33
ad forty days after his resurrection
Jesus Christ ascends into heaven he
leaves behind eleven apostles
commissioning them to make disciples of
all nations baptizing them in the name
of the Father and of the Son and of the
Holy Spirit there were only 500
disciples in the world all of them
located in the remote riman province of
Judea this is the story of how the
gospel spread from five hundred
disciples in Jerusalem to the whole
world nine days after the Ascension the
day of Pentecost the Twelve Apostles are
praying together with Mary the mother of
Jesus
suddenly the Holy Spirit descends upon
them and Peter preaches to the people of
Jerusalem three thousand people are
converted the church is born people from
all across the known world are present
in Jerusalem to hear Peters speech in
acts 8 Philip while in Gaza shares the
gospel with the eunuch of the royal
court of Ethiopia the eunuch believes
the gospel and is baptized he returns to
Ethiopia to spread the good news Philip
continues his preaching in Caesarea
maritima on the Mediterranean coast in
Acts 11 persecuted disciples in
Jerusalem flee as far as Phoenicia
Cyprus and Antioch where they spread the
gospel Antioch is the third largest city
in the Roman Empire after Rome and
Alexandria
in acts 13 and 14 Paul and Barnabus
spread the gospel in Cyprus Pamphylia
and southern Galatia following the
Council of Jerusalem in acts 15 Paul
sets out on his second missionary
journey from Antioch preaching the
gospel in his native Silesia before
moving on to Macedonia and Greece on his
return home he visits Ephesus the
largest city in the Roman province of
Asia in modern-day Turkey and the fourth
largest city in the Roman Empire in acts
18 to 21 Paul sets out from Antioch to
visit the churches he had established
across Galatia Asia Macedonia and Greece
before returning to Jerusalem in acts 27
Paul has taken under guard by Roman
soldiers from Judea to Rome after
leaving Crete the ship has lost to a
storm but miraculously lands of Malta in
acts 28 from where Paul makes his final
journey to Rome the narrative history of
the Bible ends in acts 28 with Paul
teaching the faith in Rome tradition
tells us of the journeys of the other
apostles st. James the older brother of
John the Evangelist preaches the gospel
in Spain he returns to Jerusalem where
in acts 12 is run through with the sword
by Herod Agrippa
Philip spritz the gospel in Asia where
he is crucified upside down Bartholomew
travels to India after sharing the
gospel there he travels to the kingdom
of Armenia the location of Mount Ararat
where he is skinned alive and beheaded
Thomas who doubted the resurrection of
Jesus preaches in the kingdoms of
Austria and Armenia before traveling to
India where he preaches in Punjab and
mylapore he is stabbed to death by Hindu
priests near Madras Mathew stays in
Palestine where he writes his gospel in
Hebrew he eventually moves to Ethiopia
where he is martyred Simon and Jude
preach in Tessa Fong capsule of the
Parthian Empire where they are said to
converse 60,000 believers before
returning to sue an air modern-day
Beirut in Syria where they are martyred
Matthias who was chosen to replace the
apostle Judas evangelizes Armenia and
the north shore of the Black Sea
he returns to Jerusalem and is stoned to
death st. James the just stays in
Jerusalem and prays in the temple every
day finally an angry mob throws him off
the top of the temple and stones and
clubs him to death shortly thereafter
Jerusalem revolts against the Roman
Empire the armies of Vespasian march on
Jerusalem and completely destroy it
including the temple in 70 AD
Andrew the brother of Simon Peter
spreads the gospel as far north as
Crimea and present-day Ukraine before
preaching in Byzantium present-day
Constantinople and finally arriving in
the city of Patras in the province of
akia present-day Greece where he is
crucified on an axe shaped cross as he
deemed himself unworthy to be crucified
on the same type of cross as Jesus Simon
Peter leaves Jerusalem following the
council in acts 15 and becomes the first
Bishop of Antioch where he stays for
eight years
he then preaches in Asia before arriving
in Rome Simon Magus who in acts 8 had
attempted to buy the gift of laying on
hands follows Peter and his travels
across the world performing magic tricks
to convince people that he not Jesus is
the true Savior Simon Magus teaches his
followers that he is the true God who
had revealed himself as the Father in
Samaria the son in Judea and now the
Holy Spirit to the Gentiles Simon Magus
becomes known as the father of all
heretics those who try to lead the
faithful astray from the sound teaching
of Simon Peter Simon Magus also taught
that his followers would be saved by
grace alone without the need for good
works because in his teaching the
designation of works as good or bad was
an arbitrary construct invented by
fallen angels at Rome Simon Peter and
Simon Magus are brought before Emperor
Nero while the Apostle Paul prays for
Simon Peter Simon Magus performs a magic
trick where his lifted into the air by
demons
however Simon Peter commands the demons
to release him and Simon Magus falls to
his death
Simon Peter sends his disciple marked
the Evangelist to Alexandria Egypt the
second-largest city in the world mark
becomes Alexandria's first bishop
emperor nero blames christians for the
Great Fire of Rome in the year 64 and
slaughters the Christians in Rome the
Apostles Peter and Paul are martyred
Peter is crucified upside down on
Vatican Hill because he deems himself
unworthy to be crucified in the same
manner as Jesus Saint John the
Evangelist
is thrown into a cauldron of boiling oil
in Rome but is unharmed he is then
banished to the island of Patmos where
he receives the vision of Revelation
after he is released from exile Saint
John resides in Ephesus his last words
are said to be little children loved one
another
the Apostles established churches
throughout the Mediterranean world led
by the three patron C's of Rome
Alexandria and Antioch from these seas
missionaries spread the gospel to the
whole world Carthage in North Africa
along with Gaul and England were
converted by missionaries from Rome
after the Apostles died their disciples
known as the Apostolic fathers continue
to lead the church around the Year 90
hope Clement the first of Rome writes to
the Church of Corinth rebuking certain
instigators who had rebelled against the
church's presbytery sheis patriarch of
Antioch is condemned to be fed to beasts
in the Colosseum in Rome early in the
second century on his journey he writes
letters to churches throughout the
Mediterranean encouraging them in the
faith Saint Polycarp Bishop of Smyrna in
Asia near Ephesus was a disciple of st.
John the Evangelist he was cast into a
fire in 155 when the fire failed to harm
him he was run through with a sword the
second century would see the successors
of the Apostles seek not only to justify
Christianity against arguments from a
skeptical Greek world but also rebuked
heretics who sought to teach a distorted
twisted version of the gospel
valentineís attempted to lead astray the
churches at Alexandria and Rome
Valentine is taught that only his
disciples he received a special type of
secret knowledge called gnosis would
achieve true spiritual salvation
Marcion came to Rome shortly after
Valentinus and attempted to persuade
Christians that the God of the Old
Testament was not the same as the god of
the New Testament Marcy and taught that
the God of the Old Testament was an evil
being called the Demiurge and that the
Demiurge had created the physical world
as a prison for souls who'd fallen from
the pure spiritual world
Marcion taught that the true God had
sent an enlightened spirit Jesus Christ
in the appearance of a human to rescue
fallen Souls from the corrupt physical
world and lead them into a pure
non-physical spiritual world the
teaching that Jesus was a divine spirit
without a real human body became known
as docetism Justin Martyr was born in
Samaria after studying philosophy he was
converted to Christianity by an old man
along the seashore
he then traveled through Asia answering
objections to Christianity raised by
Jews and Greeks and refuting the
teachings of Marcion he finally came to
Rome why during the reign of Marcus
Aurelius he was denounced by cynic
philosopher Christians Justin was
beheaded in Rome in the year 168
Eirene es of leon was a disciple of
Polycarp who had been taught directly by
Saint John the Evangelist
after learning the fate from Polycarp
Irene EOS traveled from Asia to Gaul
where he became Bishop of Leon
he wrote a grand treatise against the
agnostic system of Valentinus against
heresies which is still preserved to
this day the three largest cities in the
Roman Empire were Rome Alexandria and
Antioch these cities had authority over
their Patriarchate's which in the case
of Rome included all of the Western
Roman Empire Italy Africa Illyricum and
akia Alexandria had authority over Egypt
and Antioch had authority over churches
in the Middle East the bishops of Rome
and Alexandria took the title of Pope
while the Bishop of Antioch took the
title of patriarch these bishops based
their authority on direct succession
from the Apostle Peter who was bishop at
Antioch for eight years sent his
disciple Mark the Evangelist to
Alexandria as its first bishop and
finally gave his life for the faith in
Rome administration of church governance
was further subdivided among large of
regional cities the bishops of the
largest cities were called xyx while the
bishops of smaller regional cities were
called metropolitans you had supervision
over bishops in their surrounding areas
in the late second century in Phrygia a
recent convert to christianity named
montanus started a new movement
emphasizing ecstasy's and continued
revelation from the Holy Spirit the new
prophecy movement spreads throughout the
church many bishops condemned the
movement but there was not a formal
church wide condemnation
one of the first early feuds within the
church was quartered ecumenism in asia
the followers of Saint John the
Evangelist celebrated Easter on the 14th
of the Jewish month of Nisan regardless
of the day of the week while the rest of
the church celebrated Easter on Sunday
after the church in Asia refused to
change to celebrating Easter on Sunday
po perfected the first threatened to
excommunicate them but Arrhenius who was
from Asia intervened and asked Viktor to
show leniency in time the court owed
ecumene practice died out and the entire
church came to celebrate Easter on
Sunday around the Year 190 the auditors
of Byzantium introduced the heresy known
as adoptionism the teaching that Jesus
was born a mere man and was later
adopted by God as his son Theo Titus was
excommunicated by perfect - the first in
the late 2nd century clement of
alexandria began studying philosophy and
christianity in greece in cappadocia
before traveling to alexandria where he
wrote extensively and taught his student
Origen Clements writings are considered
controversial because they went beyond
established Christian orthodoxy
for example clement believed that matter
was eternal and not created by god early
in the third century sibelius introduced
the heresy of modalism teaching that the
father and the Son and the Holy Spirit
was simply manifestations of God in
different places and times this is also
known as Patrick passion ISM the
teaching that the father suffered on the
cross Sibelius was excommunicated for
heresy by Pope Calixtus the first in the
year 220
Hippolytus was a disciple of Arrhenius
and wrote the philosophy meaner the
refutation of all heresies against the
writings of valentineís Martian and
other heretics he was considered one of
the greatest theologians of Rome and
expected to become Pope
however zephyr eNOS was elected Pope
instead and Hippolytus refused to accept
the result becoming one of the first
anti-popes Hippolytus and polk puncheon
were later both exiled by emperor max
him in a Strax to the mines of Sardinia
where they reconciled and died together
as martyrs Tertullian lived in Carthage
and was one of the first theologians to
write extensively in Latin he is also
one of the first Christians to use the
term Trinity
Tertullian was an apologist and wrote
extensively against Gnosticism in the
latter part of his life he is said to
have joined the montanus Origen was a
student of Clement of Alexandria and
wrote extensively from Alexandria he
developed an allegorical interpretation
of Scripture and his speculative
theology wandered beyond the limits of
Orthodoxy teaching the pre-existence of
souls and the subordination of got the
son to God the Father around the Year
250 Santini preached the gospel in Paris
where he was martyred Santini would
later be honored as the patron saint of
France
innovation was a scholarly theologian in
the Roman Church and expected to be
elected Pope to his surprise Cornelius
was elected pope Novation refused to
accept the results and wrote to all the
churches of the world claiming that he
was the rightful pope his followers
throughout the world became known as
Novation as' and were known for their
extreme rigor ISM refusing to allow
Christians who are pasta sized during
the dekyon persecution to return to the
church and even taking the extreme
position that any Christian who
committed a mortal sin could not return
to the church
Cyprien Bishop of Carthage found himself
in the middle of controversies over how
to admit apostates and heretics to the
church Cyprien took the position that
heretics needed to be rebaptised upon
joining the church but was rebuked by
Pope Stephen the first Cyprian grew
quarrelsome of this exchanging angry
letters against Pope Stephen with
familiy on Bishop of Caesarea in
Cappadocia Pope Stephen threatened
4,000,000 with excommunication for
refusing to adopt the Roman doctrine
prohibiting second baptism however Pope
dionysius the first of alexandria
intervened and convinced Stephen to show
leniency in the late 250 s a new
persecution broke out under Emperor
valerian Pope Stephen and his successor
Pope Sixtus ii were martyred Cyprian was
martyred in kerubim aden Kober his last
words were thanks be to God
Paul of sama SATA was Bishop of Antioch
from the years 262 268 Paul taught the
adoption astera C and was condemned by a
council in Antioch led by familiy on of
Caesarea and sanctioned by Pope
Dionysius of Alexandria the decision of
the council was ratified by Pope Dinah
CS of Rome and again by Pope Felix the
first
in the middle of the first century in
Tessa Fong capital of the Sassanid
Empire in Persia the Jewish Christian
Gnostic named money began teaching a new
religion that he synthesized from
Gnostic Christianity Buddhism and
Zoroastrianism
although mani died while imprisoned by
the Zoroastrian rulers of the Sassanid
Empire his new religion spread
incredibly fast reaching Rome as early
as the air 280 even Augustine of Hippo
was a Manichaean before he converted to
Christianity menurkey ISM was intensely
persecuted and died out in Europe by the
sixth century although in parts of
Central Asia is survived as late as the
14th century many neoclassic movements
throughout history such as the Cathars
of southern europe in the 12th through
14th centuries were based on manikyam
the 4th century began with the worldwide
persecution of the church by emperor
diocletian the final and bloodiest of
ten great Roman persecutions of the
church the persecution came to an end
with the edicts of toleration in the
years 311 and 313 under Emperor's
Galerius and then Constantine
Constantine converted to Christianity
but did not make Christianity the
state-mandated religion early in the 4th
century a priest in Alexandria named
arias began to teach that Jesus prior to
the Incarnation was a created being less
than God the Father this produced great
controversy throughout the church
although arias was exiled by popes Peter
and Alexander of Alexandria Bishop
Eusebius of Nicomedia championed the
teachings of arias at the imperial court
of emperor constantine
Emperor Constantine summoned the Council
of Nicaea in 325 to settle the Arian
controversy and other issues in the
church bishop Josias of cordoba in spain
represented pope sylvester the first as
papal legate and presided over the
council
according to Athanasius Josias wrote the
nicene creed that was adopted by the
council and established the doctrine
that the father and the son were
consubstantial having the same undivided
substance or essence the council of
nicaea also confirmed the hierarchy of
church governance in which Rome
Alexandria and Antioch were acknowledged
as the highest C's in the church
following the council Bishop Eusebius of
Nicomedia and arias were banished by
Emperor Constantine however Eusebius was
a skilled politician and quickly rihwan
the Emperor's favor
Constantine brought Eusebius back from
exile and made youcbs his chief
religious advisor at the request of
Eusebius constantine began deposing
bishops who upheld the orthodox Nicene
faith including eustathius of antioch in
330 and Athanasius of Alexandria in 335
Constantine's successor in the Eastern
Empire
Constantius ii supported Arianism and
made Eusebius bishop of the new imperial
capital Constantinople in the year 339
Constantius was a committed Arian and
opposed bishops who adhere to the Nicene
Creed these bishops fled to the
protection of Pope Julius the first in
Rome who restored them to their seas in
350 Emperor Constantius became sole
Emperor and suppressed the church in
Rome banishing Pope liberius for two
years consent his successor in the east
Valens continued to support Arianism
wolf Ellis the Daath who studied
Christianity in Cappadocia was sent by
Eusebius of Nicomedia to teach the Arian
faith to the Gothic tribes of Europe
will Phyllis successfully converted the
Goths to Arianism and became their
Bishop wolf alas also translated the
Bible into Gothic and developed the
Gothic alphabet
wolf Phyllis wrote an Arian Creed which
declared that the Holy Spirit was not
God that the Holy Spirit was subject and
obedient in all things to the Sun and
that the Sun was subject and obedient in
all things to the father at the third
Council of sirmium in 357 a Council of
the church rejected the Nicene Creed
declared that the father and the son
were not come substantial and in fact
that the father was greater than the son
Pope liberius of Rome was exiled for
refusing to accept the Arian doctrine
although he was released two years later
and continued to uphold the Orthodox
Nicene faith in the year 330 eustathius
patriarch of antioch a staunch supporter
of the Nicene Creed was deposed at the
request of Eusebius of Nicomedia
in the following decades the emperor
would continue to appoint Arian bishops
iver antioch while Orthodox Christians
in the city became divided between the
successes of poor Lynas the north adopts
Nicene christian and malicious whose
initial position was not clear but who
taught orthodox nice in christianity by
the end of his life supporting gregory
of nazianzus and presiding over the
first council of constantinople in the
year 381 it took until early in the
fifth century for the followers of poor
linus to accept the successors of
malicious Arianism continued to flourish
until Emperor Theodosius ascended the
imperial throne in the year 379
Theodosius expelled the Arian Bishop of
Constantinople an appointed gregory
nazianzen leader of a small group of
orthodox Nicene Christians Bishop of
Constantinople the city's Arian populace
rioted in protest
in 380 Theodosius issued the Edict of
Thessalonica which commanded the entire
Roman Empire to submit to the Orthodox
Christian faith the some Pisa had taught
to the Romans and there had been
faithfully preserved by Pope Damasus of
Rome and Pope Peter of Alexandria
Emperor Theodosius subsequently made
Arianism illegal throughout the empire
at the Council of Constantinople 150
bishops all from the east ratified the
Orthodox Nicene faith and rebuked the
heresies of new matter mechanism the
teaching that the Holy Spirit was less
than the father and the son and
apolinaria nism the teaching that the
highest part of the soul of Jesus was
replaced by the divine logos however her
Pauline Arian writers had written many
forgeries under the names of Orthodox
fathers such as Athanasius which
included stainless to the effect that
Jesus had one nature one energy and one
will malicious of Antioch died while
presiding over the council the Council
of Constantinople without the consent of
the churches of Rome and Alexandria
elevated Constantinople to the second
highest sea in the church after Rome
based on its status as the new capital
of the Empire the attempt by
constantinople to elevate itself over
Alexandria and Antioch would produce
infighting between Constantinople
Alexandria and Antioch in the coming
decades that eventually led to all-out
schism
the fifth-century began with conflict
between the Seas of Constantinople
Alexandria and Antioch st. John
Chrysostom a priest from Antioch was
named Bishop of Constantinople in 403
Theophilus Pope of Alexandria feared
antiox influence over the imperial court
at Constantinople and sought to depose
Chris system although Theophilus was
initially unsuccessful Chrysostom
eventually lost favour with the Empress
and was deposed and exiled he appealed
for help from Pope Innocent the first in
Rome who excommunicated the officials of
Constantinople for their treatment of
Chrysostom Chrysostom died in exile
meanwhile the Western Empire was
collapsing and Rome was sacked by the
Arian Visigoths in 410 the Visigoths
then relocated to Spain during this time
st. Agustin Bishop of Hippo led the
Church in Africa the g'sten combated the
Donatists whose similar to the Novation
as' challenged the right of apostates to
administer sacraments as well as
Pelagians who asserted that the
sacraments were not necessary for people
who were strong enough to live a holy
life through their own effort in
addition the bishops of Africa became
increasingly frustrated by appeals from
their subjects to the Pope in Rome and
forbade this practice at the Council of
Carthage in 419 this quarrel culminated
in the optimist in 426 a letter written
by the African bishops to Pope Celestine
the first in which they angrily objected
to the Pope interfering in the judicial
discipline of the churches in Africa the
quarrel was brought to an end by the
conquest of North Africa by the Vandals
in the years 429 to 439 the Vandals were
Arian and oppressed the local Catholics
st. Augustine died during the siege of
Hippo by the Vandals in the year 430
the feud between Constantinople
Alexandria and Antioch resumed with the
appointment of Nestorius a priest from
Antioch to the bishopric of
Constantinople in 428 nestorius was from
a theological School in Antioch that
emphasized the humanity of Christ and
sought to explain how the human Jesus
became united to the divine logos
Christians in this time were honoring
Mary as the Theotokos the mother of God
but Nestorian opposed this practice
saying that Mary was merely the mother
of Christ Nestorius was accused of
heresy by pope cyril of alexandria cyril
received approval from pope celestine in
rome to depose Nestorius at the Council
of Ephesus in 431 patriarch John the
first of Antioch no doubt perturbed that
Alexandria was deposing an Antiochian
Bishop of Constantinople for the second
time in 30 years
our first refused to accept the council
setting up his own rival council however
John eventually relented and agreed to
the deposition of Nestorius Saint Cyril
of Alexandria is writings on the
Nestorian controversy became widely
celebrated throughout the Eastern Church
including in the region of Antioch the
followers of historia sat first
congregated around the school of Odessa
but in 489 were forced by Byzantine
Emperor Zeno to flee to the Sassanid
Empire in Persia the Sassanid Empire was
happy to tolerate Christians in his
borders as long as they were in schism
with the religion of his primary enemy
the Byzantine Empire and so the Church
of these became Nestorian and spread as
far east as china in the following
centuries st. Patrick was raised in
Roman occupied England but at the age of
14 was kidnapped by Irish Raiders and
forced into slavery as a shepherd st.
Patrick escaped Ireland and entered a
monastery in Gaul eventually returning
to Ireland and converting the Irish to
Christianity in his writings st. Cyril
of Alexandria had quoted an appalling
Aryan forgery that asserted that Jesus
had one nature mere thesis his successor
Pope Deus chorus of Alexandria believed
this to be the historic teaching of the
church Deus chorus saw a third
opportunity for Alexandria to deposed
the
of Constantinople when Bishop Flavian
condemned the monk you turkeys for
teaching that Jesus had one nature you
turkeys and Flavian both appealed to
Pope Leo the first of Rome meanwhile
deus chorus 1 the heir of emperor
theodosius ii who allowed dears chorus
and bishop Juvenal of jerusalem to
convene the rubber Council of Ephesus in
449 wished opposed both Flavian and Pope
Leo Emperor Theodosius died within a
year and the new emperor Marcion was
loyal to Pope Leo Leo called for a new
council and wrote the famous Leo's tome
which set forth the Orthodox doctrine of
Christology that the church is upheld to
the present day their hippest at a union
Jesus is one person with two natures
fully God and fully man
- perfect natures without confusion
without mixture with our separation
without change in one person the council
of chalcedon
accepted Leo's tome in 451 and opposed
deus chorus
the tension between Constantinople
Alexandria and Antioch erupted into
al-rai schism following the Council of
Chalcedon in addition to the mere facade
controversy the council of chalcedon had
attempted to make several important
changes in church governance first in
exchange for bishop juvenile of
jerusalem returning to the Catholic
faith Jerusalem was elevated to a
Patriarchate with Palestine removed from
the patriarchate of antioch next the
council of chalcedon made Constantinople
the final Court of Appeal for bishops in
the east an elevated Constantinople to a
Patriarchate over the regions of Thrace
Asia and pontus most importantly the
Council of Chalcedon attempted to make
Constantinople the second highest C in
the church above Alexandria and Antioch
just as the Council of Constantinople
had tried to do 70 years earlier Pope
Leo was outraged that Constantinople had
upset the hierarchy of the established
Petra in seas of Rome
Alexandria and Antioch that had been
fixed by the Council of Nicaea he
refused to accept the proposed changes
and rebuked bishop Anatoly of
Constantinople for using the myocyte
controversy as an excuse to usurp power
the people of Alexandria were even more
outraged the council of chalcedon had
banished their Pope pious chorus and
installed Proteus as bishop an angry mob
in Alexandria killed Pretorius and
installed Timothy a zealous Maya
physique as Pope of Alexandria in Syria
and Palestine kalsa don was rejected by
the local people the first great schism
in the church had begun the people of
Egypt in Syria
cops and syria's formed the Oriental
Orthodox Communion and were continued to
the present day to elect their own mayor
physic patriarchs in opposition to the
Imperial Melkite patriarchs appointed by
the Emperor from Constantinople
at the time of kalsa Don Attila the Hun
conquered Central Europe and was poised
to sack Rome but Pope Leo rode out to
meet them and persuaded Attila to spare
the city meanwhile the Vandals
aggressively conquered the western half
of the Mediterranean capturing Sicily
Sardinia and Corsica in 455 the Vandals
sacked Rome the second psyching in 45
years
although Pope Leo persuaded them to
spare the city's inhabitants in the last
great joint military campaign of the
western and eastern Roman Empire a
massive Armada of Byzantine and Roman
ships was destroyed by the Vandals at
the Battle of Cartagena in 468 the
Byzantine Empire was left bankrupt and
the Western Empire was deprived of its
source of grain from Africa in 471 Peter
the fuller Maya physik patriarch of
Antioch introduced the Nicene Creed as
modified by the Council of
Constantinople in 381 into the liturgy
at Antioch in protest of the Council of
Chalcedon although the Creed was
originally used in this way to protest
the Council of Chalcedon
its use in liturgy spread throughout the
church and by the 11th century was used
by the Church of Rome in 480 to
Byzantine Emperor Zeno attempted a
plaque aids the Maya facade factions in
Alexandria and Antioch by issuing a
statement of faith called the hinata-kun
which approved the writings of cyril of
alexandria but did not mention the
council of chalcedon or leo's tome Pope
Felix the 3rd of Rome condemned the
hinata con but bishops Acacia of
Constantinople
Peter the fuller of Antioch and Peter
mungus of Alexandria accepted it
Pope Felix therefore excommunicated all
three of them beginning vacation a
schism that would last until 519 Felix
is often quoted as saying not to oppose
error is to approve it and not to defend
truth is to suppress it and indeed to
neglect confound evil men where we can
do it is no less a sin than to encourage
them
in 476 the last Western Roman Emperor
Romulus Augustus was overthrown by his
general podracer who established the
kingdom of italy in 493 Theodoric the
great and Aryan and king of the
Ostrogoths defeated and killed Otto ASA
and established ostrogothic rule over
Italy Otto aces final words were where
is God 500 years after the birth of
Jesus Orthodox Christianity was on the
verge of extinction Aryan kingdoms had
conquered all of Europe Italy ghoul
Spain and North Africa the Byzantine
Empire had rejected Leo's tome and
embraced my visit ISM Rome alone stood
for the Orthodox Catholic faith
surrounded on all sides by Aryans and
maya physics rome had been sacked twice
in the past century and was now under
the rule of an aryan kingdom in the
coming century Rome would be brought to
the brink of annihilation as the armies
of Constantinople and the Ostrogoths
descended upon it but a new light began
to shine in 508 when King Clovis the
first of the franks was baptized as a
Catholic the darkness receded further in
519 when Byzantine Emperor Justin the
first unable to maintain ecclesiastical
union with Syria and Egypt sought
reunion with Rome and compelled his
bishops to submit to the formula of pope
or miss das which affirmed Leo's tome
and declared that all who did not agree
with the Bishop of Rome were not in
communion with the Catholic Church
however the Maya physics in Syria and
Egypt refused to accept the formula
Leo's tome or the council of chalcedon
the Catholic Church finally brought an
end to the Pelagian controversy at the
Council of orange in 529 which condemned
semi-pelagianism the doctrine the humans
of their own effort without the help of
the grace of God can come to faith in
the desire for baptism in the East new
Byzantine Emperor Justinian the first
began a campaign to recapture the
Western Empire beginning with the
successful conquest of North Africa from
the Vandals in 533 Justinian then sought
to conquer Italy from the Ostrogoths he
captured Rome in 536 ad the Ostrogoths
counter attacked and besieged the city
in 538 and finally sacked the city in
546 the Byzantines retook the city but
the Ostrogoths sacked it a second time
in 549 the Byzantines finally captured
Rome for good in 552 the constant
fighting left Rome almost completely
destroyed from a population of over a
million people at the time of the
Apostles Peter and Paul the population
of Rome fell to a mere 50,000
Justinian's ambitions were disrupted in
541 when plague broke out in
Constantinople rapidly spreading across
the Byzantine Empire 10,000 people a day
died in Constantinople Justinian himself
was infected but survived the Byzantine
Empire was greatly weakened
monasteries in Italy during this time
were frequently relaxed places where
members of wealthy aristocratic families
lived a life of leisure st. Benedict
attempted to change this by introducing
the rule of Saint Benedict which
established a strict regimen of work
prayer and study Benedict's rule was so
strict the one monastery attempted to
poison him twice over the next five
centuries the rule of st. Benedict would
become the predominant rule of monastic
life in Western Europe while the
Ostrogoths were besieging Rome in 545
Emperor Justinian brought Pope vigil
iasts the first to Constantinople where
he stayed at the Placidia Palace and was
safe from the constant fighting that was
destroying Rome at Constantinople
Emperor Justinian put pressure on Pope
virgilius to condemn the three chapters
certain Nestorian writings from the
previous century Justinian believed
their condemnation would help bring
reunion with the Maya Physics in Syria
and Egypt the writers of the three
chapters had died in the previous
century and two of the writers had been
reconciled to the Church of the Council
of Chalcedon Pope virgilius was
reluctant to posthumously condemn these
writers but eventually consented to the
condemnation issued by the fifth
ecumenical council in 553 in 555 three
years after Rome had been safely
restored to the Byzantine Empire Pope
fidelia's left Constantinople for Rome
but died on the journey the Byzantine
Empire was severely weakened by the
plague and decades of fighting the
Ostrogoths which allowed the germanic
Lombards to invade Italy in 568 the
lombards conquered most of the peninsula
except for the exarchate of ravenna a
narrow corridor from Ravenna the capital
to Rome the Byzantine Emperor continued
to rule the exit of Ravenna and required
his consent to all elections of the Pope
resulting in the era of the Byzantine
papacy
in 587 King Riccar at the first of the
Visigoths converted from Arianism to
catholicism pope gregory the great
reigned from 590 to 604 he reformed the
church and sent Michener's throughout
Europe in 588 John the faster Bishop of
Constantinople claimed the title of
ecumenical Bishop or universal bishop
but Pope Gregory refused to permit the
title affirming papal supremacy and the
rank of the three Petra in seas of Rome
Alexandria and Antioch above
Constantinople in the east the Byzantine
Empire faced a new threat as a migrating
Troy from Asia the avars invaded the
Balkans pagan Saxons had conquered
England after the fall of the Roman
Empire Pope Gregory the Great sent a
Gustin of Canterbury to evangelize the
Saxons in England and Augustine became
the first Archbishop of Canterbury in
the year 597 in 602 war erupted between
the Byzantine Empire and the Sassanid
Empire the Sassanid Empire gained early
victories conquering Antioch in 613
Jerusalem in 614 Anatolia in 617 and
Alexandria in 618 however the Byzantine
Empire rallied under Emperor Heraclius
and defeated the Sassanid Empire the
Battle of Nineveh in 628 regaining all
of his lost territory
in the year 633 Melkite patriarch cyrus
of alexandria reached an agreement with
the coptic church that there is one
energy or faculty of action in jesus the
doctrine of monophyletic 'm the monks
are Aeneas who had become patriarch of
Jerusalem staunch the opposed
monophyletic and protested to patriarch
Sergius of constantinople that there
were two energies in Jesus died o'the
elitism Sergius proposed to Pope
Honorius the first in Rome that the
church should prohibit the discussion of
one or two energies altogether Sergius
mentioned as a side note that the
doctrine of two energies might lead
people to believe there are two contrary
wills in Christ Pope Honorius wrote back
agreeing with the proposal to prohibit
the discussion of one or two energies
Bern aureus also mentioned as a side
note that Jesus has one will because
when Jesus assumed human nature Jesus
assumed the nature we had before Adams
fall not our vitiated admirer tainted by
original sin Hearne aureus personal
secretary successor Pope John the 4th
and Maximus the Confessor defended these
statements saying that an aureus had
only denied the existence of a sinful
will in Christ's human nature not the
existence of a human were all together
meanwhile in Mesopotamia the arab-muslim
rashidun caliphate had risen up against
the Byzantine and sassanid empires to
the shock of both empires the Arabs
defeated the combined forces of the
Sassanid and Byzantine empires in the
Battle of Firoz in December 633 Tessa
Fon the capital of the Sassanid Empire
fell in March 637 in the same year the
rashidun caliphate captured both Antioch
and Jerusalem with the borders of his
empire collapsing Emperor Heraclius was
annoyed to find his bishops quarreling
over monitor let ISM own aureus Sergius
and suffer Gnaeus all died in 638 and
Heraclitus issued the AK thesis which
prohibited discussion of one or two
energies in Christ and affirmed that
Jesus has only one will the Melkite
patriarchs of Constantinople Antioch who
following the fall of Antioch to the
Sassanid Empire resided in
Constantinople and Alexandria all
affirmed the egg thesis but Pope's ever
honest the first condemned the ex esis
and affirmed that there are two energies
and two wills in Jesus Christ human and
divine Alexandria fell to the rashidun
caliphate in 641 Roman Constantinople
were the only sees that remained in the
Byzantine Empire they remained in schism
for the next 40 years meanwhile MIFA
sites in Syria and Egypt welcomed the
rashidun caliphate as liberators and
joined in the fight against the
Byzantine Empire eager to bring an end
to the quarrel among his bishops Emperor
Constance ii in 648 issued the typos
which ordered the church to cease all
discussion of one or two wills or
energies in Jesus Pope Martin the first
refused to comply and was seized by
Byzantine troops and died in prison
after refusing to renounce diethyl ette
ism Maximus the Confessor left
Constantinople for Rome a he too was
arrested and died in prison for refusing
to renounce the earth elitism
meanwhile the rashidun caliphate was
divided in a civil war and replaced by
the Umayyad Caliphate in 661 which
reached the outskirts of Carthage in 665
the Umayyad Caliphate conquered Anatolia
and besieged Constantinople from 674 to
678 the Byzantine Empire used Greek fire
against the Umayyad Navy for the first
time in recorded history to answer the
Byzantine empires troubles a new tribe
from Central Asia the Bulgarians had
invaded Thrace in 670 pressing as far as
Thessalonica in Italy King aribert the
first of the lombards converted from
arianism to catholicism in 653 the
Lombard Kings remained firmly Catholic
from the time of King Kirk turret
bringing an end to the Arian rulers of
the Germanic tribes in Europe finally in
680 to 681 Emperor Constantine the 4th
submitted to Pope Agharta the 1st and
convened the 6th ecumenical council
which condemned moneth ìletís 'm and
affirmed stifle it ism by this point the
Maya physics in Egypt Syria and
Palestine were no longer part of the
Byzantine Empire and the Emperor had
little reason to continue compromising
with them the 6th ecumenical council
condemned Pope Honorius as a heretic for
following patriarch Sergius but Pope Leo
ii changed the condemnation condemning
an aureus for negligence rather than
heresy
in 692 the Byzantine Empire held a
council of eastern bishops in
Constantinople the quinna sex council
also known as the council in trullo
which condemned certain practices in the
Western Church including the depiction
of Jesus as a lamb
when Pope Sergius the first refused to
accept the council Emperor Justinian the
seconds and soldiers to arrest the Pope
but Justinian soldiers were repulsed by
local militia in Ravenna who were loyal
to the Pope in response to the Quinnie
sexist councils prohibition of
depictions of Jesus as a lamb poke
Sergius introduced Agnes day into the
Liturgy of the Roman mass the Roman
Church never accepted the Quinnie sects
Council the following year the Umayyad
Caliphate captured Carthage they would
complete the conquest of North Africa in
the following decade
Manoah lights continued to hold
influencing Constantinople in 711
Emperor Philippakis bardeen's
ascended the throne and installed a
monetha light John the sixth as Bishop
of Constantinople who convened a synod
that revoked the sick that key Medical
Council Pope Constantine excommunicated
them at the same time Bulgarians
plundered Thrace up to the walls of
Constantinople and the Byzantine army
rebelled against Philippakis blinding
him and installing his secretary as
emperor anastasius anastasius reinstated
the 6th ecumenical council and deposed
the mana thelight patriarch John the 6th
replacing him with the orthodox
patriarch Germanness in 715 the Umayyad
Caliphate invaded Spain in 711 and
destroyed the Visigoths the Umayyad
Caliphate then invaded Gaul where they
met Charles Martel prince of the franks
at the Battle of Tours in 732 Charles
Martel defeated the Umayyad Caliphate he
retreated to Iberia leaving Gaul under
the control of the Franks the umayyad
caliphates laid siege to Constantinople
from 717 to 719 Emperor Leo the asourian
enlisted the help of the Bulgarians who
forced the Umayyad Caliphate to retreat
Leo feared that the Empire had lost
favor with God due to the veneration of
icons in 730 he issued an edict
prohibiting the veneration of icons and
installed an iconoclast anastasios as
patriarch of constantinople pope gregory
ii condemned Leo's iconoclasm and Saint
John of Damascus living in Umayyad held
Damascus wrote a firm defense of the
veneration of icons
léo successor constantine v zealously
enforced iconoclasm declaring he cannot
be depicted for what is depicted is one
person and he who circumscribes that
person as plainly circumscribed the
divine nature which is incapable of
being circumscribed in February 754
constantine convened a synod of eastern
bishops who voted in favor of iconoclasm
by the end of Constantine's reign
iconoclasm had gone as far as to brand
relics and prayers to the Saints as
heretical meanwhile with the Byzantine
Empire distracted by wars against the
Bulgarians and Muslims Lombard King ice
Dolph captured Ravenna in 751 ending
over two centuries of Byzantine rule
following the Lombard conquest of
Ravenna Pope Zachary appealed for help
from Pepin the younger whom he crowned
king of the franks the franks invaded
Italy and conquered the Lombards and
granted most of the former executor of
Ravenna to the Pope as his temporal
domain which would become known as the
papal States this marked a significant
new era in the papacy which for the
previous 200 years had been under the
relatively stable protection of the
Byzantine Empire for the next a hundred
years the papacy would find itself at
the center of seemingly unending
conflicts between Italian principalities
and Europe's great powers
the popes of rome continued to oppose
byzantine iconoclasm emperor constantine
vi finally relented and allowed the
seventh ecumenical council to meet in
787 the council had to meet in Nicaea
site of the first ecumenical council in
325 because the city of Constantinople
was under iconoclast
rule the seventh ecumenical council
agreed to the demands of Pope Adrian the
first and affirmed the orthodoxy of the
veneration of icons of Jesus the Blessed
Virgin Mary the angels and the Saints on
Christmas Day in a hundred Pope Leo the
third crowned Charlemagne Holy Roman
Emperor as some Peter's Basilica in Rome
while the Byzantine Empire saw it as a
betrayal since there had been the
guardian of the faith for the past four
hundred years the Pope hoped it would
usher in a new era of stability and
independence and free the papacy from
outside political meddling instead
Charlemagne's empire would quickly
splinter after his death and the papacy
would find itself at the mercy of
whichever italian principality happened
to have the most power at any particular
moment in 823 king harald plaque of
denmark was baptized and Catholic
missionaries continued to spread the
gospel in Norway and Sweden
in 815 Byzantine Emperor Leo v
reinstituted iconoclasm Pope Pascal the
first offered persecuted Byzantine monks
refuge in Rome st. Theodore the study in
Constantinople wrote zealously against
iconoclasm finally in 843 Byzantine
Emperor Michael the third deposed the
iconoclast patriarch John the seventh of
Constantinople replacing him with
patriarch Methodius the first which
brought an end to Constantinople second
era of iconoclasm in 827 the Abbasid
Caliphate launched an invasion of Sicily
and southern Italy which had been under
Byzantine rule in 846 the Anglo bits
vassals of the Abbasid Caliphate and
known to Italy as Saracens landed in
central Italy and defeated the local
Roman militia the Saracens plundered all
of Rome outside the irrilium wall
including st. Peter's Basilica where
Pope Leo the third had crowned
Charlemagne Holy Roman Emperor just 46
years earlier in response Pope Leo the
fourth called together a fleet from
neighboring Italian principalities that
defeated the Saracen Navy at the Battle
of Ostia in 849 missionaries Cyril and
Methodius
converted the Slavic tribes of Central
Europe in great Moravia and Pannonia
from 862 to 885 and brought these tribes
into communion with Rome
in 858 patriarch Ignatius of
Constantinople was deposed and a layman
photius was appointed patriarch by
Emperor Michael the third Ignatius and
photius both appealed to Pope Nicholas
the first who recognized Ignatius in his
rightful patriarch Roman Constantinople
fell into schism until 867 when Nicholas
died and photius was deposed by new
emperor basil the first in 864 con boris
the first of bulgaria was baptised into
the Catholic faith and sought competing
offers from Rome and Constantinople as
to which Patriarchate he should belong
to in 869 the fourth Council of
Constantinople affirmed that a position
of photius and prohibited criticism of
the Pope it also affirmed the veneration
of images of Jesus his mother Mary the
angels and the Saints and recognized
Constantinople as the second highest see
in the church photius became patriarch
of Constantinople for a second time in
877 and held a council in 879 revoking
the Council of a hundred and sixty-nine
the Council of 879 was not accepted by
Rome in the 9th century the pagan magis
migrated from Central Asia to Eastern
Europe and conquered present-day Hungary
from where they launched raids against
the scattered principalities of the
former Carolingian Empire at the same
time Vikings from Scandinavia harassed
the coast of northern Europe and England
the Carolingian Empire had been
established with the crowning of
Charlemagne in a hundred but his
successors were unable to keep the
Empire United the Carolingian Empire
split apart for good in 888 in the
absence of a strong central power in
Western Europe the papacy found itself
at the mercy of local Italian
principalities while the opposite
Caliphate conquered Sicily and central
Italy coming within striking distance of
Rome
leo the sixth became byzantine emperor
in 886 he banished photius and liberated
southern Italy from the opposite
caliphate but lost sicily and failed in
an attempt to retake crete in 907 and
911 kievan rus laid siege to
constantinople forcing the negotiation
of a favorable trade treaty
although photius had attempted to
convert kievan rus' to christianity the
king and a majority of the people
remained pagan until the end of the 10th
century Norse Vikings had been raiding
northern Europe since 820 in 911 Charles
the 3rd king of West Frankia negotiated
an agreement with Viking leader Rollo
they granted the Vikings territory in
northern France which became known as
the Duchy of Normandy the Normans would
come to play a major part in church
history in the coming centuries the
disintegration of the Carolingian Empire
allowed count fearful act of Tusculum in
Italy to attain de facto rule over Rome
fearful act and his family used their
power to control elections to the papacy
in the early 10th century an era called
the secular obscure the Dark Age of the
papacy
while rome was dominated by the count of
tusculum monasticism and church
discipline declined across Europe as the
Carolingian Empire disintegrated into
countless separate fiefdoms in 910 st.
Brno became Abbot of the new abbey of
Cluny and immediately enforced a strict
interpretation of the rule of st.
Benedict in the following century a new
line of popes would emerge from Clooney
Abbey to reform the church and defy the
Holy Roman Emperor the Abbasid Caliphate
captured central Italy in the late 9th
century threatening Rome itself in 915
Italian forces under the command of Pope
John the 10th and Byzantine forces from
southern Italy attacked the main Abhisit
fortress on the curricula Arno River in
central Italy the Abbasids were defeated
and driven from mainland Italy back to
Sicily Otto Duke of Saxony United the
German territories of the former
Carolingian Empire and restored the Holy
Roman Empire Otto brought an end to the
mud jar raids against Europe with his
victory at the Battle of ledge felled in
955 earning him the reputation as the
savior of Christendom in 961 Otto
conquered Italy and was crowned Holy
Roman Emperor st. Peter's Basilica in
962 otto also negotiated a peace that
permitted the byzantine empire to retain
southern Italy more kingdoms of northern
and eastern europe converted to
christianity in the 10th century in 966
Mia's kojic of Poland was baptized in
988 Vladimir the great Grand Prince of
Kiev was baptized in 995 Olaf 3 person
became the first Christian King of
Norway Sweden and magyar Hungary
remained two of the few pagan countries
left in Europe
nubia Modern Sudan and Ethiopia had been
loyal to the patriarch of Alexandria
from the beginning of the church Nubia
followed the Coptic Church and adopted
my visit ISM the Nubian kingdoms of
Nebojsa materia and alodia reached the
peak of their power in the 10th century
before eventually being overrun by the
Abbasid Caliphate by the beginning of
the 11th century the Byzantine Empire
had recovered much of its former
territory and reasserted itself as the
dominant power in the eastern
Mediterranean Antioch Syria and
Palestine north of Jerusalem were
recaptured by the Empire before the turn
of the millennium under emperor basil ii
the byzantine empire conquered bulgaria
the Crimea and the southern Caucasus in
the year 1001 Stephen the first became
the first Catholic king of Hungary and
in 1008 all of scud Kooning king of
sweden was baptized as a Catholic 1,000
years after the birth of Jesus Christ
all of Europe was united in the Catholic
faith the kingdoms of Nubia had spread
Christianity into sub-saharan Africa and
the Church of the East had brought
Christianity as far east as China the
Byzantine Empire had been restored to
its former glory and Rome and
Constantinople had gone over 100 years
without a schism but tensions in
southern Italy and a new threat from
Central Asia would soon lead to an
enduring schism in the heart of
Christendom in the early 11th century
lumbars in southern Italy rebelled
against the Byzantine Empire and
recruited mercenaries from the Duchy of
Normandy in northern France the Normans
were granted land in return for their
service and quickly became the dominant
power in southern Italy the Norman use
of Latin Rite worship with unleavened
bread created conflict with local
Byzantine citizens who used leavened
bread which they viewed as symbolic of
the resurrection Pope Leo the ninth came
to view the Normans as a threat and
raised an army to assist the byzantine
war against the Normans but he was
defeated by the Normans at the Battle of
civitate in 1053
in 1051 Benedictine monk Peter Damien
urged the Pope to correct widespread
problems in the clergy particularly the
lack of celibacy the purchase of
clerical offices a practice that was
named simony after simon magus
who sought to buy the gift of laying on
hands from the Apostle Peter and the
appointment of Bishops by secular rulers
which was known as lay investiture the
attempt by the Pope's in the coming
decades to correct these vices would
lead to confrontation with the Holy
Roman Emperor Peter Damien also began
the fundamental debate of the second
millennium concerning the relationship
between reason and faith arguing that
philosophy should be used in a manner
consistent with the Christian faith
patriarch Michael Cyril arias in
Constantinople was angered by the Norman
disturbance in southern Italy and wrote
a letter criticizing their liturgical
practices he also closed Latin Rite
churches in Constantinople in reprisal
for Norman closings of Byzantine
churches in southern Italy Pope Leo the
9th sent Cardinal Humbert of Silva
Candida to negotiate with Carol arias
but Carol arias refused to meet with him
after months of waiting Cardinal Humbert
delivered a notice of excommunication
against Carol arias on July the 16th
1054 but Pope Leo had died three months
earlier so the excommunication had no
effect nevertheless Carol arias removed
Leo's name from the diptych in
Constantinople in 1066 William the
Conqueror defeated harold ii of england
at the Battle of Hastings William became
King of England in southern Italy pope
nicholas ii made peace with the Normans
Investing Norman leader Robert Guiscard
as Duke of southern Italy and Sicily the
Normans finish their conquest of
byzantine southern Italy and Sicily in
1070 - and turned their sights on the
Balkans where Norman leader Robert
Guiscard
defeated the Byzantine Empire in a
series of battles and established a
short-lived Norman fir hold
however the Normans were urgently
recalled to Italy by Pope Gregory who
was under siege by Emperor Henry the
fourth of the
Roman Empire
by 1073 the Holy Roman Empire had fallen
from his Heights under Auto the first
and was facing fragmentation and
decentralization has various
principalities challenged the authority
of Emperor Henry the fourth meanwhile
Pope Gregory the seventh was attempting
to reform the church by restoring
priestly celibacy ending simony and
ending lay investiture the appointment
of Bishops by the secular King this last
reform brought Pope Gregory into
conflict with Emperor Henry and after
the Emperor attempted to depose Gregory
Gregory deposed and excommunicated the
Emperor after several attempts at
reconciliation Emperor Henry the fourth
invaded Rome and appointed Ebert of
Ravenna as anti Pope Clement the third
Robert Guiscard defeated Emperor Henry
the fourth at Rome but following the
victory Robert Guiscard Norman soldiers
plundered the city after three days that
people of Rome rose up against the
Normans while the Normans suppress them
and set fire to much of the city hope
Gregory the seventh was exiled and died
shortly thereafter Robert Guiscard army
left Rome to focus on their war with the
byzantine empire leaving aunty pope
clement the third who was loyal to the
holy roman empire in control of the city
the next two popes victor the third and
herb and the second were forced to reign
from outside the city until 1096 when a
french army called to the crusades by
pope urban ii liberated rome and allowed
pope urban to safely return
the foremost theologian of the 11th
century was Bishop Anselm of Canterbury
who introduced the ontological proof for
the existence of God argued in favor of
the procession of the Holy Spirit from
the father and the son and taught the
satisfaction theory of the atonement
that Jesus Christ offered himself on the
cross not merely as a ransom to the
devil but in satisfaction of the debt of
honor that mankind owed to God and some
became embroiled in what would become
the fundamental philosophical debate of
the second millennium concerning the
relationship between universals and
particulars the latin world had
generally accepted the realist
philosophy of Plato and Aristotle the
universals have a real existence late in
the 11th century a French philosopher
named Ross :
challenged realism and introduced the
philosophy known as nominalism teaching
that only particulars exist and that
universals are merely words given to
common attributes of particulars ruslan
also argued that the Father and the Son
and the Holy Spirit were not one God but
three gods Anselm a realist strongly
condemned Ruslan's teachings but the
cause of nominalism would be taken up in
the 12th century by the philosopher
Peter Abelard
the Seljuk Turks led by ARP haslin had
migrated from Central Asia north of the
Caspian and arel seas into Persia and
invaded the Byzantine Empire in 1068 in
1071 the Turks decisively defeated the
Byzantine Empire at the Battle of Mons
occurred effectively bringing all of
Anatolia and the Turkish control the
Turkish Empire became the dominant power
in the Middle East stretching from
Anatolia to the borders of China as I
hear al Dola
our took bay founded the Artic wit
dynasty which ruled the east coast of
mediterranean sea including Antioch and
Jerusalem reports soon reached Europe of
mistreatment of Christian pilgrims in
the Holy Land
in 1095 Byzantine Emperor Alexios the
first appealed to pope urban ii for help
against the seljuq turks
pope urban ii proclaimed the first
crusade and granted a plenary indulgence
to all who joined a peasant army led by
peter the hermit arrived in
constantinople in 1096 but they were
easily defeated by the turks upon
crossing into Anatolia the princes
Crusade succeeded in defeating the Turks
in Anatolia in 1098 they captured
Antioch meanwhile Fatimid Arabs had
succeeded in liberating Jerusalem from
the Artic Witsell jokes the fatimids
were elide with the byzantine empire
nevertheless the Crusaders set aside the
initial objective of repulsing the
Seljuk Turks and sought to reclaim the
Holy Land for Christendom in 1099 the
Crusaders captured Jerusalem from the
Fatimids after a long siege the
Crusaders slaughtered every inhabitant
of the city in contrast when the Arab
Muslims had captured Jerusalem in 637
they did not kill a single inhabitant
instead the Muslim caliph Umar son of al
khattab calmly and the city are escorted
and toward it with patriarchs a furnace
the Crusaders defeated a counter-attack
by the Fatimids at the Battle of Ascalon
and Muhammad's retreated into Egypt
leaving the Crusaders in control of the
Crusader States at Antioch Tripoli and
Jerusalem for the time being
at the start of the 12th century Pope
pascal ii appointed eric new person
bishop of Greenland and Vinland
modern-day newfoundland making him the
first bishop of america the investiture
controversy that began under Pope
Gregory the 7th and Emperor Henry the
4th finally came to a resolution between
Emperor Henry the fifth and Pope
Callistus and second with the Concordat
of worms in 1122 previous Holy Roman
emperors had thought it their right to
appoint bishops and to confirm the papal
election the Concordat of worms
significantly reduced the Emperor's
power the king was recognized as having
the right to invest bishops with secular
authority but not with religious
authority the Melkite patriarch of
antioch Anastasis ii died in 609 and
constantinople began to appoint a series
of titular patriarchs who resided not in
Antioch but in Constantinople in 685 the
Maronites elected bishop John Marin of
Maroon as patriarch of Antioch and all
the East the Maronites welcomed the
Crusaders and saw reunion with Rome in
1131 reunion was granted and Maronite
patriarch Gregorius al halat II was
recognized by Pope Innocent ii as the
rightful patriarch of Antioch
early in the 12th century a professor of
the university of paris named peter
abelard planted the seeds of rationalism
that would come to dominate
philosophical thought in the second
millennium Abelard championed the use of
aristotle in logic regardless of whether
it led to orthodox theological
conclusions Abelard was accused of
denying the separate existence of the
three persons of the trinity and of
teaching that Jesus did not atone for
humanity's sins but merely set a good
example for his disciples to follow a
Ballards innovative ideas brought him
into conflict with the Catholic
hierarchy and st. Bernard of Clairvaux
by the beginning of the 12th century
discipline in monasteries had once again
declined the Cistercian movement sought
to restore monasteries to the austerity
of the rule of st. benedict with an
emphasis on manual labor saint bernard
of clairvaux joined the Cistercian
monastery in the 12th century and
quickly became recognized across europe
as the most influential mystic in the
church bernard rebutted the teachings of
peter abelard
and was instrumental in preaching the
second crusade in 1140 for the seljuq
empire recaptured odessa from the
Crusader States in response Pope Eugene
the third called for the second crusade
which was fervently preached by Saint
Bernard however the Crusaders suffered a
crushing defeat at the hands of the
seljuqs
st. Bernard felt humiliated and wrote a
letter of apology to the Pope elsewhere
the holy roman empire launched the
wendish Crusades to convert the
Palladian Slavs in North East Europe and
Aragon and Castile retook Spain from the
Muslim taifa kingdoms
the papacy suffered a series of defeats
against Norman occupied southern Italy
following the Norman sack of Rome in
1084 Pope Innocent ii was ambushed and
taken prisoner by norman troops in 1139
in 1140 for papal forces were again
defeated by the Normans the newly formed
Roman Senate used the opportunity to
revolt against the Pope declaring the
commune of Rome in 1144 the following
year Pope Lucius the second guide
leading an assault against the commune
arnold of brassia was a student of the
peter abelard while Abelard abandoned
his teachings under the threat of
excommunication arnold brazenly
championed Abelard teachings and
defiance of the church in 1145 arnold
returned from exile to join the
communist Rome and the following year he
succeeded in driving Pope Eugene the
third from the sissy donald rejected the
temporal power of the Pope denounced
clerical wealth and championed apostolic
poverty ideas that would find a growing
audience among dissenters such as Peter
Waldo the spiritualist sect of the
Franciscans and John Wickliffe in the
coming centuries hope Adrian the fourth
summoned an army from the Holy Roman
Emperor Frederick Barbarossa to retake
the city of Rome and Arnold was burned
at the stake Islamic philosophy
flourished as early as the 8th century
based on the writings of Plato and
Aristotle and led to significant
developments in science and mathematics
in the 11th century Persian scholar
al-ghazali led a reaction against Greek
philosophy in his treatise the
incoherence of the Philosopher's
al-ghazali was strongly rebutted in the
12th century by the Spanish philosopher
of errors whose arguments in favor of
the use of aristocracy in logic had a
powerful influence on medieval
scholastic theologians at the
universities of Paris and Naples in the
middle of the 12th century Peter Lombard
a scholar at the University of Paris
wrote one of the first comprehensive
textbooks on Christian theology the book
of sentences which would form the basis
of scholastic studies for the next
several centuries
saladin a sunni muslim from the abbasid
caliphate traveled to cairo as an
advisor to the sheer Fatimid Caliphate
Saladin quickly rose through the ranks
and eventually overthrew the Fatimid
Caliphate becoming sultan of the new are
you would sultanate and launching a
successful military campaign that
recaptured Jerusalem Damascus and other
territory from the Crusader States
following which he negotiated a peace
with King Richard the Lionheart of
England during this time Constantinople
had made trade agreements with Venice
Genoa and Pisa Italian merchants soon
became a sizable portion of the city's
population
causing resentment among the local
Greeks tensions in Constantinople
finally boiled over in 1182 when the
Greeks massacred nearly the entire
60,000 Italian population of
Constantinople in 1194 Holy Roman
Emperor Henry the sick took control of
the Norman Kingdom southern Italy and
Sicily through his marriage to Constance
daughter of the Norman King Roger the
second Henry's son Frederick would go on
to lead a series of wars against the
city-states of Italy the would
eventually lead the Pope to turn to a
new ally France
Venice got its revenge against
Constantinople in 1204 when the Fourth
Crusade which had been commissioned to
come to the aid of the Crusader States
instead sacked Constantinople and
replaced the Byzantine Empire with the
Latin Empire the Byzantine Empire splits
into three different kingdoms on the
opposite Shores around Nicaea in 1209
francis of assisi formed the order of
Friars Minor with the approval of Pope
Innocent the third the Friars devoted
themselves to lives of poverty and
preaching in southern France the old
heresy of manichaeism had been revived
by the Cathars in 1209 openness and the
third proclaimed a crusade against the
Cathars which was completed by the
kingdom of france in 1226 saint dominic
founder of the order of preachers
followed the Crusader armies preaching
conversion to the Cathar people as early
as the 8th century the doctrine of the
Holy Eucharist had been the subjective
academic discussion in Western Europe in
the 11th century
bérenger of Tours was condemned for
denying that the body and blood of Jesus
Christ were truly present in the
sacrament of the Eucharist in 1215 the
fourth Lateran council affirmed the
doctrine of transubstantiation declaring
his body and blood are truly contained
in the sacrament of the altar under the
forms of bread and wine the bread and
wine having been transubstantiated by
God's power into his body and blood so
that in order to achieve this mystery of
unity we receive from God what he
received from us
throughout the first half of the 13th
century holy roman emperor frederick ii
led multiple military campaigns against
his Hallion city-states that resisted
his rule supporters of the emperor
became known as Ghibellines while
opponents of the emperor became known as
Guelph's the constant fighting in chaos
throughout Italy destabilized and
endangered the papacy in the coming
decades ho urban the fourth would turn
to the French Duke Charles of Anjou to
restore stability to the Italian
peninsula the Carmelite Order was the
only Catholic religious order formed in
the Crusader States and was named after
Mount Carmel in northern Palestine in
1251 a Carmelite priest in England named
Simon stock received a vision of the
Blessed Virgin Mary in which she gave
him the brown scapular promising that
those who died wearing the scapular
would be saved in 1258 Michael the
eighth that the kingdom of Nicaea to
retake Constantinople from the Latin
Empire re-establishing the Byzantine
Empire Michael sought reconciliation
with the West particularly to save the
Byzantine Empire from the ambitions of
the new King of Sicily Charles of Anjou
in 1258 manfred an illegitimate son of
the Holy Roman Emperor usurped the
throne of Sicily Pope Urban the fourth
saw an opportunity to end the constant
wars in Italy by declaring Manfred's
rule illegitimate and requesting the
intervention of Charles of Anjou son of
the King of France Charles entered Italy
with a powerful French army in 1266 and
defeated and killed Manfred allowing
Charles to become ruler of the new
kingdom of Naples over southern Italy
and Sicily the Holy Roman Empire
dispatched a relief force under Emperor
konradin last heir of the Hohenstaufen
dynasty the konradin was defeated and
executed by Charles
in the middle of the 13th century the
clear and precise scholastic theology of
Dominican friar Thomas Aquinas earned
him the nickname the angelic doctor
Aquinas emphasized the importance of the
intellect over the will he argued that
the human intellect was the highest
nature in the created universe and that
humans would come to know God through
our intellect Aquinas resolved the
problem of universals with the doctrine
of moderate realism teaching that the
human intellect allows the mind to
understand universals that truly exists
in particular outside the mind Aquinas
died while on his way to the Council of
Leon in 1274 at the Council of Leon in
1274 Byzantine Emperor Michael the
eighth and patriarch Germanness of
Constantinople agreed to the demands of
the Catholic Church the Pope was
recognized as supreme and the Byzantine
church agreed that the holy spirit
proceeded from the father through the
son the by sometime people however still
incense to the Latins for sacking
Constantinople refused to accept the
Council of Leon
despite forceful measures by Emperor
Michael to impose it on his people
King Rudolph the first of Germany had
renounced all Habsburg claims to Rome
and Sicily leaving Charles of Anjou in
control of southern Italy and Sicily
Pope Martin the fourth excommunicated
Byzantine Emperor Michael the ape
Charles prepared a fleet to invade
Constantinople but before the invasion
took launch the people of Sicily
rebelled in the Sicilian Vespers heated
the third the King of Aragon invaded
Sicily and Charles had to abandon his
plans to invade Constantinople the
Mongols had conquered Persia by 12:21
and in 1258 they captured baghdad
destroying the Abbasid Caliphate the ia
bid Sultanate in Egypt was overthrown by
the Mamluks who allied with the
surviving Crusader states of Jerusalem
Tripoli and Antioch
against the Mongols once the Mongol
threat had been reduced the Mamluks sank
the remaining Crusader states in
response to arrogance invasion of Sicily
Pope Martin the fourth called for the
arrogance Crusades which saw over
100,000 French soldiers under King
Philip the third the nephew of Charles
of Anjou invade Spain nearly the entire
French army was destroyed and King
Philip died his son fed up the fourth
managed to escape back into France in
1288 a Nestorian priest from China
Robin BA Salma completed his journey to
Rome where he was welcomed by Pope
Nicholas the fourth and allowed to
celebrate Mass in his own liturgical
Rite perhaps the only scholastic rival
to Thomas Aquinas was the Franciscan
theologian Duns Scotus
who in the late 13th century developed a
theology that emphasized God's freedom
of will rather than God's intellect
which had been the emphasis of Aquinas
thus SCOTUS introduced the question of
voluntarism whether gods will precedes
God's intellect
although SCOTUS taught that God's Will
was always directed towards God's own
Beauty subsequent philosophers such as
William of Occam would introduce radical
notions of God's freedom of will SCOTUS
also argued conclusively in favor of the
Immaculate Conception of the Blessed
Virgin Mary teaching that Mary was
conceived without original
sinn Rome soon found that his new French
masters were no less troublesome than
the Holy Roman Empire the French
monarchy was left on the verge of
bankruptcy by the Aragonese crusade and
King Philip the fourth whose father died
in the crusade tanks the Catholic Church
in France as a source of revenue which
set off a conflict with Pope Boniface
the 8th King Philip the four called a
council to assert the Kings rights over
the church in France in 1302 Pope
Boniface the eighth responded with the
papal bull unum sanctum which declared
that the Pope not only held supreme
spiritual authority on earth but also
all temporal authority and that all
Kings including Philip was subject to
the Pope the bull famously states we
declare we proclaim we define that it is
absolutely necessary for salvation that
every human creature be subject to the
Roman pontiff King Philip the fourth was
outraged by unum Sanctum an ordered pope
boniface to be abducted the Pope was
kidnapped but quickly liberated and died
shortly thereafter from his mistreatment
in captivity in 1309 pope clement v
moved the papal court to Avignon near
the French border to placate King Philip
the Avignon papacy would last until 1377
when pope gregory xi had the urging of
st. Catherine of Siena returned the
papacy to Rome
the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor had
been in a state of almost constant
conflict since the investiture
controversy of the 11th century the
Avignon papacy now made it clear that
France had become the dominant power
behind the papacy Pope John the 22nd
excommunicated Holy Roman Emperor Louie
the fourth in 1324 Louie responded by
installing an anti Pope in Rome and by
employing scholars such as Maher Silius
of Padua to write treatises advocating
that the secular monarch rather than the
Pope should have supreme authority over
the church the most brilliant scholar
employed by Emperor Louie was Franciscan
philosopher William of Ockham who
advanced the philosophies of nominalism
and volunteerism
akhom challenged Aquinas his solution to
the problem of universals arguing that
only particulars exist outside the mind
and the universals are the mental
substitute for real things a philosophy
known as Turman ism ahkam also radically
advanced the notion of voluntarism there
had been introduced by Duns Scotus
arguing that God was radically free to
act in any manner
akhom went so far as to declare that God
could have redeemed the human race by
becoming a donkey rather than a man
Vulcan became known as the father of
epistemology and would have a profound
influence on philosophers throughout the
second millennium his followers included
yet gruta founder of the devotion
Madonna and Martin Luther who started
the Protestant Reformation
akhom felons conflict with Pope John the
22nd over the issue of Franciscan
poverty and was excommunicated
meanwhile in Constantinople controversy
arose when Gregory Palamas a
practitioner of the monastic movement
known as haste chasm argued that a real
distinction exists between God's
existence and God's energies Palamas
taught that God interacts with the
created world through his uncreated
energies this teaching was ratified by a
series of synopsis Constantinople from
1341 to 1351 however Latin scholars
condemned the teaching arguing that the
teaching of a real distinction between
God's essence and energies amounts to
polytheism King Charles the fourth of
France died without a male heir in 1328
his nearest relative was King Edward the
third of England who claimed the French
throne instead Philip the sixth cousin
of Charles was crowned King Edward
initially accepted Philip but changed
his mind in 1337 setting off the Hundred
Years War the English fought not only to
attain the French throne but to maintain
their substantial land holdings on the
continent in Normandy and Aquitaine
in 1347 Genoese traders fled from an
outbreak of the plague in the Crimea but
carried the plague with them to Sicily
from where is spread to all of Europe
the plague killed an estimated 75 to 200
million people wiping out 30 to 60
percent of Europe's population in
England in the 13 70s a secular college
professor John Wickliffe began writing
criticisms of the church similar to
Arnold address here 200 years earlier
Wickliffe called for the removal of
temporal authority from the clergy and
the divestment of the church is wealth
Wickliffe compared the Pope with the
Antichrist and argued that the Bible was
the only source of authority in the
church he became the first person to
translate the Bible into English his
followers became known as Lollards
Wickliffe was posthumously declared a
heretic by the Council of Constance in
1415
in China the red turban rebellion from
1350 to 1368 threw off Mongol rule the
Nestorian church of the east had been
associated with the mongols and was
suppressed following the rebellion in
1370 for a Dutch Roman Catholic Deacon
named geared gruta a student of William
of Ockham began a public missionary
campaign in which he denounced worldly
pleasures gruta founded the Brethren for
the common life in 1387 an order of
canons regular priests devoted to public
ministry and who lived in community the
heart of this devotion Madonna was to
search for inner peace based on the
denial of one's own self and achieved by
ardour and silence the devotion Madonna
emphasized solitary meditation on Christ
passion and redemption on one's own
death the Last Judgement heaven and hell
Thomas a Kempis
author of the popular devotional book
the imitation of Christ was a priest in
the brethren for common life in 1378
just one year after the end of the
Avignon papacy a faction of Cardinals
rebelled against Pope Urban the sixth
electing anti Pope Clement the seventh
in Avignon successes of anti Pope
Clement the seventh continued to claim
to be the rightful pope until 14 29 the
schism was exacerbated by a council in
pisa in 1409 that elected a second anti
Pope migrating Muslims from Persia and
the oghuz Turkish homeland overcame the
Seljuks in Anatolia and formed the
Ottoman Empire in the 13th century the
Ottomans conquered Anatolia and
successfully invaded Eastern Europe
seizing most of Bulgaria Serbia
Macedonia and the Balkans leaving
Constantinople almost entirely
surrounded
tima founder of the timurid empire
invaded Anatolia in 1403 and decisively
defeated the Ottomans of the Battle of
Ankara in 1403 the surviving Ottoman
factions were thrown into civil war for
the following 10 years Timur also
defeated the Mamluk Muslims in the
Levant and Iraq leaving his empire as
the dominant Muslim power in the Middle
East Timur died in 1405 and his empire
disintegrated leaving the Ottomans and
Mamluks to struggle for control of them
at least the Western schism was finally
brought to an end when Pope Gregory the
twelve resigned following the Council of
Constance in 1415 Gregory died in 1417
and Pope Martin v was elected in his
place the Council of Constance gave rise
to the conciliar movement in the 15th
century the doctrine that church
councils had more authority than the
Pope the Roman Church never accepted the
conciliar movement and Pope Martin v was
quick to assert the supremacy of the
Pope over church councils the Council of
Constance had condemned Jan Hus a
bohemian priest who followed some of the
teachings of John Wycliffe criticized
indulgences and asserted the authority
of Scripture over the hierarchy of the
church HUS was burned at the stake by
the Council of Constance in 1415 and his
followers in Bohemia revolted against
the Catholic Church a radical party of
her sites rejected everything that they
believed had no basis in the Bible such
as the veneration of saints and images
vasts intercession for the dead
confession indulgences and the
sacraments of confirmation and the
anointing of the sick Pope Martin the
fit authorized for Crusades against the
her sites but who site leader Jan's iske
defeated all four of them a series of
compromises were negotiated between the
moderate her sites and the Catholic
Church over the next century
anteye Pope Clement the eighth in a
veneer on did not resign until 1429 in
1438 King Charles the seventh in France
issued the pragmatic sanction which
required a church council with authority
superior to that of the Pope to be held
every 10 years required election rather
than appointment to ecclesiastical
offices prohibited the Pope from
bestowing and profiting from benefices
and forbade appeals to Rome from places
further than two days journey the Pope
never accepted the pragmatic sanction
following the end of the Ottoman civil
war the Ottomans attacked Constantinople
capturing Thessalonica and laying siege
to the city in 1420 to Byzantine Emperor
John the 8th visited Pope Eugene the 4th
to ask for help the Council of Florence
met in 1439 attended by Byzantine
Emperor John the 8th and patriarch
Joseph ii of constantinople as well as
over 700 delegates from various Eastern
nations including Russia Armenia and
Ethiopia the Byzantines agreed to
Catholic demands of the council but once
again the people of Constantinople
refused to accept it
Grand Prince Vasili of the Grand Duchy
of Moscow also refused to accept the
council sultan murad ii had treated
constantinople as a vassal state until
his death in 1451 when his son mehmet ii
took the throne and was determined to
bring an end to the byzantine empire
once and for all
Mehmed used the new technology of siege
cannons to destroy Constantinople's
walls which had defended the city
against all would-be conquerors
for over a thousand years on May 29th
1453 the ottomans breached the city
walls killed emperor constantine xi and
plundered the city for three days the
Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt survived until
1517 when it was conquered by the
Ottoman Empire
French King Charles the seventh
successfully defeated the remaining
English possessions in Normandy bringing
an effective end to the Hundred Years
War with his victory at the Battle of
castellón in July 1453 in 1469 ferdinand
ii of aragon word catherine the first of
Castile uniting the two dynasties and
bringing about the kingdom of Spain in
1478 Ferdinand and Isabella implemented
the Spanish Inquisition charged with
investigating suspected heretics the
Inquisition focused primarily on
converse from Islam and Judaism who were
suspected of reverting to their former
religion in 1492 Ferdinand and Isabella
expelled the Jews from Spain the
expulsion of Muslims from Spain would
not come until 1609 while the University
of Paris delved ever deeper into fringe
questions of scholasticism Rome and the
Italian city-states sought to recover
the works of ancient Greek antiquity
that were made available through the
Crusades and the flight of Greek
intellectuals from the advancing Ottoman
Empire
these ancient Greek writings introduced
new secular humanist motive thought to
Western Europe such as the maxim of the
ancient Greek writer Protagoras man is
the measure of all things
the Renaissance saw Italy's wealthy
elite abandon all pretense of religious
piety as they indulged in opulent
displays of art and architecture popular
resentment grew throughout Italy against
the irreligious nature of the
Renaissance in Florence Dominican friar
Girolamo Savonarola led a revolt and
briefly took over the government
Savonarola who was excommunicated and
publicly executed
Florence remained under the rule of a
revolutionary government whose secretary
at war was Nicolo Machiavelli
in 1488 what Jesus pleura surounded the
Cape of Good Hope for the first time in
modern history in 1492 Christopher
Columbus discovered the Americas these
events paved the way for Catholic
missionary work across the whole world
in the coming centuries the Italian
city-states of Genoa Venice Milan
Florence and Pisa
had been in an almost constant state of
war with each other for several
centuries in the early 16th century they
appealed for intervention from the two
largest powers in Europe France and the
Holy Roman Empire when France sought an
alliance with Spain the Spanish quickly
used their holdings in Sicily to take
over the kingdom of Naples the Pope now
found himself caught between three great
powers France Spain and the Holy Roman
Empire 1,500 years after the birth of
Jesus
Christianity was fracturing in Africa
and Asia Nubian Christianity and the
Church of the East had shrunk
significantly from their former peak
most of the population in the Greek
oriental Orthodox and Nestorian churches
had rejected the reunion that had been
negotiated at the Council of Florence
the Ottoman Empire had conquered all the
original Apostolic churches other than
Rome Germany under the influence of
writers such as William of Occam and Jan
Hus have lost respect for the Pope
France had come to view church councils
and his King as superior to the Pope and
Italy had fallen into the decadent
excesses of the Renaissance but even as
the old world was abandoning Catholicism
millions of people across the Americas
Africa and Asia stood ready to embrace
the Catholic faith in the coming
centuries
in 1505 hope julius ii announced plans
to rebuild st. Peter's Basilica Julia
successor Pope Leo the tenth offered
indulgences throughout Europe for those
who contributed to the basilica's
construction the Renaissance heavily
influenced political theory in Europe
and increasingly led monarchs to view
themselves as superior to the Pope not
only in secular matters but even in
matters of religion in 1513 Nicolo
Machiavelli wrote the prince which
argued that religion was a man-made tool
for princes to use for their own
political interests King Francis the
first and Pope Leo the tenth negotiated
the repeal of the pragmatic sanction
with the Concordat of Bologna in 1516
which affirmed the Pope's supremacy over
church councils and did the election of
French bishops and provided for revenue
sharing between the church and the king
in France in 1517 Augustinian a monk
Martin Luther published 95 theses
critical of the practice of selling
indulgences when the catholic church
condemned Luther's teachings Luther's
criticisms escalated into an attack on
the Pope himself in 1521 following his
excommunication by Pope Leo the tenth
Luther called the Pope the Antichrist
other opponents of the Pope such as
shield tricked swingley in Zurich
Switzerland sprung up across Northern
Europe King Charles the first of Spain
was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1519
making him ruler of Spain the Holy Roman
Empire the Netherlands Sicily and Naples
the most powerful man in Europe
the forces of the Holy Roman Empire and
Spain were heavily involved in the
ongoing Italian Wars in the first half
of the 16th century in 1527 soldiers of
the Holy Roman Empire sacked Rome an
estimated 6,000 to 12,000 people were
murdered the population of Rome dropped
from 55 thousand to a mere 10,000 Pope
Clement the seventh became the prisoner
of Emperor Charles the fifth during the
same year pope clement denied a request
from king henry the eighth of england
for an annulment from his wife Catherine
of Aragon who was the aunt of Charles to
the shock of the Christian world France
allied itself with the Ottoman Empire
against the Holy Roman Empire in 1526
Suleiman the Magnificent Sultan of the
Ottoman Empire conquered Hungary in 1529
he laid siege to Vienna but was repulsed
Suleiman attempted to attack Vienna a
second time in 1532 but failed to reach
the city in 1540 for emperor charles v
was forced to concede dominion over
Hungary to Suleiman in 1531 a native
Mexican named Juan Diego received a
vision of the Blessed Virgin Mary when
Juan Diego's Bishop did not believe his
story the Blessed Virgin Mary instructed
Juan Diego to gather flowers in his
cloak and present them to the bishop
when Juan Diego opened his cloak an
image of the Blessed Virgin was revealed
on the cloak which has been miraculously
preserved to the present day it is the
only Marian apparition to have occurred
in the Americas
while France Spain the Holy Roman Empire
and the Ottoman Empire fought for
dominance in the south northern European
monarchs left the Catholic Church on
mass in the 1530s in 1531 a group of
German princes formed the Shmuel called
Italy and left the Roman Catholic Church
England followed suit in 1534 followed
by Sweden Denmark Norway Iceland and
Greenland in 1536 one of the earliest
adherents the Reformation in France was
a lawyer named John Calvin Calvin was
forced to flee France by Catholic
authorities in 1541 he became the leader
of the Reformation in Geneva with the
Reformation splintering into Lutheran's
Irving lien Anabaptist and even anti
Trinitarian sects Calvin sought to unify
Protestantism by writing a comprehensive
treatise on the Christian faith the
Institute's of the Christian religion
Calvin's teachings became widely popular
among Protestants in the Netherlands and
Scotland and his disciples were
instrumental in bringing the Reformation
to France
Calvin continued the philosophical shift
away from the intellect and toward the
will that had begun with SCOTUS and
akhom arguing that an individual's faith
is a matter of affection rather than
intellect and that God exercised his
freedom of will by predestiny certain
people to hell without the need to give
any intellectual justification for doing
so
in 1552 shimon viii was elected
patriarch of mosul and leader of the
church of the east in contested
circumstances pope julius the third
approved his election and shim ins
followers split off from the Church of
the east
forming the Chaldeans Catholic Church in
full communion with Rome
opponents of shimon continued to elect a
rival patriarch in schism with the
Church of Rome war broke out between the
Shamal Celtic League and emperor charles
v in 1546 charles quickly crushed the
Shmuel Celtic League and sought to
impose Roman Catholicism throughout the
Holy Roman Empire in 1552 the Lutheran
princes in Germany enlisted the support
of King Henry ii of france who though
catholic was happy to ally with any
enemy of Charles
whether it was the Ottoman Empire all
the Lutheran princes with Henry's
support the Lutheran princes drove
Charles out of Germany and he was forced
to negotiate the Peace of Augsburg which
established the principle of quiesce
regio EIU's religio each prince in the
Holy Roman Empire was free to decide the
religion of his realm
George Wishart a disciple of children's
ingly began preaching Protestantism in
Scotland in 1544 he was burned at the
stake on the orders of Cardinal David
beaten in 1546 in retaliation Wishart
followers assassinated Cardinal Beaton
later that year after Henry the eighth
attempted to invade Scotland France
intervened and protected the Catholic
Regent Mary of Gea's after Mary died the
French withdrew and the Scottish
Parliament adopted a reformed confession
of faith Mary Queen of Scots failed to
re-establish Catholicism and her son
James the 6th made Protestantism
official and outlawed Catholicism John
Knox a student of John Calvin was the
theological leader of the Scottish
Reformation and the Presbyterian Church
would carry on his tradition in the
United States in the coming centuries in
1557 the army of king philip ii of spain
conquered the papal States up to the
walls of Rome forcing Pope Paul the 4th
to surrender to King Philip's demands
the Italian Wars concluded in 1559 with
France renouncing all of its claims over
Italy leaving Habsburg Spain in a
position of dominance over the Italian
peninsula this marked a new era of peace
and stability for the papacy as nearly
eight centuries of Italian city-state
warfare and invasions from France and
the Holy Roman Empire were brought to an
end
there had been 41 anti-popes in the
previous 15 centuries but since the end
of the Italian Wars there has not been a
single anti Pope
the end of the Italian Wars allowed the
Catholic Church to complete the Council
of Trent in 1563 which instituted
reforms in Catholic liturgy music art
and church governance and placed an
emphasis on missions which were led by
the new society of Jesus founded by
Saint Ignatius of Loyola the Jesuits in
France followers a Protestantism known
as Hugo knows waged a devastating war
led by the house of khand against the
Catholic monarchy supported by the House
of Gea's in the French Wars of Religion
from 1560 to to 1598 that would claim
the lives of more than 3 million people
in 1598 the wars came to an end when the
Edict of Nantes granted the Hugo nose
substantial religious freedom the
Ottoman Empire captured Cyprus from
Venice in 1571 in response the holy
League consisting of a navy from Spain
Venice Sicily Naples Genoa and the papal
States met the Ottoman Navy at the
Battle of Lepanto the Ottoman Navy was
destroyed securing the western
Mediterranean Sea against the Ottoman
Empire Pope Pius the 5th credited the
Holy League's victory to the recitation
of the Rosary and instituted the feast
of Our Lady of Victory which is now
celebrated as our Lady of the Rosary the
Ottoman Empire treated all Christians
under his domain regardless of their
church affiliation as a single ethnic
group the rum millet they were given
limited religious freedom subject to a
poll tax and subject to the authority of
the patriarch of Constantinople Russia
was the only territory where Eastern
Orthodox Christians were not under
Ottoman rule in 1589 Moscow became a
Patriarchate independent of
Constantinople in 1595 the Ruthenian
Church in Kiev broke communion with
Constantinople and re entered into
communion with Rome in the union of
Brest many Eastern Orthodox members
split off and formed a rival Church
loyal to Constantinople in the 16th
century Catholic missionaries spread the
gospel around the entire world while
Europe's faithful struggled to
understand the competing religious sects
springing up in the wake of the
Reformation English philosopher Francis
Bacon introduced a new branch of
philosophy independent of religion
empiricism the acquisition of knowledge
through inductive reasoning and
scientific observation of events in
nature Bacon's empiricism would prove
highly influential in the Scientific
Revolution of the following centuries in
contrast to Bacon's empiricism Rene
Descartes explored the limits of what
man could know through reason alone
instead of asking what is true they
can't ask what can I be certain is true
Descartes thus switched the focus of
philosophical inquiry from objective
truth to personal subjective
interpretation thus although Descartes
was a devout Catholic who was trying to
defend the Christian faith through
reason his work had the unintended
effect of opening philosophy to
relativism and subjectivism in the
coming centuries
in 1618 war broke out between Catholics
and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire
the war drew in every major power in
Europe the war was more destructive than
anything Europe had previously seen 8
million people were killed although the
war was nominally concluded with the
Treaty of Westphalia which granted
additional religious freedoms to
Protestants war between the great powers
of Europe would continue with only small
interruptions well into the following
century in 1642 conflict with Parliament
forced King Charles the first of England
to flee London supporters of Parliament
led by Oliver Cromwell defeated the king
in the ensuing English Civil War and the
king was executed in 1649 Cromwell a
member of the new independent Puritan
religious movement which supported the
complete independence of each
congregation without any form of church
hierarchy became Lord Protector of
England until his death
England had conquered Ireland in 1603
but Ireland refused to abandon the Roman
Catholic faith after Ireland rebelled in
1641 Oliver Cromwell conquered the
country from 1649 to 1600
and Catholicism in England and Ireland
it is estimated that over 400,000 Roman
Catholics in Ireland lost their lives
during the conquest following the
conquest the public practice of
Catholicism was banned and Catholic
priests were killed when captured
Descartes had set forth a recent proof
for the existence of God but in doing so
he laid the foundation for deism
the belief that God after setting the
universe in motion ceases to interfere
in its affairs in the 17th century the
Jewish Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza
went even further and argued that there
is no distinction between God and the
universe Spinoza denied the existence of
freewill and viewed the entire course of
the universe including human actions as
predetermined and unchangeable in
psychology Spinoza argued that humans
were slaves to their emotions and that
the intellect could never overcome
emotion Spinoza also introduced critical
textual analysis of the Bible and was
expelled from his
Jewish community for teaching that Moses
was not the author of the first five
books of the Old Testament
Europe's intellectual and political
elite were appalled by the horrific
destruction of the 30 Years War and the
despotic Puritan regime of Oliver
Cromwell to prevent further religious
violence they introduced a milder non
confrontational version of Christianity
English philosopher John Locke led this
movement by offering a new
interpretation of the Bible alone free
from tradition Locke argued that the
Bible requires nothing more than for
Humanity to believe in Jesus as its
Redeemer and that any further details
did not warrant dividing into competing
denominations Locke personally held to
the growing belief among Deus and other
intellectual elites in Europe that Jesus
Christ was not God but merely a man who
had tried to enlighten humanity in 1630
the Puritans landed in Massachusetts to
form a city on a hill in 1632
Lord Baltimore a Roman Catholic received
a commission from King Charles the first
to form the colony of Maryland which he
established as a haven for Catholics in
the new world since the time of the
Crusades Franciscan missionaries had
been working in Syria and Palestine in
1662 Andrew aki-chan was elected syriac
orthodox patriarch of Antioch and
restored communion with Rome in 1663
this provoked a split in the community
and the Ottoman government supported the
Syriac Orthodox Church against the
Syriac Catholics and prevented
additional capital patriarchs from being
elected Lutheran and Calvinist reformers
had attempted to join forces with
Eastern Orthodox churches against Rome
the Eastern Orthodox initially rejected
the reformist teachings as modern
innovations but in 1629 a Calvinist
manifesto was circulated in Geneva their
claim to be authored by patriarch Cyril
lucaris of Constantinople in 1672 the
Eastern Orthodox churches held a synod
at Jerusalem the condemned Calvinism as
heretical and affirmed that in the
sacrament of the Holy Eucharist the
bread and wine are transubstantiated
into the true body and blood of Jesus
Christ
from 1673 to 1675 a French nun named
Margaret Mary Alacoque received visions
of Jesus Christ in which he asked to be
honored under the figure of his heart
and by Eucharistic Adoration during Holy
Hour on Thursdays and the reception of
Holy Communion on the first Friday of
each month in the second half of the
17th century a group of Lutheran's in
Germany sought to introduce a deeper
sense of piety and devotion in the
individual believer this pietistic
wickley spread throughout germany but it
was opposed by the Lutheran hierarchy
because it treated doctrine as a
secondary matter to the practice of the
Christian faith and thus allowed for a
certain indifference to variations in
doctrine the piety strong influence on
John Wesley and the American Great
Awakening in the 18th century the
Ottoman Empire's final assault on
central europe was defeated at the
Battle of Vienna by forces of the Holy
Roman Empire Poland and the Holy League
in the coming centuries the Austrian
Hapsburgs Rhee conquered much of Eastern
Europe and the Balkans ever since France
had lost its grip on the papacy
following the end of the Western schism
the French monarch and many of the
French clergy had favored a new movement
called Gallican ISM which sought to
limit interference from the Pope in
spiritual and secular affairs the
Gallican movement emphasized the
absolute power of the king over the
church in France and declared that the
Pope did not have authority to act
without the church's consent king louis
xiv of france favoured Gallican ism but
as a concession to the Pope issued the
Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685 which
revoked the Edict of Nantes outlawed
Protestantism in the resulting
persecution hundreds of thousands of
hyouka notes left the country in 1686
louis xiv claimed that out of an
original hyouka no population of 800,000
to 900,000 only 1000 to 1500 remained in
france france soon became embroiled in
wars against the netherlands the Holy
Roman Empire England and Spain
in the war of Spanish Succession and the
war of the crow duple alliance Spain
ceded control of his Italian possessions
and Austria acquired Sardinia Naples and
Milan Italy and in particular Rome
remained largely at peace throughout
this time
in 1724 cyril the 6th Tanis became the
greek Melkite patriarch of antioch and
sought reunion with the pope in 1729
Pope Benedict the 13th recognized Cyril
as patriarch of Antioch patriarch
Jeremias the 3rd of Constantinople
declared Cyril's election to be invalid
excommunicated him and ordained a deacon
Sylvester of Antioch then appointed
Sylvester to the patriarchal sea of
Antioch Jeremias and Sylvester began a
campaign of persecution II and Cyril
animal kite faithful who supported him
enforced by Ottoman Turkish troops in
1733 Abdullah Zakia set up the first
printing press in the Middle East at a
multi Catholic monastery in Mount
Lebanon the printing press used Arabic
movable type
the 18th century saw a philosophy make a
complete break with religion through the
Enlightenment which emphasized
empiricism rationalism and skepticism
French philosopher Voltaire argued for a
society based on reason rather than
religious dogma Scottish philosopher
David Hume rejected both the rationalism
of Rene Descartes and the empiricism of
John Locke Hume taught a philosophy of
extreme skepticism arguing that human
knowledge is nothing more than a bundle
of sensations like Spinoza Hume taught
that humans are slaves to their emotions
German philosopher Immanuel Kant sought
to reconcile the schools of rationalism
empiricism and skepticism creating the
new philosophical school of idealism
Kant severed the final remaining links
between theology and metaphysics by
denying that the existence of God could
be proved through human reason Kant
accordingly consigned religion to an
entirely separate sphere from philosophy
and argued that religion should be based
on a pure moral disposition of the heart
rather than ritual ceremony and
hierarchy the cold skepticism of the
Enlightenment sparked a reaction in the
form of a Great Awakening of religious
fervor in the American colonies in 1731
Jonathan Edwards delivered a public
sermon in Boston that attacked
Arminianism the doctrine that man must
cooperate with God's grace to come to
faith in salvation Edwards declared that
it was mere and arbitrary grace for God
to grant any person the faith necessary
for salvation
Edwards sermon sparked a wave of
powerful preaching they gave listeners a
sense of deep personal need for
salvation by Jesus Christ the Great
Awakening pulled away from ritual
sacraments and hierarchy and focused on
the direct relationship between the
individual believer and Jesus Christ the
movement greatly increased membership in
the fledgling Baptist and Methodist
denominations in the American colonies
in the 1730's in England John Wesley
began the practice of open-air preaching
and meeting in small groups in an effort
to revitalize the Anglican Church his
followers were soon called Methodists
and spread to the United States
following the American Revolutionary War
the Anglican Church had few ministers in
the United States and was not ordaining
new ones so John Wesley granted Thomas
Cook the authority to ordain Methodist
ministers in America because Wesley and
Cooke were not bishops the Anglican
Church refused to recognize the
ministers they ordained leading to the
split between the Methodist Church and
the Anglican Church Europe's major
powers clashed in the Seven Years War
which led to the loss at multiple
overseas colonies by France and Spain
and led to the eventual partition and
dissolution of Poland the fighting
generally did not involve Italy or Rome
which remained at peace under Austrian
rule in 1782 ma Ignatius Michael the 3rd
was elected syriac orthodox patriarch of
Antioch after professing a Catholic
definition of faith re-establishing the
line of Syriac Catholic patriarchs that
continues down to the present day the
Maya physique faction of the Syriac
Orthodox Church did not accept the
election the French Revolution was
particularly hostile toward religion the
Revolution adopted an anti-christian
cult of reason as his official religion
followed by the cult of the Supreme
Being Catholic priests and nuns were
among those targeted by the
revolutionaries in the wake of the
French Revolution the French clergy
abandoned the Gallic anism and embraced
the Pope as their protector with the
philosophers of the Enlightenment
claiming for themselves a monopoly on
human intellect and reason the Second
Great Awakening in the United States
provided an outlet for Christians who
were put off by the cold and skeptical
rationalism of the Enlightenment the
Second Great Awakening appealed to
emotionalism and the supernatural and
attracted new members to Baptist and
Methodist congregations
Italy's 237 year period of peace under
Spanish and Austrian rule came to an end
with Napoleon's conquest of Italy in
1796 in 1798 French troops captured Rome
and took Pope Pius the 6th prisoner he
died the following year
Napoleon defeated the forces of the Holy
Roman Empire in 1806 leading to his
dissolution Vienna became the capital of
the new Austrian Empire French troops
occupied Rome again in 1808 and Napoleon
declared that he was seizing the papal
States in response Pope Pius the seventh
excommunicated Napoleon French troops
took Pope Pius prisoner and exiled him
to Savona in Northwest Italy Napoleon
abdicated in April 1814 and Pope Pius
was released being welcomed back in Rome
as a hero
although Austria received back its
Italian territories the peninsula was
now ripe for a nationalist unification
movement in 1830 a French nun named
Catherine Laboure received a vision of
the Blessed Virgin Mary in which she was
told to construct a medal showing on one
side an image of Mary standing on a
globe and crushing a serpent beneath her
feet with Ray's shooting out of her
hands she is surrounded by the words o
Mary conceived without sin pray for us
who have recourse to thee on the other
side is a cross and bar surmounting the
letter M the Sacred Heart of Jesus and
the Immaculate Heart of Mary surrounded
by twelve stars the Blessed Virgin Mary
promised that all who wear the medal
will receive great Grace's the Russian
Empire had absorbed Poland and Ukraine
in the 17th and 18th centuries both
countries had large Catholic populations
in November 1831 Poland rebelled against
Russian rule Russia crushed the
rebellion and blamed it on Catholic
instigators and undertook harsh measures
to force Catholics in Poland in Ukraine
to convert to Russian orthodoxy
in 1848 revolutionaries in Rome
protesting Austrian occupation of Italy
seized control of the city and forced
Pope Pius the 9th to flee the city in
disguise
one year later French troops entered
Rome and restored the Pope's authority
over the papal States although the
Jesuits had been initially welcomed in
China they began to experience
persecution in the 17th century
Catholicism was introduced to Korea in
the 18th century by converts from China
but in the 19th century the Catholic
Church was persecuted by the Korean
government for its prohibition of
ancestor worship st. Francis Xavier had
brought Catholicism to Japan in the 16th
century but the church was soon forced
underground by the Japanese government
the Catholic Church survived underground
in Japan for 250 years until Catholicism
was legalized in 1858 in England
anglican priest John Henry Newman
converted to Catholicism in 18-49 in
1850 Pope Pius the 9th reinstituted the
Catholic hierarchy in England in 1854
Pope Pius the Knife issued the papal
bull ineffable as' which stated we
declare pronounce and define that the
doctrine which asserts of the Blessed
Virgin Mary from the first moment of her
conception by a singular grace and
privilege of Almighty God and in view of
the merits of Jesus Christ savior of the
human race was preserved free from every
stain of original sin is a doctrine
revealed by God and for this reason must
be firmly and constantly believed by all
the faithful
in 1858 a young peasant girl named
bernadette soubiros received visions of
the Blessed Virgin Mary at a cave in
Lewes France
Mary told Bernadette I am the Immaculate
Conception confirming the bull of Pope
Pius the ninth four years earlier a
spring flowing from the cave has become
the site of millions of pilgrims each
year many of whom have reported
miraculous cures to physical ailments in
the early 19th century German
philosopher Heinrich Jacobi argued that
the idealist philosophy of Immanuel Kant
when taken to its logical conclusion
resulted in nihilism the absence of any
meaning or value in life or the universe
Danish philosopher søren kierkegaard
lamented that the uniformity and apathy
of the modern world led to a lack of
meaning purpose or value in life German
philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche believed
that scientific advances showing that
man is the product of evolution and that
earth has no special place in the
universe had exposed Christianity as a
lie with the result that humans now
found themselves in a world without
meaning or purpose
Nietzsche lamented the world is not as
it ought to be and the world as it ought
to be does not exist
while Europe's intellectual elite had
all but abandoned Christianity by the
19th century the United States saw a
frenzy of new religious movements such
as Adventism restoration ISM the
holiness movement Mormonism
dispensationalism and the watchtower
society as the number of divisions and
denominations in Protestantism continued
to grow with each passing decade leaders
of mainline Protestant denominations
sought to find interdenominational unity
by placing less emphasis on doctrine
they championed the idea that the
essential teachings of Christianity are
summed up in a few great simple truths
that are clearly expressed in Scripture
and thus it makes little difference to
which particular denomination a person
belongs in 1864 to protect the Catholic
Church from the modernist indifferentism
that was sweeping through Europe Pope
Pius the 9th published the syllabus of
errors which condemned 80 propositions
of modernist philosophical political and
religious thought including the
separation of church and state and the
notion that every man is free to follow
that religion which he believes to be
true in 1870 the first Vatican Council
declared that the Pope is infallible
when in the exercise of his officers
Shepherd and teacher of all Christians
in virtue of his supreme apostolic
authority he defines a doctrine
concerning faith or morals to be held by
the whole church
in 1861 King Victor Emmanuel ii of
piedmont completed the unification of
the italian peninsula as the kingdom of
italy but rome was still under the
temporal rule of the pope
finally in 1870 soldiers of the new
italian kingdom breached the aurelion
walls and stormed the city
Pope Pius the 9th was left prisoner
inside the Vatican the 19th century saw
a new wave of colonialism in Africa Asia
and Australia that by England France
Belgium and Germany each group of
colonists brought their own denomination
of preference to the people they
colonized following the fall of
Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in
1453 the patriarch of Constantinople
held authority over Christians in
Eastern Europe and Russia Russia
acquired independence from
Constantinople as its own autocephalous
Patriarchate in 1589 late in the 19th
century as Eastern Europe was liberated
from the Ottoman Empire the new
independent nation-states demanded
independence from Constantinople as
autocephalous churches from 1833 to 1951
autocephalous status was claimed by
greece bulgaria serbia bosnia and
herzegovina Romania Georgia Estonia
Albania Poland and Czechoslovakia in the
19th century Spain's colonies in Latin
America and the Pacific won their
independence in Wars of revolution in
many colonies the Catholic Church was
associated with the Spanish colonizers
and became the focus of attack from
leaders of the rebellions particularly
in Mexico
from 1894 to 1923 the Ottoman Empire
carried out a series of horrific
genocides targeting Greek Assyrian and
Armenian Christians in his territory at
least 450,000 Greek 150,000 Assyrian and
1.5 million Armenian Christians were
murdered in 1917 three children in
Fatima Portugal received a series of
visions of the Blessed Virgin Mary the
Blessed Virgin Mary asked the children
to devote themselves to the Holy Trinity
and to pray the rosary every day to end
World War one and bring peace to the
world over ten thousand pilgrims flocked
to the site of the visions and reported
seeing a miraculous movement of the Sun
in the sky following the overthrow of
Tsar Nicholas ii during World War one
the Bolsheviks showed no restraint in
persecuting Christians in the Soviet
Union
hundreds of bishops priests monks and
nuns in major cities were murdered
nearly all the country's monasteries and
convents were liquidated and there were
widespread mass executions of monks and
nuns throughout the country following
the Mexican Revolution from 1910 to 1920
the government of Mexico instituted
oppressive measures against Catholics
which led to the Cristero rebellion from
1926 to 1929 even following the
negotiated peace settlements the secular
government continued its oppressive
measures against Catholics between 1926
and 1934 at least 40 priests were killed
there were four thousand five hundred
priests serving the people before the
rebellion but by 1934 there were only
334 priests licensed by the government
to serve 15 million people in Mexico by
1935 seventeen states had no priests at
all
in 1929 the kingdom of Italy and pope
pius xi negotiated the Lateran treaty
which recognized the full sovereignty of
the Holy See in the state of Vatican
City in 1924 a young girl in Poland
named Maria Faustina received a vision
of Jesus Christ she immediately joined
the convent as a nun and continued to
receive visions of Jesus over the next
decade Jesus instructed her to begin a
devotion in the church to the divine
mercy in the year 2000 pope john paul ii
instituted the Feast of the Divine Mercy
to be celebrated on the first Sunday
after Easter in 1937
Pope Pius the 12th smuggled 300,000
copies of the papal decree MIT brain and
disorder into Nazi Germany the decree
condemned the rampant racism and
idolatry of the state in Nazi Germany
Pius took the rare step of writing the
decree in German rather than Latin and
Catholic priests read the decree in
parishes throughout Germany on Palm
Sunday in 1937 an infuriated Hitler
ordered hundreds of Catholics priests
and monks arrested while the Gestapo
ransacked Catholic churches Joseph
Goebbels remarked after the war the
church question has to be solved there
is an insoluble opposition between the
Christian and a heroic German worldview
despite numerous requests from Pope Pius
the 12th to have Rome declared an open
City during World War two Rome was
bombed repeatedly by German American and
English air forces after Italy
surrendered to the Allies in 1943 Rome
was occupied by Nazi Germany hewo
flattery
an Irish priest at the Vatican organized
an underground network to hide Jews and
escaped Allied prisoners from the Nazis
when the Nazis learned about her
flatteries activities the head of the
Gestapo in Rome ordered a white line
painted at the entrance to st. Peter's
Basilica with orders to shoot Oh
flattery if he crossed it the United
States Army captured Rome on June the
4th 1944 nihilism gave way to
existentialism following World War two
jean-paul Sartre declared that humans
have no creator no essence and must
learn through experience alone and free
how to be authentic in a world of
oppressive conformity meanwhile Albert
Camus posed the question given that life
is inherently meaningless what kind of
life is preferable to suicide
on November the 1st 1950 hope Pius the
12th issued the Apostolic Constitution
when if assent is submersed dais we
stated by the authority of our Lord
Jesus Christ of the Blessed apostles
Peter and Paul and by our own authority
we pronounced declare and define it to
be a divinely revealed dogma that the
immaculate mother of god the ever Virgin
Mary having completed the course of her
earthly life was assumed body in soul
into heavenly glory the 20th century saw
the introduction of more religious
movements and denominations in the
United States such as Pentecostals
fundamentalist evangelicals charismatic
and the emerging church while mainline
Protestant denominations went through
various mergers and divisions in the
1960s the Second Vatican Council sought
to reform the Catholic Church in light
of a rapidly changing world introducing
reforms in liturgy and placing a new
emphasis on that humanism in 1964 Pope
Paul the sixth met patriarch athenagoras
the first of Constantinople in Jerusalem
the first such meeting since the Council
of Florence in 1439
in 1971 hope Paul the South met more and
more Ignatius jacuz but the third syriac
orthodox patriarch of antioch and all
the yeast the first such meeting since
before the council of Calca don in the
year 451 in 1973 Coptic Pope Shenouda
the third of Alexandria visited Pope
Paul the sixth in Rome the first such
meeting since before the Council of
Chalcedon
in the year 451
in 1984 patriarch Marv Dinka the fourth
of the Church of the East visited Pope
John Paul the second in Rome the first
such meeting in history
in 2017 Pope Francis of Rome met Pope
Tawadros
ii of Alexandria and patriarch
bartholomew of constantinople in cairo
egypt Pope Francis and Pope Tawadros
agreed for the first time in history
that the Catholic and Coptic churches
would recognize the baptisms of each
other's members
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