Good morning ladies and gentle man, last time
we started with Transmission Line
Parameters and we completed the inductance
part of it. Today, we will be talking the
second member of the family of the parameters
of transmission line that is capacitance.
Capacitance is equally important, if not more
and it forms the shunt part of the line
parameters, the only shunt parameters which
is of importance, because the other one
conductance is almost always neglected as
already informed last time.
.
Whenever you pass an AC current to the line,
the line capacitance draws leading current
and charging current is drawn even when the
line is open circuited at the far end; in
fact
because of this as you must have already learned
in your under graduate, that is a effect
called Ferranti effect and that is because
of the capacitance. Now, capacitance is also
proportional to the length line and that is
why for short line, we almost always neglect
it.
.And as you know for short line, we employ
just series model, that is r and inductance,
no
capacitance, it is zero and this is without
loss of any accuracy, because it indeed is
very
small, there we will talking about magnetic
field intensity. I am sure you must have
learnt the concept of duality in circuit theory
in third year or second year, what is dual?
Resistance and conductance or inductance and
capacitance or you are you know what
you called Thevenin theorem and Norton’s
theorem these are all dual, concept of duality.
.
So, another concept of duality here is magnetic
field intensity was there; here it is
electric field intensity. So, electric field
intensity at a distance y from the axis of
the
conductor is given by E is equal to q upon
2 pi k y, this k is permittivity of the medium;
in certain books or certain authors call it
epsilon, so I call it, again started calling
it
epsilon. Epsilon is equal to epsilon 0 into
epsilon r like mu was equivalent to mu 0 and
mu r, this was permittivity of the free space,
this is of the medium, this is overall
permittivity.
Similarly, the parallel analogous thing is
permittivity epsilon 0 into epsilon r, this
mu 0
was 4 pi into 10 is to power minus 7 henry
per meter, so this is 8.85 into 10 is to power
minus 12 farad per meter and epsilon r is
of course 1 for air, like mu r was indeed
1 for
air, this is a perfect duality or analogous
properties shared by magnetic field and electric
field.
..
Now, as we have found out inductance of a
two wire line, similarly we have to find out
capacitance of a two wire line. So, as you
can see in the figure, there are two conductors
1 and 2 or a and b whichever you want, they
are shown of different sizes, but they can
be
of same size, in that case r a becomes r b
is equal to r as you shown here. Their current
was i a is equal to minus i a, here the charges
are q a is equal to minus q b, D is the
spacing between the two conductors, two wires;
obviously, D is much larger than r, that
goes without same. So, what is the capacitance
between conductors a and b? 0.0121 upon
log d by r, whenever I write log means to
the base 10, whenever I write ln natural log
means to the base e, one can be converted
into another, that formula is known to you.
This is that was millihenry per kilometer,
here the practical units are macrofarad per
kilometer, you always talk of picos and nanos
and micros and farads and of course
electron is still smaller, but even in power
lines it is microfarad per kilometer. This
derivation you can see in the book if you
want, but you must have already done it in
your
under graduate, I have no intension of repeating
what you have already done.
..
This is a very important parameter called
charging current 
I c, obviously is equal to j
omega c a b into v a b and it is again amperes
per kilometer, omega as all of you know it
is 2 pi f, f is frequency, which is normally
50 hertz or 60 hertz for any power lines.
So,
again I have redrawn the same figure of earlier
pages a b, only difference is, here I am
showing capacitance (()) of them, which is
line to line capacitance C a b, the formula
we
have already computed 0.01 to 1 upon log of
D by r. Would you notice that, r is no r dash
here, this is nothing like internal flux,
there it was so that is why 0.7788 times r
is equal
to r dash, but here there is nothing like
r dash, it is r only and this is what the
students
normally go wrong, when they start using r
dash also here, there is no r dash in
capacitance.
I hope you will keep this in mind while solving
problems, otherwise even your if whole
problem is right and if you make r dash here;
teacher is within his rights or her rights
to
give you zero, because they do not know any
difference between capacitance and
inductance, then do not say it is very minor
point, it is a major point. Now, I can always
replace C a b by two individual line to neutral
capacitances, C a n and C b n. Obviously,
C a n and C b n is equal to 2 C a b right,
this is line to neutral capacitance, this
n is a
neutral point.
..
Suppose it is same, C a n and C b n which
will be then, why have two a n and b n have
C
n capacitance will neutral, when both are
same, then rise the question of a and b, so
C n
and that is equal to twice C a b and naturally
that is same formula just multiplied by 2.
So, you will get 0.0242 upon log of D by r,
this log means 10 and as I am repeatedly
saying, so that while you can computing do
not making mistake and the units continuity
to be same macrofarad per kilometer; if somebody
wants you to find out in farads per
kilometer, I am sure all of you are intelligent
enough to multiply by 10 is to minus 6.
Remember one golden rule, if the units are
large, then the number expressing them will
be smaller; if you unit is smaller, than the
number expressing them will be large; 100
paisa is equal to 1 rupee, rupee is a large
unit, so only 1, paisa is a small unit, so
100.
Many times you get confusion, whether you
have to multiply by 100 or divide by 100,
spatially when they are similar in a kilometer
to miles, many people get confused should
I multiply by 1.6 or should I divided by 1.6,
there you should know at least this much
mile is a bigger unit than kilometer, if you
do not know that, then god only help you,
then toss a coin.
..
What are the assumptions in deriving these
equations which you might have derived in
your earlier courses; charge on the surface
of the each conductor is assumed to be
uniformly distributed, any assumption in life
is not necessarily, in fact not 100 percent
true right, it is only an assumption, an assumption
is something which is close to what
happens in practice. IT students always study,
it is an assumption, but it normally
happens, I mean most of the students will
study, IT teachers take classes, they do take
classes, there are some who may not take classes,
but that should be minority, if it is
majority, then this assumption is invalid.
If it is not true, suppose it is not uniformly
distributed, then formula gets modified to
this
one and now it is bit slightly complicated
d upon 2 r gets modified to d squared upon
4 r
square minus 1, under which again microfarad
per kilometer. There are some examples
given in the book based on this non uniformity
of distribution of charges on the surface
of conductor and see what difference does
it make in computation of capacitance and
that will give you a fairly good idea, how
much affect is there of charge being not
uniformly distributed. In fact, not much and
that is why we neglect that, if charge
distribution is not uniform, we do not take
any cognizance and we can continue to use
this formula, but if somebody is fuzzy, here
is another formula and that he can compute
it exactly.
..
I said if D by 2 r is more than 1, which is
normally the situation spacing is always more
than the diameter of the conductor or wire,
in that case we get back our original equation
log of 
D upon 2 r macrofarad per kilometer to neutral,
these should be replace by d
equivalent for unsymmetrical spacing; please
understand unsymmetrical spacing is
something different than non uniform charge
distribution. Here, it means this is
unsymmetrical, do not think this is symmetrical
why between a and c, it is 2 d between a
and b, it is d between b and c it is d, though
it may look you symmetrically placed, but
it
is not symmetrically spaced.
This is however symmetrical spacing, because
each is d, so here you use d equivalent
which happens to be incidentally cube root
of d into d into 2 d; so 2 d q whereas, here
d
equivalent is same as d, because d equivalent
is nothing but, d q and cube root of which
d
again, so line current is equal to j omega
c n, v a n ampere per kilometer c n is this
the
formula to be used for c n, v a n is known
to you well here is the big figure.
..
Shown to you, which I have already drawn,
there was no need to draw, but still since
it
has been drawn, you can have a look at it;
these are the three conductors a b c and this
is
the equilateral triangle, they are sitting
on the vertices of an equilateral triangle,
an
equilateral triangle is one whose sides are
equal.
.
This is a very important topic in capacitance
as I told you earlier, this is not effective
in
conductance, the effect of earth on transmission
line capacitance; why you to bother for
effect of earth because, capacitance in the
shunt parameter it is ground it whereas,
.inductance is not a shunt parameter it is
a series parameter, so we highly care for
earth
presence we ignore as it is the lines are
quite high from the earth, so the effect of
earth on
capacitance can be conveniently taken into
account by the method of images. I am sure
those of you have studied a field theory in
your under graduate, they must be knowing
what is method of images, those you know optics
they should also know what is method
of images, now the equation can be derived
when you consider the effect of earth, this
is
the method of image, this is a conductor,
this is a earth, this is height, height this
is r a
dash and then, they can be specifying D b
dash c dash and so on.
So, effect of earth and capacitance can be
conveniently taken into account by the method
of images and the formula, so derived is this
2 pi k log d upon r 1 plus D square upon 4
H square whole thing under root; so, many
farads per meter to neutral please remember
here, there is no microfarad per kilometer,
here it is farad per meter. You can solve
a
numerical problem involving the effect of
earth and see how much difference it makes,
at
least go through these solved examples, of
please do not worry about unsolved.
.
At least solve the solved examples of chapters
two and three and four that should be
enough as for as this course; is concerned
height of the conductor above the earth is
much much more than d the 
effect of earth on line capacitance is of
negligible order,
inductance anyway it is neglected but capacitance
also it is negligible, but what happens
if you want to consider it increases the capacitance
of line, this is asked in interviews.
.Teacher may ask you in interview, do not
worry I want to include it, you may say no
no
sir it is negligible, it is no no its still
I want to what happens and suppose you say
decrease the capacitance and your chances
of becoming also decreased, you have to say
it increases the capacitance of a line. That
is clear from the formula itself you do not
have to apply much brain, why it increases
the formula itself tells.
.
We have done bundle conductors in inductance,
having same thing you have to do in in
capacitance for similar reasons, you also
want to reduce capacitance, why we want to
reduce capacitance; anything which reduces
the voltage it has the voltage drop should
be
reduced. So, here now you have shown a bundle
of two sub conductors: this is phase a,
this is phase b, this is phase c, the sub
conductors are from each other at a distance
small
d and the whole phase a is D 12 from phase
b, D 23 from phase c, and d 31 from between
phase a and c.
Naturally, it is unsymmetrical spacing, even
D 12 did not be same as D 23 that is why it
is not only D, I further made substitutes
12 23 two 31, which incidentally also tells
you it
is from conductor 1 and 2, conductor 2 and
3 or alternately you could have ask me why
we not use a and b, right you could have very
well use D a b, no harm D b c, D c a same
thing it already makes some difference and
now the equations are for capacitance 0.242
upon log of D equivalent upon under root r,
D what is under root r D s self g m D, right
and D equivalent you know already which is
the cube root of all three spaces
.multiplication of all three spaces with this,
ladies and gentleman we finish chapter three
and we start chapter four which is called
representation of power system components.
In
fact, we are reviewing what we have done earlier;
this is representation of power system
components.
.
What you shown in the figure is single phase
solution of balanced three phase networks
and if the networks are balanced why shown
all three phases, it is a replica of three
spaces, only difference of 120 degrees field
difference. So, go on subtracting or adding
120 degree depending on which phase you are
consider, what you shown in the figure is
a single phase of balanced three phase networks,
this is source, this is a impedance,
source impedance, this is a load impedance,
this is neutral of the generator, this is
neutral
of the load n is connected. Now, there are
one lined presentation of simple power system,
line diagram call it this is used in practice
because, actual diagrams are very complicated,
so for simplicity, for easiness, for understanding,
we use line diagram or one lined
presentation of a simple power system.
..
This contains practically everything that
is there in a power system, it has shown
generator on both the side, receiving end
as well as sending end, that is why now there
is
no use of calling sending and receiving end,
you can send from any end power, you can
receive power to any end node; for simplicity
we are calling here generator one,
generator two, generator three, there are
only three generators now, it is a star connected
grounded through an inductance, all three
generators are star connected, but some of
are
grounded through resistance, some of them
grounded through inductance.
So, grounding itself is a big factor in power
system, I am sure you must all have done it
in your under graduate; what is what is all
these things you can review, you can go
through in that red book or brown book whatever
book it is, there is a chapter given there
on lightning and on insulation insulation
coordination, trangium card all these things
you
can read if you want to revise, then there
has to be a transformer T1 T2; obviously,
the
generator and transformer has to be step up,
if power is going from here to here, if power
is going from here to here, then this has
to be step up, whichever side you have sending
power has to weak because power has to sent
at a higher voltage, it is cheaper, higher
the
voltage more power transfer is possible now,
transformer is also star delta delta star
you
may see a table given in book a 30 degree
you know, what is the shift in the phase,
shift
all those things. So, here it is star star
solidly grounded here, this is star delta,
star
grounded delta is, there is no question of
delta having in ground then, this rectangles
are
circuit breakers this is a load a is a load
load can be on both the sides, let power can
be
.generated can be in both the sides. So, is
the load, two loads are shown in this figure;
load a load b and as we already know load
can be represented in three manners load
modeling: in fact, load modeling is a very
important chapter in power systems why
because load itself is a very important parameter,
if there have been no load there have
been no electrical engineering therefore,
nothing to supply power, why should we study
power systems, we are studying power systems
because, each and every time we needs
electric power, whether it is your computers,
whether it is your hair driers, whether it
is
your geezer or a c or fridge or vacuum cleaner;
whatever device we use it has the motor
may be tinny motor, may be big motor, may
be small motor and that motor has to run
from electricity, the input is electric power,
output is mechanical power.
So, it runs whatever you want to run whether
it is a mixie, whether it is (()) whatever
or a
big gigantic industries, circuit breakers
why do you need you want protection, you want
to protect your system, why do you wear sweater
in winter? may be you want to protect
your body from cold, from wintry winds; why
do you wear a hat or a cap or a in summer
because, we want to protect your eyes, protect
your body and now it is all sorts of sun
creams are available. As if you are became
sports person and you have to stay in a sun
long hours, so use those sun creams on your
exposed part of your body, in fact this is
real
danger of getting skin cancer, in countries
like Australia, where sun is very very strong
even 35 degree centigrade is often there,
so it is injurious, so for 35 degree is nothing,
we
are 2 into 48 45 46 35 is fair good weather
for us, for them it is certifies very bad,
this
year in France several hundred people died,
because of the sun stroke, because of the
hot
sun, for the first time 100 degree Fahrenheit
is crossed it made a history, for us every
day
hundred Fahrenheit or 95 Fahrenheit is crossed;
so, this circuit breakers are required to
protect the various devices, various generators,
loads, transformers.
..
So, which is shown in a rectangular form,
what is a per unit system? Not Punjab
university, PU is per unit, I am sure all
of you know what is per unit, you cannot pass
your degree exams without knowing what is
per unit. Electrical engineers per unit value
of any quantity is equal to the actual units,
in any units upon the base or the reference
value in the same units units have gone to
be same in numerator and denominator,
because per unit value has no units, so units
have got to be cancelled, so you convert the
one of the two units are not same, various
section in power systems are connected
through transformers, I was just talking about
why they are connected to transformers
and since they are connected through transformers.
So, they have different voltage levels, because
the mere presence of transformer allows
you to have a different voltage level on both
sides, because the transformer is serving
that purpose to interconnect two sections
having different voltages, same job is done
by
frequency converter if you to interconnect
France and England, where two frequencies
are not same. Let us start with impedance,
because as I said load is the main thing,
impedance per unit impendence is obtained
by impedance in actual ohm into base upon
k
V base whole square, which derivation of formula
is given in the book if you want you
can go through the derivation otherwise, you
can assume it on any case you can done it
in earlier courses.
..
Per unit transformer sorry per unit impedance
of a transformer is a same whether
computed from primary or secondary side, so
long as the voltage bases of the two sides
are in the ratio of transformation, suppose
it is irrelevant to 33 KV transformer, the
transformer ratio is the small a is one by
three or three depending on which you are
looking at, so if your bases are also in the
proportion to 1 is to 3 or 3 is to 1, then
it
hardly matters whether you are computed from
primary side or from the secondary side,
the value of per unit impedance of a transformer
will remain the same.
.
.You can read more about per unit things into
the book chapter four and you can see how
a base is change, the per unit value changes,
you must have given that per unit value of
new base is equal to per unit value of the
old base is equal to KV base old upon K V
base
new whole square into I V base old upon I
V base new this formula is known to you, so
I
have not written it here, please revise it.
What is the complex power in a single phase
load, the different types of power complex
power, real power, active power, reactive
power, apparent power and so on, here is a
generator shown in a power, having voltage
V across it current is I and here is a load,
we cannot get simple power system than this
it
is a power system, they has to be source,
they has to be a load voltage and current
and
anything else and the phase diagram is a simplest
type of pharos diagram; voltage is a
reference most of the time and current is
lagging because 99 percent of loads in practice
are lagging load, why it is a induction motor,
which forms the main part of the load right
from fractional kilowatt to several hundred
megawatt. So, for induction motors, so all
induction motors have lagging power factor,
so the current is lagging voltage by theta,
theta is the power factor angle, theta can
vary from zero to infinity, so the voltage
shown
or voltage phasor is equal to voltage magnitude
into angle delta and current is I into
angle delta minus theta, here delta is zero
suppose if there is a some crack ..
.
So, in that case it is true, what is complex
power? I just talking about complex power
as
is V into I conjugate, why it is complex because
of the conjugation phasor quantities are
there there is a magnitude as well as angle
referring to the last phasor diagram shown
to
.you. Just now, units of complex powers are
volt amperes KVA, MVA that solve we do
not go into milli volt ampere, that is a job
of electronic engineers, communication
engineers, they go in a different part of
the frequency megahertz, gigahertz we operate
in
the just 50, 60, 0 to 100 mega power, but
not frequency, so I was magnitude I angle
minus theta in that figure. So, you conjugate
it to make it plus theta, a plus j b conjugate
will be a minus j b, what is conjugate? Change
the sine of imaginary parts, if it is a minus
j b, it will became a plus j b, if it is a
plus j b it becomes a minus j b, so here it
becomes I
angle theta it was actually I angle minus
theta, because theta was lagging if I expand
it
further I hope all of you know they are all
same, I hope you know these all three are
same is it cleared all of you, all these three
things are exactly same.
So, angle theta can replaced by cosine theta
plus j sine theta and V I is a common factor
to both and all of you know that, V I cosine
theta is nothing, but real power real sine
theta is reactive power. The units of real
power is watt, kilowatt, megawatt, gigawatt,
nowadays we have talk of and simultaneously,
the correspondingly the units of reactive
power is VAR kVAR MVAR GVAR and what is apparent
power any one of you, the
magnitude of complex power is called apparent
power, however the units remains same,
so p square plus q square under root is apparent
power. What is this apparent power? The
rating of various equipments is always shown
in kVA, MVA, VA, the 
transformer of a
generator of 10 kVA, so equipment rating is
always showed in apparent power, if q is
positive it is a lagging current, lagging
power factor, if q is negative it is a current
leading, power factor.
..
P plus j Q is supplied by source and is absorbed
by the load, source and sink in
electronics you might have read source and
sink, Q is nothing but tan inverse Q by P
is it
Q, so V theta, that is a problem if somebody
else types and somebody else gives lecture,
two should be same right. So, P is root 3
v l I l cosine theta if you want to use line
values
which is nothing, but same as three times
V phase, I phase into cosine theta, because
is
as line the others becomes line upon root
three, so root 3 gets cancelled and 1 root
3 is
left. So, they are same same thing I can do
here also and I am sure you must remember
this equations, till your electrical engineering,
once you will became city bank then no
need, to it all of you starts selling cigarettes,
then no need to do it.
..
Synchronous machine, I am sure no past engineer
can forget about synchronous machine
as you cannot forget about induction machine,
in fact induction machine is also used as
a
generator, when you use non conventional sources
of energy that is what yours main
topic most important element of a power system
is synchronous machine, because a
synchronous machine is not there there is
no power generation and if power is not
generated we do not need any induction motor
whose to supply power to them.
So, mechanical power gets converted into electrical
power in synchronous machine, the
input is mechanical, the output is electrical,
in motor input is electrical, output is
mechanical; just the reverse, otherwise machine
same, machine excitation control vars
flow in or out of machine, the equation for
frequency is well known to you NP by 120 N
is the speed P is the number of poles 120
is 120000 plus 20 hertz, if you want a two
pole
machine the f is since the value of f is known,
so for a 50 hertz supply for P is equal to
two pole, the N is 3000 RPM which normally
required for thermal plant, if P is four N
is
500 1550 750 and so on. Similarly, if get
60 hertz when you get employed in U S then
this 3000 will change to 3000 will change
36000 and 1500 to 1800 and so on.
..
This Phasor diagram is very important, E is
the excitation voltage, V is the voltage at
the
machine terminal, this is a current lagging
by theta, if you add to this voltage the drop,
that you get excitation E f, delta is called
load angle, torque angle and so on. Theta
is the
power factor Q by P, this is a current actually
the figure is not drawn properly, this is
90
degree because all drops are added 90 degrees,
so this should have been, this is b, right
this is phasor diagram of cylindrical rotor
synchronous machine, why cylindrical?
Anybody because it is only X otherwise, you
would have A X D and X Q 2 reaction
theory this is non non (()) is cylindrical
otherwise, it would have been like this, where
the
air gap is non uniform.
..
E excitation voltage is something do with
VARS, delta has something do with power,
real power, this is a simplest possible, representation
of a synchronous machine, constant
voltage with constant series reactance and
terminal voltage and current. This X s is
nothing, but X a plus X l armature reactance
and leakage reactance, both together are
called synchronous reactance; so V t can be
written as the E f minus a drop, the
resistance as well as inductance, you can
always have resistance in real life. Even
your
inductance will have a some resistance, it
may not be perfect inductance, it may be
leaking; anybody who knows what is infinite
bus? Very good it is like a sea, if you take
a
one bucket of water from sea nothing is going
to happen.
..
So, a big system its voltage and frequency
remains constant, even if you draw power
factor exact analogy is like a sea. So, large
system whose voltage and frequency change
it is called infinite bus, is normally asked
in interviews again. Consider now a
synchronous generator, feeding constant active
power into an infinite bus as the machine
excitation is varied current and power factor
angle also change in such a manner as to
keep the real power constant, this is a subject
of our next lecture that is tomorrow. Why
this is important? without affecting the real
power flow, we can play with, temper with,
the power factor angle as well as current,
because the one changes the another has to
change because the total this remains constant,
since you are keeping v constant, these
two have to change in different direction,
so that the product remains same, so this
story
we will be learnt, narrate, listen, tomorrow
that is tuesday, so today any difficulties,
so
far.
What is load modeling?
Load modeling is our last section in this
chapter, load is the normally modeled in three
ways: the constant impedance, the constant
admittance, constant current and constant
power, you must have rate the numerical as
five NPMA load of five mega watt a load of
five ohm. So, how the load is modeled, depending
on which studies you are doing if you
doing load flow study load is always specified
as megawatt in India P and Q if you are
doing relaying protection, load are five amperes
and otherwise, normally you have load
.in ohms impedance, constant impedance, constant
admittance, and then, there are
complicated loads modeling where it varies
with voltage the voltage varies load varies
and there are several other models. In fact,
you can do p h d thesis on load modeling.
So,
that I think we will wait until your break
is over anything else.
So, why the communication lines are run parallel
to the power?
As I told you earlier days to save money of
the towers or poles, because otherwise you
have to erect another pole, where is the where
is the space, why transmission lines you
are not able to erect the right of way, each
inch of space in Kerala, if you have to go
to
Kerala either there is a water or there is
a irrigation or there is a house, there is
no space
are available. Soon, we will have same problem
in I T campus where do you erect, new
hostels, where do you built houses for employees,
faculty we each each is going to be
used we have to have playgrounds, we have
to have administration building, we have to
have teaching blocks, we can go only vertically
because there is no space and that is why
we have using the same poles same tower, so
otherwise go for wireless communication.
It is having drawbacks too
There are always plus and minus in life, we
cannot have any arrangement where there
are no drawbacks, where there are always pluses,
win win situation we do talk, but there
is situation which has been win somebody else
must be looser in that will will right
anything else.
.
