Philosophy (from Greek φιλοσοφία,
philosophia, literally "love of wisdom") is
the study of general and fundamental problems
concerning matters such as existence, knowledge,
values, reason, mind, and language.
The term was probably coined by Pythagoras
(c. 570–495 BCE).
Philosophical methods include questioning,
critical discussion, rational argument, and
systematic presentation.
Classic philosophical questions include: Is
it possible to know anything and to prove
it?
What is most real?
Philosophers also pose more practical and
concrete questions such as: Is there a best
way to live?
Is it better to be just or unjust (if one
can get away with it)?
Do humans have free will?Historically, "philosophy"
encompassed any body of knowledge.
From the time of Ancient Greek philosopher
Aristotle to the 19th century, "natural philosophy"
encompassed astronomy, medicine, and physics.
For example, Newton's 1687 Mathematical Principles
of Natural Philosophy later became classified
as a book of physics.
In the 19th century, the growth of modern
research universities led academic philosophy
and other disciplines to professionalize and
specialize.
In the modern era, some investigations that
were traditionally part of philosophy became
separate academic disciplines, including psychology,
sociology, linguistics, and economics.
Other investigations closely related to art,
science, politics, or other pursuits remained
part of philosophy.
For example, is beauty objective or subjective?
Are there many scientific methods or just
one?
Is political utopia a hopeful dream or hopeless
fantasy?
Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include
metaphysics ("concerned with the fundamental
nature of reality and being"), epistemology
(about the "nature and grounds of knowledge
[and]...its limits and validity" ), ethics,
aesthetics, political philosophy, logic and
philosophy of science.
Since the 20th century, professional philosophers
contribute to society primarily as academics.
However, many of those who study philosophy
in undergraduate or graduate programs contribute
in the fields of law, journalism, politics,
religion, science, business and various art
and entertainment activities.
== Introduction ==
=== Knowledge ===
Traditionally, the term "philosophy" referred
to any body of knowledge.
In this sense, philosophy is closely related
to religion, mathematics, natural science,
education and politics.
Newton's 1687 "Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy" is classified in the 2000s
as a book of physics; he used the term "natural
philosophy" because it used to encompass disciplines
that later became associated with sciences
such as astronomy, medicine and physics.In
the first part of the first book of his Academics,
Cicero introduced the division of philosophy
into logic, physics, and ethics; in section
thirteen of the first book of his Lives and
Opinions of the Eminent Philosophers, the
3rd-century Diogenes Laërtius, the first
historian of philosophy, established the traditional
division of philosophical inquiry into three
parts:
Natural philosophy ("physics," from ta physika,
"things having to do with nature (physis)"
was the study of the constitution and processes
of transformation in the physical world;
Moral philosophy ("ethics," from êthika,
literally, "having to do with character, disposition,
manners") was the study of goodness, right
and wrong, justice and virtue.
Metaphysical philosophy ("logic") was the
study of existence, causation, God, logic,
forms and other abstract objects ("meta ta
physika" lit: "After [the book] the Physics").This
division is not obsolete but has changed.
Natural philosophy has split into the various
natural sciences, especially astronomy, physics,
chemistry, biology, and cosmology.
Moral philosophy has birthed the social sciences,
but still includes value theory (including
aesthetics, ethics, political philosophy,
etc.).
Metaphysical philosophy has birthed formal
sciences such as logic, mathematics and philosophy
of science, but still includes epistemology,
cosmology and others.
=== Philosophical progress ===
Many philosophical debates that began in ancient
times are still debated today.
Colin McGinn and others claim that no philosophical
progress has occurred during that interval.
Chalmers and others, by contrast, see progress
in philosophy similar to that in science,
while Talbot Brewer argued that "progress"
is the wrong standard by which to judge philosophical
activity.
== Historical overview ==
In one general sense, philosophy is associated
with wisdom, intellectual culture and a search
for knowledge.
In that sense, all cultures and literate societies
ask philosophical questions such as "how are
we to live" and "what is the nature of reality".
A broad and impartial conception of philosophy
then, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters
as reality, morality and life in all world
civilizations.
=== Western philosophy ===
Western philosophy is the philosophical tradition
of the Western world and dates to Pre-Socratic
thinkers who were active in Ancient Greece
in the 6th century BCE such as Thales (c.
624–546 BCE) and Pythagoras (c. 570–495
BCE) who practiced a "love of wisdom" (philosophia)
and were also termed physiologoi (students
of physis, or nature).
Socrates was a very influential philosopher,
who insisted that he possessed no wisdom but
was a pursuer of wisdom.
Western philosophy can be divided into three
eras: Ancient (Greco-Roman), Medieval philosophy
(Christian European), and Modern philosophy.
The Ancient era was dominated by Greek philosophical
schools which arose out of the various pupils
of Socrates, such as Plato, who founded the
Platonic Academy and his student Aristotle,
founding the Peripatetic school, who were
both extremely influential in Western tradition.
Other traditions include Cynicism, Stoicism,
Greek Skepticism and Epicureanism.
Important topics covered by the Greeks included
metaphysics (with competing theories such
as atomism and monism), cosmology, the nature
of the well-lived life (eudaimonia), the possibility
of knowledge and the nature of reason (logos).
With the rise of the Roman empire, Greek philosophy
was also increasingly discussed in Latin by
Romans such as Cicero and Seneca.
Medieval philosophy (5th – 16th century)
is the period following the fall of the Western
Roman Empire and was dominated by the rise
of Christianity and hence reflects Judeo-Christian
theological concerns as well as retaining
a continuity with Greco-Roman thought.
Problems such as the existence and nature
of God, the nature of faith and reason, metaphysics,
the problem of evil were discussed in this
period.
Some key Medieval thinkers include St. Augustine,
Thomas Aquinas, Boethius, Anselm and Roger
Bacon.
Philosophy for these thinkers was viewed as
an aid to Theology (ancilla theologiae) and
hence they sought to align their philosophy
with their interpretation of sacred scripture.
This period saw the development of Scholasticism,
a text critical method developed in medieval
universities based on close reading and disputation
on key texts.
The Renaissance period saw increasing focus
on classic Greco-Roman thought and on a robust
Humanism.
Early modern philosophy in the Western world
begins with thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes
and René Descartes (1596–1650).
Following the rise of natural science, Modern
philosophy was concerned with developing a
secular and rational foundation for knowledge
and moved away from traditional structures
of authority such as religion, scholastic
thought and the Church.
Major modern philosophers include Spinoza,
Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and Kant.
19th-century philosophy is influenced by the
wider movement termed the Enlightenment, and
includes figures such as Hegel a key figure
in German idealism, Kierkegaard who developed
the foundations for existentialism, Nietzsche
a famed anti-Christian, J.S.
Mill who promoted Utilitarianism, Karl Marx
who developed the foundations for Communism
and the American William James.
The 20th century saw the split between Analytic
philosophy and Continental philosophy, as
well as philosophical trends such as Phenomenology,
Existentialism, Logical Positivism, Pragmatism
and the Linguistic turn.
=== Middle Eastern philosophy ===
The regions of the fertile Crescent, Iran
and Arabia are home to the earliest known
philosophical Wisdom literature and is today
mostly dominated by Islamic culture.
Early wisdom literature from the fertile crescent
was a genre which sought to instruct people
on ethical action, practical living and virtue
through stories and proverbs.
In Ancient Egypt, these texts were known as
sebayt ('teachings') and they are central
to our understandings of Ancient Egyptian
philosophy.
Babylonian astronomy also included much philosophical
speculations about cosmology which may have
influenced the Ancient Greeks.
Jewish philosophy and Christian philosophy
are religio-philosophical traditions that
developed both in the Middle East and in Europe,
which both share certain early Judaic texts
(mainly the Tanakh) and monotheistic beliefs.
Jewish thinkers such as the Geonim of the
Talmudic Academies in Babylonia and Maimonides
engaged with Greek and Islamic philosophy.
Later Jewish philosophy came under strong
Western intellectual influences and includes
the works of Moses Mendelssohn who ushered
in the Haskalah (the Jewish Enlightenment),
Jewish existentialism and Reform Judaism.
Pre-Islamic Iranian philosophy begins with
the work of Zoroaster, one of the first promoters
of monotheism and of the dualism between good
and evil.
This dualistic cosmogony influenced later
Iranian developments such as Manichaeism,
Mazdakism, and Zurvanism.
After the Muslim conquests, Early Islamic
philosophy developed the Greek philosophical
traditions in new innovative directions.
This Islamic Golden Age influenced European
intellectual developments.
The two main currents of early Islamic thought
are Kalam which focuses on Islamic theology
and Falsafa which was based on Aristotelianism
and Neoplatonism.
The work of Aristotle was very influential
among the falsafa such as al-Kindi (9th century),
Avicenna (980 – June 1037) and Averroes
(12th century).
Others such as Al-Ghazali were highly critical
of the methods of the Aristotelian falsafa.
Islamic thinkers also developed a scientific
method, experimental medicine, a theory of
optics and a legal philosophy.
Ibn Khaldun was an influential thinker in
philosophy of history.
In Iran several schools of Islamic philosophy
continued to flourish after the Golden Age
and include currents such as Illuminationist
philosophy, Sufi philosophy, and Transcendent
theosophy.
The 19th- and 20th-century Arab world saw
the Nahda (awakening or renaissance) movement
which influenced contemporary Islamic philosophy.
=== Indian philosophy ===
Indian philosophy (Sanskrit: darśana; 'world
views', 'teachings') refers to the diverse
philosophical traditions that emerged since
the ancient times on the Indian subcontinent.
Jainism and Buddhism originated at the end
of the Vedic period, while Hinduism emerged
as a fusion of diverse traditons, starting
after the end of the Vedic period.
Hindus generally classify these traditions
as either orthodox or heterodox – āstika
or nāstika – depending on whether they
accept the authority of the Vedas and the
theories of Brahman and Atman (soul, self)
therein.
The orthodox schools include the Hindu traditions
of thought, while the heterodox schools include
the Buddhist and the Jain traditions.
Other schools include the Ajñana, Ajivika
and Cārvāka which became extinct over their
history.Important Indian philosophical concepts
shared by the Indian philosophies include
dharma, karma, artha, kama, dukkha (suffering),
anitya (anicca, impermanence), dhyana (jhana,
meditation), renunciation (with or without
monasticism or asceticism), various samsara
with cycles of rebirth, moksha (nirvana, kaivalya,
liberation from rebirth), and virtues such
as ahimsa.
==== Jain philosophy ====
Jain philosophy accepts the concept of a permanent
soul (jiva) as one of the five astikayas,
or eternal infinite categories that make up
the substance of existence.
The other four being dharma, adharma, akasha
(space) and pudgala (matter).
The Jain thought separates matter from the
soul completely.
It has two major subtraditions: Digambara
(sky dressed, naked) and Svetambara (white
dressed), along with several more minor traditions
such as Terapanthis.
Asceticism is a major monastic virtue in Jainism.
Jain texts such as the Tattvartha Sutra state
that right faith, right knowledge and right
conduct is the path to liberation.
It has two major subtraditions: Digambara
and Svetambara, along with several more minor
traditions such as Terapanthis.
The Jain thought holds that all existence
is cyclic, eternal and uncreated.
The Tattvartha Sutra is the earliest known,
most comprehensive and authoritative compilation
of Jain philosophy.
==== Buddhist philosophy ====
Buddhist philosophy begins with the thought
of Gautama Buddha (fl. between sixth and fourth
centuries BCE) and is preserved in the early
Buddhist texts.
It originated in India and later spread to
East Asia, Tibet, Central Asia, and Southeast
Asia, developing syncretic traditions in these
regions.
The Buddhist philosophy is traditionally classified
into four schools, states Karl Potter – the
editor of The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies.
These are the Vaibhasika, Sautrantika, Yogacara
(or Vijnanavada), and Madhyamika schools.
They contributed to the two major surviving
traditions of Buddhism, the Mahayana and the
Theravada.The Mahayana form of Buddhist thought
is the dominant philosophical tradition in
East Asian regions such as China, Korea and
Japan.
The Theravada form is dominant in Southeast
Asian countries such as Sri Lanka, Burma and
Thailand.
Buddhist philosophy incorporates epistemology,
metaphysics, ethics and psychology to end
rebirth and associated dukkha.
Key innovative concepts include the Four Noble
Truths, Anatta (not-self), Anicca (impermanence).Later
Buddhist philosophical traditions developed
complex phenomenological psychologies termed
'Abhidharma'.
Mahayana philosophers such as Nagarjuna and
Vasubandhu developed the theories of Shunyata
(emptiness of all phenomena) and Vijnapti-matra
(appearance only), a form of phenomenology
or transcendental idealism.
The Dignāga school of Pramāṇa promoted
a complex form of epistemology and Buddhist
logic.
After the disappearance of Buddhism from India,
these philosophical traditions continued to
develop in the Tibetan Buddhist, East Asian
Buddhist and Theravada Buddhist traditions.
==== Hindu philosophies ====
The Vedas-based orthodox schools are a part
of the Hinduism traditions and they are traditionally
classified into six darsanas: Nyaya, Vaisheshika,
Samkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta.
The Vedas as a knowledge source were interpreted
differently by these six schools of Hindu
philosophy, with varying degrees of overlap.
They represent a "collection of philosophical
views that share a textual connection", according
to Chadha.
They also reflect a tolerance for a diversity
of philosophical interpretations within Hinduism
while sharing the same foundation.Some of
the earliest surviving Hindu mystical and
philosophical texts are the Upanishads of
the later Vedic period (1000–500 BCE).
Hindu philosophers of the six schools developed
systems of epistemology (pramana) and investigated
topics such as metaphysics, ethics, psychology
(guna), hermeneutics and soteriology within
the framework of the Vedic knowledge, while
presenting a diverse collection of interpretations.
These schools of philosophy accepted the Vedas
and the Vedic concept of Atman and Brahman,
differed from the following Indian religions
that rejected the authority of the Vedas:
Cārvāka, a materialism school that accepted
the existence of free will.
Ājīvika, a materialism school that denied
the existence of free will.
Buddhism, a philosophy that denies the existence
of ātman (unchanging soul, Self) and is based
on the teachings and enlightenment of Gautama
Buddha.
Jainism, a philosophy that accepts the existence
of the ātman (soul, Self), but is based on
the teachings of twenty-four ascetic teachers
known as tirthankaras, with Rishabha as the
first and Mahavira as the twenty-fourth.The
commonly named six orthodox schools over time
led to what has been called the "Hindu synthesis"
as exempliied by its scripture the Bhagavad
Gita.
=== East Asian philosophy ===
East Asian philosophical thought began in
Ancient China, and Chinese philosophy begins
during the Western Zhou Dynasty and the following
periods after its fall when the "Hundred Schools
of Thought" flourished (6th century to 221
BCE).
This period was characterized by significant
intellectual and cultural developments and
saw the rise of the major philosophical schools
of China, Confucianism, Legalism, and Daoism
as well as numerous other less influential
schools.
These philosophical traditions developed metaphysical,
political and ethical theories such Tao, Yin
and yang, Ren and Li which, along with Chinese
Buddhism, directly influenced Korean philosophy,
Vietnamese philosophy and Japanese philosophy
(which also includes the native Shinto tradition).
Buddhism began arriving in China during the
Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), through a
gradual Silk road transmission and through
native influences developed distinct Chinese
forms (such as Chan/Zen) which spread throughout
the East Asian cultural sphere.
During later Chinese dynasties like the Ming
Dynasty (1368–1644) as well as in the Korean
Joseon dynasty (1392–1897) a resurgent Neo-Confucianism
led by thinkers such as Wang Yangming (1472–1529)
became the dominant school of thought, and
was promoted by the imperial state.
In the Modern era, Chinese thinkers incorporated
ideas from Western philosophy.
Chinese Marxist philosophy developed under
the influence of Mao Zedong, while a Chinese
pragmatism under Hu Shih and New Confucianism's
rise was influenced by Xiong Shili.
Modern Japanese thought meanwhile developed
under strong Western influences such as the
study of Western Sciences (Rangaku) and the
modernist Meirokusha intellectual society
which drew from European enlightenment thought.
The 20th century saw the rise of State Shinto
and also Japanese nationalism.
The Kyoto School, an influential and unique
Japanese philosophical school developed from
Western phenomenology and Medieval Japanese
Buddhist philosophy such as that of Dogen.
=== African philosophy ===
African philosophy is philosophy produced
by African people, philosophy that presents
African worldviews, ideas and themes, or philosophy
that uses distinct African philosophical methods.
Modern African thought has been occupied with
Ethnophilosophy, with defining the very meaning
of African philosophy and its unique characteristics
and what it means to be African.
During the 17th century, Ethiopian philosophy
developed a robust literary tradition as exemplified
by Zera Yacob.
Another early African philosopher was Anton
Wilhelm Amo (c. 1703–1759) who became a
respected philosopher in Germany.
Distinct African philosophical ideas include
Ujamaa, the Bantu idea of 'Force', Négritude,
Pan-Africanism and Ubuntu.
Contemporary African thought has also seen
the development of Professional philosophy
and of Africana philosophy, the philosophical
literature of the African diaspora which includes
currents such as black existentialism by African-Americans.
Modern African thinkers have been influenced
by Marxism, African-American literature, Critical
theory, Critical race theory, Postcolonialism
and Feminism.
=== Indigenous American philosophy ===
Indigenous American philosophy is the philosophy
of the Indigenous people of the Americas.
There is a wide variety of beliefs and traditions
among these different American cultures.
Among some of the Native Americans in the
United States there is a belief in a metaphysical
principle called the "Great Mystery" (Siouan:
Wakan Tanka, Algonquian: Gitche Manitou).
Another widely shared concept was that of
Orenda or "spiritual power".
According to Peter M. Whiteley, for the Native
Americans, "Mind is critically informed by
transcendental experience (dreams, visions
and so on) as well as by reason."
The practices to access these transcendental
experiences are termed Shamanism.
Another feature of the indigenous American
worldviews was their extension of ethics to
non-human animals and plants.In Mesoamerica,
Aztec philosophy was an intellectual tradition
developed by individuals called Tlamatini
('those who know something') and its ideas
are preserved in various Aztec codices.
The Aztec worldview posited the concept of
an ultimate universal energy or force called
Ometeotl which can be translated as "Dual
Cosmic Energy" and sought a way to live in
balance with a constantly changing, "slippery"
world.
The theory of Teotl can be seen as a form
of Pantheism.
Aztec philosophers developed theories of metaphysics,
epistemology, values, and aesthetics.
Aztec ethics was focused on seeking tlamatiliztli
(knowledge, wisdom) which was based on moderation
and balance in all actions as in the Nahua
proverb "the middle good is necessary".The
Inca civilization also had an elite class
of philosopher-scholars termed the Amawtakuna
who were important in the Inca education system
as teachers of religion, tradition, history
and ethics.
Key concepts of Andean thought are Yanantin
and Masintin which involve a theory of “complementary
opposites” that sees polarities (such as
male/female, dark/light) as interdependent
parts of a harmonious whole.
== Categories ==
Philosophical questions can be grouped into
categories.
These groupings allow philosophers to focus
on a set of similar topics and interact with
other thinkers who are interested in the same
questions.
The groupings also make philosophy easier
for students to approach.
Students can learn the basic principles involved
in one aspect of the field without being overwhelmed
with the entire set of philosophical theories.
Various sources present different categorical
schemes.
The categories adopted in this article aim
for breadth and simplicity.
These five major branches can be separated
into sub-branches and each sub-branch contains
many specific fields of study.
Metaphysics and epistemology
Value theory
Science, logic and mathematics
History of Western philosophy
Philosophical traditionsThese divisions are
neither exhaustive, nor mutually exclusive.
(A philosopher might specialize in Kantian
epistemology, or Platonic aesthetics, or modern
political philosophy.)
Furthermore, these philosophical inquiries
sometimes overlap with each other and with
other inquiries such as science, religion
or mathematics.
=== Metaphysics ===
Metaphysics is the study of the most general
features of reality, such as existence, time,
objects and their properties, wholes and their
parts, events, processes and causation and
the relationship between mind and body.
Metaphysics includes cosmology, the study
of the world in its entirety and ontology,
the study of being.
A major point of debate is between realism,
which holds that there are entities that exist
independently of their mental perception and
idealism, which holds that reality is mentally
constructed or otherwise immaterial.
Metaphysics deals with the topic of identity.
Essence is the set of attributes that make
an object what it fundamentally is and without
which it loses its identity while accident
is a property that the object has, without
which the object can still retain its identity.
Particulars are objects that are said to exist
in space and time, as opposed to abstract
objects, such as numbers, and universals,
which are properties held by multiple particulars,
such as redness or a gender.
The type of existence, if any, of universals
and abstract objects is an issue of debate.
=== Epistemology ===
Epistemology is the study of knowledge (Greek
episteme).
Epistemologists study the putative sources
of knowledge, including intuition, a priori
reason, memory, perceptual knowledge, self-knowledge
and testimony.
They also ask: What is truth?
Is knowledge justified true belief?
Are any beliefs justified?
Putative knowledge includes propositional
knowledge (knowledge that something is the
case), know-how (knowledge of how to do something)
and acquaintance (familiarity with someone
or something).
Epistemologists examine these and ask whether
knowledge is really possible.
Skepticism is the position which doubts claims
to knowledge.
The regress argument, a fundamental problem
in epistemology, occurs when, in order to
completely prove any statement, its justification
itself needs to be supported by another justification.
This chain can go on forever, called infinitism,
it can eventually rely on basic beliefs that
are left unproven, called foundationalism,
or it can go in a circle so that a statement
is included in its own chain of justification,
called coherentism.
Rationalism is the emphasis on reasoning as
a source of knowledge.
It is associated with a priori knowledge,
which is independent of experience, such as
math and logical deduction.
Empiricism is the emphasis on observational
evidence via sensory experience as the source
of knowledge.
Among the numerous topics within metaphysics
and epistemology, broadly construed are:
Philosophy of language explores the nature,
the origins and the use of language.
Philosophy of mind explores the nature of
the mind and its relationship to the body.
It is typified by disputes between dualism
and materialism.
In recent years this branch has become related
to cognitive science.
Philosophy of human nature analyzes the unique
characteristics of human beings, such as rationality,
politics and culture.
Metaphilosophy explores the aims of philosophy,
its boundaries and its methods.
=== Value theory ===
Value theory (or axiology) is the major branch
of philosophy that addresses topics such as
goodness, beauty and justice.
Value theory includes ethics, aesthetics,
political philosophy, feminist philosophy,
philosophy of law and more.
==== Ethics ====
Ethics, or "moral philosophy", studies and
considers what is good and bad conduct, right
and wrong values, and good and evil.
Its primary investigations include how to
live a good life and identifying standards
of morality.
It also includes meta-investigations about
whether a best way to live or related standards
exists.
The main branches of ethics are normative
ethics, meta-ethics and applied ethics.
A major area of debate involves consequentialism,
in which actions are judged by the potential
results of the act, such as to maximize happiness,
called utilitarianism, and deontology, in
which actions are judged by how they adhere
to principles, irrespective of negative ends.
==== Aesthetics ====
Aesthetics is the "critical reflection on
art, culture and nature."
It addresses the nature of art, beauty and
taste, enjoyment, emotional values, perception
and with the creation and appreciation of
beauty.
It is more precisely defined as the study
of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes
called judgments of sentiment and taste.
Its major divisions are art theory, literary
theory, film theory and music theory.
An example from art theory is to discern the
set of principles underlying the work of a
particular artist or artistic movement such
as the Cubist aesthetic.
The philosophy of film analyzes films and
filmmakers for their philosophical content
and explores film (images, cinema, etc.) as
a medium for philosophical reflection and
expression.
==== Political philosophy ====
Political philosophy is the study of government
and the relationship of individuals (or families
and clans) to communities including the state.
It includes questions about justice, law,
property and the rights and obligations of
the citizen.
Politics and ethics are traditionally linked
subjects, as both discuss the question of
how people should live together.
Other branches of value theory:
Philosophy of law (often called jurisprudence)
explores the varying theories explaining the
nature and interpretation of laws.
Philosophy of education analyzes the definition
and content of education, as well as the goals
and challenges of educators.
Feminist philosophy explores questions surrounding
gender, sexuality and the body including the
nature of feminism itself as a social and
philosophical movement.
Philosophy of sport analyzes sports, games
and other forms of play as sociological and
uniquely human activities.
=== Logic, science and mathematics ===
Many academic disciplines generated philosophical
inquiry.
The relationship between "X" and the "philosophy
of X" is debated.
Richard Feynman argued that the philosophy
of a topic is irrelevant to its primary study,
saying that "philosophy of science is as useful
to scientists as ornithology is to birds."
Curtis White, by contrast, argued that philosophical
tools are essential to humanities, sciences
and social sciences.The topics of philosophy
of science are numbers, symbols and the formal
methods of reasoning as employed in the social
sciences and natural sciences.
==== Logic ====
Logic is the study of reasoning and argument.
An argument is "a connected series of statements
intended to establish a proposition."
The connected series of statements are "premises"
and the proposition is the conclusion.
For example:
All humans are mortal.
(premise)
Socrates is a human.
(premise)
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
(conclusion)Deductive reasoning is when, given
certain premises, conclusions are unavoidably
implied.
Rules of inference are used to infer conclusions
such as, modus ponens, where given “A”
and “If A then B”, then “B” must be
concluded.
Because sound reasoning is an essential element
of all sciences, social sciences and humanities
disciplines, logic became a formal science.
Sub-fields include mathematical logic, philosophical
logic, Modal logic, computational logic and
non-classical logics.
A major question in the philosophy of mathematics
is whether mathematical entities are objective
and discovered, called mathematical realism,
or invented, called mathematical antirealism.
==== Philosophy of science ====
This branch explores the foundations, methods,
history, implications and purpose of science.
Many of its sub-divisions correspond to a
specific branch of science.
For example, philosophy of biology deals specifically
with the metaphysical, epistemological and
ethical issues in the biomedical and life
sciences.
The philosophy of mathematics studies the
philosophical assumptions, foundations and
implications of mathematics.
=== History of philosophy ===
Some philosophers specialize in one or more
historical periods.
The history of philosophy (study of a specific
period, individual or school) is related to
but not the same as the philosophy of history
(the theoretical aspect of history, which
deals with questions such as the nature of
historical evidence and the possibility of
objectivity).
Hegel's Lectures on the Philosophy of History
influenced many philosophers to interpret
truth in light of history, a view called historicism.
=== Philosophy of religion ===
Philosophy of religion deals with questions
that involve religion and religious ideas
from a philosophically neutral perspective
(as opposed to theology which begins from
religious convinctions).
Traditionally, religious questions were not
seen as a separate field from philosophy proper,
the idea of a separate field only arose in
the 19th century.Issues include the existence
of God, the relationship between reason and
faith, questions of religious epistemology,
the relationship between religion and science,
how to interpret religious experiences, questions
about the possibility of an afterlife, the
problem of religious language and the existence
of souls and responses to religious pluralism
and diversity.
=== Philosophical schools ===
Some philosophers specialize in one or more
of the major philosophical schools, such as
Continental philosophy, Analytical philosophy,
Thomism, Asian philosophy or African philosophy.
== Other approaches ==
A variety of other academic and non-academic
approaches have been explored.
=== Applied philosophy ===
The ideas conceived by a society have profound
repercussions on what actions the society
performs.
Weaver argued that ideas have consequences.
Philosophy yields applications such as those
in ethics – applied ethics in particular
– and political philosophy.
The political and economic philosophies of
Confucius, Sun Tzu, Chanakya, Ibn Khaldun,
Ibn Rushd, Ibn Taymiyyah, Machiavelli, Leibniz,
Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Adam Smith, John
Stuart Mill, Marx, Tolstoy, Gandhi and Martin
Luther King Jr. have been used to shape and
justify governments and their actions.
Progressive education as championed by Dewey
had a profound impact on 20th-century US educational
practices.
Descendants of this movement include efforts
in philosophy for children, which are part
of philosophy education.
Clausewitz's political philosophy of war has
had a profound effect on statecraft, international
politics and military strategy in the 20th
century, especially around World War II.
Logic is important in mathematics, linguistics,
psychology, computer science and computer
engineering.
Other important applications can be found
in epistemology, which aid in understanding
the requisites for knowledge, sound evidence
and justified belief (important in law, economics,
decision theory and a number of other disciplines).
The philosophy of science discusses the underpinnings
of the scientific method and has affected
the nature of scientific investigation and
argumentation.
Philosophy thus has fundamental implications
for science as a whole.
For example, the strictly empirical approach
of B.F. Skinner's behaviorism affected for
decades the approach of the American psychological
establishment.
Deep ecology and animal rights examine the
moral situation of humans as occupants of
a world that has non-human occupants to consider
also.
Aesthetics can help to interpret discussions
of music, literature, the plastic arts and
the whole artistic dimension of life.
In general, the various philosophies strive
to provide practical activities with a deeper
understanding of the theoretical or conceptual
underpinnings of their fields.
== Society ==
Some of those who study philosophy become
professional philosophers, typically by working
as professors who teach, research and write
in academic institutions.
However, most students of academic philosophy
later contribute to law, journalism, religion,
sciences, politics, business, or various arts.
For example, public figures who have degrees
in philosophy include comedians Steve Martin
and Ricky Gervais, filmmaker Terrence Malick,
Pope John Paul II, Wikipedia co-founder Larry
Sanger, technology entrepreneur Peter Thiel,
Supreme Court Justice Stephen Bryer and vice
presidential candidate Carly Fiorina.Recent
efforts to avail the general public to the
work and relevance of philosophers include
the million-dollar Berggruen Prize, first
awarded to Charles Taylor in 2016.
== Professional ==
Germany was the first country to professionalize
philosophy.
The doctorate of philosophy (PhD) developed
in Germany as the terminal Teacher's credential
in the mid 17th century.
At the end of 1817, Hegel was the first philosopher
to be appointed Professor by the State, namely
by the Prussian Minister of Education, as
an effect of Napoleonic reform in Prussia.
In the United States, the professionalisation
grew out of reforms to the American higher-education
system largely based on the German model.
Within the last century, philosophy has increasingly
become a professional discipline practiced
within universities, like other academic disciplines.
Accordingly, it has become less general and
more specialized.
In the view of one prominent recent historian:
"Philosophy has become a highly organized
discipline, done by specialists primarily
for other specialists.
The number of philosophers has exploded, the
volume of publication has swelled, and the
subfields of serious philosophical investigation
have multiplied.
Not only is the broad field of philosophy
today far too vast to be embraced by one mind,
something similar is true even of many highly
specialized subfields."
Some philosophers argue that this professionalization
has negatively affected the discipline.The
end result of professionalization for philosophy
has meant that work being done in the field
is now almost exclusively done by university
professors holding a doctorate in the field
publishing in highly technical, peer-reviewed
journals.
While it remains common among the population
at large for a person to have a set of religious,
political or philosophical views that they
consider their "philosophy", these views are
rarely informed by or connected to the work
being done in professional philosophy today.
Furthermore, unlike many of the sciences for
which there has come to be a healthy industry
of books, magazines, and television shows
meant to popularize science and communicate
the technical results of a scientific field
to the general populace, works by professional
philosophers directed at an audience outside
the profession remain rare.
Philosopher Michael Sandel's book Justice:
What's the Right Thing to Do? and Harry Frankfurt's
On Bullshit are examples of works that hold
the uncommon distinction of having been written
by professional philosophers but directed
at and ultimately popular among a broader
audience of non-philosophers.
Both works became 'New York Times best sellers.
== Non-professional ==
Many inquiries outside of academia are philosophical
in the broad sense.
Novelists, playwrights, filmmakers, and musicians,
as well as scientists and others engage in
recognizably philosophical activity.
Ayn Rand is the foremost example of an intellectual
working contemporaneously with contemporary
philosophy but whose contributions were not
made within the professional discipline of
"philosophy": "For all her [Ayn Rand's] popularity,
however, only a few professional philosophers
have taken her work seriously.
As a result, most of the serious philosophical
work on Rand has appeared in non-academic,
non-peer-reviewed journals, or in books, and
the bibliography reflects this fact."[15]
Also working from outside the profession were
philosophers such as Gerd B. Achenbach (Die
reine und die praktische Philosophie.
Drei Vorträge zur philosophischen Praxis,
1983) and Michel Weber (see his Épreuve de
la philosophie, 2008) who have proposed since
the 1980s various forms of philosophical counseling
claiming to bring Socratic dialogues back
to life in a quasi-psychotherapeutic framework.
Pierre Hadot is famous for his analysis on
the conception of philosophy during Greco-Roman
antiquity.
Hadot identified and analyzed the "spiritual
exercises" used in ancient philosophy (influencing
Michel Foucault's interest in such practices
in the second and third volumes of his History
of Sexuality).
By "spiritual exercises" Hadot means "practices
... intended to effect a modification and
a transformation in the subjects who practice
them.[6] The philosophy teacher's discourse
could be presented in such a way that the
disciple, as auditor, reader, or interlocutor,
could make spiritual progress and transform
himself within."[7] Hadot shows that the key
to understanding the original philosophical
impulse is to be found in Socrates.
What characterizes Socratic therapy above
all is the importance given to living contact
between human beings.
Hadot's recurring theme is that philosophy
in antiquity was characterized by a series
of spiritual exercises intended to transform
the perception, and therefore the being, of
those who practice it; that philosophy is
best pursued in real conversation and not
through written texts and lectures; and that
philosophy, as it is taught in universities
today, is for the most part a distortion of
its original, therapeutic impulse.
He brings these concerns together in What
Is Ancient Philosophy?,[7] which has been
critically reviewed.[8]
== 
Role of women ==
Although men have generally dominated philosophical
discourse, women have engaged in philosophy
throughout history.
Women philosophers have contributed since
ancient times–notably Hipparchia of Maroneia
(active c. 325 BCE) and Arete of Cyrene (active
5th–4th century BCE).
More were accepted during the ancient, medieval
and modern eras, but no women philosophers
became part the Western canon until the 20th
and 21st century, when some sources indicate
that Susanne Langer, Hannah Arendt and Simone
de Beauvoir entered the canon.In the early
1800s, some colleges and universities in the
UK and US began admitting women, producing
more female academics.
Nevertheless, U.S. Department of Education
reports from the 1990s indicate that few women
ended up in philosophy, and that philosophy
is one of the least gender-proportionate fields
in the humanities.
In 2014, Inside Higher Education described
the philosophy "...discipline's own long history
of misogyny and sexual harassment" of women
students and professors.
University of Sheffield philosophy professor
Jennifer Saul stated in 2015 that women are
"...leaving philosophy after being harassed,
assaulted, or retaliated against."In the early
1990s, the Canadian Philosophical Association
noted a gender imbalance and gender bias in
the academic field of philosophy.
In June 2013, a US sociology professor stated
that "out of all recent citations in four
prestigious philosophy journals, female authors
comprise just 3.6 percent of the total."
Susan Price argues that the philosophical
"...canon remains dominated by white males
– the discipline that...still hews to the
myth that genius is tied to gender."
Morgan Thompson suggests that discrimination,
differences in abilities, grade differences
and the lack of role models in philosophy
could be potential factors for the gender
gap.
According to Saul, "[p]hilosophy, the oldest
of the humanities, is also the malest (and
the whitest).
While other areas of the humanities are at
or near gender parity, philosophy is actually
more overwhelmingly male than even mathematics."
== 
Popular culture ==
In 2000, the Open Court Publishing Company
began publishing a series of books on philosophy
and popular culture.
Each book consists of essays written by philosophers
for general readers.
The books "explore the meanings, concepts
and puzzles within television shows, movies,
music and other icons of popular culture"
analyzing topics such as the TV shows Seinfeld
and The Simpsons, The Matrix and Star Wars
movies and related media and new technological
developments such as the iPod and Facebook.
Their most recent publication (as of 2016)
is titled Louis C.K. and Philosophy; its subject
is the comedian Louis C.K..
The Matrix makes numerous references to philosophy
including Buddhism, Vedanta, Advaita Hinduism,
Christianity, Messianism, Judaism, Gnosticism,
existentialism and nihilism.
The film's premise resembles Plato's Allegory
of the cave, Descartes's evil demon, Kant's
reflections on the Phenomenon versus the Ding
an sich, Zhuangzi's "Zhuangzi dreamed he was
a butterfly", Marxist social theory and the
brain in a vat thought experiment.
Many references to Baudrillard's Simulacra
and Simulation appear in the film, although
Baudrillard himself considered this a misrepresentation.
== See also ==
Wikipedia:Getting to Philosophy
List of important publications in philosophy
List of years in philosophy
List of philosophy journals
List of unsolved problems in philosophy
Lists of philosophers
Social theory
== 
References ==
== Further reading ==
Sources
General introductions
Topical introductions
Historical introductions
Reference works
== External links ==
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
PhilPapers – a comprehensive directory of
online philosophical articles and books by
academic philosophers
Philosophy Timeline
Map of Western Philosophers
Philosophy Magazines and Journals
Philosophy at Curlie
Philosophy (review)
Philosophy Documentation Center
Popular Philosophy
