Giovanni Gentile (Italian: [dʒoˈvanni dʒenˈtiːle];
30 May 1875 – 15 April 1944) was an Italian
neo-Hegelian idealist philosopher, educator,
and fascist politician. The self-styled "philosopher
of Fascism", he was influential in providing
an intellectual foundation for Italian Fascism,
and ghostwrote part of The Doctrine of Fascism
(1932) with Benito Mussolini. He was involved
in the resurgence of Hegelian idealism in
Italian philosophy and also devised his own
system of thought, which he called "actual
idealism" or "actualism", and which has been
described as "the subjective extreme of the
idealist tradition".
== Biography ==
=== Early life and career ===
Giovanni Gentile was born in Castelvetrano,
Sicily. He was inspired by Italian intellectuals
such as Mazzini, Rosmini, Gioberti, and Spaventa
from whom he borrowed the idea of autoctisi,
"self-construction", but also was strongly
influenced by the German idealist and materialist
schools of thought – namely Karl Marx, Hegel,
and Fichte, with whom he shared the ideal
of creating a Wissenschaftslehre, a theory
for a structure of knowledge that makes no
assumptions. Friedrich Nietzsche, too, influenced
him, as seen in an analogy between Nietzsche's
Übermensch and Gentile's Uomo Fascista. In
religion he presented himself as a Catholic
(of sorts), and emphasised actual idealism's
Christian heritage; Antonio G. Pesce insists
that 'there is in fact no doubt that Gentile
was a Catholic', but he occasionally identified
himself as an atheist, albeit one who was
still culturally a Catholic.He won a fierce
competition to become one of four exceptional
students of the prestigious Scuola Normale
Superiore di Pisa, where he enrolled in the
Faculty of Humanities.
During his academic career, Gentile served
in a number of positions, including as:
Professor of the History of Philosophy at
the University of Palermo (27 March 1910);
Professor of Theoretical Philosophy at the
University of Pisa (9 August 1914);
Professor of the History of Philosophy at
the University of Rome (11 November 1917),
and later as Professor of Theoretical Philosophy
(1926);
Commissioner of the Scuola Normale Superiore
di Pisa (1928–32), and later as its Director
(1932–43); and
Vice President of Bocconi University in Milan
(1934–44).
=== Involvement with Fascism ===
In 1922, Gentile was named Minister of Public
Education for the government of Benito Mussolini.
In this capacity he instituted the "Riforma
Gentile" – a reformation of the secondary
school system that had a long-lasting impact
on Italian education. His philosophical works
included The Theory of Mind as Pure Act (1916)
and Logic as Theory of Knowledge (1917), with
which he defined Actual Idealism, a unified
metaphysical system reinforcing his sentiments
that philosophy isolated from life, and life
isolated from philosophy, are but two identical
modes of backward cultural bankruptcy. For
Gentile, this theory indicated how philosophy
could directly influence, mould, and penetrate
life; or, how philosophy could govern life.
In 1925, Gentile headed two constitutional
reform commissions that helped establish the
corporate state of Fascism. He would go on
to serve as president of the Fascist state's
Grand Council of Public Education (1926–28),
and even gained membership on the powerful
Fascist Grand Council (1925–29).
Gentile's philosophical system – the foundation
of all Fascist philosophy – viewed thought
as all-embracing: no-one could actually leave
his or her sphere of thought, nor exceed his
or her thought. Reality was unthinkable, except
in relation to the activity by means of which
it becomes thinkable, positing that as a unity
— held in the active subject and the discrete
abstract phenomena that reality comprehends
– wherein each phenomenon, when truly realised,
was centered within that unity; therefore,
it was innately spiritual, transcendent, and
immanent, to all possible things in contact
with the unity. Gentile used that philosophic
frame to systematize every item of interest
that now was subject to the rule of absolute
self-identification – thus rendering as
correct every consequence of the hypothesis.
The resultant philosophy can be interpreted
as an idealist foundation for Legal Naturalism.
Giovanni Gentile was described by Mussolini,
and by himself, as "the philosopher of Fascism";
moreover, he was the ghostwriter of part of
the essay, The Doctrine of Fascism (1932),
attributed to Mussolini. It was first published
in 1932, in the Italian Encyclopedia, wherein
he described the traits characteristic of
Italian Fascism at the time: compulsory state
corporatism, Philosopher Kings, the abolition
of the parliamentary system, and autarky.
He also wrote the Manifesto of the Fascist
Intellectuals which was signed by a number
of writers and intellectuals, including Luigi
Pirandello, Gabriele D'Annunzio, Filippo Tommaso
Marinetti and Giuseppe Ungaretti.
=== Final years and death ===
Gentile became a member of the Fascist Grand
Council in 1925, and remained loyal to Mussolini
even after the fall of the Fascist government
in 1943. He supported Mussolini's establishment
of the "Republic of Salò", a puppet state
of Nazi Germany, despite having criticized
its anti-Jewish laws, and accepted an appointment
in its government. Gentile was the last president
of the Royal Academy of Italy (1943–1944).In
1944 a group of anti-fascist partisans, led
by Bruno Fanciullacci, murdered the "philosopher
of Fascism" as he returned from the prefecture
in Florence, where he had been arguing for
the release of anti-fascist intellectuals.
== Philosophy ==
Benedetto Croce wrote that Gentile "... holds
the honor of having been the most rigorous
neo-Hegelian in the entire history of Western
philosophy and the dishonor of having been
the official philosopher of Fascism in Italy."
His philosophical basis for fascism was rooted
in his understanding of ontology and epistemology,
in which he found vindication for the rejection
of individualism, and acceptance of collectivism,
with the state as the ultimate location of
authority and loyalty outside of which individuality
had no meaning (and which in turn helped justify
the totalitarian dimension of fascism).The
conceptual relationship between Gentile's
actual idealism and his conception of fascism
is not self-evident. The supposed relationship
does not appear to be based on logical deducibility.
That is, actual idealism does not entail a
fascist ideology in any rigorous sense. Gentile
enjoyed fruitful intellectual relations with
Croce from 1899 – and particularly during
their joint editorship of La Critica from
1903 to 1922 – but broke philosophically
and politically from Croce in the early 1920s
over Gentile's embrace of fascism. (Croce
assesses their philosophical disagreement
in Una discussione tra filosofi amici in Conversazioni
Critiche, II.)
Ultimately, Gentile foresaw a social order
wherein opposites of all kinds weren't to
be considered as existing independently from
each other; that 'publicness' and 'privateness'
as broad interpretations were currently false
as imposed by all former kinds of government,
including capitalism and communism; and that
only the reciprocal totalitarian state of
Corporative Syndicalism, a fascist state,
could defeat these problems which are made
from reifying as an external reality that
which is in fact, to Gentile, only a reality
in thinking. Whereas it was common in the
philosophy of the time to see the conditional
subject as abstract and the object as concrete,
Gentile postulated (after Hegel) the opposite,
that the subject is concrete and the object
a mere abstraction (or rather, that what was
conventionally dubbed "subject" is in fact
only conditional object, and that the true
subject is the act of being or essence of
the object).
Gentile was, because of his actualist system,
a notable philosophical presence across Europe
during his time. At its base, Gentile's brand
of idealism asserted the primacy of the "pure
act" of thinking. This act is foundational
to all human experience – it creates the
phenomenal world – and involves a process
of "reflective awareness" (in Italian, "l'atto
del pensiero, pensiero pensante") that is
constitutive of the Absolute and revealed
in education. Gentile's emphasis on seeing
Mind as the Absolute signaled his "revival
of the idealist doctrine of the autonomy of
the mind." It also connected his philosophical
work to his vocation as a teacher. In actual
idealism, then, pedagogy is transcendental
and provides the process by which the Absolute
is revealed. His idea of a transcending truth
above positivism garnered particular attention
by emphasizing that all modes of sensation
only take the form of ideas within one's mind;
in other words, they are mental constructs.
To Gentile, for example, even the correlation
of the function and location of the physical
brain with the functions of the physical body
was merely a consistent creation of the mind,
and not of the brain (itself a creation of
the mind). Observations like this have led
some commentators to view Gentile's philosophy
as a kind of "absolute solipsism," expressing
the idea "that only the spirit or mind is
real".Actual idealism also touches on ideas
of concern to theology. An example of actual
idealism in theology is the idea that although
man may have invented the concept of God,
it does not make God any less real in any
possible sense, so long as God is not presupposed
to exist as abstraction, and except in case
qualities about what existence actually entails
(i.e. being invented apart from the thinking
that makes it) are presupposed. Benedetto
Croce objected that Gentile's "pure act" is
nothing other than Schopenhauer's will.Therefore,
Gentile proposed a form of what he called
"absolute Immanentism" in which the divine
was the present conception of reality in the
totality of one's individual thinking as an
evolving, growing and dynamic process. Many
times accused of solipsism, Gentile maintained
his philosophy to be a Humanism that sensed
the possibility of nothing beyond what was
colligate in perception; the self's human
thinking, in order to communicate as immanence
is to be human like oneself, made a cohesive
empathy of the self-same, without an external
division, and therefore not modeled as objects
to one's own thinking. Whereas solipsism would
feel trapped in realization of its solitude,
actualism rejects such a privation and is
an expression of the only freedom which is
possible within objective contingencies, where
the transcendental Self does not even exist
as an object, and the dialectical co-substantiation
of others necessary to understand the empirical
self are felt as true others when found to
be the unrelativistic subjectivity of that
whole self and essentially unified with the
spirit of such higher self in actu, where
others can be truly known, rather than thought
as windowless monads.
=== Phases of his thought ===
A number of developments in Gentile's thought
and career helped to define his philosophy,
including:
the definition of Actual Idealism in his work
Theory of the Pure Act (1903);
his support for the invasion of Libya (1911)
and the entry of Italy into World War I (1915);
his dispute with Benedetto Croce over the
historic inevitability of Fascism;
his role as minister of education (1922–24);
his belief that Fascism could be made subservient
to his philosophical thought, along with his
gathering of influence through the work of
students like Armando Carlini (leader of the
so-called "right Gentilians") and Ugo Spirito
(who applied Gentile's philosophy to social
problems and helped codify Fascist political
theory); and
his work on the Enciclopedia Italiana (1925–43;
first edition finished in 1936).
=== Gentile's definition of and vision for
Fascism ===
Gentile sought to make his philosophy the
basis for Fascism. However, with Gentile and
with Fascism, the "problem of the party" existed
by virtue of the fact that the Fascist "party",
as such, arose organically rather than from
a tract or pre-established socio-political
doctrine. This complicated the matter for
Gentile as it left no consensus to any way
of thinking among Fascists, but ironically
this aspect was to Gentile's view of how a
state or party doctrine should live out its
existence: with natural organic growth and
dialectical opposition intact. The fact that
Mussolini gave credence to Gentile's view
points via Gentile's authorship helped with
an official consideration, even though the
"problem of the party" continued to exist
for Mussolini as well.
Gentile placed himself within the Hegelian
tradition, but also sought to distance himself
from those views he considered erroneous.
He criticized Hegel's dialectic (of Idea-Nature-Spirit),
and instead proposed that everything is Spirit,
with the dialectic residing in the pure act
of thinking. Gentile believed Marx's conception
of the dialectic to be the fundamental flaw
of his application to system making. To the
neo-Hegelian Gentile, Marx had made the dialectic
into an external object, and therefore had
abstracted it by making it part of a material
process of historical development. The dialectic
to Gentile could only be something of human
precepts, something that is an active part
of human thinking. It was, to Gentile, concrete
subject and not abstract object. This Gentile
expounded by how humans think in forms wherein
one side of a dual opposite could not be thought
of without its complement.
"Upward" wouldn't be known without "downward"
and "heat" couldn't be known without "cold",
while each are opposites they are co-dependent
for either one's realization: these were creations
that existed as dialectic only in human thinking
and couldn't be confirmed outside of which,
and especially could not be said to exist
in a condition external to human thought like
independent matter and a world outside of
personal subjectivity or as an empirical reality
when not conceived in unity and from the standpoint
of the human mind.
To Gentile, Marx's externalizing of the dialectic
was essentially a fetishistic mysticism. Though
when viewed externally thus, it followed that
Marx could then make claims to the effect
of what state or condition the dialectic objectively
existed in history, a posteriori of where
any individuals opinion was while comporting
oneself to the totalized whole of society.
i.e. people themselves could by such a view
be ideologically 'backwards' and left behind
from the current state of the dialectic and
not themselves be part of what is actively
creating the dialectic as-it-is.
Gentile thought this was absurd, and that
there was no 'positive' independently existing
dialectical object. Rather, the dialectic
was natural to the state, as-it-is. Meaning
that the interests composing the state are
composing the dialectic by their living organic
process of holding oppositional views within
that state, and unified therein. It being
the mean condition of those interests as ever
they exist. Even criminality, is unified as
a necessarily dialectic to be subsumed into
the state and a creation and natural outlet
of the dialectic of the positive state as
ever it is.
This view (influenced by the Hegelian theory
of the state) justified the corporative system,
where in the individualized and particular
interests of all divergent groups were to
be personably incorporated into the state
("Stato etico") each to be considered a bureaucratic
branch of the state itself and given official
leverage. Gentile, rather than believing the
private to be swallowed synthetically within
the public as Marx would have it in his objective
dialectic, believed that public and private
were a priori identified with each other in
an active and subjective dialectic: one could
not be subsumed fully into the other as they
already are beforehand the same. In such a
manner each is the other after their own fashion
and from their respective, relative, and reciprocal,
position. Yet both constitute the state itself
and neither are free from it, nothing ever
being truly free from it, the state (as in
Hegel) existing as an eternal condition and
not an objective, abstract collection of atomistic
values and facts of the particulars about
what is positively governing the people at
any given time.
== Works ==
On the Comedies of Antonfranceso Grazzi, "Il
Lasca" (1896)
A Criticism of Historical Materialism (1897)
Rosmini and Gioberti (1898)
The philosophy of Marx (1899)
The Concept of History (1899)
The teaching of philosophy in high schools
(1900)
The scientific concept of pedagogy (1900)
On the Life and Writings of B. Spaventa (1900)
Hegelian controversy (1902)
Secondary school unit and freedom of studies
(1902)
Philosophy and empiricism (1902)
The Rebirth of Idealism (1903)
From Genovesi to Galluppi (1903)
Studies on the Roman Stoicism of the 1st century
BC (1904)
High School Reforms (1905)
The son of G. B. Vico (1905)
The Reform of the Middle School (1906)
The various editions of T. Campanella 's De
sensu rerum (1906)
Giordano Bruno in the History of Culture (1907)
The first process of heresy of T. Campanella
(1907)
Vincenzo Gioberti in the first centenary of
his birth (1907)
The Concept of the History of Philosophy (1908)
School and Philosophy (1908)
Modernism and the Relationship between Religion
and Philosophy (1909)
Bernardino Telesio (1911)
The Theory of Mind as Pure Act (1912)
The Philosophical Library of Palermo (1912)
On Current Idealism: Memories and Confessions
(1913)
The Problems of Schooling and Italian Thought
(1913)
Reform of Hegelian Dialectics (1913)
Summary of Pedagogy as a Philosophical Science
(1913)
"The wrongs and the rights of positivism"
(1914)
"The Philosophy of War" (1914)
Pascuale Galluppi, a Jacobine? (1914)
Writings of life and ideas by V. Gioberti
(1915)
Donato Jaja (1915)
The Bible of the Letters in Print by V. Gioberti
(1915)
Vichian Studies (1915)
Pure experience and historical reality (1915)
For the Reform of Philosophical Insights (1916)
The concept of man in the Renaissance (1916)
"The Foundations of the Philosophy of Law"
(1916)
General theory of the spirit as pure act (1916)
The origins of contemporary philosophy in
Italy (1917)
System of logic as knowledge theory (1917)
The historical character of Italian philosophy
(1918)
Is there an Italian school? (1918)
Marxism of Benedict Croce (1918)
The sunset of Sicilian culture (1919)
Mazzini (1919)
The political realism of V. Gioberti (1919)
War and Faith (1919)
After the Victory (1920)
The post-war school problem (1920)
Reform of Education (1920)
Discourses of Religion (1920)
Giordano Bruno and the thought of the Renaissance
(1920)
Art and Religion (1920)
Bertrando Spaventa (1920)
Defense of Philosophy (1920)
History of the Piedmontese culture of the
2nd half of the 16th century (1921)
Fragments of Aesthetics and Literature (1921)
Glimmers of the New Italy (1921)
Education and the secular school (1921)
Critical Essays (1921)
The philosophy of Dante (1921)
The modern concept of science and the university
problem (1921)
G. Capponi and the Tuscan culture of the 20th
century (1922)
Studies on the Renaissance (1923)
"Dante and Manzoni, an essay on Art and Religion"
(1923)
"The Prophets of the Italian Risorgimento"
(1923)
On the Logic of the Concrete (1924)
"Preliminaries in the Study of the Child"
(1924)
School Reform (1924)
Fascism and Sicily (1924)
Fascism to the Government of the School (1924)
What is fascism (1925)
The New Middle School (1925)
Current Warnings (1926)
Fragments of History of Philosophy (1926)
Critical Essays (1926)
The Legacy of Vittorio Alfieri (1926)
Fascist Culture (1926)
The religious problem in Italy (1927)
Italian thought of the nineteenth century
(1928)
Fascism and Culture (1928)
The Philosophy of Fascism (1928)
"The Great Council's Law" (1928)
Manzoni and Leopardi (1929)
Origins and Doctrine of Fascism (1929)
The philosophy of art (1931)
The Reform of the School in Italy (1932)
Introduction to Philosophy (1933)
The Woman and the Child (1934)
"Origins and Doctrine of Fascism" (1934)
Economics and Ethics (1934)
Leonardo da Vinci (Gentile was one of the
contributors, 1935)
=== Collected works ===
==== Systematic works ====
I–II. Summary of pedagogy as a philosophical
science (Vol. I: General pedagogy; vol. II:
Teaching).
III. The general theory of the spirit as pure
act.
IV. The foundations of the philosophy of law.
V–VI. The System of Logic as Theory of Knowledge
(Vol. 2).
VII. Reform of education.
VIII. The philosophy of art.
IX. Genesis and structure of society.
==== Historical works ====
X. History of philosophy. From the origins
to Plato.
XI. History of Italian philosophy (up to Lorenzo
Valla).
XII. The Problems of Schooling and Italian
Thinking.
XIII. Studies on Dante.
XIV The Italian thought of the Renaissance.
XV. Studies on the Renaissance.
XVI. Vichian Studies.
XVII. The legacy of Vittorio Alfieri.
XVIII–XIX. History of Italian philosophy
from Genovesi to Galluppi (vol.2).
XXXXI. Albori of the new Italy (vol.2).
XXII. Vincenzo Cook. Studies and notes.
XXIII. Gino Capponi and Tuscan culture in
the decimony of the century.
XXIV. Manzoni and Leopardi.
XXV. Rosmini and Gioberti.
XXVI. The prophets of the Italian Risorgimento.
XXVII. Reform of Hegelian Dialectics.
XXVIII. Marx's philosophy.
XXIX. Bertrando Spaventa.
XXX. The sunset of the Sicilian culture.
XXXI-XXXIV. The origins of contemporary philosophy
in Italy. (Vol. I: Platonists, Vol II: Positivists,
Vol III and IV: Neo-Kantians and Hegelians).
XXXV. Modernism and the relationship between
religion and philosophy.
==== Various works ====
XXXVI. Introduction to philosophy.
XXXVII. Religious Speeches.
XXXVIII. Defense of philosophy.
XXXIX. Education and lay school.
XL. The new middle school.
XLI. School Reform in Italy.
XLII. Preliminaries in the study of the child.
XLIII. War and Faith.
XLIV. After the win.
XLV-XLVI. Politics and Culture (Vol. 2).*
==== Letter collections ====
I–II. Letter from Gentile-Jaja (Vol. 2)
III–VII. Letters to Benedetto Croce (Vol.
5)
VIII. Letter from Gentile-D'Ancona
IX. Letter from Gentile-Omodeo
X. Letter from Gentile-Maturi
XI. Letter from Gentile-Pintor
XII. Letter from Gentile-Chiavacci
XIII. Letter from Gentile-Calogero
XIV. Letter from Gentile-Donati
== Notes ==
== References ==
A. James Gregor, Giovanni Gentile: Philosopher
of Fascism. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers,
2001.
== Further reading ==
=== English ===
Angelo Crespi, Contemporary Thought of Italy,
Williams and Norgate, Limited, 1926.
L. Minio-Paluello, Education in Fascist Italy,
Oxford University Press, 1946.
Treasury of Philosophy, edited by Dagobert
D. Runes, Philosophical Library, New York,
1955.
David D. Roberts, Historicism and Fascism
in Modern Italy, University of Toronto Press,
2007.
Adrian Lyttleton, ed., Italian Fascisms: From
Pareto to Gentile (Harper & Row, 1973).
A. James Gregor, "Giovanni Gentile and the
Philosophy of the Young Karl Marx," Journal
of the History of Ideas, Vol. 24, No. 2 (April–June
1963).
A. James Gregor, Origins and Doctrine of Fascism:
With Selections from Other Works by Giovanni
Gentile. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers,
2004.
A. James Gregor, Mussolini's Intellectuals:
Fascist Social and Political Thought, Princeton
University Press, 2009.
Aline Lion, The Idealistic Conception of Religion;
Vico, Hegel, Gentile (Oxford, The Clarendon
Press, 1932).
Gabriele Turi, "Giovanni Gentile: Oblivion,
Remembrance, and Criticism," The Journal of
Modern History, Vol. 70, No. 4 (December 1998).
George de Santillana, "The Idealism of Giovanni
Gentile," Isis, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Nov. 1938).
Giovanni Gullace, "The Dante Studies of Giovanni
Gentile," Dante Studies, with the Annual Report
of the Dante Society, No. 90 (1972).
Guido de Ruggiero, "G. Gentile: Absolute Idealism."
In Modern Philosophy, Part IV, Chap. III,
(George Allen & Unwin, 1921).
H. S. Harris, The Social Philosophy of Giovanni
Gentile (U. of Illinois Press, 1966).
Irving Louis Horowitz, "On the Social Theories
of Giovanni Gentile," Philosophy and Phenomenological
Research, Vol. 23, No. 2 (Dec. 1962).
J. A. Smith, "The Philosophy of Giovanni Gentile,"
Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, New
Series, Vol. 20, (1919–1920).
M. E. Moss, Mussolini's Fascist Philosopher,
Giovanni Gentile Reconsidered (Lang, 2004).
Merle E. Brown, Neo-idealistic Aesthetics:
Croce-Gentile-Collingwood (Wayne State University
Press, 1966).
Merle E. Brown, "Respice Finem: The Literary
Criticism of Giovanni Gentile," Italica, Vol.
47, No. 1 (Spring, 1970).
Merritt Moore Thompson, The Educational Philosophy
of Giovanni Gentile (University of Southern
California, 1934).
Patrick Romanell, The Philosophy of Giovanni
Gentile (Columbia University, 1937).
Patrick Romanell, Croce versus Gentile (S.
F. Vanni, 1946).
Roger W. Holmes, The Idealism of Giovanni
Gentile (The Macmillan Company, 1937).
Ugo Spirito, "The Religious Feeling of Giovanni
Gentile," East and West, Vol. 5, No. 2 (July
1954).
William A. Smith, Giovanni Gentile on the
Existence of God (Beatrice-Naewolaerts, 1970).
Valmai Burwood Evans, "The Ethics of Giovanni
Gentile," International Journal of Ethics,
Vol. 39, No. 2 (Jan. 1929).
Valmai Burwood Evans, "Education in the Philosophy
of Giovanni Gentile," International Journal
of Ethics, Vol. 43, No. 2 (Jan. 1933).
=== In Italian ===
Giovanni Gentile (Augusto del Noce, Bologna:
Il Mulino, 1990)
Giovanni Gentile filosofo europeo (Salvatore
Natoli, Turin: Bollati Boringhieri, 1989)
Giovanni Gentile (Antimo Negri, Florence:
La Nuova Italia, 1975)
Faremo una grande università: Girolamo Palazzina-Giovanni
Gentile; Un epistolario (1930–1938), a cura
di Marzio Achille Romano (Milano: Edizioni
Giuridiche Economiche Aziendali dell'Università
Bocconi e Giuffré editori S.p.A., 1999)
Parlato, Giuseppe. "Giovanni Gentile: From
the Risorgimento to Fascism." Trans. Stefano
Maranzana. TELOS 133 (Winter 2005): pp. 75–94.
Antonio Cammarana, Proposizioni sulla filosofia
di Giovanni Gentile, prefazione del Sen. Armando
Plebe, Roma, Gruppo parliamentare MSI-DN,
Senato della Repubblica, 1975, 157 Pagine,
Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze BN
758951.
Antonio Cammarana, Teorica della reazione
dialettica : filosofia del postcomunismo,
Roma, Gruppo parliamentare MSI-DN, Senato
della Repubblica, 1976, 109 Pagine, Biblioteca
Nazionale Centrale di Firenze BN 775492.
== External links ==
Castelvetrano website
Works by Giovanni Gentile at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Giovanni Gentile at Internet
Archive
Newspaper clippings about Giovanni Gentile
in the 20th Century Press Archives of the
German National Library of Economics (ZBW)
