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Libraries for Effective Learning:

Qualitative Studies in Educational Leadership

Published by

Janie Pickett at Smashwords

Copyright 2013 Janie Pickett

jap052 at shsu dot edu

Photos copyright 2007 Max Mejia, used by permission

Smashwords Edition License Notes

Thank you for downloading this free ebook. Although this is a free book, we hope you will encourage your friends to download their own copy at Smashwords.com, where they can select other formats as well as discover other works. Thank you for your support.

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Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: School Librarians Connect with Students

Chapter 3: Anxiety Attack: Community College Students and Library Anxiety

Chapter 4: The Middle School Solo Librarian's Participation in Social Capital Activities

Chapter 5: Principals' Perspectives on School Library Programs

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Chapter 1: Introduction

Ask your favorite librarian, and you'll learn that libraries hold the key to student achievement. Rather than a personal bias or a particular perspective, this conviction derives from decades of research on literacy and libraries, schools, and student achievement. There is no greater bang for your educational buck than the effective library.

In a public educational environment that seeks the highest test scores for its investment, libraries are peculiarly vulnerable to cuts and reductions in personnel. Depending on the state you live in, your nearest public school or community college may have seen its librarian staff slashed or the book budget frozen for an indefinite period. This demonstrates a familiar benign neglect of libraries and exemplifies the 16th Century saying, "penny wise, pound foolish."

This present collection of academic qualitative research brings powerful evidence to support ways that libraries and librarians can evince their effectiveness as well as maximize their priorities to achieve even greater student success.

Janie Flores reports on a key issue for achievement, student connectedness, in her grounded theory study, The Effect and Impact Strategies and Activities School Librarians use to Connect with their Students. Surely there are few more compelling images of a student than a child who is safely sheltered and connected within the community of her school family. From Flores' pilot study on the relationship between connectedness and the librarian, she makes a cogent argument for librarians serving to build that connectedness and to bridge the affective gaps that develop too often in today's impersonal school setting. As a 17-year veteran educator in San Antonio, Flores brings her passion for learning and teaching, as well as a deep concern for her students, to this research perspective on the ways librarians can love students and enhance inclusion, equity, and achievement in the school setting.

Melanie Wachsmann's phenomenological study on Anxiety Attack: Community College Students and Library Anxiety, shares a similar concern for the affective well-being of students. When using the library, in person or from home, students often experience an anxiety that negatively impacts real learning. In the findings from her study, Wachsmann presents ways that programs and staff can create a library that is an effective, accessible, and welcoming learning space. Wachsmann speaks from her experience as a classroom teacher and as a high school and now community college librarian. She works in Reference at a joint-use public and community college library in a suburb of Houston.

Often invisible within the successful learning environment is the campus librarian who must deal each day with complex demands. Jessica Lilly Hughes discusses the challenge of a solo school librarian (responsible for all the duties within the library but with little or none of the needed support) in an ethnographic pilot study titled The Middle School Solo Librarian's Participation in Social Capital Activities. In her findings we encounter practical solutions for the courageous individuals who find themselves in just such a situation, as well as for the administrators supporting those librarians. A veteran of more than two decades in public education, Lilly Hughes has served as a teacher, an administrator, a librarian, and is currently a librarian administrator in south Texas. Her study reflects the experience and the wisdom learned from those years.

As a library administrator, Janie Pickett frequently dealt with school district leadership that had little knowledge of, or preparation for, effectively implementing a library program within the curricular setting. In her collective case study, Principals' Perspectives on School Library Programs, she explores what principals are thinking when they position the library for maximum effectiveness, and she situates that thinking in the larger context of library impact studies. Her findings include significant implications for both librarians and for the administrators who direct them. After more than 20 years at all levels of education, Pickett currently serves as campus librarian for a Missouri public school district that values and supports students and staff.

Through each of these research studies, you should hear a clear statement that librarians can make their programs an essential element in the formula for student success. The administration and the citizens that guide and provide for the schools must listen. To quote Doug Achterman from his 2008 study, "Any school or district that decides not to invest in school library programs must account for that decision in terms of the public charge of equitable access to a quality education for all public school students" (p. 194). It's time to be accountable.

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Achterman, D. (2008). Haves, halves, and have-nots: School libraries and student achievement in California. (University of North Texas). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. Retrieved from https://ezproxy.shsu.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/ 304539586?accountid=7065

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Chapter 2: The Effect and Impact Strategies and Activities School Librarians use to Connect with their Students: A Pilot Study

Janie Flores

Sam Houston State University

INTRODUCTION

Pregnancy, drug and alcohol use, violence, and absenteeism are risk factors that increase the likelihood that a student between the ages of 12 and 17 will not graduate (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2009). Students who feel connected to their schools are more likely to avoid absences and risky behaviors, participate more in class, and obtain higher levels of achievement (McNeely, Nonnemaker, & Blum, 2002). School connectedness is described as a feeling of belonging and a feeling that the adults at the school genuinely care about you (Palmer, 1998; Vidourek, King, Bernard, Murnan, & Nabors, 2011; Waters, Cross, & Shaw, 2010). These feelings are strongest at the elementary level. Researchers propose this is due to children spending the majority of the day with one teacher. Perhaps this is why Monahan, Oesterle, and Hawkins (2010) suggested that feelings of disconnectedness begin in the middle grades.

Researchers have identified the school principal, a student's teachers, the school counselors, and even the school nurse as adults who can create connections with middle school students in order to make them feel accepted (Daly, Buchanan, Dasch, Eichen, and Lenhart, 2010). The middle school librarian is also in a position to develop relationships with students and, like the school nurse and counselors, becomes familiar with them over a period of three years. Unfortunately, these adults have not been included in previous research.

Actually, the school librarian's role continues to be the most misunderstood on a school campus (Hartzell, 2002; Lance, 2002; Todd & Kuhlthau, 2005b). Gary Hartzell (2002) calls this phenomenon occupational invisibility because the librarian's work is absorbed by those they help. It is often the librarian who helps the teacher exceed the expectations of their reviewer. The librarian helps students locate valuable information for the assignment that earns them an A. Yet, the children and adults who pass by the windows of the school library only see a person sitting behind a desk, staring at a computer screen. The purpose of this pilot study was to investigate the practices of middle school librarians for evidence that suggests they impact levels of school connectedness. What, if anything, do librarians do to connect with middle school students?

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In order to draw a line that links librarians to students' feelings of connectedness this researcher begins with examining the association between achievement levels and school connectedness, followed by an exploration connecting achievement levels to school librarians. Once those dots are connected the logical correlation left is between school connectedness and middle school librarians (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Connecting school connectedness to school librarians

Figure 1. If school connectedness affects student achievement and providing services from certified school librarians also has an effect on student achievement, then it stands to reason that school librarians also affect levels of school connectedness.

Achievement and Connectedness

Glaser and Bingham (2009) "explored what classroom behaviors, communications, exercises, and assignments" boost student connectedness by examining a public-speaking class at a junior level college on the east coast of the United States. A group of Glaser's colleagues designed the Connected Classroom Climate Inventory (CCCI) to better comprehend the relationship between learning and students' feelings of connectedness (Glaser & Bingham, 2009). The 62 adults who participated in the dual method study were students in three sections of the same required college course. After analyzing the quantitative data from the CCCI and the qualitative data from an 11 item questionnaire, Glaser and Bingham (2009) concluded high levels of connectedness can be attained when participants work collaboratively, offer peer feedback, share common feelings of vulnerability, and engage in spontaneous, friendly debates. Researchers proposed extending the study to encompass a variety of classes and students with varying levels of education.

To explore connectedness as related to achievement at the elementary level, Krol, Sleegers, Veenman, and Voeten (2008) focused on training teachers to use connectedness strategies. Krol et al. (2008) used a sample of 70 Dutch teachers at the elementary level to employ pre- and post-tests in order to gauge the efficacy of a 30- hour training course over a period of two years. The program focused on five components: "positive interdependence, individual accountability, face-to-face interaction, development of social or small-group skills, and group processing" (Krol et al., 2008, p. 344). Krol et al. (2008) discovered a marked difference in teachers' skill levels and students' achievement scores after the training period. They concluded that spreading staff development programming over a period of time made significant differences in teacher skill level, student social skills, and increased levels of achievement. Krol et al. (2008) suggested school leaders refused to condense teacher training programs and offer complete training systems to new teachers hired each year, as well as to teachers who join the staff during the year, in order to continue elevating school connectedness levels.

Incidentally, in a paper published in 2002, McNeely, Nonnemaker, and Blum investigated various methods to enrich school connectedness in young adults. The study utilized statistics from the 1994-1995 National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health that represented 783,000 teens and pre-teens in Grades 7-12 in addition to 127 principals. Data indicated, "Most students in most schools feel quite attached to school" (McNeely et al., 2002, p. 144). Findings also suggested pupils experienced greater levels of school connectedness in smaller schools but not necessarily small class sizes. Closer examination of the data revealed four factors that affect students' feelings of connectedness: (a) teachers' ability to manage classroom behavior, (b) size of school population, (c) rigidity of discipline procedures, and (d) student activity after school hours (McNeely et al., 2002). Researchers indicated making changes in policy to increase levels of connectedness and tailoring after school activities that meet the needs of individuals and subpopulations. Moreover, because zero tolerance discipline policies made youths feel less connected to school, McNeely et al. (2002) recommended further research to explore discipline issues as related to connectedness.

Due to the speculation that discipline and behavior management styles affected school connectedness and achievement, Vidourek et al. (2011) conducted a study that focused on teachers' behavior management styles. Of the 764 who were emailed, 419 elementary and middle school teachers responded to the request to voluntarily participate in the confidential, anonymous, internet survey (Vidourek et al., 2011). Results indicated that (a) teachers who did not feel positively connected themselves were less likely to use connection strategies, (b) training outside of college made a greater impact on teachers, and (c) teachers in Grades 1-3 used more strategies than teachers in Grades 4-8 (Vidourek et al., 2011). Evidence suggested teachers of lower grades use significantly more connection strategies than middle school teachers. Authors recommended further research to determine if time spent in a classroom or with a single teacher (e.g., secondary and higher education) is a factor in the ability to connect and also to determine reasons why middle grade teachers are "less likely to use school connected strategies" (Vidourek et al., 2011, p 124).

Achievement and the School Librarian

In an article by Lance (2001) where he explored four statewide studies concerning the role of school librarians on student achievement, evidence revealed a positive correlation. When school librarians are degreed and licensed, "students performed better academically," (Lance, 2001, p. 16). Specifically, when the librarian served in a role of teacher, collaborator, and student tutor the increase in student achievement on state standardized tests was indisputable across all four states. The studies from Alaska, Pennsylvania, Colorado, and Oregon suggested, "Library media predictors almost always outperformed other school characteristics, such as teacher-pupil ratio and pupil expenditures," (Lance, 2001, p. 20). "Where library media programs are better staffed, better stocked, and better funded, academic achievement tends to be higher," (Lance, 2001, p. 18).

Subsequently, in studies completed in Alaska, Pennsylvania, Colorado, Oregon, Iowa, and New Mexico between 1992 and 2001, Lance (2002) investigated the relationship between changes in the school library and increased student achievement. For example, in Iowa 18% of Grade 6 students, "...moved from needing improvement to meeting or exceeding reading standards," (Lance, 2002, p. 76). Test results for minority students were much greater. When investigating how such a dramatic improvement was made possible, evidence linked the changes in the school library to the academic success of its students. According to Lance (2002) staffing and funding changes made it possible for the certified school librarian to actively participate in campus leadership roles, collaborate with teachers on lessons in and out of the classroom, and provide one-on-one student assistance.

Accordingly, in an investigation conducted in Ohio between October 2002 and December 2003, Todd and Kuhlthau (2005a) used a mixed methods approach to explore ways school libraries aide student learning in and out of school. The study sample included 39 school libraries, 879 faculty members, and 13,123 students enrolled in Grade 3 through Grade 12. Less than 1% of the student participants indicated they received some sort of help in learning something from their school library (Todd & Kuhlthau, 2005a). Findings suggested that the personal intervention provided by the school librarian made students feel comfortable using the library for help with assignments and personal information needs.

As part of the investigation in Ohio, Todd, and Kuhlthau (2005b) recorded faculty perceptions of these effective school libraries. The sample of faculty members included teachers, principals, assistant principals, and instructional technologists. Quantitative results suggested that faculty members indisputably value the library. In their comments, teachers credited the librarians with helping students to be better scholars (Todd & Kuhlthau, 2005b). Teachers perceived the library as an extension of their own classrooms and perceived the librarians to be friendly, positive, and engaging with students. Teachers also noted an increase in scores after students received help from the library.

Summary

Developmentally, academically, and socially middle school is a difficult time for adolescents. Their setting is new and their teachers are new. Based on the theories of Maslow (1943) and Erikson (1980) students in this stage are least likely to be concerned about learning because they are more likely concerned about fitting in. In elementary school children need structure, but in middle school children need affirmation (Paredes, 1990). If every adult who interacts with students makes an effort to connect with them students will be more likely to focus more time on what is being taught and less time worrying about their basic needs (Alspaugh, 1998). Of all the professionals that work on a school campus one has gone unnoticed when speaking about contributions to students' levels of school connectedness. The literature examined in this paper provides evidence that links high levels of school connectedness to high levels of achievement and evidence that connects high levels of achievement to students having access to a certified school librarian. It stands to reason that there is a link between school connectedness and the school librarian. Nonetheless, what do middle school librarians do to form connections with students?

METHODOLOGY

Having asked many people in the course of casual conversation to pick an age they would like to revisit there has yet to be an instance when someone chooses a time in which they were attending middle school. Developmentally, academically, and socially middle school is a difficult time (Alspaugh, 1998; Erikson, 1980; Rosenblatt & Elias, 2008). In the midst of physiological vicissitudes, children are trying to cope with numerous changes. Their setting, teachers, and peers are probably changing or are new. Based on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (1943) people in this stage of life are more likely to be concerned with gaining the approval of peers and adults. What happens to those children who find themselves on the outside of fitting in? Maslow (1943) believed that man is motivated by needs and that when all of our basic needs are met, only then can we reach the level of self-actualization where learning can take place. Without meeting the physiological and safety needs, it is not likely that the need for love and belonging or the need for respect will be met (Maslow, 1943). Furthermore, if the need for belonging and respect is not met, our self-esteem suffers. Ultimately, when students' need for belonging, respect, and acceptance is not met, they are less likely to be interested in learning (Alspaugh, 1998; Paredes, 1990; Rosenblatt & Elias, 2008). Students with a low level of school connectedness are the students who fall through the cracks.

Fortunately, the adults at school with whom students connect include their teachers, administrators, counselors, and the nurse (Daly, Buchanan, Dasch, Eichen, and Lenhart, 2010). The librarian is another professional in schools that, like the counselor and nurse, remains the same through the years and who connects with students. However, very little if any documentation has been uncovered that reveals evidence that such relationships exist. For this pilot study, the researcher used a grounded theory approach (Creswell, 2013). Five middle school librarians were interviewed during the fall semester of 2012. The participants were all employed by the same urban district of a large city located in central Texas where the population of students ranged from affluent to disadvantaged and included a variety of ethnic backgrounds typical of the state. Permission for the interviews was attained by the Institutional Review Board however, in order to expedite the interview process the researcher chose to interview the participants off of school grounds for various reasons.

Educators must be careful to be fair in everything they say to children and their parents. As instructors, we are allowed to publicly praise effort and success, but are urged to privately criticize tribulation and failure. Within the confines of a public school our actions, words, and creative thoughts are not our own for we are the property of the school district wherein we work and, therefore, a reflection of the district. However, once out in public, as private citizens, we are free to speak our minds. So it is in the public realm where the researcher interviewed public school librarians concerning the relationships that are forged with students. These conversations took place at restaurants over tall glasses of iced tea and green salads dotted with croutons and sliced tomatoes, at local book stores over hot, flavored coffees from the café, or at private homes at a dining room table where pets nuzzled hands and spouses served refreshments.

As a middle school librarian herself, the researcher approached the other librarians in her district at a meeting and handed them each sealed invitations to participate in this pilot study. Of the eight librarians who received an invitation, five personally contacted the writer and agreed to a face-to-face recorded interview. After reading, discussing, and signing the consent form, the participants described the details of their library's daily routines and answered questions regarding interactions with students inside and outside of school, campus demographics, and library programming. Following the interview, transcriptions were coded with methods typical of those used when employing a grounded theory approach (Creswell, 2013). This approach was selected because of the lack of documentation regarding the levels of school connectedness between middle school students and their school librarians. It has been the researcher's experience as a middle school librarian that students express a fondness for the library as a resource, as a safe environment, and a place where everyone is accepted.

FINDINGS

Students want to be in the Library

The librarians that were interviewed shared their experiences uninhibited by the environment. They spoke freely and honestly about their roles on campus and their dedication to students. When remembering and speaking about students, it was clear from the smiles on their faces, the chuckles, and bursts of laughter that these children had carved out a place in their hearts. One of the categories that emerged during open coding was that students wanted to be in the school's library. When asked about operating times Tish responded that 7:45 a.m. is when she opens the library but quickly added, "...there are kids waiting at the door and even before that they'll try to sneak in..." For the most part, all of the librarians typically have upwards of 30 students in their libraries every morning. Some of them find the need to limit the number of students that enter in the morning to 50 and others, like Sophia who would normally have "upwards of 60 and 75", are forced by their administrators to limit the number to as few as 20 because of space and safety concerns. However, admittedly, Sophia tends to bend the rules a bit and allows the few extra who plead their case to enter even after the max number is met.

Another category that emerged during open coding was the nature of activities students participate in when they are in the coveted library space. Naturally, many students want to be in the library to exchange reading materials, work on assignments, or use the computers. Interestingly though, the librarians talked more in depth about those students who were there to put together the jigsaw puzzles that Isaac puts out in his library, the students who want Sophia to train them to use the circulation system so they can help her at the desk, and as Tish put it, "You got your groups that sit there and socialize... You have the ones that hang out around the librarian's desk. You have the roamers. They roam through the stacks in a pack. There's just a lot of activity." Among these students who prefer to spend their time within the walls and stacks of the library before classes begin are students that Lexi lovingly referred to as "the freak and geek category." She described one student in particular as the "square peg in a round hole."

Specifically, Lexi mentions a young lady that "really wants to be there [in the library] and she wants to be part of it...she's also more than willing to do the grunt work... and she's pretty careful too. I haven't caught her in a mistake..." The greatest sparkle that came out of Lexi's eyes was when she was talking about Henry. He is a young man that is "the first child in [the library] most mornings" and "comes in with his skateboard under his arm and as far as I can recollect has never touched a book." When asked to describe what Henry does for 35 minutes every morning in the library Lexi said he walks around but basically keeps to himself. She has tried to engage him in conversation many times and says he is always polite and never attempts to get on his skateboard while inside, but he is very much the quiet type. One thing that truly struck a chord with the researcher was when she said, "...maybe he comes into the library because people won't bother him there."

Students seek out the Librarian for help

Before the first bell rings to signal the start of a new school day, after rushing to be one of the first in the lunch line and swallowing their lunch hurriedly, or after seven hours of lessons and lectures, students continuously seek out the librarian for help with assignments, using technology, and finding answers to questions that boggle the adolescent mind. At her own school, the researcher often finds herself helping students before she has reached the library door to let herself in as well as during the walk to her car after locking up for the day. Sometimes the questions are simple: What's the name of that website again? Sometimes the questions are thought provoking and philosophical: If everyone knows fighting is bad why are people still fighting in wars? Either way, students know they can count on her to always help and always be honest. After reviewing the notes from the interviews once more, it was clear that another category had emerged. Sophia said it best:

"...we're like everyman. Band aide, pencil, computer, book, research, you know, everything. I've had kids come ask me, 'What should I take in high school? What if I want to be this in life? How do I get to college?' You know? 'I need to print out forms for this program...or that program where I want to apply. How do I do that? Help me with my application.' So, you know, we're like the teacher and the counselor and the nurse."

This type of interaction was talked about during the interviews of four out of the five that were recorded.

Sara said her students ask her for help navigating their teachers' websites so they can print out a missing assignment. They ask to borrow basic school supplies and for help using computer applications for things like inserting borders. Likewise, Tish said, "I'm always helping kids with their assignments." At his campus, Isaac hosts a homework center most afternoons where he is "ultimately in charge of the homework center." The researcher also helps students with assignments before and after school. On more than one occasion she has heard students speaking to others and saying about her, "She should be a teacher."

There was always a moment when each librarian would sit quietly. The expression on their faces would soften and their eyes took on a glimmer of being quite a distance away, reflecting on memories. This moment always happened when asked to discuss what students talk about when they are not asking for help on homework or talking about the next best read. Concerning the kids who are the avid readers, Isaac said, "...those are the ones I think are the more introverted kind of kids. Maybe I'm the only one that they talk to in the school."

DISCUSSION

The librarian's descriptions of their interactions with pupils suggest the relationships between themselves and their students are forged based on trust and respect. The evidence provides a direct correlation to the definition of school connectedness: School connectedness is described as a feeling of belonging and a feeling that the adults at the school genuinely care about you (Palmer, 1998; Vidourek, King, Bernard, Murnan, & Nabors, 2011; Waters, Cross, & Shaw, 2010). Sara says of one particular student, "...she and I developed a close relationship and she would just tell me about things in her life..." To generalize the discussion Sara has with other students with whom she feels a relationship has been established, she says their discussions include students "...revealing who they are as people." Likewise, Tish says of her student aides, "...there's an established relationship there...they know that they can come and talk to me." When asked to elaborate about the personal things students share Sophia revealed, "They'll tell me about being bullied or their friends [overdosing] or whatever or they'll just have questions, stuff like that... A lot of the time they just want to talk." Students talk to the people they trust; the people with whom they connect.

Daly et al., (2010) identified the school principal, a student's teachers, the school counselors, and even the school nurse as adults who can create connections with middle school students. Researchers included the nurse and the counselors because these professionals tend to remain the same throughout the three years students are enrolled in a middle school. However, the school librarian also remains the same during the same time period. Sara admits, "...the kids that I have a more in depth relationship with tend to be a little bit older 'cause I've know them for longer..." Sometimes relationships between teachers and students are strained and then the person whom the student turns to is the librarian. When Sophia and the researcher were discussing the meaning of school connectedness over dinner at a local diner she responded, "I know for a fact students who have trouble with teachers never have trouble with me...I would think we'd have more of an impact than a nurse or a counselor...We're like the teacher and the counselor and the nurse." Perhaps it is because librarians do not issue grades or perhaps it is because libraries have always been available and accessible to everyone, that students feel respected and accepted by the librarian and, according to Maslow (1943) and Erikson (1980), at this stage in their young lives, children are more likely to be concerned about fitting in.

Based on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (1943) children in the middle school age range are more likely to be concerned with gaining the approval of peers and adults. Consequently, Todd & Kuhlthau (2005b) found that even teachers...perceived librarians to be friendly, positive, and engaging with students. The beauty of a library, be it a school library or a public library, is that everyone is welcomed and everyone is truly seen as equals. Their services are provided to the users at no cost. Those who are better off financially are treated the same as those who are less fortunate. For these reasons the school librarian accepts all who enter the library as they are. Whether it's the child who enters and stays to get away from the critical eyes and comments of peers, the loners who can't seem to find their niche or students who get lost in the general population, the middle school librarian embraces every student who enters the safe haven of their sanctuary. Even outside of their realm, librarians are adults who kids gravitate to in order to feel part of something bigger. While Tish was talking about her outside activities she reflected on a school carnival where her booth was a Harry Potter themed ball toss:

I had so many kids that didn't have tickets and couldn't participate. I mean they didn't have tickets or money to pay for the other booths so they kinda just hung out at my booth....I had about [nine students] that just came and just volunteered, 'Can I help?' I knew that the reason why they were just hanging out was because they just didn't have money...So they wanted to participate and I let them.

CONCLUSION

Previous studies have provided evidence that school librarians positively affect student achievement levels (Lance, 2001; Lance, 2002; Todd & Kuhlthau, 2005a; Todd & Kuhlthau, 2005b). This study has established grounds for continued research on the topic of how librarians impact students by providing evidence for a theory that establishes the school librarian as yet another adult on school campuses that forge relationships of trust and respect and positively increase levels of school connectedness. What do librarians do to connect with students? They listen, console, and encourage. They advise, teach, and correct. They provide band aides, school supplies, and free access to information without expecting anything in return. They embrace over-achievers, under-achievers, and everyone in between. Librarians are teachers, counselors, administrators, nurses, and technology experts. They are everyman to every student.

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Todd, R. J., Kuhlthau, C. C. (2005b). Student learning through Ohio school libraries, part 2: Faculty perceptions of effective school libraries. School Libraries Worldwide, 11(1), 89-110.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2009). Fostering school connectedness: Improving student health and academic achievement. Retrieved from http://www.cdc/healthyyouth/adolescenthealth/pdf/connectedness.pdf

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2009). School connectedness: Strategies for increasing protective factors among youth. Retrieved from http://www.cdc/healthyyouth/adolescenthealth/pdf/connectedness.pdf

Vidourek, R. A., King, K. A., Bernard, A. L., Murnan, J., & Nabors, L. (2011). Teachers' strategies to positively connect students to school. American Journal of Health Education, 42(2), 116-126.

Waters, S., Cross, D., & Shaw, T. (2010). Does the nature of schools matter? An exploration of selected school ecology factors on adolescent perceptions of school connectedness. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(3), 381-402. doi:10.1348/000709909X484479

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Chapter 3: Anxiety Attack: Community College Students and Library Anxiety

Melanie S. Wachsmann

Sam Houston State University

Introduction

When students leave high school and enter college many people, including chancellors, instructors, and librarians, expect that students will be able "to use the library to find anything from a current newspaper to an obscure bit of census data" (Mellon, 1988, p. 137). According to research by Mellon (1988), 75% to 85% of students have negative feelings towards the library and using it for research. In more recent years, students are still facing anxiety that interferes with their critical thinking skills (Kwon, 2008).

Mellon (1986) designed the theory of library anxiety based on three outcomes of the study: "(1) students generally feel that their own library use-skills are inadequate while the skills of other students are adequate, (2) the inadequacy is shameful and should be hidden, and (3) the inadequacy would be revealed by asking questions" (Mellon, 1986, p. 160). Once these outcomes were established, Bostick (1992) created the Library Anxiety Scale (LAS), the first instrument to assess levels of library anxiety. The LAS was designed to be used with 2-year and 4-year college students and uses a Likert scale to assess students' attitudes about library research. It measures five factors of library anxiety: "1) Barriers with Staff, 2) Affective Barriers, 3) Comfort with the Library, 4) Knowledge of the Library, and 5) Mechanical Barriers" (Bostick, 1992, p. 79). Increasing technology and development of online courses led Van Kampen (2004) to develop and validate the Multidimensional Library Anxiety Scale (MLAS). The author added a sixth dimension to the MLAS "regarding respondents' preferences concerning use of the library online or in person and statements that reflected comfort level with computers" and "takes into consideration off campus use of library resources and doctoral students' attitudes during the course of their dissertations" (Van Kampen, 2004, p. 29). She stated that the MLAS would be most helpful in assessing the library anxiety of doctoral level students.

The development of these survey instruments gave way to studies about library anxiety. Results of some studies supported the notion that library anxiety negatively impacts student achievement (Jiao & Onwuegbuzie 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004; Kwon 2008; Onwuegbuzie & Jiao 2000). One group of students who have not been studied heavily or recently is community college students.

The author of this study had an interest in this topic in part, because she could remember what it felt like to experience library anxiety as an undergraduate student. No library instruction classes were offered to her, and she was intimidated to ask anyone in the library. Now as a community college reference librarian, she strives to create a welcoming environment for students and uses every library instruction class to ensure that students remember that anxiety is okay but that there is help for all students.

Statement of the Problem

When students enter community college, instructors and the students themselves have high expectations about the abilities of students in regard to using the library to find information. This lack of knowledge leads to students' having negative feelings about the library and themselves (Mellon, 1988). In the digital age, there is a plethora of information that can be found without stepping into the library. However, some learners are not able to distinguish which information is reliable and scholarly.

Jiao and Onwuegbuzie (1997, 2998, 1999, 2000, 2004) have conducted several studies on graduate students and the effect of library anxiety on student success. Kwon (2008) studied the link between critical thinking skills and library anxiety in undergraduate students. Little research has been conducted on the effects of library anxiety on community college students, so this study concentrated on community college students. This qualitative study focused on a population that had not been studied and the importance of librarian assistance in reducing library anxiety.

Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study was to investigate the areas of library anxiety in community college and the methods librarians used in library instruction sessions to lessen library anxiety in students. Specifically, this study used interviews and observations to assess which aspects of the library give students the most anxiety and learned how librarians go about trying to reduce the anxiety of students through library instruction.

Literature review

When some students are faced with academic research, they do not possess the skills to utilize the library and its resources. The lack of student skills and the negative feelings they may have about the library often prevents them from completing assignments and finding information. These particular students are said to suffer from library anxiety (Mellon, 1986). Therefore, the purpose of this literature review is to investigate a condition that frequently affects college students described as library anxiety. Literature on library anxiety will be covered in terms of (a) its definition and accessibility, (b) its effect on student success, (c) its level before and after library instruction, and (d) the role of librarians in reducing library anxiety.

Defining Library Anxiety

In order to understand library anxiety, it is important to learn about the history of the terminology. Mellon (1986) explored the feelings of 6,000 undergraduate students as they completed academic research for the first time. She observed that 75% to 85% of the students experienced negative feelings toward the library. The author designed the theory of library anxiety based on three outcomes of the study: "(1) students generally feel that their own library use-skills are inadequate while the skills of other students are adequate, (2) the inadequacy is shameful and should be hidden, and (3) the inadequacy would be revealed by asking questions" (Mellon, 1986, p. 160).

A second aspect of understanding and studying library anxiety is the ability to measure it. The first instrument developed to assess library anxiety was created by Bostick (1992) and measured five factors of library anxiety: "1) Barriers with Staff, 2) Affective Barriers, 3) Comfort with the Library, 4) Knowledge of the Library, and 5) Mechanical Barriers" (Bostick, 1992, p. 79). The Library Anxiety Scale (LAS) was designed to be used with 2-year and 4-year college students and uses a Likert scale to assess students' attitudes about library research. Many of the studies cited in this literature review used the LAS as a measurement instrument.

Increasing technology and development of online courses led Van Kampen (2004) to develop and validate the Multidimensional Library Anxiety Scale (MLAS). She constructed a two part study. Part 1 included 21 students who completed a pilot questionnaire that helped Van Kampen (2004) developed the instrument. Part 2 was comprised of 278 students who answered a revised questionnaire that focused on library anxiety in doctoral students. The author added a sixth dimension to the MLAS "regarding respondents' preferences concerning use of the library online or in person and statements that reflected comfort level with computers" and "takes into consideration off campus use of library resources and doctoral students' attitudes during the course of their dissertations" (Van Kampen, 2004, p. 29). She stated that the MLAS would be most helpful in assessing the library anxiety of doctoral level students.

Library Anxiety and Barriers to Student Success

One reason library anxiety is an important topic is that it can lead to barriers in student success. Jiao and Onwuegbuzie (1999) performed a study concerning the link between students' self-perception and library anxiety. The study was comprised of 148 graduate students who were surveyed using the LAS and Self-Perception Profile for College Students. The authors documented that "the graduate students with the lowest levels of perceived scholastic competence, perceived intellectual ability, perceived creativity, and perceived social acceptance tended to have the highest levels of library anxiety" (Jiao & Onwuegbuzie, 1999, p. 145). They urged that instructors and librarians should be aware of students' self-perceptions to address those feelings and increase student success.

Along with self-perception, student demographics can influence the level of anxiety a student feels. Jiao and Onwuegbuzie (1997) executed a study of 522 graduate and undergraduate students about the factors (i.e. gender, native language, year of study, etc. that led to library anxiety). They discovered that students who used computers to access library resources had the highest anxiety in all five areas of library anxiety. The authors recommended that librarians recognize that library anxiety does exist and that there should be interventions (i.e. library instruction, to alleviate students' anxiety when using the library for research).

Similarly, students who put pressure on themselves to succeed feel anxious when they compare their library skills to other students. Jiao and Onwuegbuzie (1998) conducted a study on the link between library anxiety and perfectionism with 108 graduate students using the LAS and the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale as measurement instruments. The authors established that "only socially prescribed perfectionism appears to predict library anxiety" (Jiao & Onwuegbuzie, 1998, p. 368), meaning that students feel that their library skills are lacking when compared with those of their peers. They proposed that students have opportunities to share their feelings and fears about libraries to alleviate the idea that others are experts when it comes to library based research.

Another factor that can affect levels of library anxiety is students' knowledge and comfort using computers. Jiao and Onwuegbuzie (2004) executed a study about the link between students' levels of information technology and library anxiety. The authors surveyed 94 graduate students using the Computer Attitude Scale and LAS and observed that students with lower levels of computer confidence experienced higher levels of library anxiety. They suggested that computer attitudes should be included when assessing students' library anxiety.

Likewise, students who are anxious about using the library often showed reluctance using library resources to complete assignments. Onwuegbuzie and Jiao (2000) studied the association between academic procrastination and library anxiety using the LAS and the Procrastination Assessment Scale—Students, and the study involved 135 graduate students. The authors concluded that "academic procrastination is significantly positively related to affective barriers, comfort with the library, and mechanical barriers" (Onwuegbuzie & Jiao, 2000, p. 49).

The Effect of Library Instruction on Library Anxiety

Librarians and quality library instruction are useful in relieving anxiety. Bell (2011) investigated students' attitudes toward web-based and library-based research before and after they finished a library information course. After surveying 90 undergraduate students, the author determined that students preferred web-based research to library-based research and that did not change after completing the library course; however, all students increased their attitudes about library-based research. Bell (2011) suggested that more research should be performed "in the area of before-and-after measurement of affect as an outcome of IL [information literacy] instruction" (Bell, 2011, p. 129).

Similarly, positive interactions with librarians during reference interviews lessen the anxiety that students might have about using library resources. Kwon (2008) studied the link between library anxiety and critical thinking of undergraduate students. The author surveyed 137 students using the California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory and the (LAS). The students often compared Internet searching skills, which they were comfortable with, to library use, which often lead to anxiety. Though many of the students in the survey were technologically savvy, they still felt "uncomfortable, confused, and intimidated in an unfamiliar, huge academic library" (Kwon, 2008, p. 189). Once faced with these feelings of anxiety, students were unable to use critical thinking skills to conduct their research. Kwon (2008) noted that students' anxiety was lowered when they were involved in a positive experience with a reference librarian and that with more exposure to the library and library research, students' levels of anxiety could lessen with time. The author cautioned that the LAS was limiting because of the changing digital library environment.

Librarians' Role in Decreasing Student Library Anxiety

One way that librarians can decrease anxiety in students is to use humor in library instruction. Walker (2006) provided a review of literature about library anxiety and humor in the classroom. He discussed an issue that some librarians face, that they are not funny. The author shared steps that instructors may take to infuse humor into a lesson without being a stand-up comedian. The author indicated that once a librarian is "comfortable with his own personal style of humor, he/she will be able to set a welcoming and relaxed mood in the classroom" (Walker, 2006, p. 126).

Another activity that has shown to reduce library anxiety is library instruction. Van Scoyoc (2003) conducted a study to whether in person library instruction or computer-assisted instruction was more effective in reducing library anxiety in 238 first-year college students. The students were placed in three groups: (a) control group – no instruction, (b) face to face library instruction, and (c) computer based tutorial. The three groups all completed the same pre- and post-tests. Van Scoyoc (2003) concluded that the students who received the face to face library instruction had the greatest reduction in library anxiety. She recommended that more research is needed to find ways to reduce the library anxiety of students who take online classes and might not have the opportunity to step into the physical library.

Furthermore, Constance Mellon (1988), who coined the term library anxiety, wrote an article about the importance of the attitudes of postsecondary students and libraries. She discussed that librarians, faculty, and school administrators sometimes have preconceived notions about the level of information technology that students take with them from K-12, which means students should be adept at finding any and all sources of information they may need. In order to reduce anxiety, educators and librarians should realize that attitudes towards libraries are formed before students enter college and that those emotions can negatively impact learning. Mellon (1988) proposed when presenting library instruction, librarians should discuss library anxiety, that it "was common and reasonable" along with information technology skills (Mellon, 1988, p. 139). The author also noted that when teaching library instruction, librarians are teaching people, not just skills, who are complex and bring different attitudes and experiences.

Conclusion

Through this literature review, a case can be made that library anxiety does affect 75% to 85% of postsecondary students (Mellon, 1998). Librarians hold many of the keys to alleviating anxiety in their students, and it is the professional duty of those librarians to ensure that other campus leaders and instructors know that students may not come to college ready for library research. The library staff should make a conscious effort to make the library atmosphere warm and inviting and treat all students asking questions with respect. Instructors should be encouraged to bring their classes to the library for library instruction sessions. When librarians are instructing students, they should mention that anxiety about the library is a real thing and it is normal to experience it. Infusing humor into library instruction sessions will also alleviate students' anxiety. Overall, it is the job of those working in the library to address anxiety.

Though there has been considerable study in the area of library anxiety, much of it focuses on graduate students. It would be interesting to study students who are entering community colleges as first year students to find out which aspects of the library and research make them feel the most anxiety. Librarians are also important in lessening library anxiety, and it would be helpful to interview librarians working with students to discover their understanding of library anxiety and what measures they take to alleviate some of that anxiety. As more services are offered online and more degrees are offered through distance education, library anxiety will continue to be an issue for students impacting their success.

Methodology

In answering the research questions for this phenomenological study, 1. Which areas of the library and research give students the most anxiety? and 2. What methods do librarians use to reduce library anxiety in students?, interviews of students and librarians were conducted. According to Creswell, "a phenomenological study describes the common meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of a concept or a phenomenon" (Creswell, 2013, p. 76). The phenomenon being studied was library anxiety, and the individuals were comprised of two groups: librarians and first year community college students.

In order to answer the research questions, both groups were interviewed individually. The data was coded for like responses. This approach would provide answers to the research questions that guide the study. "Like" responses regarding the library and library anxiety provided insight regarding participants' experiences with library anxiety.

After obtaining permission to conduct research from the Internal Review Boards at both Lone Star College and Sam Houston State University, the research project was inaugurated. Full time librarians on the staff at Lone Star College-(LSC) CyFair were recruited for voluntary participation in the study. Confidential interviews were then held with six of the librarians (four female, two male) who agreed to be interviewed. The next step was setting up interviews with participating librarians. The interviews took place in the librarians' offices. Five of the librarians have over ten years of experience working in libraries with one librarian only two years of experience. These librarians were intentionally selected because they work closely with students while staffing the reference desk and also as instructors during library instruction courses. One instructor of a Human Development course, HUMD 0330, a student success class, was used in this study to solicit volunteers (students) to participate in this study. Of the 21 invited student participants, nine (four female, five male) agreed to participate in the interviews. All participating students were first year college students who scored at the remedial level in at least one academic area. Selection of this particular group of students was based on the fact that they were first year college students.

An agreement was made between the researcher and participants as to a time and place of his or her choice for the interview. All interviews took place in either offices of librarians on the Lone Star College – CyFair campus, in the office of the researcher, or in private study rooms located in the library. Interviews were conducted one-on-one. Answers to the questions used in this study, were recorded (See Appendix A and B for interview questions). Audio recordings were made of the interviews using a cell phone application especially designed for audio recording. Interviews lasted between three and nine minutes. Before conduction of the interviews, an explanation of the study and interview format was provided. All interviews were then transcribed. Participant statements were then coded and themes from responses were compiled. The coded responses were analyzed to address the questions in the study, 1.Which areas of the library and the research process students feel anxiety? and 2. What do librarians do to decrease anxiety in students?

Results and Discussion

After coding the transcribed interviews from students and librarians, the data illustrated two main areas where students may have felt anxiety: research databases and technology. Four librarians mentioned research databases as an area of the library that they noticed students having anxiety. One of the librarians responded that he noticed when working with students, they "don't feel comfortable using the library's research tools to find information." Also, only three of the nine students interviewed mentioned databases as a place to find information for a research project. In fact, one student said "I usually use Google first and then if Google doesn't help, then I use the research databases." When students were asked where they would find most of their information for a research project seven of the nine indicated using the internet as their main source.

One area that students also felt a physical barrier, as described by Bostick (1986), was with using the printing system at the college. All of the six librarians interviewed mentioned the printers and the difficulty that students and patrons have with them. The system is not intuitive and one mentioned that "there is a learning curve" when using the printers for the first time. A student, Melinda, also said that "she had a bad experience when I didn't know the first time to put my name the first time, I was like, 'Oh my god, I don't know which one it is'." Three of the librarians and one of the students stated that the scanners are also a part of the library technology that causes problems. Bruce, a librarian, said that "Just because a user knows how to post an update on social media does not mean they are savvy technology users. Some students just don't have access, experience, or education on how to use technology."

Looking at the second research question, What methods do librarians use to reduce library anxiety in students?, three main themes presented themselves in the data as ways to alleviate library anxiety: be approachable, use humor, and provide multiple points of contact. All of the librarians interviewed included being approachable and friendly as a way to combat library anxiety. Being approachable can manifest itself in many ways from "eye contact and a smile" to "greeting someone standing or walking near the [reference] desk who looks lost or confused." Eight of the nine interviewed students indicated that their prior experiences with the library staff were positive ones, which leads to positive feelings about the library.

The second theme for alleviating library anxiety was using humor. Like Walker (2006), half of the librarians in their interviews talked about using humor, especially when teaching library instruction classes. Linda said, "I also try to joke around a bit to relieve the tension in the room and do what I can to make library research fun." Once students were at ease anxiety would not get in the way of learning and the learning environment.

The third theme, provide multiple points of contact, was brought up by both librarians and one student during interviews. The Lone Star College – CyFair library can be contacted by phone, email, chat, and text in addition to physically going to the reference desk to ask questions. Librarian Linda states that "if they [students] are still apprehensive about contacting a librarian in person, I make sure that they know of all the other ways to contact a librarian for help." In addition to librarians advertising multiple ways to receive help, students are able to get help without even coming to campus. In his interview, student Luis commented that "you can also ask questions, like, on the computer, so you don't even have to be at the library to get help." The additional methods of communication were helpful for those who are not comfortable with a face to face interaction and also gave those who are comfortable with digital communication a way to receive help.

Implications and Recommendations

This pilot study aimed to find some areas that community college students feel library anxiety. In interviewing the students, all indicated that they felt comfortable in the library. In hindsight, it would have been helpful to know what their idea of comfort consisted of: physical comfort, comfort with the technology, comfort with the staff, etc. In addition, it would have proved beneficial to directly ask students about database usage and comfort levels. Another limitation besides the interview questions of the students was the small sample size and pulling all interviewees from one section of a course. Likewise, it would have been valuable to focus the sample on librarians or students, not both in the same study.

The interviews with the librarians were informative. All of them indicated that they were familiar with library anxiety, and it was something they considered when assisting patrons and teaching students. As a group, the librarians also indicated that they would be interested in professional development to ensure that all patrons have a positive experience while asking for help at the reference desk.

In the future, this study could be expanded upon to include a larger sample with more precise interview questions about the five different barriers of library anxiety and possible administration of the LAS.

References

Bell, J. (2011). Student affect regarding library-based and web-based research before and after an information literacy course. Journal of Librarianship & Information Science, 43(2), 120-130. doi:10.1177/0961000610383634

Bostick, S. L. (1992). The development and validation of the library anxiety scale. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 9310624)

Creswell, J. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Lincoln, NE: Sage.

Jiao, Q. G., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (1997). Antecedents of library anxiety. Library Quarterly, 67(4), 372. doi:10.1086/629972

Jiao, Q. G., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (1998). Perfectionism and library anxiety among graduate students. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 24(5), 365. doi:10.1016/S0099-1333(98)90073-8

Jiao, Q. G., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (1999). Self-perception and library anxiety: An empirical study. Library Review, 48(3), 140. doi:10.1108/00242539910270312

Jiao, Q. G., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). The impact of information technology on library anxiety: The role of computer attitudes. Information Technology & Libraries, 23(4), 138-144.

Kwon, N. (2008). A mixed-methods investigation of the relationship between critical thinking and library anxiety among undergraduate students in their information search process. College & Research Libraries, 69(2), 117-31.

Mellon, C. (1986). Library anxiety: A grounded theory and its development. College & Research Libraries, 47(2), 160-165.

Mellon, C. A. (1988). Attitudes: The forgotten dimension in library instruction. Library Journal, 113(14), 137.

Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Jiao, Q. G. (2000). I'll go to the library later: The relationship between academic procrastination and library anxiety. College & Research Libraries, 61(1), 45.

Van Kampen, D. J. (2004). Development and validation of the multidimensional library anxiety scale. College & Research Libraries, 65(1), 28-34.

Van Scoyoc, A. (2003). Reducing library anxiety in first-year students: The impact of computer-assisted instruction and bibliographic instruction. Reference & User Services Quarterly, 42(4), 329-41.

Walker, B. E. (2006). Using humor in library instruction. Reference Services Review, 34(1), 117-128. doi:10.1108/00907320610648806

Appendix A

Librarian Interview Questions

1. What do you know about library anxiety?

2. How do you plan your library instructions to alleviate stress that students may be feeling about research?

3. When working at the reference desk, what are some strategies you use to help patrons feel comfortable in approaching you with questions?

4. Do you feel that the computers, printers, scanners etc. are user friendly? Why or why not. What are some problems you have observed students experiencing with these types of equipment?

5. Do you think that the library is a comfortable and safe space for students to use? Why or why not.

6. What types of anxiety have you noticed when working with students in library instruction or at the reference desk?

7. Regarding alleviating student anxiety in utilizing librarians and library resources, is there anything you would change about the library facility, library services or professional development of the library staff?

Appendix B

Student Interview Questions

1. Describe what you use the library for. Describe how you feel about going to the library. Is it a place you are comfortable?

2. What processes would you go through to begin a research process? Would you go to the library and would you or wouldn't you ask a librarian for help? Why or why not?

3. Where or how would you find most of the information you need for a research paper or project?

4. Where would you go or whom would you ask to find help in finding information for research? Describe your experience(s).

5. If you've used the computers or printers in the library, what was your perception of the experience?

6. Describe the types of interactions have you had with the library staff?

7. How do you feel about asking for help at the reference desk in the library?

8. What positive things do you see or feel about the library and its services?

9. What do you wish was different about the library that would make you more comfortable?

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Chapter 4: Pilot Study: The Middle School Solo Librarian's Participation in Social Capital Activities

Jessica M. Lilly Hughes

Sam Houston State University

Quality public schools are drivers of performance and their effectiveness affects our culture and economics. An equitable education for all students requires a large fiscal investment from taxpayers. In addition, over the years higher performance standards, beginning with A Nation at Risk (National Commission on Excellence in Education) in 1983, have caused government officials, parents, and the business community to demand increased student achievement (Pil & Leana, 2009). The emphasis on school-level performance on standardized assessments encourages educators to view student academic achievement as "a collective effort across the school rather than as a solo endeavor by individual teachers within the school" (Leana & Pil, 2006, p. 355). Each year schools across the nation strive to surpass the previous year's student academic performance by educating a future innovative and competitive workforce (Manafy & Gautschi, 2011).

Historically, teaching students in the United States has been an individual professional endeavor. Teachers worked alone planning their lessons and taught students in the singular classroom. Therefore, enhancing teacher human capital, otherwise known as teacher credentials and skills, has been a focus of policy makers. Now, teaching is more of a social endeavor because teachers plan lessons with others, collaborate with campus, district, and third-party professional organizations, attend professional development workshops, and co-teach with other educational professionals. Despite the growing number of socially-centered teaching activities, less focus in the literature has been upon teacher social capital, or networking, collaboration, and relationship-building, notwithstanding growing evidence that teacher social capital positively affects student achievement as much as teacher human capital (Pil & Leana, 2009).

Now, communication is considered the lifeblood of every school and education is seen as taking place in a social atmosphere (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2012). A plethora of communication activities occurs in schools that link the individual, the group, and the entire organization; it is the essence of the school (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2012). Purposeful communication between teachers focused on teaching strategies and instructional practices can enhance student learning and achievement (Leana, 2010). With federal and state public leaders raising academic expectations higher each year to elevate the level of student readiness to compete in a global economy, investigation of teacher communication and how it affects student achievement is paramount. By collaborating with other educators, teachers grow professionally and increase their teaching skills and knowledge of content, thus providing better lessons and environment for students. Students then benefit from enriched learning opportunities.

With this stated, if high-stakes testing and rising standards are the 21st century reality, all teachers must work together to support student achievement.

One teacher who is overlooked in the literature is the school librarian. In Texas, a certified school librarian must also be a certified teacher. Furthermore, many times the school librarian is alone in the library, and is referred to as a solo librarian. If purposeful communication between teachers focused on teaching strategies and instructional practices can enhance student learning and achievement (Leana, 2010), then purposeful communication between school librarians should also enhance student learning. There is a surfeit of research investigating teacher communication, or social capital, in schools, but data on investigating school librarian social capital is lacking. Little (2006) states that the professional school librarian has been professionally trained and certificated, and the effective librarian has multiple options of professional support and development from a library network; in short, effective librarians participate in social capital. "It is active participation in the library...network that helps the specialist gain needed knowledge and expertise and continue to develop those sources of power and influence" (Little, 2006, p. 14). Moreover, research is even more deficient on investigating solo librarian social capital. The purpose of this paper is to share the results of a pilot study in which a small sample of middle school librarians in a large Texas school district share their participation and experiences with librarian-to-librarian social capital.

Regardless of the circumstances in which the solo librarian works, he or she must reach out to colleagues and organizations to grown professionally. These colleagues and organizations may be accessed via electronic, paper, or face-to-face. This qualitative pilot study concentrates on face-to-face, electronic mail, and/or telephone interactions between colleagues working at the middle school level campus in a large Texas school district.

Statement of the Problem

There is a surfeit of research investigating the sophisticated kaleidoscope of teacher communication, or social capital, in K-12 public schools. More specifically, teacher social capital and its effect on student efficacy continue to be extensively investigated. The definitive meaning of teacher social capital, however, continues to be disputed, and is a multi-faceted, complex system; its components and strategies are extensive but not definitive. Due to the lack of standards and definitions, teacher social capital is overlooked when professional educators investigate instructional quality (Leana, 2010) despite findings that teacher social capital does affect student achievement (Penuel, Riel, Krause, & Frank, 2009; Pil & Leana, 2009; Plagens, 2010; Van Maele & Van Houtte, 2011).

The most significant aspect of the problem is that in the literature, one teacher is overlooked when discussing teacher social capital: the school librarian. If purposeful communication between teachers focused on teaching strategies and instructional practices can enhance student learning and achievement (Leana, 2010), then purposeful communication between school librarians, who in Texas must also be a certified teacher, should also enhance student learning. The problem is confounded if the librarian is a solo librarian, as he or she is stretched too thin because he or she is understaffed. The researcher believes the solo librarian needs to experience social capital with colleagues even more because she or he does not have anyone with whom to collaborate on a daily basis. Therefore, if librarian-to-librarian social capital exists, this may support student achievement and should not be overlooked by educators.

When discovering the current literature available, five areas of teacher social capital were most reported. These teacher social capital areas included: (a) trust, (b) social capital with human capital, (c) other effects on students that support student achievement, (d) innovation in instruction, and (e) the principal's leadership role. The collective research findings produced insight on how teacher social capital (a) requires trust, (b) is most effective paired with human capital, (c) effects students in other areas besides student achievement on assessments, (d) inspires innovation in instruction, and (e) needs principal leadership to grow. Regarding the solo librarian, research indicated that the solo librarian is covering clerical and professional tasks and balancing those tasks by prioritizing (Karabush & Pleviak, 2011). An overview of tasks included: budgeting; collection management; lesson planning; book fairs and fundraising; and professional involvement and volunteer recruiting (Cherry, 2011). None of these authors, however, looked specifically at the role of solo librarian social capital, so the researcher will pilot study the middle school solo librarian's participation in social capital with other district middle school solo librarians.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to investigate what social capital activities solo middle school librarians participate in. For this study, teacher social capital may be defined from N. Lin's work with teacher social capital as "the resources available to and used by a teacher by virtue of membership in a social network(s) to produce outcomes that are beneficial to the teacher, her students, and ultimately to the school community as a whole" (Minckler, 2011, p. 9). The literature suggests that teacher social capital affects student achievement, but does not address distinctively the solo school librarian.

Specifically, the researcher wants to determine (a) if solo middle school librarians participate in librarian-to-librarian social capital outside of the district and (b) if solo middle school librarians participate in librarian-to-librarian social capital inside of the district with other middle school librarians. The researcher will interview three of the 17 solo middle school librarians in a large Texas school district. This pilot study will assist in laying the research foundation of librarian-to-librarian social capital data.

Research Questions

The following research questions guided this study:

1. What social capital activities do solo middle school librarians participate in with other school librarians?

2. What social capital activities do solo middle school librarians participate in with other solo middle school librarians within their school district?

It is my hypothesis that solo middle school librarians will participate in various social capital activities with other school librarians and with their solo middle school librarian colleagues within the school district.

Definition of Terms

The operational definitions used in this study are defined as follows:

Human Capital

Human capital may be defined as "the ability, education, and training that people bring to a job" (Leana, 2010).

Librarian-to-Librarian

Librarian-to-librarian means that one or more librarians communicate, network, or collaborate with another librarian or librarians.

Social Capital

Social capital may be defined as "The interactions among teachers in a school" (Leana, 2010). More specifically, teacher social capital may be defined as "the resources available to and used by a teacher by virtue of membership in a social network(s) to produce outcomes that are beneficial to the teacher, her students, and ultimately to the school community as a whole" (Minckler, 2011, p. 9). Social capital resides in the relationships between teachers as they look to other teachers for information and advice instead of experts or their principal (Leana, 2011). In this study the researcher will investigate if middle school librarians participate in librarian-to-librarian social capital activities.

Solo school librarian

The solo school librarian may be defined as "a school librarian working alone—no paid clerk, aide, paraprofessional, or second librarian" (Church & Reeve, 2011, p. 6). He or she may work in a small school library where staff has always been one professional, in a library that once had clerical staff and/or another professional colleague, or in multiple school libraries as the only professional (Church & Reeve, 2011).

21st Century Skills

Twenty-first Century skills is a framework for defining the skills and aptitudes students need in order to be academically, economically, and culturally successful in an era increasingly defined by information and technology. These skills include information, communications and technology literacy, critical thinking, problem solving, creativity, civic literacy, and global awareness (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2012).

LIBRARIAN AND TEACHER SOCIAL CAPITAL

The review of literature produced insight on how teacher social capital (a) requires trust, (b) is most effective paired with human capital, (c) effects students in other areas besides student achievement on assessments, (d) inspires innovation in instruction, and (e) needs principal leadership to grow. In addition, the literature demonstrates that the solo librarian many times lacks the resources for exemplary social capital; whatever social capital is acquired, however, is greatly appreciated by the librarian. These same themes were later found to infiltrate the data collected from the middle school solo librarian focus group when discussing their social capital activities within the school district, and outside of the school district.

Social Capital and Trust

Several studies and researchers stated that trust was an important component of teacher social capital and it assisted teachers in becoming better instructors; therefore, teacher trust increased student achievement (Penuel, Riel, Krause, & Frank, 2009; Pil & Leana, 2009; Plagens, 2010; Van Maele & Van Houtte, 2011). Penuel, Riel, Krause, and Frank (2009) suggested that social capital, including trust, provided teacher access to the resources that effect change. Plagens (2010) expanded on the idea that individuals socially connected to others, forming a trusting network or group membership as a resource, were better able to achieve their goals. Van Maele and Van Houtte (2011) explained that previous research results concluded an important component of an effective school was strong social capital, and trust specifically affected a school's performance.

Building trust is a multifaceted process. Lunenburg and Ornstein (2012) concluded that schools could not exist without trust and it could only be developed through intimate, professional experiences. Pil and Leana (2009) discovered that when teachers trusted each other, they showed their vulnerability to weaknesses and would seek assistance from other teachers and their principal. Van Maele and Van Houtte (2011) stated that trust was the foundation of social capital and teachers seek trust from their (a) students, (b) parents, (c) colleagues, and (d) principal. In addition, the authors stated that three aspects affected trust relations: surface level; value-oriented standards and norms; and basic underlying assumptions (Van Maele & Van Houtte, 2011). The authors also proposed that a school staff's homogeneity related to trust, and that similar work values built trust.

Social Capital and Human Capital

Researcher Leana (2010) explained that social capital and human capital, which means teacher knowledge, skills, and credentials, worked together to assist with student academic achievement. Leana (2010) argued that to improve an entire school instead of only individual teachers, both social and human capital must exist. She explained that the ideal situation of social and human capital working together created a trusting climate, which was even more important than human capital. In reference to one study, Leana (2010) researched all public schools in a district and found that social capital was extremely powerful. In a second study of over 200 elementary schools she discovered "human capital and social capital are inextricably intertwined" (Leana, 2010, p. 19).

One research study by Pil and Leana (2009) detailed how social capital and human capital work together to increase student achievement. Pil and Leana (2009) stated that teacher social capital had been ignored by policy makers when there was "growing evidence ... that teacher collaboration and trust may have as great an effect on student achievement as teacher human capital" (Pil & Leana, 2009, p.1101). The authors studied 1,013 public elementary school math teachers in a northeast U.S. large urban school district. Pil and Leana (2009) found that first, regarding human capital theory, teacher formal education did provide student performance gains. Second, regarding social capital, students performed better when strong horizontal relations existed on the group level, but vertical strength only affected the individual level. However, student academic achievement existed when teachers had strong relationships with school administrators, but the same could not be said for the team level. Third, Pil and Leana (2009) learned that a teacher's most useful professional advice came from one's grade-level team. Last, high-ability teachers in groups with strong ties elicited higher performance from students. The authors recommended that social capital should not be underestimated and policy makers should consider requiring the fostering of it on campuses.

Social Capital and Its Effects on Students

Teacher social capital affects students in other ways besides grades on a report card. For example, Plagens (2010) reviewed research on social capital in the educational setting and the Chicago Public Schools in 2001 via public opinion surveys of teachers and principals. Research linked an increase in attendance, a decrease in the dropout rate, and an increase in achievement with social capital (Plagens, 2010). The author shared that "social capital affects achievement because it helps overcome dilemmas of collective action and encourages altruism and social solidarity" (Plagens, 2010, p. 19). The author recommended that these findings would be interesting to public officials and citizens who seek to improve schools so that teacher social capital may be promoted. Plagens (2010) also stated that social capital might be a predictor of dropout rates. He cautioned, however, that the racial and economic representation in the sample schools were imbalanced compared to the rest of the country.

Social Capital and Innovation

Schools often turn to innovative ideas to enhance student learning. The innovative implementation of new math curriculum was altered by teacher social capital. Coburn and Russell (2006) presented a paper at the annual conference of the American Sociological Association that expressed their conclusions to researching the determinants of teacher social capital networks during the implementation of new innovative mathematics curriculum. The two urban school districts studied included high-poverty neighborhoods and a large number of recent immigrants. The authors reviewed data from eight elementary schools during the first year of a 3-year National Science Foundation-funded study on reform strategy, human and social capital, and implementation of an innovative mathematics curriculum. Using questioning, observations, and interviews, the authors discovered that the informal structures of teacher interaction were more beneficial that the formal ones (Coburn & Russell, 2006). In addition, the new curriculum did not influence the social networks but the campus strategy did. Organizational decisions such as room assignments and scheduled planning times provided ease of access to teacher interactions, and teachers reached out to other teachers they perceived to be alike to structurally rather than those they perceived to be content experts. The authors cautioned that their findings were limited because they did not apply interview protocol with all stakeholders or quantitative social network approaches (Coburn & Russell, 2006).

Another topic of research was the application of new and innovative technology and the presence of teacher social capital. Frank, Zhao, and Borman (2004) decided to learn more about implementing innovative practices in schools, and specifically how social capital and diffusion of computer technology innovations in public schools were affected. The authors defined computer innovations as "the Internet, educational software, and the digital camera" (Frank, Zhao, & Borman, 2004, p. 149). To learn more, the authors studied six schools in the northern Midwest and Southwest of the U.S. serving students K-12 and ranging in socioeconomic status and wide variations of ethnicity. The authors surveyed, observed, and interviewed 230 teachers and principals between March to May 2000 and again March to May 2001 (Frank et al., 2004). They discovered quality social capital exchanges depended on the quality of the resources, and that social capital manifested when teachers exchanged expertise through informal means. In addition, social pressure to use the new technology existed. Therefore, social capital was found to be an important force in successful implementation of new computer technology. Suggested future research included investigation of social capital on a multilevel framework and research on a larger or smaller scale (Frank et al., 2004).

Social Capital and the Principal's Role

Principals and other school leaders play an integral role in building and sustaining teacher social capital. Leana (2010) stated that because social capital affected teacher ability and motivation, she recommended that to increase teacher ability, school leaders should give teachers more time to purposely study improving teaching strategies. She also recommended that group-level incentives become the norm because "fundamental to social capital is a shared feeling ... that each of them is going to do more than they have to do because each knows they can count on others . . . They have a shared destiny and a shared purpose" (Leana, 2010, p. 22).

When two California elementary schools' leadership wished to improve literacy instruction and support teacher collegial interactions by implementing new literacy curriculum, Penuel, Riel, Krause, and Frank (2009) studied social capital associated with changing instruction and the principal's leadership. The authors suggested that social capital provided teacher access to the resources that effect change. Penuel et al. (2009) discovered that for change to be successful, teachers' interactions must be focused on discussing improving instruction. In fact, teachers benefited from purposeful time to discuss instruction. The success of teacher interaction and student achievement in literacy of the two schools, despite similar resources, was vastly different. This was because one principal alienated her staff by relying on outside experts to design teaching strategies, and the other principal relied on her staff to design teaching strategies (Penuel et al., 2009). Penuel et al. (2009) cautioned that further studies needed to include classroom observations.

Other researchers discovered similar results regarding the role of the principal in supporting and nurturing teachers' social capital. Coburn and Russell (2006) established that school leaders played an important role in providing teachers' social networks beyond the campus. Likewise, in regards to supporting teachers' social networks, Penuel et al. (2009) recommended that principals who wish to facilitate teacher collaboration should value teacher expertise and knowledge, and foster higher teacher social capital. On the campus, Frank, Zhao, and Borman (2004) suggested that principals provide professional development time to teachers, support ambivalent teachers to learn more and share with others, and encourage interaction between departments. When implementing innovation on the campus, Frank et al. (2004) cautioned that principals must be cognizant of social capital as a fixed resource, they must be aware of other innovations that could affect social capital resources, and realize that one effectively implemented innovation at one school may not hold the same result in another.

Solo School Librarians and Their Work

A solo school librarian works alone in the library that may serve hundreds of students and staff or multiple thousands of students and staff. There are no paid clerks, aides, paraprofessionals, or second librarians. For some solo school librarians, they once worked with other paid staff, but are now alone. Or, perhaps the solo school librarian has always worked alone. Regardless, it is challenging work, and the solo school librarian must "learn to prioritize, to work smart, to strategically use their time and resources, and to take time for themselves, both personally and professionally" (Church & Reeve, 2011, p. 7). In addition, the solo school librarian may have to let go of things that may have always been, delegate or share responsibility, and focus on students first (Church & Reeve, 2011).

Solo school librarians have many duties that include but are not limited to (a) budgeting, (b) collection management, (c) lesson planning, (d) book fairs and fundraising, (e) professional development (participating in and providing), (f) volunteer recruiting, (g) technology resources, (h) research classes, and (i) reading promotions (Cherry, 2011; Karabush & Pleviak, 2011). To ensure these mandatory library areas are served, the solo school librarian must conserve resources, energy, and time by identifying high-impact tasks that provide the most value and best supports the school's mission (Karabush & Pleviak, 2011). Lofrumento (2004) suggests that the solo school librarian must always first address the tasks that directly affect student learning. To get the work done, Lofrumento (2004) also recommends that the solo school librarian (a) keeps one's desk clean, (b) handles paper only once, (c) handles email only once, (d) doesn't procrastinate, (e) limits attendance to meetings, (f) shortens meetings, and (g) makes lists.

Solo School Librarians and Local Resources

Despite the lack of clerical or professional support in the solo school librarian's campus library, there may be local resources available to assist the solo school librarian in his or her work. First, the solo school librarian may join campus committees such as the school improvement committee and department chair meetings to build instructional alliances. In addition, the professional development campus committee is an ideal arena to promote the solo school librarian's potential offerings and expertise to teachers, and is the perfect scenario for library advocacy (Karabush & Pleviak, 2011). Second, a means to the end of receiving support for the solo school librarian is for the solo school librarian to become indispensable to the campus through leadership in understanding curriculum development and implementation of new technology innovations (Karabush & Pleviak, 2011). If the solo school librarian earns linchpin status, this may solidify the importance of the library to administrators, who may then become more open to requests for additional staffing. Third, if a solo school librarian is from a larger urban area, the school district may provide district-level support, such as in Mesquite ISD in Mesquite, Texas. There, the district provides support for (a) acquisitions, cataloging, and processing, (b) technology assistance, (c) programming, (d) personnel, and (e) time management (Woodard, 2011). This allows the solo school librarian to concentrate on instructional and student-centered tasks. Some school districts, like the Elko County School District in Nevada, which covers 17,100 square miles, collaborate and provide staff development monthly either face-to-face, online via the district's interactive video equipment, or using Elluminate Live! (Blackboard Collaborate). For Elko County School District, collaboration and sharing make the solo librarian feel less isolated, and improve the school library program through librarians sharing ideas with colleagues (Nickel, 2011). Last, the solo school librarian may join local or regional library professional organizations.

Perhaps the most crucial support system a solo school librarian may need is the connection to resources in day-to-day work. Karabush and Pleviak (2011) recommend that every solo school librarian have "someone who can 'talk you off the ledge'" (p. 51) when he or she is overwhelmed. Face-to-face meetings provide the best support. In addition, local school librarian groups provide opportunities for collaboration and camaraderie with others who understand what the solo school librarian is going through. The researchers also recommend that the solo school librarian join educator groups, too (Karabush & Pleviak, 2011).

Solo School Librarians and Non-Local Resources

The solo school librarian must not forget that he or she is also a great resource and can greatly benefit and grow professionally by attending and even presenting to peers at local and statewide conferences (Karabush & Pleviak, 2011). If this is not possible, the resources available to the solo school librarian include local, state, national, and international networking resources. Web sites provide instant and constant access to professional organizations and research. Email and listservs such as LM_NET are open to school librarians worldwide. In addition, state professional organizations provide listservs to facilitate communication (Church, 2011). The American Association of School Librarians (AASL), a division of the American Library Association (ALA), provides members a "community filled with people that will completely understand your role" (Harvey II, 2011, p. 5). Not only does the AASL provide members with a database of lesson plans based on the AASL library standards, but also provides planning resources for goal setting to create a 21st century school library. Other Web 2.0 resources abound, from Facebook groups to following library experts on Twitter. Online learning communities exist as well such as TeacherLibrarian ning (Church, 2011).

METHOD

Educational practitioners and researchers have increasingly focused on school improvement and any school conditions that may increase student achievement and benefit instructional practice. Relationships between educators through collaboration and formal and informal learning communities have been found as an important component of school effectiveness (Healey, 2011). Within these relationships, "teachers can share expertise, observe one another's instruction, critically examine teaching and learning, and develop collective norms and values" (Healey, 2011, p. 3). Social capital framework provides understanding of how teachers' relationships affect their professionalism and how it might relate to student achievement. In addition, recent investigation of teacher social capital reveals that principals can influence relationships with teachers (Healey, 2011).

Most prominently articulated by Bourdieu, Coleman, and Lin, "social capital describes the access to resources that an individual gains via their relationships with others" (Healey, 2011, p. 4). Specifically, Bandura's Social Learning Theory "posits that people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation" (Social Learning Theory (Bandura), 2012, p. 1). In schools, teacher social capital "promotes instructional innovation, the diffusion of effective teaching practices, and facilitates school reform efforts" (Healey, 2011, p. 4). When prominent in a school, teacher social capital can influence how teachers teach to improve instruction, and therefore increase student learning (Healey, 2011). If a Texas school librarian is also a certified teacher, then social capital may also influence student achievement via the expertise of a school librarian.

The researcher, who holds certifications in Texas for secondary language arts teacher, school librarian, and school principal, has almost 23 years of experience as a Texas educator. My first encounter with the middle school librarians began in 1994, when I first became an elementary school librarian in a large, suburban school district in southeast Texas. Observing them at all-level librarians' meetings, they seemed to keep to themselves and not be as vocal as the elementary school and high school groups of school librarians. When I became a high school librarian three years later, my exposure to them remained the same, and they continued to keep to themselves. Only when I was promoted to district-level library coordinator five years after that did I begin to experience their personalities and professionalism. I only saw a fraction of whom they were, and felt that they were the library program's weakest link. I was finally exposed to their true selves when I went back to the campus nine years after being library coordinator, this time as a middle school librarian. Since the fall of 2011, I have been a complete member of the middle school solo librarians; however, mid-fall of 2012 I left the group due to a promotion in another school district in the state. For the 16 months I was a middle school librarian with them, getting to know their library programming, collegial spirit, kindness, and creativity first-hand really elevated my professional and personnel opinion of each of them.

Three middle school solo librarians were invited to participate in this ethnographic study. Two librarians at campuses whose student body represents the district student population as a whole, and one middle school solo librarian at a higher socio-economic populated campus agreed to participate in a focus group discussion. Demographic information for this Texas school district includes: 49.7% of students on free or reduced lunch; 16.3% African-American; 8.4% Asian; 43.3% Hispanic; 2.2% Multi Racial; .5% Native American; .07% Pacific Islander; and 29.2% White. The participants in the focus group were a comparison sample to student demographics. The researcher has had a professional relationship with each participant, originating fifteen years ago, that has created a positive working relationship. As a result, the participants were open to sharing, and represented the perspective of a diverse campus culture. Each participant was provided a pseudonym of either Lily Middle School (Lily MS), Barrio Middle School (Barrio MS), or Hood Middle School (Hood MS) to protect their anonymity.

The three librarians in the focus group interview met at a local coffee shop one afternoon during the early evening, after work hours. Each participant received a manila folder that included the following items: (a) the consent form they signed and returned to the researcher; (b) a demographic survey (see Appendix A) which they completed and returned to the researcher; (c) a copy of the interview questions; (d) a copy of the consent form for their records; (e) and a hand-written thank you note. The participants were asked to sign the consent form, and were then asked that they complete the paper-pencil demographics survey. This survey included questions about gender, race, level of experience, and form education levels. For the digital audio recording of this focus-group interview, open-ended questions were asked that included transitional phrases from one question to the next. The open-ended questions asked the participants about social capital opportunities within the school district, outside of the school district, and levels of support from school administrators. Responses were transcribed. Audio recordings as well as researcher notes were saved from the interview. Data was cross-checked and member checking was provided. Participants were given a copy of the interview's transcription and each responded that no edits were needed. The focus group's interview questions follow.

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Pilot Study: The Middle School Solo Librarian's

Participation in Social Capital Activities

Middle School Solo Librarian Interview Questions

These items address activities and relationships outside of your campus and your school district that enhance your librarian practices and professionalism.

1. What professional organizations do you belong to that provide resources (information, advice, or material resources) that enhance the librarian practices and learning experiences in your library?

2. Explain how you share with other librarians the resources you receive from professional organizations.

3. Do you incorporate what you learn with your campus and district professional activities? How?

4. How important to you is receiving professional advice and information from a professional organization?

5. What professional resources outside of your campus/district do you find the most valuable? Why?

6. Does your principal and/or other administrative leadership on your campus support your endeavors for collaboration with other middle school solo librarians outside of the school district?

7. How and what do you contribute to library professional organizations that provides professional development information and learning opportunities for your colleagues?

These items address the opportunities that librarians have working with other middle school librarians within the district to affect librarianship and library programming.

1. Within the school district, what formal opportunities do you have to discuss, learn, or share ways to improve your professional skills and library program? Do you incorporate what you learn with your professional activities? How?

2. Within the school district, what informal opportunities do you have to discuss, learn, or share ways to improve your professional skills and library program? Do you incorporate what you learn with your professional activities? How?

3. How important to you are opportunities to discuss, learn, or share with other middle school librarians within your district?

4. What professional resources inside of your campus/district do you find the most valuable? Why?

5. Does your principal and/or other administrative leadership on your campus support your endeavors for collaboration with other middle school solo librarians in the school district?

6. How and what do you contribute to your middle school colleagues that provides them with professional development information and learning opportunities?

The following items address librarianship practices and working relationships among the middle school librarians.

1. Do you trust your middle school colleagues to provide you with valuable professional information such as advice, material resources, and programming ideas?

2. When you share librarianship practices with other middle school librarians, do you think that they value your contribution?

3. Do you think that you can rely on your middle school colleagues to provide you with expertise and information when you are in need of assistance?

Your participation is sincerely appreciated.

Thank you for your commitment to education.

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In an effort to record and organize the collected data, the interview protocol included one question on each page. Responses and reactions to the interviewee's comments via memoing were recorded by the researcher. In addition, to allow for possible technical difficulties, a back-up battery for the digital audio-recording device was available. Because the researcher was once the supervisor of the participants, the researcher implemented collaborative interviewing strategy to help extinguish any withholding of information and support open discussions. It is the view of the researcher that because of their years of their work together as well as their collegiality the participants were comfortable sharing their opinions and beliefs during the focus group interview. Notes were scanned to create digital copies of hard copies and saved to an external hard drive. The digital notes as well as the audio recording were also saved to the Internet cloud using Dropbox. Implementing reflexivity as appropriate and using headings and subheadings, data was accorded to various topics of interest, which then evolved into establishing categories. Patterns and coded field notes led the researcher to several themes that were refined as data was reviewed using inductive analysis. The code-recode procedure was implemented. The methodology and strategies utilized provided external validity to this ethnographic study (Edmonson & Irby, 2008). The following represents data sorting from the focus group interview.

Librarian Social Capital Outcomes

A fundamental set of essential components pepper the librarian-librarian social capital activities of the solo middle school librarian. From the focus group interview, the researcher discovered that central to the librarians' social capital success depended upon: trust; social capital combined with human capital; effecting students; implementing innovation; the principal's support; and the solo librarian's daily activities. The focus group may have differed in opinion on some points, but the individuals were free to express their own interpretations of librarian social capital on the campus, between librarians in the district, and with other library professionals outside of the district. However, the overriding themes and components of solo middle school librarian social capital underlay this study.

Social Capital and Trust

If one is to go to another's colleague for professional advice, instructional strategies, innovative ideas, and support, trust in the resource's abilities and expertise must exist. As stated in the literature, several studies and researchers expressed that trust was an important component of teacher social capital and it assisted teachers in becoming better instructors; therefore, teacher trust increased student achievement (Penuel, Riel, Krause, & Frank, 2009; Pil & Leana, 2009; Plagens, 2010; Van Maele & Van Houtte, 2011). The focus group solo middle school librarians interviewed agree with that notion. These three professionals have known each other professionally for approximately eight years. Due to their work together on professional local committees, professional development events, and all-district monthly librarian meetings, they have bonded through library programming budget cuts, library professional and clerical personnel cuts, and increased demands on the solo librarian's job description. During the focus group interview, the Hood Middle School (Hood MS) librarian shared that she could trust her 16 peers' expertise "most of the time." Lily Middle School (Lily MS) concurred by adding, "I haven't had any bad experiences with people not following through." After that statement, the Hood MS librarian sighed several times before sharing that "I'm just saying that attitudes make a difference." The Lily MS librarian quickly added that she thought that any issues were due to the amount of stress on the librarian, because they are solo librarians with more to do and less help. It seems that even if one librarian sheds light on some possible issues within the group, another is willing to "protect" the overall 17 solo middle school librarians and remain positive and supportive. All three did share that they trusted their colleagues because they could not "do this job on our own."

Social Capital and Human Capital

Researcher Leana (2010) explained that social capital and human capital worked together to assist with student academic achievement. For the school librarian, he or she must first meet extensive educational requirements. In Texas, a certified school librarian must have at least two years of successful teaching experience, hold a master's degree, complete a graduate-level program for library science, and pass the state's school librarian exam (Texas Education Agency, 2012b). As a result, school librarians are a highly educated group of professionals, and therefore have a high level of human capital (knowledge, skills, and credentials). If fact, the demographic survey revealed that Lily MS librarian and Hood MS librarian each hold masters degrees, while the Barrio Middle School (Barrio MS) librarian holds two masters degrees and is currently working on her doctorate degree in educational leadership. Therefore, the middle school solo library has the educational and professional background and credentials to bring to social capital opportunities.

In addition, the focus group of solo middle school librarians are expected to continue their education by participating in several social capital activities required by the school district and state certification requirements. Like classroom teachers, the school district requires that the school librarian obtain 25 hours of professional development each year, with a total of at least 75 hours over a three-year period (Cypress-Fairbanks Independent School District, 2012). In addition, to renew the school librarian certificate, the librarian must complete 200 clock hours of continuing professional education every five calendar years (Texas Education Agency, 2012a). One activity the district library coordinator expects librarians to attend is the monthly on-level meeting, and each librarian is expected to participate in at least one district-level library program committee. The focus group shared that they needed principal support to take advantage of social capital activities, some within in the school day, to meet and exceed these requirements. They also commented that the monthly meetings were critical to attend so that they may not only learn new important information and library programming ideas, but also have face-to-face interactions with other solo librarians from which to glean even more information and ideas.

Social Capital and Its Effects on Students

The most important component of the solo middle school librarian social capital activities is how it affects students. Not only has research linked an increase in attendance, a decrease in the dropout rate, and an increase in achievement with social capital (Plagens, 2010), but "social capital affects achievement because it helps overcome dilemmas of collective action and encourages altruism and social solidarity" (Plagens, 2010, p. 19). Through library programming, the solo middle school librarian provides new ways to engage students in 21st century skills at their school.

These solo middle school librarians hold high standards for themselves and their colleagues, and do so for the sake of their students. During the focus group interview, the Barrio MS librarian shared that she increased student access to materials because of social capital activities. She explained that, "I learned some knowledge [from social capital activities] about using electronic books in the library. I wouldn't have known how to do it with Amazon to an account for the Kindle to use with my Overdrive media...I would never have been able to figure it out". The Hood MS librarian added that via professional resources online, on the web, and via electronic mail, she received collection development ideas through copies of interviews with authors, book lists, listservs such as LM_NET, and the conversations covering what other librarians are implementing in their libraries. These ideas and resources assist her in making better purchasing decisions, increased information retrieval access, and book promotion to the right student reader or student researcher, and to the campus staff. The Lily MS librarian added that learning what worked somewhere else in the district, state, or country helped her tweak her library programming so that what she implemented with students would be successful. This enabled the librarian's expertise be absorbed by the patron, allowing for the success and achievement of the student(s).

Social Capital and Innovation

The solo middle school librarians from Lily MS, Barrio MS, and Hood MS all realize that to provide 21st century learning opportunities for students, they must provide an innovative learning environment in the library. Social capital experiences help the librarians stay abreast of new ideas and technologies that they may modify for the needs and goals of their library and campus. Barrio MS librarian shared:

It's nice to find out what other people are doing and what is available out there. Somebody said, hey, this and such will happen or did happen and here are some ideas for it. This is what other people have done in the past and it is already made for you or it's archived or a new web site is coming up or lesson so I'm informed and can take it. If there's a technology [webcast] it would be fantastic to be not during the school day.

The Lily MS librarian added "...it is really important to get the advice and information...and I also like to see if we are up to par with everyone else". The Hood MS librarian concurred with "just like in teaching you strive to get better." All three librarians expressed that learning new ideas and sharing with others helped them make timely decisions about new programming such as reading incentives, new technologies such as electronic books, and new ideas in increasing access to materials such as by organizing the hard copy materials available in the library by genre, instead of by the Dewey Decimal System. To remain innovative, the solo middle school librarian must stay abreast of the latest ideas in school library programming, and social capital activities elevate the librarian's learning of innovation, and inspire creativity, too.

Social Capital and the Principal's Role

Principals and other school leaders play an integral role in building and sustaining teacher social capital. Leana (2010) stated that because social capital affected teacher ability and motivation, she recommended that to increase teacher ability, school leaders should give teachers more time to purposely study improving teaching strategies. The same may be said for the solo middle school librarian because he or she, in Texas, is also a certified teacher. The focus group revealed, however, that they differed with their perception of principal support for their continuing social capital. The three librarians revealed that some principals in the Texas school district require that the librarian use personal days or sick days to attend any conference or workshop and must pay for the experience with his or her personal finances. Other principals deem the conference or workshop as part of the professional day and also may assist with financing the social capital experience. Obviously principal attitudes regarding solo middle school librarian's making time for professional social capital activities differ greatly, and librarians are aware of which principal is supportive, and which is not.

For the Texas school librarian, the most prominent and important social capital experience is the Texas Library Association (TLA) Annual Conference. The researcher found great differences in attitudes regarding attending the conference of not only the principals, but of the solo middle school librarian as well. The Hood MS librarian receives no financial support for the conference except for reimbursement of the conference registration, and the campus principal allows her to attend and even provides a substitute librarian during the three-day conference. The Hood MS librarian stated, "They never hesitate to say go". The Lily MS librarian agreed with, "My...principal was always supportive because I've never taken advantage of my time. If I've been away it was because I've had to be away. And to ask to go to something, my principal has never said no." This principal also reimbursed her for conference registration fee. The Barrio MS librarian, however, had a different view:

I personally, I choose to pay for my conference and my membership to professional organizations. Because that way I know that it is getting done and I don't feel beholden in any way. For anything that is going to occur, I don't have to worry about it...it is my professional development and I'm going to use it for that so I've always paid for my own way.

The Barrio MS librarian deems social capital so important that she is willing to back the activities financially to not be affected by lack of support by the principal. She adds, "They don't understand...I mean our principals. Do they understand how important it is for us to go to these meetings or conferences? We do need the opportunity to share and bounce ideas off each other." Each of the focus group librarians are allowed to attend the conference without having to take personal time, unlike some of their colleagues, and are fiercely protective of their opportunity to attend the TLA Annual Conference.

Social Capital and the Solo Librarian

Like other educators, time is not on the side of the solo middle school librarian. Without even clerical help nor another library professional on campus with whom he or she may collaborate, the solo middle school librarian must seek out and make difficult decisions, such as if to close the library to be off-campus, to ensure social capital activities. With student populations between 1,400 and 1,800 students at each campus, "Some of it is doable, but you just have limits because there's only one of you and you do what you can do" stated the librarian at Lily MS. The Barrio MS librarian harmonized with, "We have to do email...discussions...and when we do get together once a month for our meeting we do [talk]...we don't get to see each other a ton... you have to do a lot, but we don't have time." The Lily MS librarian added, "I would say that most of the things we do is through electronic mail. If you call, they're not going to answer! We're going too fast a minute."

If fact, the solo middle school librarians seek out other schools with similar demographics and achievement ratings to assist each other with successful programing ideas. The Barrio MS librarian stressed that, "We share. [The Hood MS librarian] and I do that all the time. We're constantly back and forth with...you are reading this book for book club. What worked? What didn't? Now let's switch and share ideas." In addition, the solo middle school librarian, like a classroom teacher, needs to observe other librarians. The Hood MS librarian shared:

I'd love to go over to [Barrio MS]'s school and learn how to do stuff. You know, a mentoring thing. To get training from the librarian who knows how to do something we don't know, or how they teach a lesson. A problem is we're doing so much we don't take the time to get the development we need, when we need it.

In addition, by visiting and observing other feeder schools, the middle school solo librarian could participate in social capital activities with elementary and high school solo librarians for continuity with teaching 21st century skills, which also incorporate information literacy skills using the library's resources. "We are missing out on each other," adds the Barrio MS librarian. "We are alone on the campus."

Conclusion

The purpose of this research was to share the results of a pilot study in which a focus group of middle school solo librarians in a large southeast Texas school district shared their experiences and participation in librarian-to-librarian social capital. Previous research has already provided possible causality between strong teacher social capital and increased student achievement. Data gathered from participants in the pilot study build upon previous research and affect the education and library science canon by providing new data exploring solo school librarian social capital. Specifically, the researcher wanted to determine (a) if solo middle school librarians participate in librarian-to-librarian social capital outside of the district and (b) if solo middle school librarians participate in librarian-to-librarian social capital inside of the district with other middle school librarians. The researcher interviewed three of the 17 solo middle school librarians in the district. As a result of the researcher being a full participant with the librarians, and the interview itself, the researcher holds these librarians in the highest of esteem.

From this research, five themes were established: (a) trust, (b) social capital with human capital, (c) effects on students that support student achievement, (d) innovation in instruction, and (e) the principal's leadership role. In addition, research indicated that the solo librarian is covering clerical and professional tasks and balancing those tasks. Despite any challenges, the Texas teacher-certified and Texas school librarian-certified participants find ways to formally and informally practice social capital activities. With the constraints of being a solo librarian, however, the support of the campus principal is even more important to support librarian participation in social capital activities. With participation in social capital activities, like classroom teachers, the solo middle school librarian may become more effective librarians, and provide better library services; in doing so, as a result, they may positively impact student achievement.

References

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Leana, C. R., & Pil, F. K. (2006). Social capital and organizational performance: Evidence from urban public schools. Organization Science, 17(3), 353-366. doi: 10.1287/orsc.1060.0191

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Appendix A

Pilot Study: The Middle School Solo Librarian's

Participation in Social Capital Activities

Demographic Information

These items gather information that will be used to describe the population sample and to assign control variables for the study. Data collected cannot be traced to the individual participant. All data will be reported as aggregate (group data).

1. Gender:

2. Race:

3. Age Group:

4. Total Years of Librarianship in CFISD as a Middle School Librarian:

5. Highest Level of Education Attained:

YOUR PARTICIPATION IS SINCERELY APPRECIATED.

THANK YOU FOR YOUR COMMITMENT TO EDUCATION.

Adapted from Minckler, C. H. (2011). Teacher social capital: The development of a conceptual model and measurement framework with application to educational leadership and teacher efficacy. http://gradworks.umi.com/3489646.pdf

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Chapter 5: Principals' Perspectives on School Library Programs

Janie Pickett

Sam Houston State University

What are school principals thinking? Probably every parent, student, and faculty member has wondered this at some point in the school experience. With the wide-ranging responsibilities that principals carry, their decisions impact every corner of the building and every program within the school community. School libraries are one of those programs positioned by the decisions of the campus administrators, and as a librarian, this researcher has often wondered: What are school principals thinking when they consider the library's role in student achievement?
Introduction

Decades of numerous research studies (Achterman, 2008; Kachel, 2011; Lance, Welborn, & Hamilton-Pennell, 1990; Lance, Rodney, & Schwarz, 2010; Pennsylvania School Library Project, 2012) have consistently demonstrated that "Quality school library programs impact student achievement" (Kachel, 2011, p. 4). Appendix A illustrates a chronological listing of studies indicating library impact correlation through 2011. These studies have reliably found that standardized test scores in over 30 U. S. states and Canadian provinces are directly related to strong school library programs – and the data are readily accessible to inform decisions by public school administrators.

Despite the research base, however, "libraries and librarians remain frighteningly vulnerable to reductions and even elimination" (Hartzell, 2012b, p. 18). In common with other school programs, a library is effective only when it is positioned by the school administration to provide rich student and staff support. "Not even a strong and creative library media specialist [can] overcome a negative or unsupportive administrator" (Loertscher, 2000, p. 55). So what are principals thinking when they design instruction and programs to produce maximum student achievement?

Hartzell suggested that principals and superintendents "have not been educated to the library's value" (2003, p. 21) A survey reported in the School Library Journal (Lau, 2002) shared that while principals said they support the library program, only 47% believed there is a direct link between their library and student achievement . This researcher's personal experience as a school librarian has been that administrators frequently make decisions about the role of the library while disregarding best practices or research findings.

The incongruity begs the question: What is the principal thinking? The purpose of this collective case study was to discover the perceptions and values of three public high school principals involved in the effective implementation of their campus library. At this stage in the research, the term effective use of the school library is defined as positioning the library resources to be integrally involved in supporting student learning.

This study focused on a central question: How do school administrators decide how to use the school library? To reach an understanding of this question, several underlying questions were explored as well:

What understanding of libraries do principals have about libraries?

How do principals build that understanding?

What values do principals and superintendents place on libraries and on their own school libraries in particular?

What value do they believe the library program brings to student achievement?

What attributes of the library do administrators value?

Each of these questions would provide answers to the overarching inquiry: How does a school principal position the library program to be maximally effective?

The growing number of practitioners and scholars asking "What is the principal thinking?" has led to a compelling body of research examining just that question.

Literature Review

The research base for the effectiveness of strong school library programs has been building since the 1950s. Recognition that the study findings are making little impact on school administrators has been growing almost equally as long. This review of literature considers the development of "impact studies" (Kachel, 2011) and the specific attributes identified for a strong library program. Next this review examines the "benign neglect" (Kaplan, 2006; McGhee & Jansen, 2005) by administrators that has contributed to the serious underutilization of the library resources. The review concludes by considering studies that underscore how essential support from school administration is for an effective library.

School libraries: A key to student achievement

Public libraries in the United States (publicly owned and supported by taxes, and open to all citizens) first made impact on the national culture in the 19th century and were largely "ubiquitous" by 1920 (Sensenig, 2011, p. 10). School libraries followed shortly thereafter, seen as a fitting complement to public libraries. While libraries in schools were first seen at the high school level, by middle of the 20th century school libraries were spreading to all levels of schooling. Library associations and educators were beginning to disseminate standards, proclaiming that "Every child needs a school library" (Gaver, 1962). Even in those early efforts, the concept of the effective library was meant its integration across the school curricula for support of student learning.

Unfortunately for Gaver's every child, the last ample and high-priority funding for school libraries came with the National Defense Education Act (1958). While the topic of school libraries has come up in repeated federal initiatives to strengthen the U.S. educational system, there have been few consistently funded mandates for school libraries. The state of those libraries has depended on the whim of the state and local school organizations and the campus administrators – who often find higher priorities for their funding (Riley, 2012; Roscello, 2004; Sensenig, 2011). Lack of funds represents a deeper, more troubling issue: school administrators questioning the validity and need for such programs. "From the librarian's perspective, media centers and media specialists are inarguably valuable ... clearly essential to student achievement, and central to the school's mission. To many principals, however, their value is less obvious and less certain" (Hartzell, 2002, p. 93).

Intriguingly, the impetus to scientifically examine the worth and contribution of school libraries came from outside the fields of education and library studies. A 1988 national radio program reported that School Match, a firm providing relocation assistance to high-level business executives, had created a database with information on over 30,000 public and private schools and districts in the United States. When asked which school variable related most significantly to student achievement, the School Match owner replied "library and media services expenditures" (Lynch & Weeks, 1988, p. 459).

That concept of a national database of quantitative measures of school library impact spurred Keith Curry Lance, a librarian and researcher in Colorado, to implement his own research design comparing Colorado student achievement scores with the presence of particular features of school libraries (Lance, Welborn, & Hamilton-Pennell, 1990), a design he freely shared with other states and researchers. The result was consistent replication of quantitative research over the next two decades, research that demonstrated the direct correlation between strong school libraries and increased student achievement.

As of 2012, this corpus of impact studies has examined location-specific, government-provided student data. Each state's study returned similar correlations between student achievement and strong libraries. There have been enough studies, in fact, that in 2010 Lance declared "enough, already!" (Library Research Service, 2010, min :50 to 1:00). He called for more mixed and qualitative designs that would explore the perceptions and experiences of principals, teachers, and librarians.

A number of such studies followed. The 2004 Ohio study conducted by Rutgers University professors Ross Todd and Carol Kuhlthau was specifically designed for mixed methods, using both quantitative and qualitative measures. The survey and open response data yielded rich insight into the type of help that stake-holders count on receiving from their school library. This study as well as others conducted during the time period (e.g. Achterman, 2008; Baxter & Smalley, 2004) contributed to building a conceptual framework of the library as having the dual role of an instructional and informational resource, a foundational understanding for the library field today.

All this research has helped identify specific variables of the school library program that impact student achievement. Lance, Rodney, & Schwarz (2010) described best practices for library programs that contribute to student achievement to include the following variables:

•Library access is scheduled based on instructional needs.

•Librarian and teacher design instructional units together.

•Librarian provides professional development to faculty.

•Librarian is appointed to school committees.

•Librarian and principal meet regularly.

•Librarian's role is addressed in teacher hiring.

Appendix B offers a chart illustrating the library variables according to the specific state studies that have also examined those variables.

The disconnect between data and decisions

With such replicated, reliable data, and with such specific features of library impact identified, one would logically expect the data-driven school administrator to be making decisions congruent with the research. But most are not.

The principal's perspective on the school library figured as one of the variables in the 2007 Indiana study by Lance, Rodney, & Russell. In that study, even when controlling for poverty and race/ethnicity, lower-performing schools tended to be those whose principal did not value the library program (Lance et al., 2007, p. 2).

In a study published in 2010, Kaplan investigated whether the impact study data were reaching the administrators and school decision-makers. Her findings concluded that the data were "not effectively disseminated to decision makers, and thus the school library impact studies had minimal effect on decisions and legislation related to the support of school library media programs and personnel" (p. 55).

That school administrators were ignorant of the data was confirmed in more than Kaplan's 2006 dissertation and her 2010 study: Gary Hartzell, himself a school administrator, has shared for over a decade about administrators' neglect of the school library program. And Lance, the pioneer of quantitative library research design, wrote that "principals do not receive adequate training about how to maximize the contributions of their school libraries" (Lance et al., 2010, p. 1). Roberson, Applin, & Schweinle (2005) called on higher education programs that prepare K-12 administrators to teach "more effective use of school library programs" (p. 46) with the goal of increasing student achievement.

Administrators themselves have not been silent on the topic of effective use of the school library. One of many examples of the administrators' voice is heard in the book, The Principal's Guide to a Powerful Library Media Program (McGhee & Jansen, 2010). McGhee's personal experience of the value of a strong library led her to co-author to a reader-friendly guide for principals who want to learn more about the library. Gary Hartzell, past school administrator and emeritus professor of educational administration of the University of Nebraska at Omaha, has spent much of his professional life educating his peer administrators about library programs. He has also been a powerful and frequent voice for helping the school librarian understand why so many principals just don't get it. "Many principals do not understand what teacher-librarians really do, nor do they appreciate the potential the library media program has for contributing

to student and faculty achievement" (Hartzell, 2002, p. 92). Recently he suggested that "two groups need to be targeted and convinced to support school library programs[:] education administration professors who prepare future school administrators, and their professional associations ..." (Kachel, 2012, para. 2).

Hartzell's writings also share a broader view of why principals may not know about research supporting school library. In a 2012 article, he wrote that "impact research isn't generally published where administrators will see it ... [and] administrators don't perceive impact research as overwhelming" (Hartzell, 2012b, pp. 18, 19). But systemically, he believed, there are four basic explanations for principals and administrators not knowing about the school library:

Principals' perceptions of school libraries and teacher-librarians have been shaped by four interactive forces. The first is their own experiences in school libraries as children, in which they perceived the library as peripheral to the classroom. The second is the effect of their professional training, in which the library's role in curriculum and instruction was conspicuously absent. The third is the nature of the teacher-librarian's work, which is to enable and empower others. The fourth is the low profile teacher-librarians and school libraries have in the professional literature read by teachers and administrators, which prevents them from updating their sense of what the library really is and can do. The cumulative result is that administrators have only a limited and inaccurate understanding of libraries and teacher-librarians. (Hartzell, 2002, p. 92; this author's emphasis)

Numerous studies concur that administrators learn the most from the librarians they have worked with (Achterman, 2008; McGhee & Jansen, 2010). Studies also report a lack of professional training for administrators about what a library program can offer (Hartzell, 2012a; Kaplan, 2006; Lau, 2002) resulting in administrators generally having a limited and inaccurate understanding about library programs.

The necessity of principal support

The analogy of a chess game could be applied to the principal's strategies for winning the game of student achievement: some school programs (or chess pieces) are played, some are not; some are lost, others prosper and make an impact. It doesn't take a graduate degree in education to recognize that a principal's support makes a difference for a library program.

But study after study has documented that administrator positioning of the library program is crucial for learning impact. Hartzell concluded that "Principals determine school library program quality as much as teacher librarians do" (2003, p. 22) because principals control the variables that have been shown to make the library effective: collection size and currency, service hours, staff size, and the employment of full-time qualified teacher librarians, for example. Budgetary and activity decisions made by principals are obvious means of positioning the school library to achieve – or not. But more subtle forms of support or benign neglect are equally powerful.

Principals "facilitate through design, communication, and implementation, [have] a vision for library media programs that is shared and supported by the school community, and advocate, foster, and maintain a school climate and instructional program that supports the library media program" (McGhee & Jansen, 2005, p. xvii). Principals let new faculty know immediately how important the library program is to the school by including collaboration with the librarian as a measure of the teacher evaluation instrument. Faculty and staff see the principal's value of the library when the librarian regularly provides in-service and professional development for faculty. Perhaps most telling is the way the principal speaks publically to and about the librarian and the library program. As instructional leader, the principal's perspective of the library filters down and through the school community. "Principals can and must be partners in order to make school library media centers work" (McGhee & Jansen, 2005, p. xvii).

Directions for additional research

The need for libraries to impact student learning is only growing, particular with the growth of the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) that have been adopted by 45 U.S. states. Consensus is not unanimous, but generally the CCSS are regarded as an area in which library programs can shine as they help students intensify and deepen broad knowledge and information skills. "When it comes to the common core, librarians can be a school's secret weapon" (Gewertz, 2012, p. 1). Clearly the issue of principals "leav[ing] library potential untapped despite fifty years of research" (Hartzell, 2012a, p. 21) must change if our education system is to adequately prepare our students to be life- and college-ready.

Calls have been frequent and pointed for new understanding on how to effect this change. Van Hamersveld (2007) reported that we must learn more about the beliefs of school administrators, particularly in regards to the instructional role of the school library. Hartzell (2012b) called for research that would reach the school administrator by undertaking "targeted studies in level-limited environments" (p. 19), such as specific schools, specific principal beliefs, and specific grade level settings.

It is within just such a targeted context, in a level-limited environment, that this present study was undertaken: a single campus, high-school level, with campus-specific exploration of principal perspectives and beliefs. "Publishing level-specific results may lead to a surprising capture of at least partial library support" (Hartzell, 2012b, p. 19).

Methodology

A local high school recently made dramatic changes in its staffing in an attempt to revitalize and rebuild the library program. This shift provided a point-in-time opportunity to examine the thinking of the school's principals and thus an excellent chance to implement targeted calls for further research on administrative perspectives.

How do school administrators decide how to use the school library? In particular, how did this school's principals envision the new staff helping to position the program and integrate it into the life of the school? The understandings principals hold about libraries is seldom evident – and even less evident are the means through which they have built that understanding. So were these administrators making intentional decisions in response to the decades of library impact research? Or were decisions made based on other values they held? What were those values? And how did they see the library program helping achieve goals and priorities for the school?

The inquiry behind these questions initiated a pilot study on the larger question of effective use of school libraries. In the pilot, a proposal for a collective case study was presented to my university's Institutional Review Board and approval was given. An Interview Protocol (presented in Appendix C) was constructed with questions that would allow exploration of the administrators' perspectives. Three of the school's seven principals were carefully selected and solicited to respond to the interview questions. The three represented varying levels of the school's administrative focus and interaction with the library: Out of a school administrative team of seven, the principals included a head of campus, a staffing and instruction head, and the principal directly in charge of the library program. The three principals readily assented, and the consent of the campus head was granted.

One-on-one interviews were conducted using the Interview Protocol questions, and during those interviews, principals responded to the questions and shared additional thoughts about the values they held for a library program in general. In addition they shared specific ways they saw the campus library could help to meet campus goals for student learning. The interviews were recorded and then transcribed. Member checking was conducted: Each principal received a copy of her interview transcription, with a request for review, confirmation, and clarification of the data gathered. Finally the data from the interviews were read carefully and coded using the software NVivo 10 to identify themes and significant concepts. After the analysis, this research interpreted findings to derive the conclusions shared in this study.

Because student achievement is the ultimate goal and proof of an administrator's commitment to effective education, public records of student achievement at the high school were examined to provide background data for documenting and confirming the administrators' strategies for student achievement.

In reporting this study, the local campus is referred to as Central High School and the identity of administrators who shared their perspectives is masked.

Context

The school name, Central High, is a common one, chosen precisely because the profile of this school is highly representative of the majority of public high schools in the United States. Central High shares four significant attributes that make it a microcosm of U.S. public high schools:

a) Located in the heartland of the nation, Central High School averages an enrollment of 2,000 students (grades 9-12). This size of enrollment places the school in the majority of U. S. high schools (70%) with an enrollment of 1,000 students or more, and in the plurality of high schools (>50%) with an enrollment of 1,500 students or more (http://www2.ed.gov/).

b) Like most public schools today (Johnson, Oliff, & Williams, 2011), Central High School and its district face financial constraints that heavily impact the decisions its administrators make regarding library programs. Principals must consider budget limitations when planning for staffing and programs.

c) The previous library staffing at Central High was representative of the graying of the broader profession. The announced retirement of the two school librarians at Central High had precipitated the hiring of new library staff – thus aligning Central High within the nation's "huge wave of school librarian retirements," (Callison, 2005, para. K).

d) Finally, the student body presents a wide range of ethnic and socio-economic identities which increase the complexity of effective school management. Administrators at Central High must grapple with the achievement gap which plagues much of the nation's educational achievement. They must also consider equity of access to resources which allow for a 21st century education.

These commonalities made Central High School an interesting case to examine in an effort to discover similar perspectives and values of public high school administrators across the nation. As numerous library researchers have argued (Hartzell, 2012b; Lance et al, 2010; Todd & Kulthau, 2004), qualitative studies such as this one reach for the deeper understandings of how administrators think. The values, decisions, and practices of the principals at Central High could illuminate issues and inform the practices of other high schools in similar contexts.

Researcher relationship to case

The author of this study was one of the candidates selected to interview for the opening librarian position at Central High School in May of 2012. During that interview, questions asked indicated some degree of administrator understanding of school libraries as needing to be deeply integrated into the life and learning of the school family. The interview confirmed the perspective that collaboration and relationships with faculty and students were of primary importance. As a result of the interview process, the author accepted the position at Central High.

Three principals in particular were directly involved in the hiring and direction of the entire library staff and program: the campus' head principal, here referred to as Ms. Head, who oversees all programs and principal activities; the second-in-command principal, mentioned as Ms. Strong, who was the primary hiring administrator; and the newest principal at Central and the one tasked with day-to-day supervision of the program, Ms. Givens. These three constituted the sample for the study.

After beginning work at the beginning of the 2012-2013 school year, the author of this study observed the support provided for innovation in the library programs. Each of the three principals played a role in advising, directing, and responding to efforts to build a welcoming environment and to support specific needs of the faculty and students. The principals were receptive to new ideas, provided information when appropriate, and generally provided back-up and encouragement to the new librarian.

To minimize personal bias influencing this study, it was necessary to articulate the author's experiences and learning relevant to school libraries. Having worked as a school librarian for more than six years, and having also served as a district library administrator, the author brought high expectations for librarian effectiveness as well as for administrative support for the library. The analysis of data gathered through this exploration would need to be interpreted in light of these personal biases and influences. To maximize validity of the study, the researcher's findings and conclusions were reported in light of previous literature that spoke to specific issues revealed.

Sample

The selection of the school campus began as a convenience sampling that later proved to be well justified: The school's profile is typical of many public high schools, as presented in the context discussion. The findings, then, could potentially represent a significant percentage of public high schools in the United States. In addition, this specific school was poised at a point in time when the questions sought could most immediately be answered; and in the answering, could yield pilot experience and data representative for the larger topic of effective use of school libraries.

Given the dynamics of the principals in the hiring and supervision of the library, the three principals, Ms. Head, Ms. Strong, and Ms. Givens, together constituted a purposeful sampling that could provide the most relevant information. These individuals had the most direct input into the new direction for the library program. And the timing of the study was equally strategic: The administrators had just gone through the articulation of a job description, a job posting, and the careful questioning of librarian candidates. The principals had each recently questioned and answered what they wanted in the person who would head their library program, as well as what they wanted in the library program itself. That experience would yield the richest information for the questions in this study.

Instrumentation

As a pilot study for a more in-depth exploration into the effective use of school libraries, this study allowed the author herself to serve as the researcher-as-instrument (Pezalla, Pettigrew, & Miller-Day, 2012). To prepare for the study process, course learning in qualitative methodologies was essential for conducting real life explorations and made it clear that one doesn't walk into such work unprepared: "Scientific inquiry using observational methods requires disciplined training and rigorous preparation" (Patton, 2002, p. 260). Lessons learned through this study will sharpen future work.

The physical instrument for gathering data was the Interview Protocol, a construction of seven questions designed to elicit an administrator's motivation behind dealing with the school library program as she did (see Appendix C). Questions were generally open-ended in nature and included items that would explore the principal's training and whether she had even received formal instruction regarding effective library implementation. Multiple studies have reported that administrators tend to view and value library programs based on subjective experience with the models in their past (Church, 2007; Hartzell, 2012a); items in the interview protocol probed for this data as well. The final question on the instrument provided an opportunity for the interviewee to bring in any relevant thoughts or clarifications.

Findings

What are school principals thinking? The focus in this study was to understand better the perspectives of school principals when they work with the school's library. The data from the interviews as well supporting data from public records of student academic progress revealed some interesting themes and concepts.

Relationships and resources

What goals and priorities of being a principal were expressed? Two of the three principals considered the big idea in being a principal to consist of serving as the primary resource for student learning, whether that meant providing flexible class schedules, providing instructional leadership, or devising innovative ways to get needed physical materials in the hands of students and faculty. The third principal felt that the big idea was founded on relationships: "building relationships first, and –this is so cliché—doing what's best for kids. Treating each kid as an individual."

Thus student learning (for two of the three administrators) and student success in a broader sense (for the third) was the primary responsibility reported. The school's academic record for student achievement confirmed this focus of the administrators: the state's Department of Education public records reflect the steady rise in this school's student proficiency scores in all three reported areas, Mathematics, Communication Arts, and graduation rates. School administrators have been particularly pleased that scores for minority students have shown the greatest improvement over the past five years.

Formal training and preparation for principalship

Each of the three participants in this study had served as a class room teacher and had advanced through the ranks by demonstrating leadership. Each had earned at least one Master's degree as well as principal or superintendent certification. Two of the three had progressed towards a terminal degree. Yet interestingly, none of the three individuals considered their formal education to have been among the primary elements that most shaped them as administrators. Instead, the greatest influence came from people: either within their teaching experience, from mentors, or from administrators who had modeled principalship for them.

It wasn't surprising, then, that none of the three reported having received training to guide them in administering a school program that absorbs a significant of a school's budget for staffing and resources. What did take this research by surprise was the vociferous response each participant gave when asked about such training. "No one ever, through any of my training, through any of the degrees that I have, talked much about the library," shared Principal Givens. Two of the administrators mentioned school libraries being discussed in their studies of physical facilities: the space and the furnishings needed. But Principal Strong summed up the sentiment of each of the participants when she stated she "never had a formal lesson on what the library could do for a principal in an administrative sense. At all. Ever."

Whence the library support – and how to spread it?

In the past months these three principals had demonstrated consistent support for having a strong school library. If that support did not result from formal training, the next question obviously was how that support had been built. The literature has suggested that administrators tend to view the library based on the programs and individuals they have worked with in the past. Two of the three principals confirmed this with stories of previous libraries they had worked with as teachers or as learners themselves.

In one interview, the question arose: Could formal instruction about library effectiveness overcome personal experience? Or would personal experience always trump what one heard or read in a class? Principal Strong was quick to state that she knew "the [library] studies and stuff," but then she went on to wonder aloud what kind of information would be relevant to teach principal candidates in their formal training. "I think it [formal training] is [important for administrator education], but I don't know what the information would be to tell them, that's pertinent." She herself had been a language arts teacher and had learned about how a library can support teachers and students. She felt that sufficient training in her case. However, she shared that "There is a plethora of P.E. teachers and former coaches who become administrators. Definitely they could benefit" from such education.

Values and vision for the library program

Some of the richest data gathered from the interviews involved the personal values and vision the participants held for a school library. The lead principal, Ms. Head, had reported the least personal experience with school libraries, and she understood the most basic potential of such a program. The verb tense and mood Ms. Head used when discussing libraries she had worked with or observed in the past changed to the past subjunctive, a very indirect tone for expressing her impressions of those libraries. To this researcher, this suggested that much of her past experience had been negative or that the libraries had been ineffective, and she wished to hedge that fact to avoid giving what she perceived would have been an offense.

Interestingly, Principals Strong and Givens also used the same tense and mood in their descriptions of past libraries, in general. However both shared definite experiences with strong libraries that had shaped their opinion of the value of such a program. The author assumed that the administrators had not had a consistent experience with strong libraries and that they too were reluctant to give offense.

The vision that the administrators shared for a school library ranged from the very concrete, practical issues to a broad, expansive perspective on ways a library program can help an administrator with her goals. These suggestions appear in Table 1, ranked from more concrete to more theoretical in nature. Each of the administrators considered instruction of students and collaboration with teachers to be the "industry standard" and the starting point for their considerations of how the library program could help them with their individual goals.

The impression this researcher took from the discussion on values and vision was that two of these three principals "get it." They saw possibilities that exist with the right mix of administrator support and librarian disposition. The lead principal was reaching when trying to articulate the values she held for the library; it appeared she had had not considered this before. However, her vision grew as she spoke. Her conclusion: "I think it's probably an under-used resource." The other two principals articulated expansive, big pictures of ways a library could help them as principals: expansive ideas that reached beyond what this author, as a librarian, had considered.

The two halves of the whole

One of the participants brought up the concept that librarians themselves are crucial determinants in the quality of the library program. Principal Strong shared that, in her experience, "More than any other entity in a building, the library is a complete reflection of the librarian. More than any I've ever seen. Because librarians, their personalities differ more than any other leader or educator in a building. How the librarian runs, is how the library runs. So goes the library. Totally, I think."

This perspective highlighted the necessity of having both halves of the effective whole: The library program cannot exceed the expectations and positioning of the school's administrators. But the administrators cannot lead a library program where the library staff is not willing, or is unable, to go.

Conclusions

Qualitative research is by its nature revelatory: Realities and perspectives arise that cannot be predicted in advance and that often cannot be expressed numerically. Such was true of this study as well: Two realizations lived on beyond the boundaries of this report.

First, the type of conversation that this study was based on, that between administrators and librarians about the values and vision for a library program, should not be missed. Even for this study with supportive administrators and an inquiring scholar practitioner asking their perceptions, arranging such a straight-forward discussion was difficult. Yet schools that have less rapport between the constituents have even greater need to understand what the other stake holders assume about and for the library.

Secondly, even knowledgeable and self-aware library leaders need to hear about the library program from their principals, in order to grasp the much broader perspective, the global understanding, of the library as only a part of the larger, complex issues. The library may be a bright, shining area of potential that can dramatically change a school environment. But it is only one area, and librarians who fail to grasp the administrators' broader perspective will continue to ask "why not?"

References

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Appendix A

Chronological Listing of Library Impact Correlation Studies through 2011 From Pickett (2011). Research-Based school libraries and implications for student achievement. Unpublished manuscript, Educational Leadership and Counseling, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX

Note. Studies that consistently found positive correlation between student achievement and school libraries (a)American Library Association. (b)research team included Lance

Appendix B

Library variables explored by specific state studies Adapted from School library research summarized by D. Kachel (2011). Used by permission.

Note. See the key to state abbreviations and studies at Kachel, 2011.

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Study authors:

Janie Flores, Sam Houston State University

jgf001 at shsu.edu

Jessica Lilly Hughes, Sam Houston State University

stdjml24 at shsu.edu

Janie Pickett, Sam Houston State University

jap052 at shsu.edu

Melanie Wachsmann, Sam Houston State University

msw010 at shsu.edu
