be reporting on or even are aware of all the incidents that happened. In order to reach more complete conclusions, it is necessary to conduct this research with the help from Istanbul Security General Directorate which will have more accurate and deeper information on incidents that happened throughout the 10 year cycle. One should be advised though; even the police would not have all the records since many incidents pass without getting noticed or reported. However, with the help of more concrete information one can have a better understanding of the influence media has on hooliganism by its negatively promoted portrayal of such incidents.

Another limit to this study was the high focus on the UK and its incidents of hooliganism. Although some comparisons can be made to the UK football leagues and that in Turkey, they are not identical in structure, culture or history. Further studies should be conducted into the sociology of Turkey and its people to gain a better understanding of the society and the compilation of its societal structure. By gaining a better understanding of the social constructs within the country it will allow for further analysis into the how and why of hooliganism. It will allow for a better understanding of the use of language by the media and could help to better understand the reactions from the public. Furthermore, research into other media portrayals of these events could lead to a comparison between the different media outlets and how they portray hooliganism to the public.

Thirdly a study into the history of the SL and its accounts of hooliganism could help to better understand if in fact there has been an increase in incidents reported throughout its history. A look into the development of sanctions within the league and the rules to sanction clubs will allow a better understanding of the increase in events over time. It can help to create correlations of the increase in sanctions at the events on a yearly basis. It can clarify if these events are in fact increasing as per the normal rate of incidents seen throughout the Turkish football calendar year or if they are just reported on more in the media or if in fact there is no difference in them.

The study of this topic is important to allow people to better understand why this phenomenon does occur and who participates in it. Also it can help the leagues and authorities understand better how to prepare for these things if they do happen and even how to prevent them better. By not understanding the problem properly it can lead to irrational reactions and sanctions which in fact do not act a true preventative measure and can even have an impact on the increase of events. In short hooliganism has been a part of association football for a long time and it cannot be expected to be eliminated without first properly understanding why it happens and why it happens in some places more than others.

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# Chapter 2 - Transport and Legacy

* * *

## 2014 FIFA World Cup  
Brazil and Rio 2016  
Summer Olympic Games

### Main Transport and Legacy Challenges

#### Marcelo Henrique Lutterbach Penna & Philippe Bovy

### ' _Individually, we are a drop. Together, we are an ocean._ '

_Ryunosuke Satoro_

## Hosting the World's Most Important Mega-Events: Two Years Apart

It was October 30th 2007. From its headquarters in Zurich, Switzerland, after the presentation of a sole bidder, and following a continent rotation system, FIFA announced Brazil – the world's most victorious football nation – as the host for its 2014 Football World Cup (FWC). After sixty-four years (1950), Brazil would once again have the opportunity to host the world's second most important sporting mega-event.

Almost two years later, on October 2nd 2009, in Copenhagen, Denmark, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) General Assembly chose Rio de Janeiro, Brazil's second most important economic city and most sought-after tourist destination, to host the 2016 Olympic Summer Games, outvoting world mega cities and major economic centres such as Chicago (USA), Tokyo (Japan) and Madrid (Spain). The successful bid managed to leverage off the organization of the Rio 2007 Pan American Games, the benefits to Brazil's economy, the aligned commitment of the three governmental entities (Municipal, State and Federal), support from the city's population, the significance of legacy impact, as well as the opportunity for the IOC and sport to extend its reach to 180 million young people via the first Olympics to be held in South America.

The selection of Brazil (and Rio) as host nation/city for the world's most important mega-events two years apart, if well planned and thoroughly executed, was considered to provide a unique opportunity for the nation to leverage off the mega-events' economic benefits, such as foreign investment, increase in tourism, international media coverage, and the boost to necessary improvements of its health system, sanitation, education, airport and transport logistics.

This chapter reviews the challenges faced by FIFA and the IOC's mega-events and the logistics required in order to make the national and local transport systems work.

The 2014 FWC (Football World Cup) Brazil was characterised by being held in a country of continental proportions with matches and the public dispersed between twelve host cities. In order to allow over 600,000 members of the public - FIFA Family, media, delegations and fans – to reach their destination safely and on time, this mega-event relied heavily on air transport, due to the long distances between host cities. Therefore it required strong airport and air traffic enhancements, and investment in routes to/from airports, stadiums and hotels zones to meet the mega-event's intense and high additional travel demands.

On the other side, Rio has to cope with the impact of one to more than two million additional daily individual trips during the 2016 Olympic Games for a mega-event corresponding to 28 simultaneous sport world championships, concentrated in a single city. In order to support additional city traffic and a demanding schedule, Rio has to undergo bold and very significant transport infrastructure interventions to connect its four Olympic Games zones, enhance its airports, as well as increase the traffic capacity on routes between airports, main hotel areas and the Olympic Village.

## Problem Context and Research Relevance

If not properly promoted, planned, organized and delivered, these mega-events could result in huge failures, with large financial debts, severe image problems, venue white elephants, as well as, for both the national and local population, social and economic burdens.

In this sense and also for the long-term legacy of mega-events, transport plays an essential role, since it determines a city's games or match operation quality and conviviality and efficient use of transportation for its citizens, national guests and world visitors.

Therefore, by analysing transport plans, challenges and differences of both events, this chapter assists in raising general public interest in understanding the relevant issues regarding mega-events, and contributes to on-going academic mega-event transport research.

This research identifies the most significant transport organizational requirements and challenges for 2014 FIFA World Cup Brazil and Rio 2016 Olympic Games. More specifically it seeks to answer the following questions:

How does the 2014 FWC Brazil differ from the Rio 2016 Olympics in terms of transportation and mobility challenge legacies?

What transport transfer-of-knowledge from the two world mega-events could be outlined to improve world mega-events' competitive bidding process and its impact on mega-event sustainable legacies?

## Mega-Events Transport and Logistics

#### Towards a mega-event definition

There is no universal definition of mega-events. However they usually cause major temporary and, in some cases, permanent changes to a city's transport and traffic organization.

Contrary to what is generally assumed, routine football matches with over 80,000 spectators at Maracanã stadium in Rio or Wembley in London are not considered mega-events, because they imply a repetitive situation, for which the city's infrastructure is designed and capable of handling with only minor operational adaptations for event days, causing little impact on the city's general transport system.

From here on, mega-events will be considered as events with high public participation, high economic investment and benefits, media interest, and that require implementation of special temporary citywide transport logistics (Bovy 2011). In this sense the New York Marathon, for example, is viewed as a mega-event, as it has direct and substantial impact on New York's usual functioning.

#### A particular Type of Mega-Event

This chapter focuses on one particular category of mega-event: global mega-events, such as the FIFA World Cup and the Olympic Games, with the following main characteristics:

Worldwide interest, represented by a significant share of international participants, global media coverage, and increased tourism activity for the host country and city,

Large infrastructure investments and enhancements (e.g. accommodation, transport and facilities/venues) to cope with millions of spectators and media demands, mega-event delivery responsibilities and the importance of showcasing the host's capabilities,

Diverse occurrence periods, ranging from three to five weeks (FWC and Olympics) to periods as great as six months (e.g. Milano 2015 Universal Expo will last 340 days), taking place every two to five years in a different country,

Manifestation of strong pressures on a city's logistics such as: transport, airports, accommodation, power supply, cleaning, security and global hospitality, for periods longer than a two to three day extraordinary event,

Contract firm MOU (memorandum of understanding) between the organizers and the event's owners (franchisor) and organizers (franchisee) for event delivery without postponements. For example the Olympic Games opening ceremony, with hundreds of millions in broadcasting and sponsorship rights covering all continents and time zones cannot be delayed by even five seconds.

Global mega-events represent a nation/city's opportunity to alter its image and position in relation to international financial and tourist markets, such as the case of Barcelona 1992 , which leveraged on its Olympics to make long lasting changes to the city's infrastructure and enhance its worldwide perception.

#### Mega-Events Organization: World Cup and Olympic Games

Figure 1 illustrates the mega-event general organization structure and franchise system. The franchisor, which owns the concept and rights - FIFA or IOC (Box 1), sets a bidding process to review and select a Country or City to host the event under their supervision. A contract (Box 2) is then signed with guarantees and requirements that the franchisee LOC or OCOG (Box 3) have to fulfil to deliver the product – Football World Cup or Olympic Games (Box 4) according to specifications. Among essential mega-event logistic domains this chapter is focused in transport (Box 7) and airports (Box 8), detailed in Figure 2.

##### _Figure 1: Mega Event Organization Structure (Bovy 2011)_

##### _Figure 2: Mega Event Detailed Components Structure (Bovy 2011)_

These mega-events generally demand large infrastructure investments that have an impact on a city's (country) normal functioning with strong involvement at all levels of government and public support.

Shortly after selection, the franchisee creates a ' _robust_ ' organizing committee to plan the bid commitments implementation, in cooperation with a special ad hoc governmental organization, which is responsible for infrastructure investments related to sport facilities, transport, accommodation, health system, sanitation, energy, utilities, security, and environmental integrated management enforcement.

For FWC and Olympics, a monitoring system (Box 5) was created from the franchisor's side (FIFA or IOC) to overview and certify that appropriate implementation was carried out to diminish the mega-event's risks and secure its successful delivery.

The monitoring system and commitments set interaction between event owners/franchisors (FIFA or IOC) and organizers. It included transfer of knowledge from past events through seminars, technical visits, test events, and an observer role in the mega-event that preceded it: 2010 FWC South Africa and London 2012 Olympic Games in the Brazilian case. Figure 3 (Bovy 2011) illustrates the procedure for the Olympics:

##### _Figure 3: Mega Event from Bid to Legacy_

#### Transport Role in Mega-Events

The biggest public sector intervention for mega-events commonly occurs in facility developments (e.g. sport venues), and in major transport upgrades and system extensions. In terms of the event's operation success, security and transport are the two most important government responsibilities.

Mega-event transport imposes many challenging tasks, one of them being to deal with the often-massive arrival of foreigners within concentrated periods of time. Although the two mega-events differ in complexity and dimension, they have common transport challenges in many domains. Such as:

**(A) Manage considerable additional traffic loads at international/national/regional and city levels**

  * Olympics: three superimposed transport plans. As conceptually illustrated by Figure 4, permanent city transport systems are superimposed on two mega-event temporary transport components:

  *     * The ' _strongly re-enforced public transport system_ ' to cope with over one million additional daily city traffic journeys, and
    * The temporary dedicated Olympic transport system for the Olympic Family (delegations, confederation personnel, VIPs and other logistics accredited traffic).
  * FWC: reinforced airport – stadium – city centre hotel zone transport. A similar situation, but with much less concentrated travel demands, due to the dispersion across eight to twelve cities of 64 FWC matches, versus 300 Olympic events in one city, for the football mega-event. The uncertainty of outcomes after the qualifying stage, which does not allow for a unique transport plan in advance, adds to the event's particularities. For 2014 FWC Brazil, the reinforcement of urban mobility lies in the connection between airport, stadium and hotel zone or city centre to cope with people flow from geographically dispersed matches. There is an important security and organization measure forbidding non-accredited vehicle usage within a 1km radius from the stadium (also valid for the Olympics). Special operations are usually provided to enable the flow of people, such as extra trains, metro and buses from specific locations to cope with peaked demands of 40,000 to 80,000 people leaving a match in less than one hour.

##### **_Figure 4: Olympic Transport System (Bovy 2009)_**

**(B) Providing high security seamless operations** for both FIFA and the Olympic Family, VIPs, particularly the teams and athletes, media, logistic support staff, ticketed spectators, live-site fans and general traffic.

**(C) Maintaining close to normal metropolitan transport and traffic** conditions during mega-events to avoid economic and general disturbances to the city's population.

**(D) Improving ecological quality whenever possible** for better athlete performance (air and water pollution), and the city's population health and environmental legacy. This can be done through traffic system rationalisation, stimulating the use of public transport with policies of no parking within 1km radius of competition venues and 100% free transport for ticketed spectators during the mega-event period.

## Research Method and Limitation

This research was conducted from February 2011 to the end of August 2011. The method utilised was systematic analysis of secondary data, together with semi-structured interviews conducted with transport specialists of both the 2014 Brazil and Rio 2016 organizing committees. Data about mega-event general concepts and transportation was collected from official mega-event organization sources (e.g. Rio 2016, Transparência Olímpica, Cidade Olímpica, and Portal da Copa), and the IOC Museum library research. Other official materials, such as the Rio 2016 Bid Book, and FIFA's Inspection Report (2007) provided grounds to analyse transport requirements, challenges and provide a perspective on the decision making process. Also considered were alternative sources to official material via media coverage material (over 50 relevant news sources).

Due to transport specialist functions in organizing committees, the semi-structured interviews were kept confidential and thus not directly referenced in this chapter. As this chapter was originally written in 2011, three years before 2014 FIFA World Cup Brazil and five years before Rio 2016 Olympic Games, its findings and conclusions are not meant to represent the final status of both mega-events transport structure challenges, successes or failures. World mega-event transport planning is complex and faces multiple changes and adaptations, thus requiring the mega-event delivery itself to be analysed as a final statement.

## Key Transport Challenges for 2014 Brazil and Rio 2016

#### A World Championship in Many Cities: 2014 FIFA World Cup Brazil Transport

As seen in Figure 5, the 2014 FWC included 12 host cities, spread throughout a country of continental proportions, with stadiums that range from 42,000 to 79,000 capacities, as is the case of iconic Maracanã – the 2014 FWC Final Stadium. During one month, from June 12th to July 13th 2014, 32 national teams faced each other in 48 matches for the qualification round and 16 matches at the knock out stage, totalling 64 matches up to the proclamation of the football world champion.

##### _Figure 5: 2014 FWC Host Cities (FIFA 2011; Portal da Copa 2011)  
_

From North (Amazonas), to Northeast (Fortaleza, Natal, Recife and Salvador), Southeast (Rio de Janeiro, Belo Horizonte and São Paulo), Centre-west (Cuiabá and Brasília – Federal District), and South (Curitiba and Porto Alegre), the 2014 football mega-event had, as its main structural concept, the integration of all Brazilian regions by flight networks. In order to illustrate the country's dimensions, in a simulated journey, a spectator arriving in Rio de Janeiro and driving to all host cities would need more than eight days to complete the trip non-stop, driving over 15,000km on roads that most of the time lack proper safety conditions.

This distance factor, when added to Brazilian transport matrix, which is characterised by an underdeveloped motorway system and lack of rail passenger transport, resulted in a very high air travel demand during the FWC. Even with air travel, significant travel times were required between host cities. For example, from Porto Alegre in South, to Manaus in North takes over 6 hours of flight to cover 4,000km. This example highlights the crucial importance of highly performing airports and air traffic conditions for the FWC's success. Figure 6, highlights relevant FWC characteristics:

##### _Figure 6: 2014 FWC Characteristics (Ernst & Young Terco and FGV 2011; FIFA 2011)  
_

Although the qualification round could be planned in advance, after the group draw, the knock-out (16 teams) stage remained uncertain, with multiple possible scenarios and outcomes. This might have resulted in regional rivals, or potential championship winners such as Brazil, Spain, Germany, Italy or Argentina facing each other in an earlier than predicted stage, demanding prompt transport operational responses.

In relation to transport systems, economic and cultural disparities, FIFA Family and tourists moved from large metropolises (e.g. Rio de Janeiro or Sao Paulo with respectively eleven and six million inhabitants) to smaller cities with less than 600,000 citizens, such as Cuiabá. This represented a very significant mobility and logistic challenge to cope locally with intense unusual combined services in transport, security and accommodation.

The 2007 FIFA Inspection Report stated that all selected cities had the required urban transport systems to host the FWC, with exception of Cuiabá and Natal. For 2014, in alignment with the literature review, the majority of investment in urban mobility for World Cup would be made in three types of connections:

  1. Between airports and hotel zones and city centres.

  2. From airports directly to stadiums, as many teams and foreign spectators choose a base host town irrespective of match locations.

  3. From hotel zones and city centres to stadiums.

The reinforcement and special operations of these links enabled the regular flow during the event, with special attention given shortly before matches and mostly after them, as a crowd of more than 40,000 people simultaneously leave the venue for their destinations.

FIFA approved all inspected airports in 2007. But due to travel times, the condition of current airports, frequent delays in peak Brazilian vacation times. and operational difficulties of concentrated air traffic passenger arrivals, there were concerns by the media regarding the renovation delays of most Brazilian airports up to 2011.

Regardless of the 2007 favourable FIFA inspection, LOC Brazil 2014, the Federal Government, States and host cities submitted and prepared urban mobility plans to better cope with the Football World Cup demands on airport capacity and performance concerns, with two main identified findings, in line with the literature review:

  * **Reinforcement concerns of airport – stadium – city centre and hotel zone transport interconnections.**

> All plans involved this topic and the re-structuring of traffic in the proximity of stadiums, due to the requirement that transport from airport to stadium and centre or hotel zones must be reliable and efficient for 10 hours before and 10 hours after FWC matches to cope with demand.

  * **Airport revitalisation plans behind schedule in 2011.**

> All 12 FWC chosen host cities had plans to enhance their airports; most of them had been operating at over capacity since 2007. Altogether the plans involved billions of dollars in investment, and remained a concern due to a delayed or a yet to be started construction state (e.g. the Federal Government's discussions to outsource part of the airports to the private sector and a delay in releasing the public tenders).

#### 28 Simultaneous World Championships in One City

In relation to transport, the successful 2009 Rio bid was mainly based on five characteristics, endorsed and guaranteed by the three levels of Government - Federal, State and City (RIO 2016 bid 2009):

  1. High performance public transport ring (HPPTR), interconnecting all four Olympic Games zones.
  2. More than US$5 billion commitments to improve transport capacity and performance, particularly public transport to provide improved mobility for Rio's population legacy.
  3. Client-focused Games family transport systems and Olympic exclusive lanes.
  4. Half of athletes within 10 minutes of their competition venue sites.
  5. Fully upgraded Rio international airport (GIG) by 2014.

In order to contextualise the challenge of hosting an Olympic Games, the city's population and traffic are impacted by:

  * More than 24,500 national and international accredited media (TV, web and radio broadcasting, written press and photographers)

  * Over 100,000 workforce including volunteers.

  * About 30,000 sponsor guests

  * Around 5,000 VIPs (including international State official delegations and dignitaries)

  * More than 17,000 athletes, coaches and referees from 28 Olympic sports, representing over 200 nations.

If the numbers themselves impress, in practical terms it represents 1.25 to 2 million additional individual trips per day above the host city's ordinary traffic movements, assuming 7 million tickets are sold. Logistics and service workforce, staff, and volunteers alone, represent between 300,000 to 400,000 additional daily journeys.

In 2016, Rio will have to manage a transport plan to cope with the regular mobility of its 6+ million inhabitants, joined by national and international guests (e.g. tourists, media, and delegations - Olympic Family) that arrive to take part in, work at, cover and follow 28 simultaneous world championships, cumulatively more than 300 Olympic events. City agencies have thus to manage different traffic conditions over 17 consecutive days, tight 24 hour schedules, be flexible and ready to respond to unexpected weather changes, accidents and other emergencies.

Rio 2016's high performance transport ring, Figure 7, has to provide a safe, efficient, fast and reliable transport for 2016 Olympic and Paralympic Games, a catalytic boost for medium and long-term Rio transport improvement and legacy.

##### _Figure 7: Rio 2016 Olympic and Paralympic Transport Map (CIDADE OlIMPICA 2011 - adapted)_

Olympic characteristics to enhance Rio's transport network are summarized in Figure 8.

##### _Figure 8: Rio 2016 Olympic Games Characteristics_  
_(Source: RIO 2016 (2009); RIO 2016 (2011); CIDADE OLIMPICA (2011))_

In August 2011, the following aspects of the Rio 2016 transport planning corroborated with the literature review:

  1. 100% free public transport for ticketed spectators and the workforce, following the practice of previous Olympics.

  2. Use of the Olympic mega-event as a catalyst for long term urban mobility enhancements. Since 2009, Rio's transport plan has undergone significant changes, such as: 
    * Extension of the BRT system (TransCarioca) to Galeão International Airport (Rio will be first Brazilian Airport to be directly connected to a high performance public transport).
    * Extension to the city's western Santa Cruz end of BRT TransOeste, which started in Leblon and now begins at Jardim Oceânico (8km westward, due to the metro's extension).
    * Construction of a 13km new metro Line 4 (not proposed in Rio's bid), linking metro line 1 terminal at General Osorio station to Barra de Tijuca.
    * Tentative proposition (in 2011) of a Light Rail Transit (LRT) system connecting the Port to the city centre and better interconnecting all traffic carriers in the city centre.
  3. Strong transport structural investments and capacity enhancements. In the case of Rio it is best exemplified by the new 150km of BRT high performance public transport routes interconnecting previously separate rail systems (Metro and SuperVia suburban trains) to form a high performance transport ring, a main transport legacy of the 2016 Olympic Games. It is estimated that Rio's high performance metropolitan public transport will have its capacity doubled and in some areas tripled.
  4. City traffic operation enhancement. Represented by the delivery of the City council's traffic control and management system in 2011, to coordinate, optimise the flow and provide traffic risk management throughout a city with over 2 million vehicles.
  5. International airport capacity improvements. A R$ 950 million investment at Galeão International Airport is expected to transform the airport, and increase its capacity to cope with games-time demand, probably reaching more than 20 million passengers a year in 2016 (5 to 10 million more than 2011).

## Brazil's Mega-Event Transportation Comparisons

FIFA's Football World Cup and IOC's Olympic Games mega-events have similar global transport objectives and challenges related to the need for providing national and host cities extraordinary mobility traffic plans, and being capable to handle world mega-transport demands for a large variety of client-groups in a safe, convivial and efficient manner.

#### Mega-Event Sustainable Transport Legacy: Contrasted Approaches

##### _Olympic Approach: 2011 Overview_

The long established Olympic Games knowledge sharing system OGKM (Olympic Games Knowledge Management) has been a catalyst for gradual Games sustainability evolution in social, economic and environmental interrelated domains. Since implementation of the 100% free use of public transport system for ticketed spectators, workforce and volunteers at the Sydney 2000 Olympics, the IOC has sought to reduce the carbon footprint of its mega-events.

This increased concern has pushed the Olympic Games to constantly review its transportation guidelines and innovations, providing sustainable legacy requirements in its candidate bid dossier to which the host country/city has to abide by a Host City contract signed at three Government levels and by the National Olympic Committee.

Unlike for football - one sport in many cities mega-event - the 28 sports in one city Olympics transport enhancements tend to have a much larger city-wide impact, guaranteeing a sustainable transport legacy, through alignment of related mega-event transport investment to the city's long term strategic transport plan.

For Rio 2016 Olympic Games, the three levels of government show signs of remaining committed to transport investments (mostly in public transport) having a very significant city-wide impact, by interconnecting all city zones with the utmost care for a long-term legacy. Currently only around 17% of Rio's public transport users benefit from a high performance public transport system. After 2016, this share is expected to reach 50-55%, mainly due to the extensive system of 150km of rapid bus exclusive lanes (BRT) put into service and the implementation of the new metro line 4.

##### _FIFA Approach: 2011 Overview_

FIFA followed a similar orientation as the IOC for a few important transport parameters such as 100% free local transport Stadium access to ticketed spectators, both in Germany 2006 and South Africa 2010. But in general, FIFA's mega-event transport policies make only rather vague statements about transport aims and objectives. FIFA, in principle, does not intervene in a country's or a city's mega-event transport developments. For example, the host country does not have to provide detailed transport plans for each host city (cities generally do them for their own promotion) and how the event would be a catalyst for sustainable changes to urban mobility.

In the FWC case, investments are limited to rather minor improvements, if any, of transport connections and services between airports, stadium and city centres, often without examination of their longer term relevance to individual host city's strategic transport plans.

The 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil detected infrastructure and stadium delays, which put any legacy in jeopardy, and could be attributed to two main factors:

  * FIFA, 2014 LOC and concerned Brazilian Government agencies only started to focus on needed infrastructure changes, including mandatory stadium improvements, in 2010, after the South African FWC.

  * Difficult communications between FIFA – LOC 2014 and the relevant Government ministries and City agencies. The lack of a contract and well defined guarantees, disrupted line of command (neither sufficiently centralised in LOC 2014), together with political command changes in Brazil, generated a FWC preparation instability that might have jeopardised infrastructure and stadium delivery deadlines. Such instability and the lack of binding contracts between parties (including each Host City and State) made it difficult to assign responsibilities to monitor and implement the necessary construction work.

##### _Two-year head start between contrasted world mega-events_

Due to its importance and characteristics, 2014 FWC Brazil was a most interesting test case for the Rio 2016 Olympics. Although some main transport projects works were not scheduled to be ready by 2014, its main venue, Maracanã stadium and some new major metropolitan transport connections like BRT TransCarioca should have been delivered for FIFA's mega-event. Maracanã stadium, once the world's largest stadium, an iconic football place and city landmark which hosted the Brazilian 1950 World Cup finals, again relived its moment of glory, after a R$ 900 million investment, shortly after its 2007 Pan American R$ 400 million facelift. One of the world's most famous football venues appeared in the 2014 FIFA World Cup finals completely restructured, respecting FIFA's strict stadium security, visibility and comfort requirements.

Maracanã's planned transport investments should reinforce its suburban rail and metro access by 2014 and/ or 2016, which include:

  * Redesign and extensions of rail and metro coupled stations, vastly increasing the rail system global capacities

  * Stadium surrounding re-urbanisation and public domain enhancements, such as large pedestrian walkways, bike lanes, and a bridge connection to integrate Maracanã and Quinta da Boa Vista historic park, currently separated by an eight track rail corridor.

  * Connection by suburban and metro rail lines to BRT TransCarioca with one transfer only to Galeão International Airport and one transfer to Barra da Tijuca Olympic zone.

The Football 2014 World Cup experience in Rio, particularly Maracanã Stadium and GIG international Airport transport and traffic operations were carefully managed and observed by the Rio Centre of Operations and by Rio 2016 Transport teams. Together with other mega-events such as the 2013 Papal visit and the 2013 Football Confederations Cup, enabled Rio to gain advanced knowledge and experience of exceptional traffic management, command, control, and communication techniques in mega-events.

#### Brazil's Mega-Event Airport Developments

The airports could be cited as the main concern for the football mega-event, due to travel distances in Brazil and the Brazilian transport system itself, which discarded train development decades ago and prioritised use of roads for logistic transportation and airports for longer journeys. Brazil is a country of continental proportions, as seen in Figure 5, with severe differences when it relates to host cities' infrastructures.

It is also the largest country relying almost solely on air traffic to reach host cities (closest road distance: 3hrs 40min). Whereas cities could cope with increased transport loads with special operations and measures (e.g. vacation on match days), mostly during qualifying rounds' fixed schedules, there was still a need to cope with massive, time concentrated arrival of passengers, justifying airport construction delays as were FWC's main concerns.

## Conclusive Statements

If the FIFA World Cup might not leave more than a cultural legacy impact for Brazilians, other than in form of new more comfortable and safer venues to nurture the country's football passion, and under construction airport enhancements, the same does not seem to be intended for the Rio 2016 Olympics.

Through research and previous statements, a clear development of long-awaited transport plans in Rio is noted. Projects such as metro line 1 from 1970 or the 1990's plan to bring line 4 to Barra are gradually becoming a reality. Although most Olympic Games projects are not new, some conceptualised more than forty years ago, they are finally being implemented in a six-year timeframe, which creates significant challenges for stakeholders, in order to deliver complex infrastructure construction on time.

Not included in the Olympic bid are the four new urban mobility improvements, which reinforce the high capacity transport ring city integration - a R$ 3.5 billion investment to revitalize the Port area (an operation similar to that for the Barcelona 1992 Olympics) city entrance and foundation site, including a 15km LRT-tramway system to the city centre, ferry terminal and Santos Dumont Airport. These, together with the BRT TransCarioca extension to the international airport (total of over R$ 1.2 billion) and the expansion of metro line 4 to Barra, are sound examples of how the Olympic Games can become a catalyst for changes and for major metropolis-wide transport legacies.

The following aspects summarise the findings related to the two mega-events:

#### 2014 FIFA World Cup Brazil: Significant Characteristics:

  * Considerable transport challenges to operate in a country of continental proportions in 12 host cities (highest number for a FWC) having totally different population sizes, urban development patterns, existing football facilities, as well as future transport and traffic management system orientations.

  * Main logistic challenge of dealing with the tournament's uncertainty of outcomes for the knock-out rounds, which results in massive organizational and highly concentrated time resource problems in national air traffic functioning and host cities' transportation to stadium, hotels and city centres.

  * Over 3 million expected national and international ticketed spectators and an unknown additional few million non-ticketed fans and visitors spread over the whole FWC system, to be added to normal Brazilian air traffic flows. In Brazil, air transport is the only long distance intercity travel mode, since this very large country has no high speed rail and suffers from an under-developed interstate motorway system.

  * Brazil FWC organizers lost three years of preparation after the 2007 FWC win. Real effective planning, some stadium and a few infrastructure works, started in late 2011, only 3 years before the mega-event's delivery.

  * FIFA does not seem fundamentally interested in promoting sustainable urban system legacies other than for the host stadia. A question mark remains over that legacy too, when considering that certain stadia suffer from apparent over-capacity in relation to smaller cities' long-term football needs.

#### 2016 Summer Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro: Important Characteristics

  * Rio is witnessing its largest public transport system expansion ever, to be delivered by June 2016. Main features are 150km of BRTs - the world largest system of high performance bus express transport, plus 15km of new metro line, 20km of Deodoro suburban line main performance and capacity upgrade and the announcement of a Rio Centre LRT (modern city centre tramway)

  * One of the four BRT, TransCarioca 39km high performance diagonal public transport line from Barra to GIG International Airport will make Rio's airport the very first Brazilian airport to be directly connected to a high performance and a high capacity public transport, totally independent of roadway congestion that is all too frequent on City to Airport transport links

  * Management of additional Olympic travel demands to/from and inside Rio encompassing: 7 million tickets, unpredictable numbers of non-ticketed visitors, 17,000 athletes, coaches and referees, over 24,000 international accredited media, 100,000 volunteers plus workforce, 30,000 sponsor guests, and 5,000 VIPs (including international Heads of States, dignitaries, sport delegations and other personalities), from 28 Olympic sports, representing around 200 nations. They will benefit from Rio's experiences with previous mega-events such as Rio 2007 Pan American Games, and the 2014 FIFA World Cup Brazil

  * Due to its 28 competition venues and often three sessions per day schedule, Rio will have to deal with multiple peak hours and 24 hour transport services for some client groups (media-security-logistics)

  * Rio's extensive public transport system development for 2016 is likely to compensate for 20 years of weak transport system upgrades and leave a very strong urban transport and social legacy. It is estimated that more than 2-3 million of Rio's population will benefit from a substantially better public transport in 2016 — a long-lasting catalytic effect of Rio 2016 Olympic Games.

Brazil and indeed the city of Rio de Janeiro, due to the organization of the world's most important sports mega-events two year apart, still have a great opportunity to capitalise on sport and transport infrastructure improvements. Brazil hopes to leave a sustainable transport legacy for its host cities and showcase the country globally, if it is capable of managing the complex task of undergoing severe city-wide transformations and airport interventions on time.

However, with a little less than three years before FIFA's event opening ceremonies, about two-thirds of construction works had not started, including main airports, transport and port developments. In this sense, the 2014 FIFA World Cup Brazil served as an important test event for Rio 2016 Olympic Games, but posed a significant threat to the country's image as being capable of hosting successful mega-events according to national and international expectations, and is also unlikely to leave a sustainable transport legacy for its host cities, as the 2016 Olympic Games will provide to Rio de Janeiro.

## References

Bovy Ph. (2011). Olympic and football mega-events: transport outstanding progresses and sustainable legacies. FIFA 2018 World Cup in Russia Transport Infrastructure Seminar, Ministry of transport, Moscow, June 2011.

Bovy Ph. (2011). Mega-event transport planning and legacy. AISTS SEMOS, Lausanne. Retrieved May 2011 from <http://www.mobility-bovy.ch/>

Bovy Ph. (2010). Mega-events: No transport white elephants. Siemens ITS magazine for Intelligent Traffic Systems, Munich. Retrieved May 2011 from <http://www.mobility-bovy.ch/resources/06.ITS-2010.PDF>

Bovy Ph. (2009). Mega-events: catalyst for more sustainable transport in Cities. UITP Latin America mega-event and Public Transport Seminar, Recife, Brazil. Retrieved April 2011 from <http://www.mobility-bovy.ch/>

Brazil Ministério do Turismo (2010). Brazil Ministry of Turism. Turismo no Brazil 2011 – 2014 – Tourism in Brazil 2011 - 2014. Retrieved May 2011 from <http://www.turismo.gov.br/turismo/home.html>

Cidade Olímpica (Olympic City). (2011). Cidade Olímpica. Retrieved September 2011 from <http://www.cidadeolimpica.com.br>

Curitiba. (2011). 2014 FIFA World Cup Host City. Retrieved August 2011 from <http://www.copa2014.pr.gov.br/modules/conteudo/conteudo.php?conteudo=36>

Empresa Olímpica Municipal (Municipal Olympic Company). (2011) Segunda Prestação de Contas, Agosto 2011 (Second Accountability Report, August 2011). Retrieved August 2011 from <http://www.transparenciaolimpica.com.br/prestacao_de_contas_pcrj_ago2011.pdf>

Ernst & Young Terco and FGV Projetos. (2011) Sustainable Brazil – Social and Economic Impact of the 2014 World Cup. EYGM Limited.

FGV (2009). Proposta Estratégica de Organização Turística Copa do Mundo 2014 Brazil (Strategic Proposal for the Touristic Organization of the 2014 World Cup in Brazil). Retrieved June 2011 from <http://www.copa2014.turismo.gov.br>

FIFA (2007). Inspection Report for the 2014 World Cup. Retrieved July 2011 from <http://www.fifa.com/mm/document/affederation/mission/62/24/78/inspectionreport_e_24841.pdf>

International Olympic Committee. (2009). Report of the 2016 IOC Evaluation Commission: Games of the XXXI Olympiad. Retrieved September 2011 from <http://www.olympic.org>

OGLOBO (2011). Newspaper Website. Rio 2016 and Copa 2014 '2014 Cup' sections. Retrieved September 2011 from <http://oglobo.globo.com/>

Portal 2014 (2011). Independent Website for the 2014 Football World Cup and Rio 2016 Olympiad. Retrieved September 2011 from <http://www.copa2014.org.br>

Portal da Copa (2011). Official Federal Government Website for 2014 FIFA World Cup Brazil. Retrieved September 2011 from <http://www.copa2014.gov.br>

Rio 2016 (2009). Candidature File for Rio de Janeiro to Host the 2016 Olympic and Paralympic Games, Retrieved June 2011 from <http://www.rio2016.org/sites/default/files/parceiros/candidature_file_v1.pdf>

Rio 2016 (2011), Official Website for the 2016 Olympic and Paralympic Games. Retrieved September 2011 from <http://www.rio2016.org>

Transparência Olímpica: Copa do Mundo 2014 e Jogos Olímpicos Rio 2016 (Olympic Transparency: 2014 World Cup and Olympic Games Rio 2016). (2011). Retrieved September 2011 from <http://www.transparenciaolimpica.com.br>

UITP-Bovy Ph. (2009). Beijing 2008 Olympic Games success: massive public transport developments and major road traffic reductions. UITP- Public Transport International, TPI-No 03/2009, Brussels, May-June 2009. Retrieved July 2014 from <http://www.mobility-bovy.ch/resources/13.UITP_Beijing-EN.09.pdf>

UITP-Bovy Ph. (2004). High Performance Public Transport: A must for Very Large Events. UITP- Public Transport International, PTI - No 2/2004, Brussels 2004. Retrieved July 2014 from <http://www.mobility-bovy.ch/resources/23.UITP-TPI-EN-04.pdf>

# Chapter 3 - Development through Sports

* * *

## Development through  
Sports Following the 2010  
FIFA World Cup in  
South Africa

### A Critical Analysis of the Investment in  
Sports Related Development Programmes

#### Sara Holmgren & Joseph Maguire

### ' _South Africa has come alive and will never be the same again after this World Cup_ '

_Jacob Zuma_

## Introduction

After South Africa successfully hosted the FIFA World Cup in 2010 (Hauferburg 2011; Du Plessis & Maening 2011), the further effects of development as a result of this event still have to be evaluated. These evaluations often highlight interesting information, showing that the actual effects after a mega sporting event are often a lot less than what was expected and promoted before the event (Du Plessis & Maening 2011).

The literature published to date discusses the fact that the resources invested in the hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup might have been more valuable if invested in pure development programmes (Bob, Urmilla & Mazola 2011; Briedenhann 2011; Høiriis 2010; Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2011; Ngonyama 2010; Szymanski 2010), and that the benefits of hosting the event in some cases seem to have been mainly enjoyed by the privileged elements of society rather than by the poor (Briedenhann 2011; Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2011; Ngonyama 2010). These were the main subjects discussed in the research. Looking at it from a socio-cultural perspective, this research also analysed the development through the FIFA initiated development programmes: "Win in Africa, with Africa", "The 11 for health" and "20 Centres for 2010".

It was relevant to research this area since there was an identified gap in the available literature and knowledge. Many authors touched upon the discussion that the resources invested in the event were scarce and would have been better invested in other projects (Bob, Urmilla & Mazola 2011; Briedenhann 2011; Høiriis 2010; Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2011; Ngonyama 2010; Szymanski 2010), but no real evaluation had been made of what these other projects could have been, or what the differences in effects might have been. This, in connection with a personal interest in the sport of football, as well as development through sport, was the main reason for the author to undertake this research. The purpose of the study was to look at the available literature and form conclusive ideas about whether or not the investment was legitimate with regard to development, from a socio-cultural perspective.

The hypotheses were:

  1. In order to benefit the society of poor people in South Africa, the investment would have been better placed in pure development programmes.
  2. The subjective social benefits would have been the most significant difference with regard to the effects of pure development programmes and development through sport.

In order to analyse the situation, an extensive literature review was undertaken to review what the research available to date could identify about the situation in South Africa. This analysis was later compared with the pure development programmes that could have been alternatives to the hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup, to further conclude if the investment at this point should be seen as a success, or if the money would have been better invested in other programmes. The overall objective of the research was to identify any possible evidence of development following the investment in the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa, either positive or negative. This would be done with a socio-cultural focus, but also touching upon the perspective of economics, as the subject of investment was a key aspect in the research. Stated as clear objectives, the research aimed to:

  * Analyse the benefits of the FIFA initiated development programmes

  * Analyse the overall benefits on a socio-cultural level, and for whom these benefits were most prominent

  * Compare the findings with pure development programmes within the nation, to further conclude if the investment was legitimate or not.

## Research Methodology

To reach the objective of the research, information was gathered about the FIFA initiated development programme, the overall socio-cultural development through the 2010 FIFA World Cup, and what could have been alternative investment possibilities. This information was later analysed and discussed in order to verify or dismiss the hypotheses of the research, and compose a set of conclusive ideas.

The possible methodologies for the research included:

  * Primary research: performing first hand investigation through interviews and consultations

  * Secondary research: examining and analysing already existing research within published material

The methodology used for the research was that of secondary research, using primary and secondary sources of information to fill the identified gap in the available literature. This method was chosen as a result of geographical location and time management. To ensure that the information in the research was relevant and up to date, the literature used was restricted to that produced no earlier than the year 2000. As the event researched was held in 2010, literature published post-event was specifically targeted.

In order to draw conclusions from what the available research showed with regards to the development through sport of the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa, a thorough literature review was performed. Using mainly the database EBSCO, articles within the subject were gathered, read and analysed in connection to the research. Keywords used (in different combinations) when searching for articles were: South Africa, development, development through sport, FIFA, World Cup, 2010, third world countries, socio-cultural, football, government and development programmes. Articles were also found by looking at the references of articles read. Websites connected to the event and its stakeholders were also used as sources of information. In addition to the online research, printed literature was used in the literature review.

The analysis performed in the research was based on the literature reviews and the data collected through this. Numbers, as regards to budgets and expenditure, were presented mainly in the national currency of South African rand (R), but to assure a broader understanding these numbers were also converted into United States Dollars (USD). All currency conversion was made online by using the XE currency converter (link presented in references).

## Development Through Sports

As sport has been commoditised, it has also led to a situation where those who are associated with organising sports and big sporting events have an objective of making a profit (Walsh & Giulianotti 2007). Besides the motivation of economic capital, Bourdieu (cited in Coalter 2010a; Skinner, Zakus & Cowell 2008; Van der Merve 2007) identified two other types of capital: cultural and social capital.

This social capital has also been identified by Rodríguez, Késenne and Helmut (2009), they compare it to human capital, which resides in individuals, while the social capital resides in relationships, and is therefore a central part of social inclusion and has been seen as a way of promoting and building empowerment, well-being, human capital and community development (Heere et al. 2013; Skinner et al. 2008). Sport has been recognised as a good way of building social capital, and grassroots sport has also shown the potential of motivating and inspiring communities towards development (Skinner et al. 2008). Additionally, Cairnduff (cited in Skinner et al. 2008) suggests that one of the effects of sport building high levels of social capital, could be that it creates communities that are more resilient to negative outcomes as a result of economic, social and cultural changes.

As a development tool, sport is seen as a good way of developing and showcasing national pride, feel-good effects, national reconciliation and international recognition (Bob & Majola 2011; Corelissen, Bob & Swart 2011; Fuller, Junge, Dorasami, DeCelles & Dvorak 2011; Heere, Walker, Gibson, Thapa, Geldenhuys, & Coetzee 2013; Lepp & Gibson 2011; Schulenkorf 2012; Walker et al. 2013). In creating national pride and reconciliation, sport and sporting events contribute by providing a common practice where diverse groups can be brought together through engagement and participation (Swart et al. 2011). It should be noted, however, that while these practices might bring groups together, it might come at the price of the exclusion of some groups within the society (Schulenkorf 2012).

In the last decades, the use of sport as a tool for development has become increasingly popular (Coalter 2010b; Heree et al. 2013; Levermore 2008; Swart et al. 2011), and the notion of the concept has become well known. At the same time, the analysis of the use of sport for development has become more and more critical, especially as regards to sport being a vehicle for social change (Heere et al. 2013; Jeanes 2011).

Van der Merve (2007) states, in connection to the FIFA World Cup, that " _the art of sensitised statecraft through such events is taking a backseat to the financial incentives and football's premier event – being the money spinning global phenomenon it has become – is ideally poised to exploit this." (p.79). Moreover, Heere et al. (2013) state that "the pursuit towards national identity, that is believed to come with the hosting of mega sporting events, has very little empirical evidence of positive or long lasting effects for the host country._ "

## South Africa

#### Development Through Sports

South Africa is a nation where many live below the poverty line (Briedenhann 2011; Sanders, Phillips & Vanreusel 2012) and where both communicable and non-communicable diseases are great health burdens among the population (Fuller et al. 2011). On the African continent, development has been negatively affected by diseases such as HIV/AIDS, and problems like chronic starvation.

##### _Figure 1: Sport as a tool for social inclusion ((c) UNHCR / K. Singhaseni)  
_

These negative effects have made the nations of the continent review their national development to include education in order to save the population, restore their health and create ways for them to further develop the nation with their energy (Sanders et al. 2012; Swart, Bob, Knott & Salie 2011). Additionally, the division by race and ethnicity is still a problem within the nation of South Africa (Heere et al. 2013). Striving to change the situation, South Africa has several non-governmental organisations (NGO's) working with projects and programmes with the aim of developing the country and its population in the sense of health, economy and politics (Country Cooperation Strategy at a glance; DESA Development Policy and Analysis Division).

As education is one of the key pillars of development (Sanders et al. 2012), sport is viewed as a platform for education, and for developing networks, positive social values, and relationships. It is also seen to provide a space where discussions and debates can take place in a safe environment, to encourage collective solutions while addressing common problems faced in the communities (Jeanes 2013; Skinner et al. 2008; Spaaij & Jeanes 2013). The post-apartheid government of South Africa has valued this and other positive effects of sport, and have therefore put sport at the forefront of the state policy (Lepp & Gibson 2011; Van der Merve 2007; Ndlovu 2010; Sanders et al. 2012), reflecting the words of Nelson Mandela, saying that sport is "probably the most effective means of communication in the modern world" (cited in Maguire 2011).

Following this, mega events have generally been identified as catalysts to addressing pressing issues on a social level and for sport development initiatives (Haferburg 2011; Swart et al. 2011; Walker, Kaplanidou, Gibson, Thapa, Gelfenhuys & Coetzee 2013). Building on this, South Africa is known to be " _a nation which has actively sought out the hosting of such events in the belief that they will bring with them a range of beneficial elements._ " (Van der Merwe 2007, pp. 67-68). These events have been identified as creating additional value through tourism, job creation and infrastructure (Bob & Majola 2011; Cornelissen, Bob & Swart 2011; Lepp & Gibson 2011; Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2011), and as South Africa hosted, and won, the 1995 Rugby World Cup and the 1996 African Nations Cup, these mega events have shown how sport can bring the nation together (Swarts et al. 2011). But, as events have become more expensive to host over the last few years, the investments in these are also being widely questioned by the public, especially within developing nations (Hauferburg 2011; Van der Merwe 2007). An increased scepticism of the economical gains and benefits from these events can also be seen in the literature available (Cornelissen et al. 2011).

#### Bidding for the 2010 FIFA World Cup

There are many researchers presenting reasons to why the government of South Africa found it beneficial to bid for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Ndlovu-Gatsheni (2011) presents five core motives for this, stating that this would be " _a mechanism to support the government's nation-building and reconciliation project; an engine and catalyst of economic development; a way to announce project South Africa's presence in global governance; a moment to influence a paradigm shift in Western perceptions of Africa; an opportunity to showcase an African culture of hospitality, solidarity and human-ness_ " (pp. 401-402).

The previous South African Minister for Sport and Recreation, Steve Tshwete stated in 1994 (quoted in Darby 2002):

' _In our efforts to create a better South Africa, sport could enhance the nation-building process, lessen the level of tension and contribute towards creating a healthy and disciplined society. Sport affords our people the opportunities to play, plan and work together... We are proud that we can contribute to the healing of our land through the comradeship and exhilaration of sport'_. (p. 37)

As South Africa's bid for the 2010 FIFA World Cup had a strong pan-African voice (Cornelissen et al. 2011; Van der Merve 2007), when awarded the rights to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the government wanted to make sure that it was known that the event could promote not just South Africa, but also the whole of the African continent (Ndlovu 2010). This aim of spreading the effects of the event on a continent-wide level, which has for long been an expression of African solidarity (Darby 2002), set the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa apart from all previous World Cups (Cornelissen et al. 2011). In the bid book for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the South African President of the time, Mr. Thabo Mbeki wrote in his letter to FIFA:

' _We want, on behalf of our continent, to stage an event that will send ripples of confidence from the Cape to Cairo – an event that will create social and economic opportunities throughout Africa. We want to ensure that, one day, historians will reflect upon the 2010 World Cup as a moment when Africa stood tall and resolutely turned the tide on centuries of poverty and conflict. We want to show that Africa's time has come_ '. (Mail & Guardian, p. 3)

##### _Figure 2: 20 Centres for Hope (_ _www.fifa.com_ _)  
_

## FIFA

#### Corporate Social Responsibility

' _Football has become a vital instrument for hundreds of programmes run by non-governmental and community-based organisations all around the world. These programmes are providing children and young people with valuable tools that make a difference to their lives_ '. (Social Responsibility 2011).

As this quote from FIFA's corporate social responsibility (CSR) strategy states, football is today a commonly used tool for development through sport. According to FIFA's Activity Report 2004 (cited in Walker et al. 2013), more than 40% of FIFA's income goes directly towards supporting the grassroots of the game, developmental work, and partnership with relief organizations.

_**Win in Africa, with Africa:** the primary initiative from FIFA, and also the one awarded the biggest budget (R 685 million/USD 70 million). This programme aimed to help the whole continent of Africa beyond the event._

_The three main objectives of the programme were: to develop the game of football in Africa; to use football to touch the African continent; and to use football to build a better future for Africa. The initiative aimed to provide football turfs for every one of the 52 FIFA affiliated associations within Africa, giving the continent the tools to progress and continue its own development. The programme also intended to help the continent in the sense of league development and training of coaches._

_(Cornelissen 2011; The Legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup 2010; Walker et. al.. 2013)_

---

_**11 for Health:** a programme educating youth in health, hygiene and disease prevention through the use of football. The chairman of FIFA's Medical Committee, Dr. Michel D'Hooghe, stated that this project would enable FIFA to deliver health education through football._

_The programme used famous footballers as ambassadors (e.g. Cristiano Ronaldo, Lionel Messi), who each adopted important messages of health, ranging from respect for others, to diet and disease prevention. These were communicated in different ways to the general public, and the biggest efforts were made through sessions within several communities, with approximately 20 children attending eleven sessions each (one for each health message)._

_(Cornelissen 2011; The Legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup 2010; Walker et. al.. 2013)_

---

_**20 Centres for 2010:** a campaign aiming to create 20 Football for Hope Centres, promoting public health, education and football, in order to leave a tangible social legacy for the whole continent of Africa. Five centres were located in South Africa, and the additional 15 were established in other locations on the continent._

_The campaigns centres consisted of artificial football pitches and facilities where youth from the communities could access education and health services. This aimed to reach the young, addressing challenges and promote development, through using the positive elements of football.  _

_(Cornelissen 2011; Football for Hope 2013; Swart et. al.. 2011; The Legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup 2010)_

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#### The 2010 FIFA World Cup

When the 2010 FIFA World Cup was awarded to South Africa in 2004 (Swart et al. 2011), the government saw great development possibilities for the country and its more than 4 million people living below the poverty line (AFP, as cited in Briedenhann 2011). A number of different development programmes were introduced in the country from 2006 onwards, at global, continental and national level, in connection to the event (Cornelissen 2011). Three of these programmes were FIFA's official campaigns and programmes: " _Win in Africa, with Africa_ ", " _11 for Health_ " and " _20 centres for 2010_ ". In different ways, these had as objectives to promote: public health, hygiene, education and the use of football for development (Cornelissen 2011; Football for Hope 2013).

Regarding the results of these initiatives, Walker et al. (2013) found that the " _Win in Africa, with Africa_ " programme had a positive effect reaching across the whole continent. They state:

' _Through this program, FIFA greatly improved the conditions for football in all of Africa by providing specialised football turf for 52 African nations prior to the start of the 2010 tournament_ '. (p. 81)

Furthermore, Fuller et al. (2011) evaluated the effects of the " _11 for Health_ " initiative implemented in Mauritius and Zimbabwe, in comparison to the pilot project in South Africa in 2009 (all conducted before the world cup in South Africa). The conclusion of this study showed that the programme was effective in increasing the awareness and knowledge about health issues of children between 11-15 years old, within the three different socio-economic settings. The study also showed that with the right resources as regards to infrastructure and support, a non-governmental organisation and football associations could implement programmes like these successfully (Fuller et al. 2011).

Today, the " _20 Centres for 2010_ " campaign is still active with the continuing establishment of the 20 planned Football for Hope Centres (FIFA.com (b); FIFA.com (c)). At the inauguration ceremony of the centre in Ghana, in 2012, one of the participating boys stated:

" _I am very happy to participate in the programme. Whenever I come here I meet my friends and we play together... After playing I go to the classroom to learn with them too. We are always happy and want to come here every day. Our coaches also teach us health skills like malaria prevention and how to keep our bodies clean. (FIFA.com (c))_ "

## The 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa

#### Benefits and distribution

There are both positive and negative views on the development through sport that has followed the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. As Maguire (2011) states, there is a polarised debate surrounding the possibilities and limitations, advantages and disadvantages of the hosting of this mega event. For the research presented with a more positive angle of the topic, the common discussion is the added value of national pride as well as the awareness of the country and the health education within the country (Cornelissen et al. 2011; Fuller et al. 2011). One of the biggest discussions touched upon by the available research that tended to have a more negative perspective, is that of the infrastructure, and mostly the stadiums being built to fit the needs of FIFA, and not the conditions of South African football (Briedenhann 2011; Haferburg 2011; Høiriis 2010; Ngonyama 2010; Schulz-Herzenberg 2010; Szymanski 2010), as well as that of scarce resources being diverted from other activities that could have added more value to the nation (Bob & Majola 2011; Briedenhann 2011; Darby 2002; Heere et al. 2013; McKinley 2010; Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2011; Ngonyama 2010; Szymanski 2010).

An additional point that is often touched upon is who will receive the greatest benefits from the event, and Ngonyama (2010) connects this to the fact that the economic growth in South Africa over the last ten years has not been shown to create any prominent benefits for the poor society of the nation, stating:

' _In this grim concept, there is a strong sense among commentators on the left that the World Cup is poised to further enrich the wealthy and that the event's much talked about "resounding success" will come at the expense of the disadvantaged who will be exploited, expected to work longer hours to meet deadlines, evicted from unsightly shack settlements; and deprived of their livelihoods_ '. (2010, p.170)

This statement, and further research (Briedenhann 2011; Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2011; Ngonyama 2010) paints a picture of the event as creating benefits, but predominantly for the already privileged and not the poor, within the nation. Chinguno (2010) provides an insight to the effects that the 2010 World Cup had on some of the labour markets within South Africa. He reflects the same sense of exploitation and expectations as Ngonyama (2010), stating that poor workers were underpaid but were expected to work and achieve more than their normal workload. This resulted in more than 26 strikes within the construction sector, and within the security sector, one of the most violent strikes in the post-apartheid South Africa was held, resulting in the death of more than 60 workers within the sector (Chinguno 2010). Ngonyama (2010) adds that a big group of the main beneficiaries of the event, such as sponsors etc., are based overseas, locating a certain amount of benefits and gains outside of the continent of Africa. He further raises the question of the highly trumpeted national and developmental potential of the hosting of such mega events, which is further supported by McKinley (2010).

#### Investment of Resources

South Africa invested enormous resources (over R 62.8 billion/USD 6.4 billion) into the preparation and hosting of the 2010 World Cup (Heere et al. 2013). In regards to this, Szymanski makes the comparison of the developing nation of South Africa, to wealthy nations in Europe:

' _The UK government spends about GBP 80bn annually on education, whereas South Africa spends about GBP 12bn. The UK is spending a sum equal to just over 10% of its annual educational budget on London 2012, South Africa about 25% to host the 2010 World Cup';_. (2010, p.28)

To conclude, he states, " _Scarce resources are being diverted from activities that have much added greater value._ " (2010, p.28). This statement is further strengthened by Ngonyama and Schulz-Herzenberg stating:

' _...the city of Durban with a population of about three million is home to more than 180,000 shack dwellers with no access to basic necessities, including water and sanitation. This is a crucial fact given that a new 70,000 seat stadium under construction in Durban carries a price tag of about R 2.6 billion_ '. (Ngonyama 2010, p. 173)

' _This - the cost of having a semi-final game played in Cape Town - is the price of 56,643 or 67,390 low-cost houses at R50,000 each: houses for a quarter of a million people and more_ '. (Schulz-Herzenberg 2010, p. 150)

The R 2.6 billion that Ngonyama (2010) refers to is the equivalent of USD 262 million. Both of these statements add to the discussion within the available literature that touch upon whether or not these resources would have been better invested in other initiatives and development programmes (Bob & Majola 2011; Briedenhann 2011; Heere et al. 2013; Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2011; Ngonyama 2010; Szymanski 2010). Høiriis (2010) concludes by stating:

' _The cost of the preparations soared while new stadia were built instead of renovating existing ones, and people ask whether this kind of spending on one event is economically responsible in a country where so many people live in poverty_ '. (Playthegame.org).

## Pure Development Programmes

#### The South African Government

Looking at areas that were expected to be covered by development as a result of the 2010 World Cup, the South African Government already had programmes implemented within the areas of social and community development, health (HIV/AIDS), youth development, education, crime prevention and security, employment, economic issues etc. (About Government – Programmes 2013).

The government also have a department fully engaged in social development. The vision of this department is to provide: " _A caring and integrated system of social development services that facilitates human development and improves the quality of life." It operates with the mission: "To ensure the provision of comprehensive, integrated, sustainable, and quality social development services, and create an enabling environment for sustainable development in partnership with all those committed to building a caring society._ " (Department of Social Development (a)).

The department has an established programme for integrated community development, and this programme works under the stated strategic goal: " _... to create an enabling environment for empowering poor, vulnerable and previously marginalised groups, including youth, women, and people with disabilities, to achieve sustainable livelihoods. " Following this, the programme aims to: "develop, monitor and facilitate the implementation of appropriate policies, strategies and programmes for strengthening the potential of communities, including youths, to sustain and advance their livelihoods and further human development._ " (Department of Social Development (b))

Each year the department publishes an annual report, summarising all the programmes that the department manages, and the "key outputs and service delivery indicators" of the respective programmes. Here the budgets and expenditures of the programmes are also presented. (Department of Social Development (b))

## Discussion

To address the first objective of the research, to analyse the benefits of the FIFA initiated development programmes, there is not too much to base an analysis on. The benefits derived from these programmes are not widely researched at this time, and therefore difficult to evaluate. Based on the findings of Walker et al. (2013), Fuller et al. (2011), and what FIFA presents on their website (FIFA.com (b); FIFA.com (c)), these programmes should be seen as positive, and as promising in terms of resulting in positive effects. Although, it is hard to present this as a final conclusion given that only limited research is available. The research of Fuller et al. (2011) refers to editions of the " _11 for Health_ " campaign that were not directly connected to the actual event of the 2010 FIFA World Cup, but an assumption could be based on these results, that since the programme showed positive effects for those researched, it would also do so in the case of implementation in connection to the tournament. For the campaign of " _20 Centres for 2010_ " a conclusion is even more difficult to present, since the campaign is still on-going. Additionally, there are no official evaluation documents available in connection to this campaign.

In spite of this research, and that Walker et al. (2013) state that the " _Win in Africa, with Africa_ " campaign was successful, the available research for all three of these campaigns and programmes cannot be seen as sufficient enough to base a conclusion on, in regards to their effects. The most relevant research that the author expected to find, but did not, is that of evaluation reports from FIFA. As these initiatives are under the scope of FIFA and their CSR actions, it should be of interest to the organization to evaluate these, especially as it is stated in FIFA's Activity Report 2004 (cited in Walker et al. 2013) that more than 40% of their income goes to projects like these.

Approaching the discussion of the overall benefits of the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa, there are many who wish to voice their opinions on this matter. There is a range of scholars (Chinguno 2010; McKinley 2010; Ngonyama 2010) presenting rather direct, negative views on the hosting of the event on social, economical and development matters. The discussion regarding the arguments put forward that the monies for hosting of the tournament would be better invested in other initiatives or areas, is one of the most common, followed by that of benefits being mostly received by the already privileged rather than the poor.

Regarding the topic discussed above, the discussion also covers the matter of stadia being built to fit the needs of FIFA and not the football situation in South Africa (Briedenhann 2011; Haferburg 2011; Høiriis 2010; Ngonyama 2010; Szymanski 2010). This includes the number of seats, technology, but also position of the stadia (Haferburg 2011). For example, the local football teams of South Africa normally attract just around 1,000 spectators to games, with a maximum of 15,000 for specific games (Schulz-Herzenberg 2010). Schulz-Herzenberg (2010) summarises the underlying problem of this situation by stating:

' _But South Africa's interest in staging a successful event and FIFA's interests are not necessarily synonymous. Had government retained more independence, an outcome far less burdensome may have been achieved_ '. (p.135)

An additional problem in the socio-cultural perspective in this sense is that the government spent a great amount of public money on these stadia. As Ngonyama (2010) and Schulz- Herzenberg (2010) state, different comparisons of how these investments could have been directed into community development and housing for the poor, stadium investments could be seen as a choice by the government to disregard the problems of the poor in the community. Moreover as Schulenkorf (2012) states, it is important to be aware of the fact that though these events and actions might bring groups within society together, it might also exclude some groups. Ngonyama (2010) showed an example of this in the situation of slum clearance before the 2010 FIFA Preliminary Draw in November 2007. Here, street children and some adults with small children were given fines that they were not in a financial position to pay. This resulted in arrests, which Ngonyama (2010) refers to being portrayed as these individuals being offered ' _free lodging and housing_ '. This housing was in fact in overcrowded prisons, where the street children and poor adults were exposed to violent attacks and possible infection of HIV (Ngonyama 2010). This, and the information reported by Chinguno (2010), reflects a side of the event that is seldom covered in the available literature, and the question is if there are more cases like this, connected to the 2010 FIFA World Cup, that have not been brought to light. As sport is supposed to bring people together and create a shared joy, it should not be acceptable that actions like these arise in connection with sporting events.

The hosting of the 2010 World Cup did not only surface negative opinions. There is also an array of researchers presenting the positive aspects of the hosting. These are mainly in the sense of: national pride, feel-good effects and international recognition (Bob & Majola 2011; Corelissen, Bob & Swart 2011; Fuller et al. 2011; Schulenkorf 2012; Walker et al. 2013). This is one aspect that is hard to measure and evaluate, since it is only apparent on a subjective level. As an attempt to review this, FIFA collected data pre- and post-event, to track public opinion towards the event. Post event, 91% of the South African respondents replied that they thought the country was more unified after the 2010 World Cup (FIFA.com (d)).

Concerning the last objective of the research, comparing the findings of development through the 2010 FIFA World Cup with pure development programmes, to further conclude if the investment was legitimate or not, there is a large dilemma. This dilemma lies in whether or not the social and subjective feelings of inclusion, national pride and feel-good effects are stronger and more valuable than the more objective, pure development.

This discussion ties into the previous one of the overall benefits of the hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa, but also adds new angles and perspectives to the discussion. As Bourdieu (cited in Coalter 2010a; Skinner et al.. 2008), Cairnduff (cited in Skinner et al. 2008), Rodríguez et al. (2009) and Skinner et al. (2008) refer to social capital, this is the topic from one side of the discussion concerning whether the investment was legitimate or not. As sport has been recognised as actively promoting and building social capital, adding to communities' motivation and development (Skinner et al.. 2008), this is one of the core points where development through sport would gain leverage over pure development programmes.

Connected to this, Jeanes (2011) concluded that the participants in a study regarding HIV/AIDS education found the role of sport in this context to be very valuable, encouraging teamwork, friendship and interactions.

She states that:

' _Participants felt that this was a stimulating and interesting way to learn and that through physical engagement in the process of gaining knowledge they were more likely to listen to and act on the information they were given_ '. (p. 397)

The noted positive factors of using sport in education, all include relationships, and therefore refer to social capital. Skinner et al. (2008) also support the notion of social factors in the inclusion of sport in the development programmes. They refer to sport as contributing to building empowerment, well-being and development on a community level towards an improved civil society.

Again, these points all involve social capital. From the perspective of pure development programmes, one of the greatest gains would be that the benefits of such programmes are more controlled and the poor communities would enjoy a broader spectrum of benefits than those derived from the 2010 World Cup. Development programmes like the ones that were already implemented by the South African government could have used the economic resources to assure sustainability and viability in their existing programmes and initiatives, or further developed these. As Skinner et al.. (2008) state:

' _Key success factors in servicing the needs of the disadvantaged communities involves developing, engaging and retaining multiple partners that can support the delivery of programs and outcomes through a range of different mechanisms including funding, delivery, expert advice and referrals..._ ' (p. 265)

With a better-established economic foundation, the government and the Department of Social Development might have been able to create strong partnerships with non-governmental organizations and companies, to enable the fruition of this statement. To add to the discussion of sustainability of the development programmes, and to connect to the quote above, the development and engagement of partners might be beneficial to them through the fact that there is a major well-known sporting event connected to the development programmes. But, in the sense of retaining these partners, there is a possibility that when the show moves on to the next host, in this case Brazil, the interest and devotion to the programmes in South Africa will decrease as a result.

Another fact that speaks for the already established development programmes in South Africa are that they have a structured evaluation, with presentation of budgets, expenditures and key outputs and service delivery indicators. This strengthens the programmes in the sense that they can show exactly where the money is going as well as what objectives are reached and what the results are.

It is clear that the social aspect of development programmes and development through sports initiatives are different. The benefits of encouragement, empowerment, friendship etc. (Jeanes 2011; Skinner et al.. 2008) on the individual level is one of the main factors supporting the use of sport as a tool towards development. But the overall creation of a sense of national pride and a unified country, is also a great result of this (FIFA.com (b)). As Sanders et al.. (2012) state:

' _Participating in sport has proven intrinsic benefits but it also provides extrinsic value as it can facilitate the development of education, health and peace among other social issues_ '. (pp. 1-2)

Heere et al.. (2013) refer to previous research in saying that some of the greatest reasons for increased national unity might not lie in the hosting of events, but in the success of the national teams. Following this, they suggest that if governments want to develop their country's unity and national identity or pride, they should rather invest in the success of their teams and not the hosting of one-off events. Skinner et al.. (2008) also state that:

' _However, while one-off events are important for strengthening people's connection to their community, sustainable, on-going development through sport programmes and interventions are likely to have the most significant social capital impacts_ '. (p. 268)

## Conclusive Statements

As the overall objective of the research was to identify any possible evidence following the investment in the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa, the stated objectives to "analyse the benefits of the FIFA initiated development programmes; analyse the overall benefits on a socio- cultural level, and for whom these benefits were most prominent; compare the findings with pure development programmes, to further conclude if the investment was legitimate or not." were all reached.

To reflect on the hypotheses of the research, with regards to the first, "In order to benefit the society of poor people in South Africa, the investment would have been better placed in pure development programmes." the author concluded that most current evidence points towards verifying this. As regards to the overall development through the event, distribution of the benefits within South Africa are portrayed as uneven, and not all reported effects are positive. Seeing that there is literature reporting mistreatment of people living in the streets (Ngonyama 2010) and the exploitation of workers (Chinguno 2010), leading to exposure of HIV and abuse, as well as strikes and even casualties, there has to be strong evidence to compensate this through gains in social capital, national pride and feel-good effects. In the current literature there is some evidence of gains in social capital and national pride, but reflecting on the dilemma of subjective social gains and the objective effects of the World Cup, the author concludes that there is not enough evidence of subjective social gains to overcome the objective effects of uneven distribution of benefits, mistreatment and exploitation of the poor in South African society.

For the second hypothesis, "The subjective social benefits would have been the most significant difference with regards to effects of pure development programmes and development through sport.", this is what the author could conclude from the available research. The most mentioned and promoted benefits on a socio-cultural level from the hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup were those of national pride, social capital and feel-good effects. These would not be present to the same extent, if at all, through pure development programmes. Here it should be added that there are scholars suggesting that it is not the hosting of events, especially one-off events such as the FIFA World Cup, that bring the most successful effects on this level, but that it is the success of the national team in international competitions. This perspective was added to the research through the literature review, and as the author concluded the final findings, this showed to be a part of the underlying theory.

It should be noted, that as the FIFA initiated programmes are not yet evaluated on a basis sufficient enough to conclude if they have resulted in success or not, more research has to be performed in order to base any conclusions on these. Therefore, these programmes are not included in the final conclusive ideas and recommendations.

The research concluded, based on current available research, that the investment was not legitimate from a socio-cultural perspective. As a recommendation for developing nations in similar situations, possible investments in governmental development programmes should first be reviewed, making sure that the effects of these will be directed to the parts of the society that needs it the most. Part of these investments could be directed towards development of the national teams, if a sense of national pride and unity is seen as desirable to achieve, through sport. This would be a more economically responsible act of promoting sport and national pride than to prepare and host a mega event of the size of the FIFA World Cup.

Finally, regarding the chosen topic of research, there is still a need for further research on all levels. If any changes to the research could have been done, the author would have spent more time on proper time management, allowing for the possibility of conducting a broad range of interviews, adding another level of information sources and insight from an additional perspective.

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# Chapter 4 - Young Players

* * *

## Young Players Impact  
on Team Performance  
on Professional Football  
Teams

### Football and Society

#### Luis Rosas & Bill Gerrard

### ' _Talent wins games, but teamwork and intelligence wins championships._ '

_Michael Jordan_

## Introduction

The sport of association football or soccer is, according to FIFA, played by 265 million players, in nearly every country in the world, can claim to be the world's most popular sport with an estimated 3.5 billion fans worldwide (Topend Sports).

Football has the power to generate ' _tons of adrenaline_ ' and ' _many heart beats_ ' in every match played, no matter if it is in a magnificent World Cup stadium, or a match played in the street where rocks are used as temporary goalposts. The dream of many children is to become a professional footballer player. Some of them have the opportunity to start their football career by training in the football academy of a club and strive to accomplish their dream. Realising their dream depends not only on hard work, but also on the strategies of football coaches and managers to accomplish the maximum performance of their team.

The main purpose of this chapter is to analyse the impact of young players on a team's performance in professional football clubs, by analysing the last five seasons of the Spanish first league La Liga. The results will allow an overview and comparison of the different methods and strategies used by the different clubs related to the use of young players as well as the impact this had on the team's performance.

The chapter provides evidence of the association between young players' appearances and team performance. There are different opinions and strategies for how managers direct the transition of football teams toward the top leagues. In this respect, one of the aims of this chapter is to find out if there is a correlation between certain strategies and the performance of a professional football team. Little academic research focuses on this topic, even with statistics being easily accessible.

The approach used for this chapter is based on Gerrard's study (2012) Labor Supply and Human Capital Formation in Professional Team Sports. This study presents the link between player quality and team performance in professional team sports. Presented from two starting points: the coaching literature in sport economics, and the resource-based view in strategic management. Information was collected from different websites such as football statistics sites and official club web sites).

## Importance of La Liga

The Primera División (First Division) of the National Professional Football League (Liga Nacional de Fútbol Profesional), commonly referred to as La Liga, is the highest professional football division of the Spanish football league system. La Liga consists of 20 teams. At the end of every season, the three lowest ranked teams are relegated to the second division and replaced by the top three teams of that division. The competition format follows the usual double round-robin format. During the course of a season, which lasts from September to June, each club plays every other club twice, once at home and once away, for a total of 38 games. Teams receive three points for a win, one point for a draw, and zero points for a loss. Teams are ranked by total points, and the highest-ranked club at the end of the season is crowned champion (Wikipedia).

The Spanish first league, La Liga, has been the strongest league in Europe in the past five years, according to UEFA's country coefficient, with an average attendance of 26,867 for league matches in the season 2012/2013 (European Football Statistics). The best teams in La Liga qualify for the European Union of Football Associations (UEFA) Champions League. The top three teams directly enter the group stage and the fourth placed team takes part in the playoffs for the group stage of UEFA Champions League. Teams placed fifth and sixth play in the UEFA Europa League. According to the 23rd edition of the Annual Review of Football Finance (2014) the total revenue value, La Liga holds the third position with a total of €1,859 million, with Germany's Bundesliga coming in a close second with €2,018 million and England's Premier League leading with almost €3 billion.

## Football Club Strategies

The International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) is the highest international governing body of association football. On the national level, governance lays with the National Federations (NF), which are in charge of organising professional and amateur competitions in each country. Clubs either form and develop their own players in what is often referred to as their "Football Academy", or they loan or buy players from other clubs. As with any other commercial activity, football players are also seen as products, with a market value and a productive lifetime. The club's football academies normally start the development stage of players at the age of six. Players follow different processes where the culture, club values, and style of playing are transmitted throughout the years. At the end of every season (six months or a year) a selection process takes place in every age-category. After having gone through the different selection processes, the coach and managers of a club can decide which players will join the first team.

Clubs follow different strategies in regard to their respective football academies. Some of them direct their investment into developing young players with high potential. Others choose to invest in well-established and experienced players. Acquiring international players is a tactic associated with high costs, and is therefore limited and used only for positions and players that are considered decisive for team results.

## The Dynamic Human Capital Model

The fundamental goal of professional sport can be summarised in the word ' _success_ '. Success in football is achieved by collecting the highest number of points (three points for a win, one for a draw). One element that influences the level of success is the human capital (i.e. the players) that clubs have available. Clubs try to get a competitive advantage by having the best team possible, taking in consideration the coaching point of view and their main asset, their players (Van den Berg 2011).

Human Capital in professional football players is mostly defined by the skills athletes can acquire to differentiate themselves from one another. Skills are the result of ability and technique. A demonstration of highly refined skill is the athlete's ability to choose and perform the right techniques at the right time, successfully, regularly and with a minimum of effort. Techniques are the basic movements of any sport (Mackenzie 2001). Gerrard and Lockett (2007) suggest a dynamic human capital model that highlights the importance of the series of skills in determining the individual player productivity and team performance within four dimensions: transferability, mode of acquisition, individuality, and management style. Transferability refers to the general and specific skills. General skills can be easily acquired, in contrast to specific skills, which are a potential source of sustainable competitive advantage. Mode of acquisition skills may be developed internally within the team or organisation, or externally by other teams, through training programs and experience on-the-job and are maximised by remaining with the current team/organisation. Individuality skills are developed and practiced by an individual in his own unique way, which differentiate the individual from others. The final skill dimension relates to management style, meaning the mode of human capital acquisition (Gerrard 2012).

Makadok (2001) differentiates two management styles: resource-picking and capability-building. Resource-picking management concerns the identification and recruitment of skilled individuals, correctly assessing and valuing individuals whose expected future productivity has been undervalued by the market, and exploiting this market efficiency to maximise the quantity of human capital obtained per dollar spent. Capability building refers to those functions for achieving the maximum performance from current members of the organisation, involving the development and enhancement of the existing skills of the individuals within the team or organisation, as well as the integration of individuals to optimise collective productivity (Makadok 2001).

Another aspect to consider is coaching efficiency; the capacity of the head coach and coaching staff to be able to bring out the best performance from every individual on the team (Gerrard 2012). This aspect varies depending on management styles and experience of the leaders. Some coaches are democratic and paternalistic with their players, others, on the contrary, are autocratic and rigid in the manner with which they treat the players. Coaching style goes hand-in-hand with training methods aiming to increase the optimum team performance (Thinking FootballTM).

## Team Performance

Berman et al. (2002) argues team experience to be a highly significant determinant of team performance and refers to, ' _practice makes perfect_ '. Furthermore, Gerrard and Lockett (2007) propose that momentum effects of past performance, affects current performance, referring to, "practice makes permanent". These models have to deal with continuity and permanent practice. This suggests keeping a team together and trying to achieve positive results through continuity, rather than through new acquisitions, which will consequently decrease the shared team experience. In other words, the club managers use either Makadok's (2001) resource-pickers or capability-builder strategy to try to achieve their goals. Teams as Real Madrid are known for spending a lot to acquire ' _big fish_ ', such as the recent world record transfer fee for Gareth Bale of £85.3 million (€100 million). This transfer broke Cristiano Ronaldo's transfer record fee of £80 (€94 million).

Figure 1 (BBC 2013) shows the evolution of transfer fees in the past century. It shows that the five biggest transfer fees in history were paid by Real Madrid. Such investments are made by clubs to gain a competitive advantage over others and to win championships. An interesting question is, to what level clubs take into consideration the return on investment of a player when paying such huge transfer sums? Football has become a mayor business where financial and economic aspects are hugely important. Gerrard (2012) suggests that the team with more capital can achieve sporting success, and turn the game into a game where the ' _wallets will win_ '; something that can effect the essence of the sport. By introducing Financial Fair Play, the UEFA aims to decrease pressure on salaries and transfer fees to limit inflationary effects, encourage clubs to compete within their revenues, and encourage long-term investments in the youth sector (UEFA 2014).

##### _Figure 1 - The History of the World Transfer Record, 1905-2013 (BBC 2013)  
_

Not all clubs follow the same strategy as Real Madrid. Some focus their efforts on supporting their Football Academies, as ingrained in a long-term vision for the first team. Investing in the value of preparing potential talent involves a lot of hard work and a complete organisation vision. Clubs such as Athletic Bilbao or FC Barcelona are known for their capacity to produce talented young players, such as: Messi, Iniesta, Xavi, Piqué, and Busquets. These players were developed in Barcelona's Academy ' _La Masia_ ' the home for Barcelona's youth players who live and grow up in the residence (FC Barcelona). Many of Barcelona's most prolific stars have lived there, and it is part of the club's culture, history and etiquette. The success of FC Barcelona in the period is assumed to be down to the years of preparation together, which allowed them to get to know each other to perfection and share the same football methodology. Their style of coaching is like no other, they focus on technique, controlling the game and playing the ball on the ground. If you watch any of their youth teams play, you would see that they all play a very similar game and style; this makes it easy for the players to easily adapt when they are promoted (Vieira 2010).

## Research Methodology

This chapter aims to better understand the impact of having young players on the field for the team's performance. It studies existing information and statistics; mostly retrieved from the Internet (i.e. football specific websites and official club websites). The data collected for this investigation is restricted to the Spanish first league, La Liga, and analyses the five seasons during the period 2008 – 2013.

Collected data is analysed for all the 20 teams of ' _La Liga_ ' and each of its first team's players. For each player the following variables are collected: number of appearances (both as starter and as substitute), date of birth, age, team of precedence (where the player made his first professional appearance), and country of origin of the precedent team. Results are combined with each team's performance in the league, to enable calculating the correlation between the number of young players in a team and the team's performance (measured by the number of game points scored during an entire season).

## Results

#### Young players in La Liga

The Spanish first league considers a ' _young or minor_ ' player as being under 23 years old; above this age they are labelled as ' _major_ ' (RFEF 2013). Normally players make their first league appearance around the age of 20. During this period they are tested by coaches to identify whether they can remain part of the first team or not. National Federations and Leagues apply different rules regarding the use of ' _young_ ' players in their tournaments and leagues; obliging teams to include young players in their line-ups and for them to play for a certain number of minutes. The Mexican National League, for example, introduced in 2005 the rule known as ' _Regla 20/11_ ', which required first division teams to give at least 1,000 minutes of action to players under the age of 20 years, 11 months, during a season or be penalised by having points subtracted (Woitalla 2012).

Table 1 shows the ranking of the 20 clubs of La Liga at the end of each of the 5 seasons that have been evaluated.

##### _Table 1 – Ranking La Liga 2008 - 2013  
_

Table 2 shows the total number of players (young and major) in a Spanish Club in the period 2008 - 2013, and the percentage and average of young players that were in the team. The ratio shows clear differences between teams, with FC Barcelona as the team with the highest number of young players as well as a high percentage of young players across the five seasons. Usually teams have less than 20% of young players, which indicates the low number of young players and the preference towards major players.

FC Barcelona, who won four of the five championships during the last five seasons (see Table 1), also tops the list with the highest number of young players in the team. Arch-rival Real Madrid, who won one championship and finished 2nd the other four seasons, scores only a 6th place when it comes to the number of young players in the team (see table 2).

##### _Table 2: Percentage of Young Players in Spanish Teams  
_

#### Football Academy

To be on a first team of a professional club is not an easy task for a young player. Selections are conducted every season to select the best players possible. The first test is to be able to enter to a professional club academy: try-out sessions between hundreds of applicants where only 22 young players are selected per team. Once the player makes it to an academy between the ages of 6 and 18 and is able to maintain a maximum level of performance to pass the cuts to the next divisions, they become "a professional football player".

When the player reaches the professional level, the coach of the first team can consider them for a pre-season (one month or month and a half before the season starts). During this period the coaching staff evaluates the player's fit within the team to assess if they can make their first appearance at the top level, La Liga.

There are two ways in which teams include young players in the squad. One is to integrate the homegrown academy players raised in the institution and who made it into the first team. The other way is the acquisition of players through purchase or loans. Loans can be made either by paying a fee to the club who owns the player's rights, or without fee (normally for one year), both with a mutual agreement between both sides.

Table 3 shows the number, percentage and average of players that came from the academy of the institution, in other words, the home-grown players who entered through the academy into the first team, as well as the players that arrived at a premature age to the team and had the opportunity to make their first appearance in the first league, Spanish Primera Division. These players are part of the "activo" of a Club, the organisation invested resources in them to develop them or acquired them at an early age, in order to increase their value later on when they play in the First Division.

##### _Table 3 Young Players Coming from an Academy  
_

Figure 2 shows the relation between the games played (i.e. their appearances) by the young players and the total number of games. The chart suggests the huge differences between the different teams' strategies regarding the use of young players in the first team. The data indicates that most of clubs have less than 10% per cent of young players performing in the team during the period 2008 - 2013. A large difference can be seen between FC Barcelona (31%), the highest of the league, and Real Madrid (7%) one of the lowest. These two teams have a long history of fighting for the Championship and are the two giants of La Liga (Adams 2010). Of the last five seasons' results and the previous indicators, it shows that FC Barcelona won four of the five Championships using a considerable number of young players in the squad.

##### _Figure 2 Percentage of Games Played by Young Players  
_

Figure 2 shows that the percentage of young players in Spanish teams during the period 2008 - 2013 is the highest for FC Barcelona (31%) and Athletic Bilbao (19%). Athletic Bilbao is the team of the city of Bilbao, located in the Basque province. The club has a tradition of playing only Basque players or with those developed as footballers in the academy. This tradition has been maintained since the beginning of the institution. Athletic Bilbao is also historically recognised for being a "club cantera", which means that the development of young players through their academy is the principal source of supply for the first team.

FC Barcelona, another driver of young talent, specifically created a clubhouse "La Masia", where future talents live and are raised and trained to become professional football players. Today top-level players such as: Cesc Fabregas, Gerard Piqué, and Lionel Messi were part of this project that continues to produce more talent.

#### Youth Academy Players' Origin

FIFA's mission is to spread and develop football everywhere, through the 209 National Associations who organise the National Leagues (FIFA). Associations have a lot of influence on the development of players, which is important for the national teams and managers to prioritise the spread of national players.

Currently, some clubs are taking young foreign players from Africa or America to develop their football skills from childhood (Poli 2010). While this is one solution, this phenomenon is a delicate topic, where rights, family, education, formation and living conditions, all play a big role. Measures from FIFA and the Clubs have been established to control the migration and emigration of young players (Powell 2013). Table 4 shows the origin of young players who were in one of the academies of a club from La Liga during the seasons 2008 - 2013.

##### _Table 4 Origin of Young Players  
_

#### Youth Players Impact on Performance

The available data allows for further analysis on the influence of young players on team performance. For example, in terms of the amount of minutes played, are the appearances just for a few minutes in a couple of games, or were they a real opportunity for the young player?

The main objective of this research is to understand the relationship between team performance and young players' appearances during a match. Figure 3 analyses the average points received per team during the seasons 2008 - 2013 combined with the average of young players used by every team.

The chart shows that FC Barcelona gained an average of 92.8 game points per season (during the seasons 2008 – 2013) with an average of 7.4 young players in the team. Real Madrid, however, used only 5.6 young players for almost the same result (89.4 game points), while RCD Espagnol, with an average of 6.4 young players, gained only 46 game points per season.

Overall it can be concluded that there is only a weak positive correlation (r = 0.36) between the number of young players and the team performance (see Figure 3). Real Madrid and FC Barcelona both claim the highest number of game points, each with a number of young players that is well above average. Teams like Granada, Levante, or Almeria, with a low average of game points, do not use a lot of young players. However, since relegation is a real concern for these teams, having more experienced players could be a conscious strategy of the club.

##### _Figure 3 – Young Players Impact on Average Points per Season._

 _  
_

##### _Figure 4 Correlation Between Team Performance and Young Players in a Spanish Team.  
_

## Discussion

Team performance is a key driver for clubs as regards planning and investing their available resources and their strategic direction. Positive sports results also have an impact on other aspects of the club. For example, if a team qualifies for the Champions or Europa League it can gain significant economic benefits that allow the club to further develop in other areas such as investments in football academies or in player acquisition, which will increase the quality of the club's human capital.

The research shows that there is a weak positive correlation (r =0.36) between having young players (under 23 years old) in a team and the performance of the team. Examples of clubs that were successful with a young team are Real Madrid, FC Barcelona, and Atletico de Madrid, who have all had a top ranking in the last five seasons. The correlation is, however, too weak to conclude that having a young team is a determining factor for high team performance.

During the period 2008 – 2013, the average percentage of young players in a team in La Liga is 18%. There are, however, large differences between clubs, where some have more than 25% (Atletico Madrid and FC Barcelona) of young players and others less than 10% (Granada and Osasuna). This indicates that clubs are pursuing different strategies to reach the highest possible team performance. Some clubs are ' _Capability-Builders_ ' (Makadok 2001), trusting in their academy capital, and creating opportunities for young players to develop their careers. Other clubs are ' _Resource-Pickers_ ' (Makadok, 2001), and buy or loan highly experienced football players.

A positive side effect of having homegrown young players in a team is the fact that they are developed within the club and educated according to the values and the philosophy of the club and its style of playing. Teams with homegrown players in the first team also benefit from a continuity that is achieved by players who have played in the same teams for many years.

The financial means of clubs determine the available capital and resources either to acquire players or to invest in a youth academy. Small clubs are normally more financially restricted, which can have an effect on the availability or training facilities of young players.

The variety of elements that influence a team's performance should be considered as one of the limitations of this research. Furthermore, this chapter has only analysed the results of the Spanish first league over a period of 5 years, without comparing these results with other leagues. Further research that stretches beyond La Liga during 2008 – 2013 will allow a more coherent understanding of the correlation between the number of young players and the performance of a football team.

## References

Adams, M. (2010). Famous Spanish Soccer Clubs. Retrieved August 2010 from <http://www.sportinglife360.com/index.php/famous-spanish-soccer-clubs-2-9380/>

BBC Sport Football. (2013). Gareth Bale: The history of the world transfer record. Retrieved July 2014 from <http://www.bbc.com/sport/0/football/23903470>

Berman, S.L., Down, J., & C.W. Hill. (2002). Tacit knowledge as a source of competitive advantage in the National Basketball Association. Academy of Management Journal 45: pp. 13-31

Deloitte. (2014). Annual Review of Football Finance (23rd edition). Retrieved July 2014 from <http://www.deloitte.com/view/en_GB/uk/industries/sportsbusinessgroup/sports/football/annual-review-of-football-finance/index.htm>

European football statistics. Retrieved September 2013 from <http://www.european-football-statistics.co.uk/attn.htm>

FC Barcelona. La Masia history. Retrieved June 2014 from <http://www.fcbarcelona.com/club/facilites-and-services/masia>

FIFA. Big Count. Retrieved July 2, 2014 from <http://www.fifa.com/worldfootball/bigcount/>

FIFA. Mission & Statutes. Retrieved July 2014 from <http://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/organisation/mission.html>

Gerrard B. (2012). Labour supply and human capital formation in professional team sports: evidence from the FA Premier League. In L. Kahane and S. Shmanske (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Sports Economics Volume 1: The Economics of Sport, Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 281-298,

Gerrard, B. & A. Lockett. (2007). Team-specific human capital, team momentum and team performance. Unpublished memo.

Mackenzie, B. (2001) Skill, Technique and Ability. Retrieved June 2014 from <http://www.brianmac.co.uk/skills.htm>

Makadok, R. (2001). Toward a synthesis of the resource-based and dynamic-capability views of rent creation". Strategic Management Journal 22: pp.237-401

Poli, R. (2010). The migration of African football players to Europe. Retrieved July 2014 from <http://www.footballfordevelopment.net/uploads/tx_drblob/storage/Poli_migration-of-African-football-players_01.pdf>

Powell, J. (2013). Why foreign players migrate and the effect their involvement has had on English football since the inception of the Premier League. Retrieved July 2014 from <http://footballperformanceanalysis.com/2013/07/25/why-foreign-players-migrate-and-the-effect-their-involvement-has-had-on-english-football-since-the-inception-of-the-premier-league-part-1/>

RFEF. (2013). Reglamento General de la RFEF 2010 (in Spanish). Retrieved July 2014 from <http://www.rfef.es/sites/default/files/pdf/circulares/RG%201314.pdf>

Thinking Football. (2013). Autocratic or Democratic. Retrieved October 2013 from <http://thinkingfootball.net/?s=Autocratic>

Topend Sports. Top 10 List of the Internet World's Most Popular Sports. Retrieved July 2014 from <http://www.topendsports.com/world/lists/popular-sport/fans.htm>

UEFA. (2014). Financial fair play. Retrieved July 2014 from <http://www.uefa.org/protecting-the-game/club-licensing-and-financial-fair-play/index.html>

Van den Berg, E. (2011). The Valuation of Human Capital in the Football Player Transfer Market. Master thesis Financial Economics. Master thesis Erasmus School of Economics. Unpblished. Retrieved July 2014 from <https://www.academia.edu/836938/The_Valuation_of_Human_Capital_in_the_Football_Player_Transfer_Market>

Vieira, D. (2010). The Success Behind Barcelona's Cantera. Retrieved July 2014 from <http://afootballreport.com/post/422560492/illustriousiberianinsight-the-success-behind-barcelonas>

Wikipedia. La Liga. Retrieved July 2014 from <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Liga>

Woitalla, M. (2012). Youth Soccer Insider. Why Mexico has been so successful. Retrieved July 2014 from <http://www.socceramerica.com/article/48411/why-mexico-has-been-so-successful.html>

# Chapter 5 - Women's Football

* * *

## Migration in the  
Portuguese Women's  
National Football Team

### Enabling and Constraining  
Factors and Motivations

#### Cátia Relíquias Teresa & Joseph Maguire

### ' _Football is without a doubt the king sport ("desportorei") in Portugal and it is not by chance that it is not the queen sport_ '

_Joseph Maguire_

## Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to determine the main opportunities, and constraining and enabling factors of the migration process of the Portuguese Women's National Football Team Players (PWNFTP). In the past ten years an increasing number of elite players have left the national Portuguese championship to experience more challenging leagues. The purpose of this study was to understand what drives these players to migrate, what kind of challenges they face and what are their long-term plans. There have been studies before focusing on sport and athlete migration specifically dealing with the migration of female footballers but none has tried to deepen the knowledge about the motivations that lead to the initiation of the migrating process.

It should be understood to what extent the sporting performance, economic situation and academic studies play a role in the decision making process of these players and to what amount they contribute. The Portuguese Women's Football National Team has been chosen as a sample for the authors of this chapter as one author has been part of this team and has always been interested in the development of women's football, especially in Portugal. This chapter then provides information which could eventually help migrating players to enter another culture in a smoother way but also to help national clubs and the Portuguese FA (Portuguese Football Federation) to meet the players' motivations in Portugal, thus increasing the national championship's competitive level.

## Setting the Scene

There were close to half a million registered athletes in Portugal in the year 2009, of which almost a third (144,557) were football players (professional and non-professional). Basketball came second with three times fewer athletes (40,250). A unique sense of national identity was discovered or revived in a way that many thought to be impossible during the Euro championships held in Portugal. As Maguire (1999) notes ' _(...) finally a sporting occasion represented the People and not just some groups. Football is without a doubt the "desporto rei" (king sport) in Portugal and it is not by chance that it is not the "queen" sport_ '. Gender issues are still noticeably present when it comes to girls playing a men's sport. Nevertheless, there are still some girls who want to and do play football.

According to the Portuguese Association for Women and Sport (Associação Portuguesa Mulheres e Desporto - APMD), based on data collected from the Portuguese FA (Federação Portuguesa de Futebol – FPF) website, there were a total of 1,213 female football players playing in Portugal in the 2010/2011 season.

##### _Table 1 - Football players registered in the Portuguese FA in 2010/2011 season  
_

The national women's coach Mónica Jorge often refers to Portugal's current FIFA/Coca-Cola World Ranking 37th place (32 places below the men's squad) as a reflection of the lack of competitiveness in the National League. The total number of female players, though, represents only 1.41% of the male players and the distribution of the players throughout the different categories is very uneven as well. There are no clubs (as there is no championship promoted by the FPF) for girls from the age of 13 to 16. This gap forces these girls to either search for other sports or to enter directly into junior/senior teams at this young age.

Only 40 players in the categories of U-13 (35 players) and U-11 (five players) are registered in the FPF making it very difficult to create a grass roots base for the development of the national championship as well as the National Women's Team. With a completely uncompetitive championship where the same team has been collecting trophies for the past ten years, it is not surprising that the more gifted athletes want to put their skills to the test in a more challenging environment. According to the DIASBOLA project 21 out of 38 National Women's Football Team Players (NWFTPs) had transnational football experience from 2001 to 2010. The percentage of migrant players increased from 50% in the past ten years to 75%. In the two latest national team selections (state: September 2011) only six of the 24 players who were elected into the squad played in Portugal, of which three players were not even regularly called onto the team. This is surprising as commented upon by Maguire et al (2002):

' _Although migrant labour has been a feature of the sport process for some time, it is also correct to observe that its frequency and extent have grown in complexity and intensity over recent decades._ ' (Maguire, J., Jarvie, G., Mansfield, L. & Bradley, J. 2002: p.26)

The data regarding male football athletes is quite different. In the 2010/2011 football season there were about 368 players (i.e. approximately 1.6%) playing abroad (' _Portugueses no estrangeiro_ ' 2010). According to the International Organization for Migration (IOM) migration is: ' _...one of the defining global issues, as more and more people are on the move today than at any other point in human history_ '. The number of people having moved from their place of birth is currently 192 million, which corresponds to 3% of the world's population meaning that roughly one out of every 35 people is a migrant.

Migration does not happen overnight nor does it happen lightly, it is a complex process, which nowadays is looked upon as an essential and inevitable component of the economic and social life of nations (' _About migration_ ' 2011). Furthermore, it is acknowledged that when dealt with properly, both the individual and the society can benefit. Sport migrations are fuelled by several motivations. For example: ' _for migrant soccer players (...) the desire to compete at the top level is (...) an important factor_ '. (Maguire, Jarvie, Mansfield & Bradley 2002) The DIASBOLA project based on data from Agergaard and Botelho (2010) determined that the main motivations in female football migration are, as Tiesler (2011) argues:

  * Sporting ambition, which includes: pioneers, ambitionists, choosing ones, picking ones, exile (Maguire 1996. Magee/Sugden 2002)
  * Football experience
  * Dream of social mobility

Financial prospects de-motivating factor, and the same project named the following:

  * Cultural adaptation: ' _I couldn't understand a word off the pitch_ '
  * Playing styles: ' _It was military-like_ '
  * Social isolation, Boredom: ' _I already spend the day with internet and TV_ '
  * Education, profession: ' _I wouldn't get my job back_ '
  * Age: ' _this is for the younger ones_ '
  * Economic conditions: ' _I would have to pay for my transfer_ '

In 2006 there were 70,000 Portuguese emigrants in countries such as Switzerland, the United Kingdom, France or even the USA. A significant number of them, despite working in Spain, live in Portugal. The physical proximity between the two countries facilitates temporary migration (' _Emigração portuguesa em Espanha_ '). Indeed, a report from the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OCDE) reinforces the two types of migration: a lasting type and a temporary one. At present Portuguese people still migrate to Switzerland, Andorra, Luxembourg and France but new migratory flows are now observed to Spain and the UK. The OCDE explains that the emigrants looking for lasting jobs migrate to Switzerland and the UK while people looking for temporary work prefer going to Spain, France or the Netherlands (' _OCDE garante que números da emigração portuguesa '_ são fiáveis' 2008). However, according to Maguire (2002), migrants can be placed in different categories taking into account their migrating intentions (Table 2).

##### _Table 2: Migration intentions (Maguire 2002)  
_

## Research Methodology

It was decided to perform a qualitative (rather than quantitative) study of the migration process of the Portuguese Women's National Football Team Players (PWNFTP), this was principally because of the small number of participants (23 players) and to focus on the understanding of the player's behaviour and motivations. The objective is to determine the challenges, problems and opportunities - enabling and constraining features inherent to the migration process. In order to achieve this goal, an online survey was developed to obtain information on the identity of the migrating players, their location, motivations, living conditions, and long term plans.

#### Sample

The original sample consisted of 23 PWNFTPs of which twelve agreed to answer the online survey built for this study. This real sample was constituted of players aged from 19 to 37, either born in Portugal or with Portuguese nationality, thus fulfilling the requisites for representing Portugal's National Team. The 23 players were chosen by the Women's Team's Secretary of the Portuguese FA (FPF), Ms. Ana Caetano, from the list of players called to the national squad for the two latest team camps. In order to protect the privacy of the individuals the covering email explaining the content and objective of this research, the Internet link to the survey, as well as the confidentiality agreement, was forwarded by Ms. Caetano to the players.

#### Survey

Since some of the PWNTPs were not born in Portugal and express themselves better in English, the online survey was built both in Portuguese and in English. This research instrument demanded mostly closed and multiple-choice answers but still allowed the PWNTPs the freedom to explain the option that they had chosen. These open answer questions had the objective of distinguishing which answers should be further explored in the telephone/Skype interviews. The online survey server provided an easy tool to code the player's answers and transform them into quantitative results, as well as the possibility to decide on the need to follow up on opinions or unexpected statements.

#### Interviews

In order to further deepen the information gathered, three telephone/Skype interviews were conducted. The interviews were recorded with the permission of the respondent and notes were taken during the conversation. The selection criteria for choosing the three interviewed individuals was their playing in different countries and the potential discoveries suggested by their survey answers. To obtain more qualitative data focused (semi-structured) interviews were used. These were characterized by allowing ' _...the respondent the time and scope to talk about their opinions_ ' (' _Social research skills_ ' 2011) and ' _...its objective is to understand the respondent's point of view rather than make generalizations about behaviour_ '. The type of questions asked were open-ended, having been previously determined after having analysed the player's answers to the survey, or decided in the flow of the interview picking up on demonstrated opinions.

#### Data Gathering Limitations

Due to the restrictions in obtaining the PWNTP's contact details it was not possible to appeal to the player's participation as personal, as intentionally planned, which might have increased participation. In addition, even after having assured the confidentiality of the provided data, some of the players did not feel comfortable with sharing information relating to revenues and current working conditions and therefore did not agree to participate in the study. Consequently, from the original sample of 23 players only twelve answered the survey.

## Results

According to Maguire, et al (2002), ' _(...) the migration of athletes occurs at three levels: within nations, between nations located within the same continent and between nations located in different continents and hemispheres_ '. The original sample of 24 players part of the national squad in the two latest team camps represented six nations (Figure 1).

##### _Figure 1 - NWFTP nation distribution  
_

The 12 players who agreed to be part of this study represent five different countries.

##### _Table 3 - Sample characterization  
_

The players' average age was 24.4 years, but considering the time of their first migration this value drops to 21.6 years. All players but Neide Simões have left Portugal, migrating to another country. This player has the desire to eventually migrate following the ambition to play in a more competitive league. Meanwhile, she continues her football career in Portugal while being employed elsewhere.

Even though her only football related revenue is the payment of her transport expenses by her club, Neide is reluctant to move for she is not willing to leave her job. The age of the players helps justify the fact that only 30% of the players were not students at the moment of their decision to embark on their migration adventure. As per the motivations of the players who did migrate, the desire to play in a more competitive league was unanimously voiced as the main reason, as studies had previously suggested (Maguire 2002).

Directly associated with participation in a more challenging league, comes either the pursuit of a higher education, or the objective of becoming a professional football player. 80% of the players had more than one club interested in hiring them. The choosing process was directly linked to their motivations, as these players looked for monetary remuneration and education opportunities, as well as financing, as off balancing factors.

When given several choices to define what they considered to be the main difficulties to migrating, one was uniquely and unanimously selected: ' _being far from friends and family_ '. This is clearly not a difficulty inherent to the migration process but was the only one the players articulated. Future wise, the players had clear wishes as to where they want to live after their football careers.

Figure 2 indicates that more than half of the players stated that they would like to return to Portugal after their football migration experience. A quarter of the players would like to change countries once again.

##### _Figure 2 - NWFTP's residence after football career_

As to which job the NWFTPs hope to hold after they have finished their football career, only three think that it will not be a profession connected with their previous or future studies. (Figure 3)

##### _Figure 3 - NWFTP's profession after football career_

## Discussion

According to Agergaard and Botelho (2010) the motivating factors for the migration process of Portuguese female football migrants are: sporting ambition, football experience, dreams of social mobility and financial prospects (Tielsen 2011). The gathered data confirms these motivational factors but also allows differentiation between the main objectives for the NWFTPs. Dolores Silva, currently playing for FCR Duisburg in Germany stated that her main motivation for migrating was to ' _...fulfil a lifelong dream. I was presented with the opportunity to play for one of the best teams in the world alongside players that I had only seen on television, and I could not turn away from it_ '.

This desire to play professionally in one of the best teams in the best championship in Europe makes Dolores an ambitionist. It was very difficult for the NWFTPs to dissociate the competitiveness of a league from the professionalisation of their performance. This change from being purely an amateur athlete to one with professional responsibilities was also connected to improving their economic situation.

Women playing in Portugal can only aspire to having their transport expenses paid for. The amount paid can go up to € 100 per month but rarely goes over this number. Remuneration turned out to be an addition to their upgrade in terms of competition level, without which the players would probably not have migrated. Neide Simões, the only player in the study who did not migrate, states that the only reason that would lead her to migrate would be to better my sporting performance. In this case, the player does not mention any monetary compensation.

In order to better understand the monetary advantages of playing in a more competitive league such as Spain or Germany, revenue and benefits data relative to players in both these countries was collected. Constanza Cano Diaz, a midfielder playing for Atlético Madrid Féminas (Madrid) earns a fixed salary of € 700 In addition, as she is originally from Granada she is provided with accommodation (a room in a 6 room house in a condominium for club players) and all housing expenses are paid for.

Furthermore, she is offered lunch (two servings, a drink and a dessert) in a restaurant so that she only needs to pay for breakfast and dinner. As for sporting apparel, she is provided with three full sets of training gear as well as ' _away games sports clothes_ ' including sport shoes. The football shoes (cleats) are the only material Contanza needs to pay for. Some of the players in the team even receive bonuses for goals (€ 50 each), but not in Contanza's case.

A foreign player in the Spanish championship should earn between € 500 and € 1500.

' _Foreign players earn more because they do nothing else but play football. And if they weren't good they wouldn't have been signed._ ' Sónia Matias, RCD Espanyol player.

When comparing the best-paid female footballer in Germany, Fatmire ' _Lira_ ' Bajramaj who earns € 14,000 per month, to an average foreign player in the same league who has a salary between € 700 and € 1,500 it is obvious that there is some differentiation, but the gap with Portugal League Players is still colossal. The two main motivations for the migration process were determined, but it is still important to mention that none of the players searched specifically for a club. On the contrary, they were contacted with an offer by the club they now represent.

Therefore the igniting factor to the whole migration process was the opportunity presented to them at a specific moment in time. Two of the players were even lucky enough to be able to choose from multiple offers from different clubs – who stated their motivations as choosing emigrants for they migrate to play in a particular country in a specific club (Tiesler 2011).

All players stated that it was their strong wish to participate in a more competitive league – which is why they took the opportunity as soon as it appeared. Most of the players were in a very favourable family and economic situation to engage in this type of change in their lives, as none had any children and most of them were students. The only two players who were not students were employed. One was already a professional football player only changing clubs whereas the other player took a leave of absence so that she could go back to her job after the duration of her contract.

The reasons for choosing the club that the players now represent vary a great deal. All the players who moved to a club where there were other Portuguese players or where a friend had already played stated that that was the main reason for choosing that specific club. One other NWFTP selected a club based on the high quality of the team and the type of football played in the home championship:

' _When I got wind of the offer to move to Germany my main concerns were not being up to the challenge and to find a way to reconcile my football career with the pursuit of a university education_ '. Dolores Silva, FCR Duisburg player

Education-wise the conditions for some of these migrant players are very favourable.

  * Dolores (Germany), Amélia Pereira (USA) and Sofia Vieira (Spain) do not have to worry about their education any longer as their clubs will be paying their full university expenses as well as being flexible in terms of practice attendance

  * Laura Luís is playing in the USA and as she is playing for her university both academic and sportive success are objectives

  * Carolina Mendes and Raquel Infante now playing in Spain are part of the ERASMUS program, which allows them to continue their already on-going university studies

  * Six other footballers (five in Spain and one in Italy) on the other hand, have no desire to further their studies and simply want to dedicate their time fully to their football performance.

Unsurprisingly Carla Couto, migrant at the age of 37 (after a 3 months migration experience in 2001) having signed a year-long contract in Italy and having asked for a leave of absence in her job in Portugal didn't discuss academic condition in her contract, and wants to focus exclusively on her football performance.

On the other hand, the case of three 21 to 23 year old footballers who play together in Spain, is somewhat different. They only have their training sessions in the afternoon and have no desire to do anything else but football, setting aside any possibility of working or studying. According to fellow National Teammate Sónia Matias,

' _It is very hard for them to look at the future. They are too happy just doing what they're doing: only playing football. They are young and do not want to make plans just yet_ '. Sónia Matias, RCD Espanyol player.

Sofia Vieira had a different motivation – dreams of social mobility – for migrating within Spain was the opportunity to have her Master's degree paid for by the hiring club. In this particular case, education came before the competitive level of the hiring club.

' _It's a new team that just rose to a new Division. Things are going well but slowly..._ ' Sofia Vieira, Universidad de Alicante player.

Only for Dolores Silva did the choice of the club come above all else, making her a choosing one according to Professor Tielsen (2011). She was determined to play in a top-level club. Nevertheless, when the terms of the contract were discussed her university education was not ignored.

' _They [the club] offered to pay for language courses this year and for my university degree starting next year_ '. Dolores Silva, FCR Duisburg player.

As one can understand from the information above, the hiring club plays a huge part in the facilitation of the migration process. When a club makes an offer to a player it is intended to have her as carefree as possible, with the only concern being getting to her destination and performing at the highest level possible. This means accounting for all travel and housing expenses as well as all the necessary sporting gear. Thus, the only difficulty in migrating is ' _missing family and friends_ ', as players unanimously pointed out.

The hiring clubs understand the complexity of the migrating process both physically and psychologically and do their best to minimise the players' prearrangements for leaving the country, family and friends, job, house, etc. European clubs will pay for the player's travel expenses to the club, and from their arrival onwards, most of the NWFTP will have their living expenses paid for.

We can distinguish the typology of players who migrate to USA and the ones who migrate within Europe (Table 4).

##### _Table 4 - European vs US migrant type_

Even though this research agrees with Professor Tielsen's (Diasbola 2011) findings regarding player's motivations, it contradicts it when it comes to the de-motivating factors (Table 5).

##### _Table 5 - Enabling factors (Tielsen, 2010)  
_

As long as there is the will of a club to hire a player, managers and teammates will do their best to make the migrant player feel at home.

' _They want me to play my best so they help me to feel at home. If I don't feel this way, I don't perform as well, their investment will be useless and they won't get their money back_ '. Dolores Silva, Duisburg FC player.

Even though sport migration has grown in complexity (...) over recent decades according to Maguire (2002), from a player's standpoint it is quite easy to leave the country and embrace a new challenge and a new culture as club, teammates and athlete work together to make the process as smooth as possible. When asked to look at the future 54.5% of the NWFTPs have the desire to return to Portugal. There is a great deal of uncertainty as to how their life will be like in the next ten years but the ultimate objective is to return ' _home_ '. This desire is directly connected with the only difficulty felt while being in another country: missing family and friends. As to work related objectives after having ended their football player careers, the NWFTPs seem to have a plan. Apart from one, all the players have thought about how to continue when football is no longer a livelihood option for them. All students intend on working in their field and profit from their academic effort. The most experienced player in the squad, Edite Fernandes, has been a professional football player for ten years now. In order to do so, she had to stop studying but has not forgotten about her education.

' _I'd like to stay connected to football and finishing my school education would also be a priority_ '. Edite Fernandes, Prainsa Zaragoza player.

As soon as her career comes to an end it is her objective to either continue her studies or to build on the vast contact network she has built over the years to find a football related job in Portugal. This desire to return to her home country makes Edite part of the 54.5% of the NWFTPs who are returnees. For the moment, Edite is a mercenary as she aims to secure the best contracts possible with clubs. Apart from the players who migrated to the USA, all players playing in Europe are mercenaries as they want to obtain the most out of their football contract (i.e. having their education paid for and/or salary). Amélia on the other hand wishes to enjoy the cultural experience of being in a different nation and on a different continent and eventually to set up residence there.

Another three players wish to move to other nations (other than Portugal) or stay in the country where they now play. Sónia Matias will use football as a means to join her family in France (currently she plays in Spain). She is considering club proposals and will choose one which will hopefully meet her competitive wishes, monetary reward as well as allow her to live close (or closer) to her equally emigrant family. As Sónia so well demonstrates, playing football at a higher level is not only an objective but also a means to obtain better education, make contact with new cultures, and gain financial security.

## Conclusive Statements

When starting this research we intended to prove the theory that Portuguese elite players were either not able to pursue a university education or simply did not have the desire to do so. Furthermore, it was believed that most of the PWNTPs did not have a long-term plan, which would allow them to have quality of life after finishing their footballing career. This theory has been proven wrong. Nowadays, the process of migration is actually quite simple as the hiring club take care of most of the player's needs and the players themselves make sure that their academic objectives are met. The whole process is ignited by the desire to play in a more competitive football league and is then realised by accepting an offer from a club. Since most of these players are in their teens or twenties there are no responsibilities holding them back from ' _living a dream_ ' while preparing for the future. Possible economic restraints were resolved by financing provided by the hiring club or the help of the family members (normally parents).

Teammates and family are the main source of support and advice when it comes to choosing a club or a city/nation to move to. Players take into considerable consideration the past experiences of former club players or the presence of other Portuguese players in the squad.

As long as the player has enough talent for the club to be interested in her services, the entire migration process will be taken care of by the hiring entity. Beside this, education or job wise it is up to the player to negotiate the conditions of the contract with the club. Many clubs are more than willing to help the players in fulfilling their wishes to enrich their experience by being fully integrated in the community, studying and/or working. The large majority of players have a long term plan for when their playing career is over which normally involves working in whatever field they have or will study in. Even though playing at a higher level is an objective in itself, football is often used as a means to an end. Players use their talent to obtain monetary benefits, knowledge of different cultures and languages, and higher education.

If we could have persuaded all of the NWFTP to participate in this study, it would have delivered even more detailed and profound results, for we believe that the research findings will produce a good insight into their motivations and the whole migration process of the players. With further study, a set of recommendations could be elaborated with the objective of providing players with easy access to information and assistance, thus improving their chances to become successful Portuguese professional football players.

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Botelho, V. and Agergaard, S. (2011). Moving for the Love of the Game? International Migration of Female Footballers into Scandinavian Countries. Soccer & Society, 12(6), 806 – 819.

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Falcous, M. & J. Maguire (2005). Globetrotters and Local Heroes: Labour Migration, Basketball and Local Identities, Sociology of Sport Journal 22, 20-40

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Maguire, J. (1999), Global Sport: Identities, Societies and Civilizations, Polity Press, Cambridge

Maguire, J., Jarvie, G., Mansfield, L & J. Bradley (2002). Sport Worlds. A Sociological Perspective. Human Kinetics: Champaign, Illinois.

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Tiesler, N. & Coelho, N. (2007). Globalized Football at a Lusocentric Glance: Struggles with Market Migration, Traditions and Modernities, the Loss and the Beauty. Soccer & Society, 8(4), 419 – 439.

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# About the Contributors

### Prof Philippe Bovy

Professor emeritus at the EPFL (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne) in Switzerland.

Senior lecturer at the AISTS MSA. Specialised in mega-event transport since 1984 Sarajevo Games. IOC advisor since 1997 with transport system monitoring of Nagano, Sydney, Salt Lake City, Athens, Turin, Beijing, London, Sochi and Rio Olympic Games. Evaluation commission member for 2012 to 2020 Olympic candidate cities. Transport advisory for EURO 2012 in Poland and Ukraine.

### Prof Dr Bill Gerrard

Professor of Business and Sports Analytics at Leeds University Business School in the UK.

Visiting lecturer on the AISTS MSA programme since 2004. Current research focus is on the use of analytics to support evidence-based coaching. Also works with Sky Sports, providing statistical analysis to support their coverage of rugby league.

### Prof Dr Keith Gilbert

Professor in Sport Management at the School of Health, Sport & Bioscience and Director of the Centre for Disability, Sport & Health at the University of East London in the UK.

Researches in the area of sport management and sport sociology, which includes opening up many areas of innovation and has a strong interest in qualitative, interpretive and narrative research methodologies.

### Geert Hendriks

AISTS Head of Projects, AISTS MSA 2012 graduate with a MSc in Business Administration from the Open University in the Netherlands.

Coordinates a range of research and consulting projects with international sports organisations. Current research focuses on the private sector's involvement in sport for development and peace as well as sustainable sport and events.

### Sara Holmgren

BA in Sports Medicine from Umeå University in Sweden, and AISTS MSA 2013 graduate.

Works within the National Associations Development unit at UEFA, managing and developing programmes offered to the national associations.

### Marcelo Henrique Lutterbach Penna

MBA from PUC-Rio (Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro ) in Brazil and AISTS MSA 2011 graduate.

Currently works at Ernst & Young as part of the dedicated Rio 2016 Ernst & Young-team, accumulating Olympic experience in areas such as risk management, methodologies, mapping, and training centre legacy planning.

### Deyvi Mizrahi

BA in Business Administration from Koc University in Turkey and AISTS MSA 2010 gradutate.

Assisted Turkish Basketball Federation and Ukrainian Basketball Federation in successfully securing the hosting rights of FIBA 2014 Women's Basketball Championships and Eurobasket 2015. Currently working for TR!K in Turkey where he is providing sport strategy consultancy to and managing the sponsorship activation processes.

### Prof Dr Joseph Maguire

Professor of Sociology of Sport, School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University.

AISTS MSA Senior lecturer. Past-President of the International Sociology of Sport Association, (ISSA) and Past-President of the International Sociological Association Research Committee 27 (Sociology of Sport) and is currently on the Executive Board of the International Council for Sport Science and Physical Education.

### Prof Dr Daniel Oyon

Professor of management control at HEC Lausanne, the Faculty of Business and Economics of the University of Lausanne in Switzerland. Chairman of the AISTS MSA Scientific Committee. Senior lecturer at the AISTS MSA on ' _The Business of Football_ '.

### Luis Rosas

Bachelor in Business Administration from UNAM (Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico) in Mexico and AISTS MSA 2013 graduate.

Former professional football player (Mexico, 1st league). Previously business Development Manager of the Real Academia de Futbol Española and worked for the Bern Football Club in Switzerland.

### Dr Claude Stricker

AISTS Executive Director. PhD in Economics. Master in Management and Information System, Degree in Physical Education. Director of the AISTS MSA.

Experienced in sport as an international competitor, technical director and committee member of several sport associations and foundations, coach and physical educator.

### Cátia Relíquias Teresa

Bachelor of Sports Science from the Technical University of Lisbon in Portugal and AISTS MSA 2011 graduate.

Former physical education teacher and national (Portuguese) and international football player. Currently works as Sports' Social Responsibility Officer at SportAccord.

# About the AISTS

The International Academy of Sports Science and Technology (AISTS), one of the world's premier Sports Management education and research academies, is committed to professionalising sports management through the three core activity areas of continuing education, applied research and providing an engaging platform for industry connections.

Founded as a not-for-profit foundation in 2000, AISTS Founding Members: the International Olympic Committee, the EPFL, the University of Lausanne, the University of Geneva, IMD Business School, Ecole Hôtelière de Lausanne, the City of Lausanne and the Canton of Vaud, all recognise the importance of meeting the evolving knowledge needs of today's sports managers.

AISTS's applied research arm conducts independant and commissioned research projects, in addition to helping sports organisations and federations navigate an increasingly complex sport landscape through advisory and consulting services in the fields of:

  * Economic Impact Studies;

  * Developing Women's Leadership;

  * Sport Sustainability and Corporate Social Responsibility;

  * and Sports Development Initiatives.

As part of this focus area, the AISTS has established the Sustainable Sport & Events Centre - a centre of expertise for sustainability and corporate social responsibility for sport and sport events. The Centre aim is to engage and empower the sport sector with the knowledge and tools, such as the AISTS Sport Sustainability e-learning online course and Sustainable Sport Event Toolkit, to convene successful and sustainable sport events.

Through the AISTS's flagship programme, the postgraduate Master of Sports Administration (MSA) has been educating aspiring sport managers from all over the world for over a decade. Frequently ranked amongst the top Sports Management programmes worldwide, the AISTS delivers more than 900 hours of continuing education each year, bringing together over 140 international sport experts in the sciences of Management, Technology, Law, Medicine, and Sociology to produce strong and inspired industry leaders.

It is through this combination of research and educational activities which provides the AISTS with a unique position to connect the world of academia with the sport industry. Through a range of dynamic and engaging platforms such as roundtables, seminars, workshops, and open conferences, the AISTS aims to create opportunities that broker dialogue, broaden networks and deepen relationships.

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