

# Train Your Brain

Build a Framework for Clear Thinking

Take Full Advantage of Your Brain's Exceptional Powers

By Dr. William W. Dodd

Copyright 2012 William Dodd

Smashwords Edition

License Notes

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Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Your Neurons at Work

Chapter 2: Framing Your Thoughts

Chapter 3: Putting Your Brain to Work

Chapter 4: Tools for Clear Thinking
Chapter 5: Food for Thought
Chapter 6: The Conscious Mind

Chapter 7: A Model of the Mind

Chapter 8: Solving Problems

Chapter 9: Getting it Right

Chapter 10: Managing Your Resources

Chapter 11: Clear Thinking and You

About the Author
Introduction

Clear thinking involves learning more, remembering more, making better decisions, finding more satisfactory solutions to a variety of problems, and improving relations with others.

The most important concept in **Train Your Brain** is that thinking skills can be developed and enhanced through directed effort and practice. You can train your brain to think better, just as you can train your muscles to perform specific tasks, such as playing a saxophone or swimming the backstroke.

A clear thinker systematically collects data, analyzes information, and makes considered decisions. A clear thinker also communicates effectively and strives to work effectively with others.

Thinking clearly on a regular basis is an achievable objective. It does not require a revolutionary approach. Every attempt at clear thinking leads to increased knowledge and improved skills. Each success lays the foundation for more success in the future. As you learn more and start to think more clearly, additional learning becomes easier. With more knowledge, clear thinking becomes a habit rather than a challenge.

Over time, the cumulative effect of increased knowledge and clear thinking will lead to systematic improvements in your own health, wealth, satisfaction, and happiness.

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Chapter 1: Your Neurons at Work

1.1 Basic Anatomy of Your Brain

1.2 Your Body's Communication Systems

1.3 Your Senses

Thinking is a wondrously complicated biological process.

The basic anatomy of your brain and input from your senses operate together to determine how your mind perceives the universe, and how you think.

1.1 Basic Anatomy of Your Brain

Your brain is where all your thinking takes place. So learning a little about the structure and operation of your brain is an appropriate beginning for a book on training your brain to think clearly.

The brain is a complex organic system for processing information fed to it by your senses. The structures of the brain contain several billion neurons with a total weight of about 1.4 kilograms (3 pounds). Those neurons require about twenty percent of the blood flow from your heart to keep them supplied with oxygen and nourishment. The brain floats in a cerebrospinal fluid that helps to support its spongy structure and protect it from mechanical shocks.

Based on knowledge derived from anatomy, evolutionary theories, and functional characteristics, the brain can be regarded as a composite of three basic substructures. According to Paul MacLean (Laboratory of Brain Evolution and Behaviour of the National Institute of Mental Health), as the human brain evolved primitive structures were successively surrounded by more advanced neural structures. The hindbrain, located at the base of the brain, is its most primitive part and is associated with autonomic functions. The midbrain complex lies above the hindbrain, is more sophisticated, and is associated with our emotions and the formation of memories. The left and right hemispheres of the forebrain form a cap over the midbrain. The forebrain is the most highly evolved component of the brain and is associated with awareness and thinking. (See Figure #1 for a sketch of the basic brain structures.) It is MacLean's contention that,

"We are obliged to look at ourselves and the world through the eyes of three quite different mentalities." [The human brain] "amounts to three interconnected biological computers [each with] its own sense of time and space, its own memory, [muscle] motor control, and other functions".

Carl Sagan adds,

"Each [of these three] brain[s] corresponds to a separate major evolutionary step. The three brains are distinguished neuro-anatomically and functionally, and contain strikingly different distributions of the neurochemicals dopamine and cholinesterase."

Figure #1: A sketch of the basic structures of the brain

We also know that the brain has conscious and subconscious modes. While you are reading this sentence part of your brain keeps your heart beating, part keeps your eyes moving across the page, and another part wonders what is for supper tonight. Your brain also has a sleep mode that can create dreams, and it has an unconscious mode to which it can retreat when your brain is injured. Your rational thoughts can be disrupted by emotional concerns, and your emotional concerns can be overridden by your basic needs to breathe, drink, and eat. It is no wonder that it is sometimes a challenge to think clearly.

With several levels of functioning, each with conscious and subconscious modes, it is a great advantage to be able to shift mental gears at-will to meet daily demands.

1.1.1 Learning about the Brain

There are a number of sources of information about the structure and operation of the brain.

Brain injuries

Whenever someone experiences a damaging head wound and survives, there is an opportunity to compare any resulting disability with the damaged region of the brain. Historically, the advent of high-speed bullets in the 19th century led to many non-fatal head wounds. Survivors had characteristic impairments when specific parts of the brain were injured.

Animal experiments

While there are recognized ethical constraints that limit neural experiments on humans, there are as yet few constraints limiting experiments on animals. And since there are many parallels between the structures of human and animal brains, much has been learned from animal studies about how our brains function. Continued experiments on animals reflect our basic ignorance of subtle biological processes.

Brain surgery

The techniques and procedures for performing successful operations on human brains evolved rapidly during the 20th century. There are no pain sensors in the brain itself and patients are normally restrained but awake during brain surgery. Surgeons can then talk to patients during an operation to confirm that incisions are having the intended effect.

During operations to treat patients with severe epilepsy, Wilder Penfield discovered that stimulating specific regions of the brain produced physical sensations. During the early 1950's, he demonstrated that the sense of touch for each part of the body's surface is represented on the parietal lobe (see section 1.1.4), and that adjacent parts of the body are represented on adjacent parts of the brain. Penfield also found that the more important and sensitive body regions have proportionally greater parts of the brain assigned to them. He discovered, as well, that stimulation of other regions could elicit particular memories in a patient.

In the 1960's, a new operation was designed to ease the symptoms of severe epilepsy. In this operation the main connection (corpus callosum) between the left and right cerebral hemispheres of the forebrain is severed to prevent future epileptic seizures from spreading across the whole brain. While the operation limited the damage of epileptic seizures, it also led to characteristic deficiencies. Roger Sperry won the Nobel Prize in 1981 for his studies of the subsequent behavioural characteristics of these patients.

Brain scans

Non-invasive scanning techniques allow the human brain to be studied in action. A variety of scanning techniques have been developed since 1920, when the German physiologist, Hans Berger, first used electroencephalography to study the human brain. Newer techniques can detect activity in smaller regions of the brain over shorter time periods.

Here are brief descriptions of some of the common scanning techniques:

  1. EEG – Electroencephalography – measures the electrical activity of the brain as detected by electrodes on the surface of the head.

  2. MEG – Magnetoencephalography – similar to EEG but it measures magnetic signals.

  3. MRI – Magnetic Resonance Imaging – uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to analyze soft tissue. It can be used on any part of the body, including the brain.

  4. CT – Computerized Tomography (or CAT – Computerized Axial Tomography) – converts the information from a MRI into a three dimensional image.

  5. fMRI – functional MRI – a newer version of MRI that is much faster (and much more expensive).

  6. PET – Positron Emission Topography – requires the injection of a radioactive substance into a patient's bloodstream. The patient is given a specific mental task to perform and the most active areas of the brain then absorb the most radioactive material.

  7. NIRS – Near-Infra-Red Spectroscopy – can be used to assess brain function by detecting changes in blood hemoglobin concentrations that are associated with neural activity.

1.1.2 The Hindbrain

The hindbrain is considered the most primitive component of the brain. It is located at the top of the spinal cord, just inside the base of the skull. Its main components are the medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum.

The medulla is located just at the top of the spinal cord at the lower end of the hindbrain. The medulla controls many autonomic functions including respiration, circulation, and digestion. At the top of the medulla, just under the midbrain, is a small region called the reticular activating system. The reticular activating system is believed to harbour our centre of arousal and motivation. This system acts as a primary filter on all incoming neural signals. Signals are forwarded to other parts of the brain only if the input is deemed significant. The reticular activating system is also involved in maintaining consciousness and regulating sleep.

The cerebellum is located at the back of the hindbrain, behind the medulla. It is about the size of a small apple and is divided into left and right hemispheres . Its compact structure contains about fifty percent of the brain's neurons in only ten percent of the brain's volume. About 200 million input neurons from the spinal cord pass through the cerebellum. The cerebellum also controls subconscious movements to maintain posture, balance, and co-ordination.

The pons is a swelling around the medulla just in front of the cerebellum. It connects the two halves of the cerebellum and manages the switching of signals from one side of the body to the opposite side of the brain. It plays a major role in relaying sensory information from the cerebellum to the forebrain.

Figure #2: Basic structures of the hindbrain

1.1.3 The Midbrain Complex

To simplify the discussions, the term 'midbrain complex' has been coined to include the midbrain along with the thalamus and the limbic system.

The midbrain is cylinder shaped, about 2 centimetres (cm) in height and 2 cm in diameter. It sits on top of the hindbrain in the middle of the head; approximately level with the bridge of your nose. The midbrain is associated with the pathways for voluntary muscle control, visual system reflexes, and hearing.

The thalamus consists of two plum sized lobes just above the midbrain. These left-right lobes provide a system for relaying neural signals between the midbrain and the hemispheres of the forebrain, and act as the brain's main filter of sensory input. The thalamus is also associated with regulating sleep, wakefulness, consciousness, and mental arousal.

The limbic system is an important series of left-right nerve pathways located around the midbrain and under the forebrain. The limbic system is involved in emotional responses such as fear and aggression, mood in general, appetite, and emotional responses to food. The limbic system is also involved in the processing and storage of short-term memory. From an evolutionary point of view, the limbic system is an old structure that can also be found in fish, amphibians, and reptiles – as well as mammals. The limbic system is highly connected with the frontal lobes (see section 1.1.4) and may be the source of emotional satisfaction that can be derived from clear thinking. There is no universal agreement on exactly which organs should be listed as part of the limbic system, but its main components are the hypothalamus, the hippocampus, and the amygdala.

The hypothalamus consists of two small left-right structures, each about the size of a bean. The two parts of the hypothalamus reside under the two parts of the thalamus. The primary function of the hypothalamus is to maintain the body's status quo. It regulates blood pressure, temperature, fluid levels, electrolyte balance, body weight, and appetite. Your hypothalamus sends you a signal to let you know when you are hungry, thirsty, tired, mad, or sad. The hypothalamus is also connected to the pituitary gland, the master regulator of the body's endocrine (hormone) system.

Your hypothalamus works much like the thermostat on a furnace, maintaining key body parameters at appropriate levels. In the short run you may gain or lose a few pounds, but the setting for body weight established in your hypothalamus will eventually bring your body weight back to its former setting. Similar corrective measures initiated in your hypothalamus maintain your body temperature and blood pressure.

Figure #3: Basic structures of the midbrain complex

The amygdala has a left-right structure with almond shaped components residing just below the hypothalamus. The amygdala is involved with the emotions of aggression, fear, and pleasure. Persons with a large amygdala tend to be more aggressive. Anxiety, autism, depression, narcolepsy, phobias, and schizophrenia are often linked to a malfunctioning amygdala.

The hippocampus has a left-right structure in the shape of elongated beans curving towards the back of the brain from the amygdala. The hippocampus plays an essential role in our ability to create new memories of daily events and also influences our ability to access old memories. Research also suggests that the hippocampus plays a role in our ability to form mental maps of our surroundings and to perform spatial tasks.

The nucleus accumbens is sometimes considered part of the basal ganglia of the forebrain and sometimes as part of the limbic system. It has sensitive dopamine receptors that respond to intense stimuli, novel stimuli, and pheromones. The nucleus accumbens has been called the pleasure centre of the brain.

Many of the structures in the midbrain are connected by an extended loop called the fornix.

1.1.4 The Forebrain

The forebrain (also known as the cerebrum) is the dominant part of the brain that you see in most pictures of the brain. The forebrain is the most evolved portion of the brain and is usually regarded as the seat of conscious thought. It has two basic components, the large cerebral hemispheres, and a set of specialized nerve clusters called the basal ganglia.

The left-right structures of the cerebral hemispheres look like the two halves of a giant walnut, and are situated at the top of the brain. The wrinkled surface of the cerebrum is also known as the cerebral cortex, or the neural cortex. The word 'cortex' simply means outer layer. The cortex has many folds that increase its surface area by a factor of three and consists of about ten billion neurons arranged in six thin layers. This grey matter is supported by a thicker layer of myelinated axons (white matter). The two cerebral hemispheres are connected by a thick band of cells called the corpus callosum. The cerebral hemispheres are essential to thought, memory, and personality. They receive, store, and interpret information from all over the body, and initiate voluntary actions.

The cerebral hemispheres are each divided by larger folds into four distinct lobes. See Figure #4. By the time impulses from neurons in your body reach this portion of your brain, they have switched sides. Lobes on the right side control processes on the left side of the body, and visa versa.

As the name implies, the frontal lobes are located at the front of the brain, just behind your forehead. Your most advanced thinking and decision-making occur in the frontal lobes. Your personality and intelligence are thought to reside here. The motor cortex in each frontal lobe controls all your voluntary muscular activity. The right motor cortex lies in a band from the top of your head down towards your right temple. The portion near the top controls the movement of your lower left body and the portion near your right temple controls the muscles on the left side of your face. The frontal lobes also contain Broca's area devoted to generating speech, and other regions related to understanding, learning, thinking, and planning.

The parietal lobes lie just behind the frontal lobes and extend towards the back of your head. The parietal lobes contain the somatosensory cortex, a region that receives sensory input from all parts of your body. A map of the surface of your body can be traced out on the somatosensory cortex.

Figure #4: Basic structures of the forebrain

The occipital lobes are located at the very back of the head and are devoted to vision. If you happen to get hit in the back of the head you sometimes 'see stars' because the occipital lobes have been jarred and spurious neural signals are generated.

The temporal lobes are located at the side of the head, just inside the ears. Appropriately, the temporal lobes contain the auditory cortex that is responsible for the ears and hearing. The temporal lobes also contain Wernicke's area; a region devoted to understanding speech.

The basal ganglia are small and specialized clusters of cells involved with the control of movement. They are found inside the white matter beneath the cerebral cortex.

This introduction to the anatomy of the brain has touched on the major structures at work in your brain. There are also several large spaces in the brain, called ventricles, that are filled with cerebral fluid. The cerebral fluid circulates through the ventricles transporting hormones, removing waste, and helping to support the structure of the brain.

A summary of the basic structures of the brain and their main functions is provided in Table #1.

Table #1: A summary of basic brain components

The fundamental concept to remember is that your brain is a highly complex structure deserving of your best efforts to use it effectively.

1.1.5 The Left Brain and the Right Brain

Most structures on the right side of the brain are duplicated by similar structures on the left, and most components are designed to control functions on the opposite side of the body. A massive neural link, the corpus callosum, connects the left and right sides of the brain. This connection provides a natural backup in which most neural control mechanisms are duplicated in the right and left sides of the brain. If one side of the brain is damaged, there is still a good chance that an individual can survive using the backup functionality in the other half of the brain.

There are minor differences between the right and left sides of your brain. In a typical right-handed person, the left cerebral cortex controls language analysis and speech production, and tends to process information one item at a time in a sequential manner. In the same right-handed person, the right cerebral cortex tends to process information holistically to gain an overall impression.

Most humans display a distinct preference for using the right hand, both for fine motor activities such as writing, and for power activities such as swinging a bat or club in sports. In fact the whole right side of a right-handed person tends to be dominant over the left. People tend to have a dominant eye, a dominant ear, a dominant arm, and a dominant leg – all on the same side. Since body parts are controlled by the opposite side of the brain, in these people the left cerebral cortex tends to dominate.

This arrangement, with each half of the brain managing the opposite side of the body, is common across the animal kingdom. When combined with the concept of a dominant side, the neural crossover may provide a distinct survival advantage. If a creature were involved in a life and death struggle it would tend to turn its strongest side towards the most immediate enemy. With the crossover brain structure, this posture automatically moves the dominant half-brain away from the enemy. The dominant half-brain is thus better protected and can continue to direct moves for attack and defence even if the leading half-brain is damaged.

About 86% of the population is right-handed, and these people process language in the left cerebral cortex. The remaining 14% can be divided into three groups:

  1. About 2% are pure left-handers and process language in the right cerebral cortex. Their brains are left-right mirror images of right-handed people.

  2. About 4% process language in both sides of the brain. These people tend to be ambidextrous and can write or play sports equally well with either hand.

  3. About 8% have a mixed dominance. These people tend to perform some tasks with their right hand and some with their left hand, and process language on the same side as their dominant hand. Those with mixed dominance often have difficulty distinguishing right from left, but sometimes find it easier to view a situation holistically rather than seeing it as composed of individual components.

The tooth-brush test for handedness

If you brush all your teeth with your right hand, your dominant side is probably on the right.

If you brush all your teeth with your left hand, your dominant side is probably on the left.

If you can brush all your teeth with either your right or your left hand, you may be ambidextrous.

If you brush some of your teeth with your right hand, and the rest with your left, then you may have a mixed dominance.

In human society, your handedness can sometimes be an advantage, and sometimes a disadvantage. Most devices and structures are designed for the right-handed majority – everyday items such as door handles, stair rails, and scissors are right-handed. The left-to-right flow for reading and writing favour right-handers. Left-handed baseball pitchers are in demand because the majority of batters are right-handed and find it more difficult to hit pitches delivered from a pitcher's left hand.

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1.2 Your Body's Communication Systems

The body has two major communication systems: the electro-chemical nervous system, and the bio-chemical endocrine system. These systems gather information about your body and your environment, process that information, and then initiate action that will increase your chances for survival. Ultimately, all of your actions are intended to increase your chances for survival.

1.2.1 Neurons – Building Blocks of the Nervous System

The nervous system consists of billions of specialized cells called neurons. About one third of your neurons are organized into a complex communication network to carry information from your sense organs to your brain and from your brain back to your muscles. The rest of your neurons form the structures in your brain.

A neuron is a specialized and elongated cell that transmits an electro-chemical signal from one end to the other. A neuron receives signals through delicate branching structures called dendrites located near the cell nucleus. A nerve cell has one longer extension, an axon. And at the far end of the axon, there are more branches. A single neuron can receive signals though many of its dendrites and can transmit signals to many other neurons through its axon branches. If a strong nerve impulse arrives at a dendrite, or a weaker signal arrives at a number of dendrites, then an electro-chemical signal is generated that propagates along the axon and then off to the dendrites of one or more nearby neurons.

There is a tiny but important gap, called a synapse, between the dendrites and axons of neighbouring neurons. A nerve impulse can only jump this gap with the assistance of specialized chemicals called neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are created and released at a synapse as a nerve impulse approaches the end of an axon. If enough neurotransmitter has been generated before the nerve impulse arrives, then the impulse can cross the synapse and continue down the dendrite of the next nerve. An impulse has a greater chance of being transmitted if the signal in a single axon is stronger, or if an impulse has been duplicated and is travelling along several neighbouring neurons at the same time. A synapse can also act as a filter by blocking weaker signals. After an impulse reaches the end of an axon, neurotransmitters are quickly broken down so they will not interfere with the next set of nerve impulses.

Neurons outside of the brain are bundled to form nerve fibres that look like white cords or wires. Signals typically travel from dendrites and down the axon of a nerve fibre at speeds up to one hundred metres per second, depending on the overall structure of the nerve bundle. Although neurons are carefully protected and nourished by support cells, they are unable to undergo cell division or to repair any significant damage. Any neural damage tends to be permanent.

Figure #5: The basic structure of a neuron

1.2.2 The Central Nervous System

Your nervous system has two main components: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system, in turn, has two main components: the brain and the spinal cord. The spinal cord is the trunk line for transmitting neural signals back and forth between your body and your brain. The central nervous system is protected by the skull and the spine, and by three membranes of fibrous tissues – the meninges. Damage to the spinal cord is very serious and can lead to permanent disability or death.

1.2.3 The Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system is a network of sensory neurons that branch out from the spinal cord to reach every nook and cranny of your body. One set of sensory neurons transmits signals towards the central nervous system and then on to your brain, and another set of motor neurons transmits signals in the opposite direction to activate both the voluntary and involuntary action of muscles.

The peripheral system has a right-left symmetry with forty-three pairs of major nerve fibres. Ten of these pairs emerge from the underside of your skull to serve your head, and the other thirty-three pairs emerge at different points along your spine to serve the rest of your body.

The peripheral nervous system can be further divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

The somatic nerves serve activities that are under your conscious control. They collect information from sensory organs and transmit signals to muscles to initiate voluntary movement.

The autonomic nervous system controls short-term actions and systems that function without conscious control. Some autonomic neurons (sympathetic) are dedicated to stimulating organs and muscle action, and other autonomic neurons (parasympathetic) are dedicated to inhibiting the action of muscles and organs. The autonomic system can transmit signals to alter the size of your pupils in response to light, change your rate of breathing, alter your heart rate, stimulate muscular contractions in your stomach and intestines, and cause the hairs on your skin to stand on end.

The autonomic system can also transmit signals to generate a co-ordinated set of activities such as a response to perceived danger. The danger response includes an increase in respiration and heart rate, the dilatation of air passages, the diversion of blood from the skin and internal organs to muscles, and the release of extra sugar from the liver into the bloodstream.

1.2.4 The Endocrine System

The endocrine glands secrete hormones into the blood stream to maintain chemical balances in the body, to help prepare your body for emergency situations, and to control longer term processes such as sexual maturation and body growth. Specific hormones may start, stop, or inhibit a process and often participate in chemical feedback loops to help maintain normal body conditions.

The pituitary is the master endocrine gland. It is the size of a pea and is located just under the thalamus, surrounded by bone at the bottom of the skull. The thalamus provides the connection between the brain and the pituitary gland.

The front portion of the pituitary produces growth hormone and other hormones that influence the thyroid glands, the adrenal glands, the gonads, and the mammary glands. The back portion of the pituitary produces a hormone that controls the body's water balance and oxytocin. Oxytocin is involved in initiating the birth process and the production of breast milk.

The other main endocrine glands are the:

  1. Adrenal glands (above each kidney) – produce adrenaline that controls the body's 'fight or flight' response.

  2. Thyroid gland (front of the neck) – produces thyroxine that controls the body's rate of metabolism.

  3. Parathyroid glands (just above the thyroid gland) – modulate the chemical balance of calcium and phosphorous.

  4. Pancreas (in front of the kidneys) – produces insulin to control the amount of sugar in the blood. Unlike the other glands, you only have one pancreas.

  5. Gonads (testicles in the male, ovaries in the female) – modulate sexual functions.

The influence of the endocrine system is pervasive. It monitors and controls basic body chemistry. It also provides the chemical stimulus for vital survival activities and all stages of reproduction.

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1.3 Your Senses

Your sense organs provide your brain with all of the information it possesses about your external environment. Your sense organs are remarkable detectors, but they do have physical limitations. Your sense organs also filter environmental information as it is detected. The resulting information from your senses is further filtered as it flows through diverse parts of your brain. Then your brain gets to work, using the information that it has gathered, and constructs a model of reality in your mind. When you listen to an orchestra play, your conscious mind hears music – not a set of vibrations at different frequencies and intensities. When you look out the window, you see a tree – not a set of colour intensities across your retina.

We normally think of five sets of specialized organs (tongue, nose, skin, ears, and eyes) as providing all the information about the environment and the state of our body, to our brains. The orientation systems in our joints and our ears should be counted as an additional sense .

In this section, the emphasis is on the flow of information from sensory organs to your brain.

1.3.1 Your Tongue

Your tongue is sensitive to warmth and cold, but it specializes in detecting the taste of liquids. The tongue is coated with about 10 000 taste buds. Each bud consists of a little pit lined with a cluster of sensory cells and the sensory cells are in contact with peripheral nerves. The taste buds at the tip of the tongue are most sensitive to sweetness. A little further back, the taste buds are most sensitive to saltiness. Behind those are taste buds sensitive to sourness, and at the back are taste buds sensitive to bitterness. Another set of taste buds is responsive to umami, a savoury taste. All other taste sensations can be described in terms of these basic tastes.

Under constant stimulation, the taste buds lose some sensitivity. A second chocolate is not as sweet as the first.

Taste sensations do not always provide an accurate indication of what you are eating because there are chemicals that can alter the sensitivity of your taste buds. For example, when monosodium glutamate is mixed with food, all four types of taste receptors are stimulated. An Indian plant called Gymnema sylvestre contains gymnemic acid, which reduces the sensitivity of the tongue to sweetness. A fruit from West Africa, Synsepalum dulcificum, has the effect of making sour substances taste sweet.

1.3.2 Your Nose

Your sense of smell is located in two small patches of specialized cells located high up in each nasal passage, just under the brain case. The olfactory mucosa each contain about 10 million sensory cells. These sensory cells conduct odour signals directly to the side of the brain above them. This arrangement reflects the early evolutionary development of the sense of smell. (The other senses conduct most signals from one side of the body to the opposite side of the brain.)

The nose specializes in detecting airborne chemicals, which we interpret as odours. It is the electron configuration of a chemical that stimulates a receptor. Chemicals with similar molecular shapes tend to elicit the same odour response. It takes about 5 molecules of a chemical to excite a single receptor, and about 40 receptors must be excited to reach the threshold of detection. When these conditions are met, a nerve impulse is sent off to your brain. As the intensity of a smell increases (there are more of the associated chemicals in the air you are breathing) the response also tends to increase, up to a maximum level. After continual exposure to an odour, the response tends to decline. When you first enter a cow barn the smell of animals tends to be quite intense. After a few minutes the smell becomes much less noticeable.

Smells inform us about our chemical environment. Smells provide clues about what materials are safe to eat, what is safe to keep near us, and what items may be poisonous or contain harmful bacteria. Combined with taste, the sense of smell enhances the pleasure of eating. In the wild, predators use smell to hunt their prey, and prey animals use smell to avoid predators.

Smell also plays an important role in mate selection. The female gypsy moth, when it is ready to mate, emits a scent that can attract a male moth from miles away. All mammals, including humans, emit similar chemicals called pheromones to indicate their sexual status. While pheromones can have a significant effect on our selection of mates, the process occurs at a subconscious level. We sometimes use perfumes and colognes in an effort to enhance the effect of pheromones. In the days before ovulation, women are about a hundred times more sensitive to musk odour than men. Other pheromones can transmit a subconscious alarm, 'danger is near' that we sometimes interpret as the 'smell of fear'.

Research has been conducted to determine if there are olfactory sensors that respond only to specific chemicals, but the results are inconclusive. However, it has been shown that combinations of a few basic odours can stimulate our interpretation of most other odours.

Table #2: A list of primary odours

The olfactory sensors seem to be particularly sensitive to these odours. Combinations of these seven basic odours can simulate most other odour responses.

1.3.3 Your Sense of Touch

The skin is your body's largest organ. The layers of your skin provide a flexible shield against physical injury, infection, and ultraviolet radiation. The skin acts as a container to prevent the loss of vital fluids. It also has insulating properties that help to regulate your body temperature. Your skin is covered with a network of nerve endings that are sensitive to touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.

Your sense of touch is most sensitive on your hands, feet, and face; and less sensitive on your legs, arms, and trunk. Pressure is felt when it causes the skin to deform, but there is no sensation when pressure is applied evenly and there is no deformation. Scuba divers seldom experience a sense of pressure in depths less than 30 metres because the water pushes evenly on all skin surfaces. Continued touch or pressure tends to be ignored after a few minutes. When our clothes are comfortable, we tend not to notice them wrapped around our bodies shortly after dressing. To detect light touches, hairs on the skin act as tiny levers so that an object weighing just a fraction of a gram can twist a hair in its follicle, cause a local deformation of the skin, and signal a touch sensation.

The skin has a typical temperature of 33 degrees Celsius and is able to detect changes as small as a hundredth of a degree. The skin's sensitivity to hot or cold varies over the surface of the body and also depends on the body's recent heat history. On a very hot day, a cloth dipped in warm water can feel delightfully cool. The skin adapts to a reasonable range of temperatures within a few minutes. If you dive into a cold lake, or climb into a hot bath, the thermal sensation soon decreases.

A sensation of pain is generated if the pressure or temperature sensors on the skin are over stimulated. Pain is a warning to the brain that action needs to be taken to avoid harm or damage. In the disease of leprosy, the nerve endings of the extremities are damaged so that pain receptors no longer work. Without pain receptors, those suffering from leprosy receive no warning pain when fingers and toes are damaged. The result is that the extremities are gradually destroyed, not directly by the disease but by excessive wear that is not moderated by pain. Some types of skin pain, such as burns, tend to persist over time with no adaptation. Other types of skin pain, such as that inflicted by the stab of a needle, tend to decrease rapidly with time.

1.3.4 Your Auditory System

Your ears convert vibrations in the air into nerve impulses in three stages. Your outer ear funnels sound waves to your eardrum and the waves cause that delicate layer of skin to vibrate. Then tiny bone structures in your middle ear amplify the mechanical vibrations of the eardrum and pass the amplified motion to your inner ear. The cochlea is the main structure in the inner ear. It is a coil about 3 cm long, filled with fluid and lined with nerve endings. Vibrations from the bones in your middle ear cause the fluid in the cochlea to vibrate and that motion generates auditory nerve impulses. About forty percent of the nerve impulses from an ear on one side of your head go the same side of the brain, and sixty percent are transferred to the opposite side of the brain.

With both ears operating you are able to determine the approximate direction of a source of sound. And, if you are familiar with a source of sound, you can also make a reasonable estimate of the distance to the source.

Human ears are sensitive to a wide range of vibrations, from a low hum at 20 Hertz (cycles per second) to a high squeak at 20 000 Hertz. Your ears can also detect a wide range of intensities, from a pin dropping on the floor, to a jet engine. Your ears can also detect more than one frequency at a time; when two notes are played on a piano you can detect both notes. This ability lets you interpret speech and enjoy music.

Your ability to interpret speech also depends on the social context of a conversation, since you do not always hear every word that is spoken. In an experiment to test the ability of subjects to perceive spoken language, portions of the words in a conversation were blanked out at random. As long as a conversation had a known context, subjects were still able to understand about 85% of the words spoken, even when 50% of the sounds were deleted.

For a right-handed person, the right ear (feeding most of its impulses to the left hemisphere) dominates in perceiving speech and language. The left ear (feeding most of its impulses to the right hemisphere) dominates in perceiving non-verbal sounds.

Your ability to detect high frequencies declines with age, at the rate of about 150 Hertz per year after age 40.

1.3.5 Your Visual System

Your visual system is the most sophisticated and complicated of your senses. Vision supplies information about the status of your environment, what it contains, and what is moving within it. Vision supplies you with information about shape, size, distance, brightness, and colour.

The seemingly simple task of interpreting shape requires information about vertical lines, horizontal lines, diagonal lines, edges, and shading. Your sense of colour is restricted to light with wavelengths between red (700 nm ) and violet (400 nm). Your eyes are positioned in the front of the skull and slightly separated to provide stereoscopic vision. Each eye provides a slightly different view of an object. These different views provide information about the distance and shape of an object. Both eyes survey the field of view directly ahead of you, while objects to each side can be detected peripherally by just one eye. It takes about 0.1 seconds for your brain to process a field of view and then get ready to for the next field of view. A series of still pictures flashed on a screen at twice that rate is interpreted by your brain as continuous action.

Your eyes convert incoming photons (fundamental bits of light energy) into nerve impulses. Each eye has a number of substructures that contribute to your ability to see:

  1. The upper and lower eyelids regularly sweep the surface of your eye and can close rapidly to protect its surface.

  2. The cornea is a clear protective layer and acts as a preliminary lens.

  3. The aqueous humour is the fluid-filled cavity between the cornea and the lens.

  4. The iris is a coloured disk in front of the lens. It has an opening that can vary in diameter from 0.5 to 9.0 mm to control the intensity of light that reaches the retina.

  5. The lens is a flexible structure that is normally thick and curved for viewing objects up close. It can be stretched by ocular muscles to a thinner and less curved shape for viewing objects in the distance. With age the lens loses some of its elasticity and can no longer return to its highly curved status. That is when you have to start using reading glasses.

  6. The vitreous humour is the liquid-filled region in the centre of the eye. The vitreous humour has to exert enough pressure to maintain the shape of the eye, but too much pressure (glaucoma) can damage the retina.

  7. The retina is the lining at the back of your eye that is coated with light-detecting sensors, called rods and cones. There are about 120 million rods spread over most of the retina to provide a basic black and white view of the universe. In addition there are about 7 million cones concentrated in the region directly behind the lens to provide a high-resolution image, in living colour, of the region directly in front of each eye. The rods are more sensitive to faint light than the cones, so faint scenes are typically perceived in black and white.

The muscles that move your eyes also play a key role in your vision system. Every twentieth of a second your eyes make rapid and abrupt jumps through about 15 degrees, as if they are in a constant search mode. This jumping motion, called a saccade, occurs when the background remains stationary and you are concentrating on an object in the foreground, as when you are reading. The eye muscles can also execute smooth pursuit movements to follow an object as it moves across your field of view. These two types of movements help to keep an object of interest focused on the more sensitive cones at the centre of the retina.

The neural connections associated with the visual system are the most complicated of any of our senses. Behind the eyes, there is a partial switch-over in the optic nerves (called the chiasm) so that all the information from the left half of the field of view, from both eyes, is directed to the right occipital lobe at the back of your brain. Similarly, information from the right field of view, from both eyes, is channelled to the left occipital lobe. The analysis of visual information is quite complicated. So far neurologists have been able to trace twenty-eight different sub-channels in the brain for analyzing visual information.

1.3.6 Your Sense of Orientation

There are two components to our sense of orientation: kinaesthetic sensors and vestibular organs.

Kinaesthetic sensors provide information about your body's spatial position, and the movement of your joints and muscles. Special sensors in the mobile joints of the skeleton provide information on the motion of single joints, and the relative motion of sets of related joints. The shoulder is most sensitive to detecting small motions. The wrist is next most sensitive, then the knuckle of the index finger. The ankle is the joint least sensitive to detecting small motions. The brain receives information from these sensors and uses it to determine the direction and the movement of your limbs in space.

For controlled motion, you also need information on the position and orientation of your whole body in space. In all mammals, vestibular organs located in the inner ears provide information on position and orientation. A vestibular organ is a tiny sac filled with fluid. It is lined with cilia (fine sensory hairs), and contains small crystals of calcium carbonate. Both gravity and acceleration in a straight line can force the crystals into the cilia, causing them to bend and send neural impulses to the cerebellum and the medulla. The vestibular organ also includes two fluid-filled loops at approximate right angles to each other. If your head moves in a circular motion, fluid in these loops flows and the cilia are bent, sending more neural impulses to the brain that correspond to the rotation of your head.

Visual input provides a backup check on the orientation and motion of your body.

The vestibular system can provide signals to help you interpret how your body is moving during most everyday activities. Even the repeated action of jogging presents no difficulty. However, large repeated motions, or motions in which the visual and vestibular systems provide conflicting information, can lead to motion sickness. Over time, most individuals eventually become habituated to an over stimulated vestibular system. If you spend enough time at sea, your seasickness will gradually disappear.

Our sense organs are highly specialized organs for collecting information about our environment. However, they are not mechanical machines that make absolute measurements, and they tire under constant stimulation. Organic sensors are best at monitoring changing conditions within their normal range of operation.

Raw input from your senses is filtered so that irrelevant data is disregarded. The remaining input is interpreted and constantly analyzed for danger factors, for emotional factors, and for practical information related to your current situation. This filtering and interpretative activity occurs in your sub-conscious mind before the results are passed on to your conscious mind for consideration.

Your senses provide you with a continuous update on the state of your immediate physical environment.

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Chapter 2: Framing Your Thoughts

2.1 Human Thinking

2.2 The Nature of the Physical Universe

2.3 Approaches to Clear Thinking

The model of the universe that you create in your brain is based on a summary of your sensory inputs and physical experiences. Your past experiences, your social setting, and your knowledge of the world around you all have a profound impact on what you think and the conclusions that you reach.

2.1 Human Thinking

When you think, you are activating neural networks in your brain and searching through all the information that you have been able to gather since you were born. You tend to consider yourself as a freethinking being, but your brain works with evolutionary structures, cultural frameworks, and personal traits that set limits on your thought processes.

You inherited a brain that is anatomically similar to other human brains. Some of your particular behaviour patterns were also inherited from your parents along with the colour of your hair and the size of your feet. Some of your learned behaviour patterns have been shaped by the community in which you live.

Still, much of your mental universe is unique to yourself. Your life's experiences are your own. The neural networks that develop during your childhood are your own. Your individual memories were shaped in your mind by events in your life.

Your mind creates a mental model of reality based on the information your mind is currently receiving from your senses and the past information you have gathered from your life's experiences. When you reach out to pick up a coffee mug you are integrating information about colour, shape, texture, and function for the mug, as well as past experience in handling hollow objects filled with hot liquids. You have also made a prediction regarding the satisfaction of drinking the coffee in the mug.

2.1.1 Basic Sources of Thought

Our thoughts are stimulated either by external or internal sources. Sometimes we have total control over the source of our thoughts; sometimes thoughts are forced upon us.

Sensory input

While your senses detect a continuous flow of stimuli from your environment only a filtered version of that information actually reaches your conscious brain.

A significant part of our ability to interpret sensory input is learned. With much effort a newborn baby learns to separate spoken sounds into words and sentences that can be converted into ideas. With practice, wine connoisseurs can develop their abilities to detect minor differences in the taste and aroma (or bouquet) of different wines. With practice, radiologists can learn to read subtle variations on x-ray plates to help them detect and diagnose a variety of medical conditions.

You can also learn to block superfluous sensory input while you concentrate on a chosen task. A soldier can ignore the pain of a wound during the heat of a battle. A NASCAR driver can ignore an itch during a hectic pit stop. With practice you can ignore background noise while falling asleep. With practice you can ignore the forest and find the tree with the hawk sitting on a branch.

It is a source of irritation if you cannot ignore dull and repetitive input, or if you cannot distinguish between significant and irrelevant information. Every child has to master the task of separating printed letters from background designs before he/she can learn to read.

Anatomical pathways

Some of our basic thought processes are built into specific neural networks. For example, our ability to recognize faces is located in a specific region of the brain. If that region is damaged, you may no longer be able to recognize people you know by their facial features. The hippocampus, in the midbrain complex, plays a vital role in the formation of new memories. If your hippocampus is damaged, then your ability to create new memories is correspondingly damaged.

Some neural pathways can be adapted to compensate for damage, especially in young children. Every stroke victim experiences the loss of some neural pathways and corresponding impairment. With the support of physiotherapy, other neurons in a neighbouring region can often be adapted to restore most functional loss caused by a stroke.

This adaptability of the brain is not always welcome. Patients, who have had a limb amputated, often experience sensations from a phantom limb . When a limb is amputated, the neural circuitry that controlled that limb is still in place. It is thought that nearby neural circuits in the brain start to utilize these abandoned circuits, and in so doing create signals that are detected as coming from the missing limb. Patients can suffer from pain in a phantom limb long after the limb has been removed.

Your limbic system is the source of most of your emotions. It is also structured to receive and act on significant information with a minimal time delay. You may react emotionally before your forebrain has had a chance to review and consider that same information.

Once you have reached an emotional conclusion, it is often difficult to re-evaluate that same information on a rational basis. MRI scans indicate that once you are emotionally attached to an idea, you exhibit a strong bias when interpreting any new information. For example once you have a strong political affiliation any subsequent political critiques tend to be evaluated in your limbic system as positive or negative according to your established views. Your forebrain and reasoned analysis is often bypassed by emotional reactions.

For clear thinking, you need the ability to outmanoeuvre your limbic system on important issues. The essential ingredient is time. A basic strategy is to develop the habit of wondering about implications or associations before making that crucial first judgement. That way you can provide time for your forebrain to get involved before taking action or making major decisions. The old adage, 'Count to ten before you act', is an essential ingredient in clear thinking. If you want to be guided by your forebrain, the most powerful part of your brain, then you have to be able to delay and override your limbic system.

Personal characteristics

Every person builds a unique personality based on their inherited physical characteristics, their inherited mental circuits, and the experiences they have had during their lives. Your personal goals, motivation, attitudes, self-image, and self-confidence also become key components of your personality. Your personality affects the information that you gather from the environment, and how you perceive that information. Your personality acts as a master filter for all of your thought processes.

2.1.2 The Nature of Humankind

Historical evidence provides significant clues about how humans make use of their neural systems to think, create, build, and destroy.

From the archaeological records of civilizations over the past 5000 years we can observe many basic characteristics of humans, some admirable, some not. We apparently like to build – homes, villages, towns, cities, fortresses, monuments, palaces, and temples. We like to decorate and embellish – our homes, our implements, our public buildings, and ourselves. We like to invent and create – new tools, new weapons, and new farming techniques. We fear and revere the supernatural – we sacrifice plants, animals, and people to appease the gods, we pray to the gods for forgiveness and for favours, we bow to priests who may communicate directly with the gods on our behalf. We like status and power – we are almost always ready to fight to maintain our social status, we are ready to fight to protect our families, we are ready to fight to take advantage of weakness in a neighbouring tribe or town.

The general characteristics of humans, as revealed by history, still dominate much of human activity today. We need to consider these innate tendencies as we strive to improve our own thought processes. These tendencies seem to be embedded in our societies, and our societies establish frameworks that shape much of our thinking as individuals.

2.1.3 The Impact of Your Social Environmental

At birth, your cerebellum is already able to keep you alive, breathing and eating, and basic instincts are operational. Your limbic system provides you with basic emotional drives. However, much of your midbrain and forebrain are waiting to be sculpted by experience.

A newborn has about 10 billion brain cells and this number remains essentially constant through adulthood, but the number of supportive glia cells increases until about age 20. The number of axon-dendrite connections increases continuously with life's experiences.

Your social environment continually shapes and refines your thought processes.

The circumstances of your birth

The United Nations currently recognizes 192 different countries with average annual incomes ranging from $500 US to over $30 000 US, and with average life expectancies ranging from 35 years to over 80 years. The world population is estimated to be about 6.5 billion people and at any given time there are approximately 200 million people on the move as refugees. If you are born in a nation with a large debt, few natural resources, and a bankrupt social system, then you will have difficulty reaching your potential as a clear thinker.

If individuals could choose the circumstances of their birth, then the most direct path to clear thinking would include caring, educated, and wealthy parents living in a prosperous society.

The historical context of your birth is another important factor in your opportunities to be a clear thinker. In the developed world, the last few decades have been the best time to be alive in the history of human kind. While the focus of the news media is often on negative events, in a relative sense, peace and prosperity have reigned during the past fifty years. In the western world the general population has been better fed, better educated, is more secure, has had access to better medical care, and has had more leisure time and less physically demanding jobs than at any other time in history.

Physical comforts and stress

We think more clearly when we are healthy, comfortable, well rested, and free from excessive stress. Under severe and lasting stress your mental efficiency can suffer dramatically. Under stress you tend to lose concentration, have difficulty assessing new information, and your short-term memory starts to fail. Under excessive stress your ability to think clearly can be seriously impaired.

One strategy for reducing stress is to remove yourself from the stressful situation. Often stressful situations are of your own making. Step back and re-evaluate your objectives. Are the potential rewards from your current activities worth the wear-and-tear on your psyche?

Another strategy for reducing stress is to anticipate challenging situations and prepare to deal with them ahead of time. Astronauts spend years practicing the procedures that they will have to carry out after they are launched into in orbit. They spend almost as much time again preparing for possible emergencies. Preparation and practice provide the tools and procedures needed to deal with potentially stressful situations.

Social structures

Your mental framework is also shaped by the social structures in your environment, and your particular status within that environment.

Your mother, father, brothers, sisters, and any other relatives living in your household have a significant role in your care, nurturing, and education. The number of your siblings, your sex, and your birth order often determine your duties and responsibilities within your family. Your family instils early lessons about loyalty, mutual support, the roles of men and women, and the essential economics of family life.

In many societies, families with common grandparents and great grandparents consider themselves a clan, and clan members are expected to work together to foster common social, territorial, and economic interests.

Members of a tribe typically claim a more distant but common ancestor. Tribal members form a society with common culture, customs, traditions, and economic interests. A tribal member is expected to adhere to tribal customs and to show preference for tribal members in any dealings involving external groups. The founding tribes of Athens, Rome, and Israel; and the tribes of Native Americans and the Bedouins of Arabia are examples of well-known tribes.

Religion

Religions have their own traditions and rituals. They often have special sites for worship and leaders with inspired knowledge. Religions impose a mental framework for dealing with fears, hopes, learning, and your goals in life. Religious traditions often require ritual acts and standard approaches for dealing with everyday events. Rules must be followed to avoid displeasing the gods. Polytheistic religions tend to be more accepting of other religions but offer a fragmented philosophy. Monotheistic religions tend to be less flexible but offer a more coherent philosophy.

Environmental changes

Mental challenges arise when the environment changes – a new device is invented, travellers bring new ideas from the external world, the social and economic foundations are destroyed in war, or the population is decimated by a natural disaster or swollen by immigration. If you are forced to adapt to changing conditions, the process is less traumatic if you have developed a flexible approach to your social environment.

Mental challenges also arise when an individual is able to perceive a better way to do something. How can the new approach be developed and integrated into a static society?

Suppression of selected groups

Throughout human history social environments have often discriminated against, and suppressed, selected subgroups in the population. War captives, lower classes, the poor, women, children, people of different origin, and people with a different religion were typical targets. Such discrimination and suppression may have been highly organized and deliberate, or haphazard in nature. Regardless, the effect on clear thinking is always negative. Members of a suppressed group have fewer opportunities to receive care and nurturing, and fewer resources for education and intellectual development.

Modes of expression

Your social environment also determines the modes of expression that are available for your use. A culture with a complex language, a tradition of artistic and political expression, and a habit of self-expression fosters creative and philosophical thinking.

A culture can also deliberately limit your modes of expression. Early Puritans and Calvinists were discouraged from dancing and singing. Renaissance scholars were required to carry out their deliberations in Latin. Muslims are discouraged from drawing the form of any living creature.

Since we use words to structure most of our conscious thoughts, the richness and subtleties of the language we are using are important factors in determining our clarity of thought. It has been proposed by the German philosopher von Humbolt and the American linguist E. S. Benjamin, that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language, and that speakers of different languages actually experience the world differently.

Dr. Philip Dale (Language Development – Structure and Function, 1972) provides a simple but illustrative example. In the English language, the visible spectrum is typically described by six colours – red, green, orange, yellow, blue, and purple. In Shona (a language spoken in Zimbabwe and southern Mozambique), the same spectrum is described by just four colours, and in Bassa (a language spoken in Nigeria) only two words for colour are used. It is apparent that your ability to describe and think about colour depends on the language you are using.

While we assume that we are looking at the world objectively, in reality we are looking at the world with a brain that has been shaped by the social world into which we were born. It is difficult to locate an objective reality when the very structure of your brain, all your observations, and all your thoughts have all been modified by, and filtered through, the elements of a specific culture.

2.1.4 Reality Anchors in Your Mental Universe

The term reality anchor is used here to describe the most basic knowledge that you can use as a foundation for understanding and interpreting all other knowledge. The analogy is with the anchors that can be used to hold a ship in place during a storm. If your reality anchors in your mental universe are well deployed then you can have more confidence in your ability to think clearly and make sound decisions.

Mental anchors are not absolute, but provide the most reasonable and practical foundation for your thought processes. Your mental anchors should never be taken for granted. They should be checked periodically to see if they have served you well.

What basic knowledge and concepts can you use as anchors? Which anchors can you count on in tough times and use with confidence to build more elaborate mental concepts? The search for this knowledge and these concepts has been pursued by philosophers for thousands of years. Whole libraries can be filled with detailed religious and philosophical discussions related to mental anchors. There may not be any ultimate or final conclusions to such discussions, but the following paragraphs provide some pragmatic guidelines for establishing your own mental anchors.

Anchor #1: You exist

How do you know that you are not just dreaming? You might be heavily sedated and locked in an insane asylum somewhere. Or you might be a simulated character in some bizarre alien computer game. To philosophers, this is the 'problem of existence'. Parmenides of Elea (c500 BCE) claimed that simply to think of a concept gave that concept some semblance of existence. René Descartes (1596 – 1650), a French philosopher and mathematician, began his analysis of existence with the phrase, "I think, therefore I am." Philosophers have not yet devised any absolute solution to the problem of existence, but you can develop a sense of your own basic mental state and use it as a mental anchor. Have confidence that you exist as an individual entity.

Anchor #2: You can think

You have the ability to consider, think, and act as an individual. This is a key idea and the whole focus of this book. For although you possess these abilities, you may not always use them effectively. If 'You can think' is to be one of your mental anchors, then you need to spend significant effort to train your brain and utilize your mind in an objective and analytic fashion.

To think clearly you need to be rested and nourished. Your brain needs a good supply of blood and oxygen. You need to ensure that your brain is not suffering from a physical injury or a psychiatric illness, and is free from drugs that might impair your thought processes.

Anchor #3: You can remember

You can remember past events, and your memories are a guide to understanding present and future events. In your childhood you learned to walk, and talk, and a variety of other useful skills that you still remember. You can recognize people, places, and situations. In fact, you have an amazing ability to remember a tremendous amount of material related to your life's experiences.

However, as a mental anchor your memories have to be used with some caution. Our memories are not the equivalent of video recordings of events. Instead, memories are your interpretative summaries of the information gathered by your senses. It is possible to train your memory to record more specific information related to events. For example, police officers are trained to observe and elicit specific details of what has happened at a crime scene, doctors are trained to observe specific physical characteristics of their patients, and scientists are trained to make precise observations and record the results.

You can support your mental memories by making external records of information – writing notes, taking photographs, and recording videos. You can run reliability tests on your memory by comparing your recollections with those of others you trust, or by comparing your memories with official records.

Anchor #4: You can test reality

You are always free to take information that you have encountered and compare that information with reality. (See section 2.2 for more on reality anchors.) Reality is not always easy to define, but if someone says, 'Take two doses of this magic potion and you will be able to fly', a quick reality check should tell you that something is wrong.

When other people describe events the way you would have described them, then you have reason to believe that your interpretation of the events matches reality. Of course you could all be wrong. Often the challenge is to separate observable reality from belief. Is a typhoid epidemic the result of God's wrath, or polluted drinking water?

Sometimes the search for reality is deliberately obscured. For example, in a television game show called 'The Family Feud', the audience was polled before the on-air show began to determine their views on a variety of topics. Then the challenge of the contestants was not to provide information based on reality, but to determine the audience's perception of reality. Many people make claims that are difficult to verify or disprove, except by referring to what is practical and reasonable. The more informed you are, the better able you are to make reality checks, and the more valuable this mental anchor becomes.

Anchor #5: You can search for cause-and-effect

Cause-and-effect is a philosophical approach to understanding why things happen the way they do. This approach requires a fundamental assumption that there is a reason, or an explanation, for the occurrence of an event. A cause-and-effect philosophy provides a powerful motive to organize your observations and to search for root causes so that you can begin to control the events that affect your life.

Questions such as: 'If I do this, what will happen?', 'What makes the wind blow?', and 'Why is the sky blue?' reflect the struggle, even at an early age, of virtually everyone to determine why the world works the way it does.

Unfortunately, cause-and-effect is not always easy to determine. There is a continuing debate among economists regarding the economic impact of raising or lowering taxes. The development of quantum mechanics was inspired by the struggle to establish cause-and-effect relationships at the atomic and nuclear levels.

Cause-and-effect can also be difficult to establish in everyday events. Some people seem to be luckier than others. Is there a reason for that luck, or is it just chance? Sports personalities often follow odd routines that supposedly bring them good luck: they might wear their lucky socks, or pat a doorway five times to increase their chances of winning a competition. If it is possible that mere belief in a cause-and-effect connection can alter an athlete's attitudes and motivations, then wearing a lucky hat could actually make a win more likely.

Cause-and-effect is particularly difficult to establish when there are a number of cofactors involved. For example, the successful baking of bread depends on the type of flour, the type and quantity of yeast, the amount of liquid, rising times, and baking time – so it can be difficult to determine why your bread does not taste the way it should.

Anchor #6: You can search for truth

Your determination to seek the truth is another valuable mental anchor in your quest for clear thinking. The emphasis here is on evaluating the correctness of communications directed to you by others.

Storytellers and actors earn their livings by convincing an audience that they are portraying an alternate reality. Tone of voice, facial expressions, and physical gestures are used to convey emotions. The literal meaning of words may constitute as little as ten percent of the information received by an audience.

Even the supposed factual content of a communication requires careful evaluation. A communication can be accurate or it can be exaggerated, distorted, erroneous, or completely fabricated. Conveying disinformation is a standard technique of espionage, politics, and marketing. Some people can lie convincingly, complete with appropriate body language and emotional expressions.

Perhaps the most fruitful and dependable approach for detecting truth is to establish an informal tally for the truth-value of communications from a given source. If, over time, the communications from a given source tend to match reality, then you can have higher confidence in the truth of future communications from that same source. The more you already know about a topic, the harder it is for anyone to mislead or misinform you.

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2.2 The Nature of the Physical Universe

Establishing an informed and consistent view of reality is a vital step in laying a foundation for clear thinking. If you absorb a wealth of knowledge about the physical universe, integrate that knowledge into a coherent database, and interpret that information with a consistent philosophy, then your ability to think clearly can only be enhanced.

The physical universe consists of all we can detect directly with our senses, and all we can detect indirectly with instruments that extend our senses. The French mathematician and philosopher, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), described all of physical space as consisting of two infinities; the realm of the stars above him, and the realm of the things that he could not see, the realm of the very small. A complete description of reality should also include the realm of everyday events, as well as Pascal's realms of the very small and the very large.

2.2.1 The Realm of Everyday Events

The realm of everyday events includes everything that can be detected by our unaided senses. It consists of objects with dimensions between 1 millimetre (mm) and 10 000 kilometres (km), and time scales from a tenth of a second to 100 years. A leg on a fruit fly is about 1 mm long. The Earth is about 12 800 km in diameter, rotates on its axis once every 24 hours, and revolves about the Sun every 365.25 days. A human being is about 2 metres tall, and can live for about 100 years. In 100 years, a heart beating once a second beats about 3.2 billion times.

We can look out a window and see trees, grass, buildings, and automobiles. Some of us can see cities, farms, plains, forests, mountains, lakes, or oceans. We can go outside and touch the ground; we can taste water, and eat the food. We can watch the Sun rise in the east and set in the west. We can experience the passing of the seasons. These are all aspects of the realm of everyday events.

We do not inhabit the entire everyday zone. We live in only a thin layer on the surface of the Earth, within the biosphere. If you used a marker pen to draw the largest circle you could on a large sheet of paper to represent the Earth, then the thickness of that line would encompass the entire biosphere, including the tallest mountains and the deepest trenches in the oceans. Humans actually live in only a small portion of the biosphere. Three quarters of the Earth's surface is covered with water, and much of the dry land is desert, rocks, or frozen ice.

2.2.2 The Realm of the Very Large

The realm of the very large spans the universe beyond the Earth. It includes objects from the size of the Earth to the size of the whole universe (several billion light-years) ; and time scales from 100 years to the age of the universe (about 13.7 billion years).

Our solar system is centred on the Sun with eight planets in orbit around it: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune . Most of the planets have one or more moons. There are also a number of dwarf planets, thousands of asteroids, and thousands of comets. The Sun has a diameter of about 1.4 million km and contains over 99% of the mass of the entire solar system. Most of the rest of the solar system lies within a disc about 12 light-hours in thickness.

Beyond the solar system is a myriad of other stars. Some are 10 times more massive and many times brighter than the Sun; most are about the same size, or smaller and fainter than the Sun. While a few hundred of the brightest stars visible in the sky have been named, most are just given a number in one of the many star catalogues. All of the stars in the sky appear much fainter than the Sun because they are so far away. The nearest star to the Sun is Proxima, with a distance of 4.2 light-years. Most stars have nearby companions, or occur in clusters with hundreds of members. The nearest 100 billion stars are grouped together and orbit around a central black hole to form the Milky Way galaxy. The Milky Way is disc shaped and about 300 000 light-years in diameter. The Sun is about 25 000 light-years from the centre of the disc, on the inner edge of the Orion arm.

Beyond the Milky Way, there are billions of other galaxies. The nearest galaxy comparable to the Milky Way is the Andromeda galaxy, with a distance of about 2.9 million light-years. Even though the Andromeda galaxy contains billions of stars, it is so far away that it appears as just a faint smudge in the night sky. Even galaxies tend to occur in clusters. The Milky Way and the Andromeda galaxies dominate the Local Group, which consists of 30 galaxies. The Virgo cluster contains the Local Group and about 2000 other large galaxies. It has a diameter of about 60 million light-years. The largest telescopes on Earth, or in space, have yet to detect an end to the distribution of galaxies in space.

The universe is not static. The Sun ascends and descends in the disc of the Milky Way once about every 50 million years, and revolves around the centre of the galaxy every 250 million years. Individual stars are born, evolve through predictable stages, and die. Stars similar to the Sun have an estimated life span of about 10 billion years before they exhaust all their energy and become brown dwarfs. Stars larger than the Sun age more rapidly. Smaller stars age more slowly. The stars in a region of rich interplanetary clouds can pass through several generations. Whole galaxies pass through evolutionary stages as the stars within them consume primordial hydrogen and radiate energy into the surrounding universe. The galaxies in a cluster move about each other, and a few galaxies have been observed in collision with each other. A number of investigations have estimated the age of the universe at 13.7 billion years, so the radius of the knowable universe is just the distance that light could travel in that time, or 13.7 billion light-years.

2.2.3 The Realm of the Very Small

The realm of the very small consists of objects smaller than 1 mm, and with interaction times less than a tenth of a second. This is the realm of cells, bacteria, viruses, atoms, and subatomic particles. Bacteria can reproduce in a matter of minutes. Atomic events occur in less than a billionth of a second. Nuclear events are a million times faster than that. From an atom's point of view, humans are colossal giants and human activity takes place at a glacial pace.

It is a fundamental theorem in biology that every living body is composed of individual living cells. Every human consists of billions of cells organized into tissues and organs. We are also inhabited by a host of mostly friendly bacteria that aid digestion and help to protect our outer layers. Every cell lives its own existence, occasionally responding to external stimuli, but most of the time working with its complex internal structures and chemical processes.

We are surrounded by solids, liquids, and gases – all consisting of atoms. It is surprising that everything in the universe is composed of just 102 different types of atoms. In a very real sense our universe is like a giant LEGO set. By selecting the right atoms and combining them in the right way any crystal or chemical can be formed, and from those – you, a tree, an automobile, a mountain or a star can be constructed. In practice, while chemists are experts at manipulating chemicals and engineers are experts at manipulating materials, it is unlikely that we will ever fabricate everyday objects atom-by-atom. It would take about a thousand-billion-billion atoms of hydrogen and oxygen to create a tiny drop of water.

Every atom contains a central nucleus made up of smaller particles called neutrons and protons. The nucleus is surrounded by a group of electrons, and the number of electrons matches the number of protons. You get different atoms by changing the number of protons and electrons. Particle physicists have also determined that protons and neutrons are in turn made out of particles called quarks.

While the cosmos is not actually divided into three realms according to time and distance scales, thinking in terms of these realms may help you to appreciate the narrow confines of your existence within the vast dimensions of the universe. Constructing a comprehensive world view that can accommodate most events across each of these scales is a major intellectual hurdle. If you are able to construct such a world view, then it is much easier to deal mentally with the amazing variety of objects and happenings that comprise the known universe.

One immediate implication of a comprehensive world view is the realization that humans do not represent the ultimate beings, and the Earth is not the centre of the universe. We are more like fleas adrift on a raft on a boundless sea. But we are special fleas because we can learn, comprehend, and create.

2.2.4 Reality Anchors in the Physical Universe

How do you know that any of the three physical zones are real? For that matter, how do you know anything is real? How can you decide between two opposing views of reality?

According to the German philosopher, George Hegel (1770 – 1831), the gradual evolution of the history of ideas leads to the perception of reality. The American philosopher, John Dewey (1859 – 1952), claimed that truth and reality were based on distillations of the rules for action that had proved to be successful.

A more pragmatic approach is that you should be able to detect reality, directly or indirectly, through your senses. On a fundamental level you can touch reality, smell it, and taste it. More precisely, you can measure the properties of reality and you can measure how those properties vary over time.

The use of 'reality anchors', analogous to mental anchors, provides a very practical means for establishing your model of reality. A reality anchor is a particular concept in which you have a high degree of confidence. A set of such anchors can help you to maintain a dependable interpretation of reality and provide a framework for reasonable interpolations and extrapolations.

Reality anchors in the everyday realm

The simplest and most reliable anchors are based on direct experience. Your kitchen table is real. You can touch it. You can pile stuff on it. You can measure it. You can leave the room, come back ten minutes later, and there it is again – the same table. The kitchen table may be one of your first and best anchors in reality. You can expand your realm of reality, and experience your entire home in a similar fashion.

Outside of your home, you can also experience your neighbourhood as a firsthand reality. However, a number of practical difficulties soon become apparent. Your neighbours may not be supportive of your efforts to experience their kitchen tables. And very soon there would be too many tables, buildings, roads, blades of grass, trees, and fields for you to experience firsthand in a reasonable amount of time. Even if you spent your whole life at it you would never get more than a few kilometres from home.

There are at least two standard procedures for extending a system of reality anchors:

  1. The first is to construct a mental model of an aspect of reality that you can use in lieu of firsthand experience. (See section 5.3 for a more complete discussion of models.) After visiting a few buildings you begin to acquire knowledge of their typical properties such as room size, ceiling height, stairs, doors, windows, desks, chairs, and appliances. Soon you can predict, with a reasonable degree of accuracy, the basic structure of the inside of a building after a brief view of its exterior and its surroundings. Similarly, you can soon predict the basic nature of the soil in a whole field just by holding a handful of dirt (sand, loam, pebbles) and glancing at the plants growing in the field.

  2. The second way to extend your reality anchors is to rely on the experience of others. Travellers can tell you what they experienced in the next town down the road. They might tell you directly, or you might be able to review recorded versions of their observations.

How can you decide if travellers' accounts are true and accurate? Continuing the analogy, you can apply one or more of the following criteria:

  1. The accounts are reasonable extensions of your own experience in your own neighbourhood.

  2. You know some of the travellers personally and trust their ability to observe and report accurately.

  3. Some of the travellers are recognized by your neighbours as experienced and truthful observers and reporters.

  4. A number of travellers, unknown to each other and coming from different directions, all report similar observations.

  5. The traveller explains how to visit the same places he did, so if you wanted to devote the time and energy to do so you could travel down the road to observe the next town for yourself.

Not all reality anchors are equivalent. An anchor that has met several of the above tests is probably more secure than one that has not. If you spend considerable time and effort in expanding your range of anchors and securing them well, then you will probably have a better grip on reality than someone who just checks the kitchen table every now and then.

Reality anchors in the realm of the very large

Around the world, thousands of astronomers spend their professional lives collecting and analyzing astronomical data obtained with sophisticated telescopes and satellites. All such information gathered during the past three centuries has been used to build a systematic, and consistent model of the cosmos. With ever larger and more complex astronomical instruments new discoveries and clarifications are still being made on a regular basis.

How could you as an individual verify the claims about the properties of this realm? You could use a clock and a protractor to make systematic observations of the positions and apparent motions of the Sun, Moon, and stars. This data could then be used to verify at least a portion of those claims. You could check your position on Earth with a Global-Positioning-System device and verify that all the orbital theories and instrumentation work as advertised. You could read magazines, journals, and texts on astronomy. You could join an association of amateur astronomers. With a few thousand dollars-worth of equipment, and the determination to develop the skills to use that equipment properly, you could observe the moons of Jupiter, the rings of Saturn, comets, multiple star systems, globular clusters, nebulae, and galaxies. You could study astronomy at a university; you could become a professional astronomer. With accurate and systematic observations spanning months, years, and decades; you could determine the orbits of our planets about the Sun; you could determine the orbits, sizes, and masses of binary stars; you could determine the periods of stars that oscillate in brightness. With more sophisticated equipment and mathematical analyzes you could measure the velocities of stars and galaxies, and determine their distances.

None of this information is secret. If you are willing to spend the time and effort, you could make all the observations and deductions yourself. If you discovered something substantially new or different, the attention of thousands of amateur and professional astronomers would be diverted to explore your claims. And if your discovery were confirmed, existing knowledge would be adjusted and updated to include it.

Reality anchors in the realm of the very small

The realm of the very small is studied by microbiologists, material scientists, biochemists, organic and physical chemists, quantum physicists, and electronic engineers. In the past few centuries they have developed sophisticated instruments to explore the properties of microscopic materials. With this knowledge they have developed new materials, new medicines, and the whole field of electronics. The Internet, e-mails, cell phones, digital TV, iPods, penicillin, and digital cameras all exist because scientists have developed and successfully applied theories of the very small.

How could you verify descriptions and claims about the properties of the realm of the very small? An inexpensive microscope and some basic skills in sample preparation would provide the means for you to observe amoebae, paramecia, plant cells, and animal cells. The structures of crystals such as table salt, ice, and diamonds are reflections of the properties of their constituent atoms. Any working device using transistors supplies a verification of the quantum properties of material at the very small level. Turn on your television set, or your computer, and you have evidence that engineers can manipulate the flow of electrons to transfer energy and information. You could also read technical journals and texts; you could study appropriate courses at university. You could ask experts in the field: a microbiologist could provide details of living organisms as small as the structures within cells, a chemist could provide details of atomic structure, a particle physicist could provide descriptions of subatomic particles.

An expanded world view helps you to appreciate that the universe is an integrated system of physical events. Every day, humanity is applying its talent, tenacity, and curiosity to expand our knowledge of the universe.

* * *

2.3 Approaches to Clear Thinking

This last section of the chapter presents a few practical approaches to clear thinking.

2.3.1 Be Consistent

One of the best aids to clear thinking is a consistent world view that you can use in all modes of thought, with all of your worldly knowledge, and all of your memories. With a consistent world view it is easier for the various parts of your brain to function in unison, leading to more powerful thinking. A consistent world view helps you to gather information about the world in an objective manner so that all parts of your brain can utilize the same input.

In practice we tend to develop a variety of mental models to cope with particular situations, as we encounter them. The challenge is then to review the characteristics of those models and try to modify them so that they are consistent with each other. I can remember as a child struggling with the concepts that anything lighter than water, such as wood, will float and anything heavier than water, such as steel, will sink – and yet battleships and ocean liners are made of steel and seem to float very well. These mental models of flotation were inconsistent with each other and inspired a lot of pondering and quests for more information. A version of Archimedes' principle was required to bring these two models of reality into agreement.

Note that inconsistent behaviour involves using one set of guiding principles in one situation, and a conflicting set of principles in a different situation, without you necessarily being aware of any contradiction.

Here are a few examples of inconsistent mental models:

  1. While the ancient Romans created disciplined and well-equipped armies, they often relied on augury to determine a good day for battle. Their training and weapons were based on logic and proven battle tactics, but examining a sheep's liver for favourable signs before going to battle was completely arbitrary.

  2. In democratic countries, special interest groups often organize large public protests in efforts to influence government policy. In effect, such public protests are intended to subvert the activities of elected officials – and thus make a democratic government responsive to their group rather than to the entire electorate.

  3. Someone who uses a computer to prepare an essay on the 'evils of technology' may not be thinking in a consistent manner.

  4. The concept of an all-powerful and loving god appears to be inconsistent with the abundant suffering of innocents that such a god could easily prevent.

Working with a consistent mental model is analogous to working with a universal system of measures and weights, such as the metric system. A common set of weights and measures facilitates trade and technical communications between countries. Tools manufactured in one country can be used to repair a machine manufactured in another. A consistent world view facilitates communication among various mental models. Solutions to problems in one realm can be adapted for use in other realms.

A consistent world view also helps you to understand the past, predict the future, and deal with various individuals and groups of people.

2.3.2 Be Open-Minded

Another valuable approach to clear thinking is to make systematic efforts to remain open-minded. It is difficult to think clearly about an issue if you have already made up your mind what you are going to do regarding that issue.

When you are making an effort to be open-minded you tend to:

  1. Review all the available evidence before making a decision.

  2. Evaluate all evidence according to its merits.

  3. Modify your conclusions and practices based on new and/or more accurate information.

  4. Try to account for your own goals and prejudices and how they may affect your judgement.

The efforts of jury members in a criminal trial are systematically directed towards an open-minded approach. At the beginning of a trial, the judge reminds jurors to evaluate all the evidence before beginning any deliberations. Jurors know that the prosecuting attorney will bias evidence to support a conviction, and the defence attorney will bias evidence to support an acquittal. After all the evidence has been presented and deliberations have begun, jurors are expected to review all the evidence and to listen to each other's thoughts and questions before reaching any verdict. When the deliberation process works properly, it provides an excellent example of clear thinking.

Another approach to open-mindedness involves seeking a broader perspective before making any decisions based on the immediate facts. Before you decide to eat that delicious looking dessert you may want to step back to review your nutritional requirements for the day. Taking a broader view may also involve looking at a longer time scale, considering other similar cases, or testing possible alternate action plans.

2.3.3 Be Pragmatic

A pragmatic approach provides another aid to clear thinking. While your thinking should always be guided by your personal philosophy, principles, goals, and ambitions; it is important to retain a degree of flexibility – for two main reasons:

  1. You are not infallible. Your philosophy, principles, and goals may contain flaws, errors, or inconsistencies. Your knowledge can never be complete. You should always be willing to learn from others and from your own experience.

  2. Often the only way to make progress is to compromise. Every other person on Earth also has his/her own philosophy, principles, and goals. Unless you are an absolute ruler and assume that you are superior to all others, you should consider the positions of others on issues of concern. Considering the positions of others is often the only way to make human progress.

You currently share the surface of the Earth with over six billion other humans. They have explored, farmed, and built in every habitable region on Earth. They all want food, shelter, and clothing. They all want to be part of a social network. They all want to earn a living, and live with personal pride. They are all curious and artistic. So even though you may feel unique, you are really part of a vast network of similar beings. Understanding and sharing the Earth with so many others often requires a pragmatic approach.

2.3.4 The Nature of Life

One of the most intriguing applications of clear thinking is to gain a better understanding of the nature of life. One cannot account for human life without first considering all other forms of life on Earth. And one cannot account for life on Earth without first considering what is happening in the rest of the universe.

Everywhere we look in the very large realm, we find billions of galaxies filled with billions of stars. Each star began as a cloud of hydrogen atoms, and each of those clouds shrank under the force of gravity until a nuclear furnace was ignited at its core. The resulting nuclear reactions systematically built heavier atoms out of hydrogen, and in so doing generated enough energy to temporarily halt the gravitational contraction. Excess energy was radiated away as light.

That is what starlight tells us is happening across the universe. For billions of years, the force of gravity has led to the formation of stars with hot cores; nuclear reactions in those cores have converted simple hydrogen atoms into heavier atoms (ultimately iron and nickel); and excess energy has been radiated away as starlight.

The existence of starlight dramatically illustrates the conversion of primal energy into starlight. Each photon of starlight then undergoes a systematic change – over time it is eventually converted into a set of less energetic photons, each with a longer wavelength . This conversion occurs in a variety of interactions with matter that is scattered through space. And those interactions provide a connection between starlight and life on Earth.

From the point of view of the Universe, the early Earth was just a tiny lump of iron and nickel orbiting an average star. After comets bombarded the Earth, it became a bit more interesting. The comets left a thin scum of lighter rocks that formed the continents, water that formed the oceans, and gases that formed the atmosphere. Photons from the Sun poured down on a variety of atoms and molecules on the surface of the Earth. Carbon atoms were abundant, and easily formed endless combinations of molecules. A few of these molecules turned out to be especially adept at extracting and converting energy from the Earth's environment, and life began. (The concept of evolution is treated in more detail in section 5.4)

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) was one of those molecules, and is thought to be the fundamental building block of all life on Earth. RNA is a polymer consisting of ribose and phosphate groups. Each of these groups in the RNA polymer chain is adorned with one of four side-groups: adenine [A], uracil [U], cytosine [C], or guanine [G]. The structure of a particular RNA molecule can be described as a string of letters using A, U, C, and G; corresponding to the side-groups along its length. The A-U-C-G coding along an RNA molecule allows it to function either as a catalyst to initiate other chemical reactions, or as a store of information. RNA molecules have been found to play an essential role in the machinery of every living cell, and RNA has the potential to reproduce itself – the essence of life.

Collectively, living organisms on Earth behave like low temperature energy converters. Plant cells absorb photons from the Sun and then use that energy to power their activities. As cells, individually and collectively, slowly rework the surface of the Earth, they radiate their excess energy as heat in the infrared region of the spectrum. Thus, living cells participate in the universal conversion of higher energy photons to more numerous lower energy photons. The life force we know and experience can be traced back to cosmic origins!

There is a subtle, but very important distinction between the energy processes on stars, like the Sun, and planets like the Earth. A star is essentially a closed system – virtually all of its energy derives from its own primal gas cloud. In contrast, a planet orbiting about a star is an open system – the planet's energy resources are continuously augmented by photons from the parent star.

Normally, water runs down hill, but the Sun continuously pumps energy into the Earth's biosphere. Water can be evaporated, carried uphill by winds, and deposited as snow at the top of mountains, over and over again. Just as solar energy drives the water cycle on Earth, it has also driven the evolution of complex life forms. If the Earth were drifting alone in the cold of interstellar space, it is very doubtful that any kind of life would have emerged on it.

The Earth has an age of about 4.6 billion years, and at the moment human beings are at the apex of Earthly evolution. Our bodies still retain that cosmic drive to convert energy: to reproduce, to be active, to create, and to destroy. The genes in every cell in your body want to be replicated and to get to work converting energy from high-energy photons to more low-energy photons.

From the universe's point of view, you are a tiny, low-temperature energy-converter.

From the viewpoint of life on Earth, your significance is analogous to that of a leaf on a tree. The branch on which you have grown is more important than you. The trunk is more important than any individual branch, and the forest is more important than any individual tree. You are a tiny component in the activities of the universe.

And yet!

From you and your family's point of view, you have a valuable and unique personality. You actively participate in the social life of humans, and you have the amazing ability to be aware of the grand scheme being played out around you. You can observe the universe and try to predict what it will do next. You can even try to influence the flow of the universe in your immediate vicinity. You have the ability to ease the burdens of your fellow humans, and to make your brief appearance in the universe a grand occasion.

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Chapter 3: Putting Your Brain to Work

3.1 Properties of Memory

3.2 Thinking and Learning

3.3 Language and Clear Thinking

With some specific knowledge and a little extra practice you can make your learning more efficient and effective. Then, every day you will be ready to learn more, remember more, and make better use of your increased knowledge.

As you learn more and consolidate that knowledge, you create a foundation for additional learning. As your knowledge of a subject increases, it is easier to acquire additional knowledge and understand more complex topics. Thus, both the quantity and quality of your new learning will increase.

3.1 Properties of Memory

Memory is the key to all learning and thinking. Without memory, every moment is the present, there is no past, and there is no learning.

The essence of learning is to store new information in your brain. The essence of thinking is to retrieve appropriate items of information from your memory and combine them to form new items.

3.1.1 Cognitive Science

Before delving into specific properties of memory it is appropriate to introduce the realm of 'cognitive science'. Cognitive science is a relatively new field of research devoted to studying neural structures of the brain, and developing models of learning and remembering. Cognitive science integrates research from applied psychology, neurology, and artificial intelligence. With basic knowledge from cognitive science you can improve your learning and studying skills, and enhance your cognitive abilities. The following discussions of memory and learning have their roots in cognitive science.

3.1.2 Some Basic Properties of Memory

No one knows exactly how the interactions of signals flowing through a network of neurons in your brain actually lead to the formation of memories. Still, daily experience and experiments in psychology do reveal some of the basic properties of human memory.

In describing memories the concept of a 'memory item' is very useful. A memory item is defined as all the neural information that corresponds to a simple event or a simple description that you might store in memory. With this terminology, your complex memories can be regarded as collections of items.

Accuracy of memories

Memories of an experience are not precise records of reality. Eyewitness accounts in criminology suggest that a memory is often intuitive and incomplete. When a memory is created, we first use our existing knowledge to establish a reasonable mental framework for what is happening, then we add observed details, and finally we search our memories for related experiences to fill in the fine brush strokes. The result of this creative process is then stored as a memory item.

Your first encounter with a new phenomenon can only be interpreted in terms of what you already know. So the more you know, the easier it is to comprehend new experiences. Your ability to learn new material today is dependent on the information that you stored in your memory yesterday.

Remembering and forgetting

You can make deliberate mental efforts to remember some information. This is what learning and studying is all about. It is difficult to deliberately forget something that you have already learned, but when a memory is ignored it tends to fade with time.

Memory recall

Consider the analogy of your memory as sets of recipe cards suspended in a vast fishing net. Each card contains a memory item. The strings of the net correspond to links among your memories. Once a stimulus, internal or external, causes you to jump into your memory net, you can start moving along the strings looking at the recipe cards for the information you want. Note that you cannot recall items at random from your memory. Some stimulus has to provide a starting point for a memory search. Once you have a starting point you can move from that point to other memories that are linked to it along any string in the net. You can only access a specific memory item by moving along a string that leads to it. Fortunately, you are able to zip along the strings, and can rapidly search through a wide range of memories while seeking a particular memory item.

Have you ever wondered, 'Why did I think of that just now?' An external stimulus – something you saw, heard, tasted, smelled, or touched caused you to jump somewhere into your memory network. Perhaps you saw a popcorn vendor, and that led you to the memory of a childhood experience, and that led to the last time you talked to your mother, and that led to your need for a new telephone, and that led to the fact you had bills to pay, and that reminded you to check your wallet to make sure you hadn't lost your credit card.

As you search through your memories, it is relatively easy to lose track of your initial chain of thought and become side-tracked while examining other interesting items.

3.1.3 Classifying Memory Types

There are three basic properties that can be used to classify types of memory: contents, duration, and capacity. Each of these approaches yields important information about the challenges of learning and the properties of human memory.

Keep in mind that while the classification of memories is useful, it is somewhat of an arbitrary procedure. It is useful because it allows us to discuss various aspects of a very complex process. It is arbitrary because the properties of organic memory are really continuous – one property blends into, and often overlaps another.

Classifying memories by content

The contents of memories can be separated into four categories: sensory, emotional, procedural, and declarative. These categories provide a simple scheme for describing the contents of all your memories.

Sensory memory

From an evolutionary point of view, sensory memory is probably the oldest and most fundamental type of memory that humans have. Being able to recall what they had seen, heard, smelt, tasted, and felt would have been a vital survival skill for early humans.

Each of your senses has it's own specialized memory bank. For example, an old television game-show called 'Name That Tune' illustrates the surprising capabilities of auditory memory. The object of the game was to recall the name of a song after listening to just a few beginning notes. The tune could be any one of thousands that had been popular during the previous few decades. The show was appealing because the contestants, and a good fraction of the audience, were usually able to recognize a tune after listening to fewer than ten initial notes.

It is unlikely that all sounds and all tunes that you ever heard are saved in your auditory memory banks. You probably listened to popular tunes several times over a period of months. Still, the implication is that sound patterns are recorded from your daily life and are saved in a well-stocked auditory memory bank.

Similarly, all of your senses have specialized memories associated with them, and special sensory events from your daily life are stashed away in your brain – waiting for a recall stimulus to provide you with a reminder of your past activities.

Emotional Memory

We can all recall some emotional events that have occurred in our past. Our emotional memories often guide our future behaviours.

If you think of memories as pleasant or unpleasant, positive or negative, then the purpose of emotional memories becomes apparent from an evolutionary point of view. A positive emotional memory is intended to encourage you to repeat the activity that generated the positive emotion in the first place. And a negative emotional memory is intended to discourage you from repeating the activity that generated the negative emotion. Repeating behaviours that brought success and avoiding behaviours that led to failures leads to a distinct survival advantage.

Procedural memory

Procedural memory, sometimes called 'implicit' memory, is devoted to storing physical skills and learned behaviours. Procedural memory also includes most aspects of spoken language.

Physical skills such as walking, talking, and playing the piano are essentially co-ordinated sets of muscle contractions and relaxations. We develop these skills with repeated practice until the required sequences of memory items are firmly entrenched. With practice, typists become very proficient at pressing individual letter keys to reproduce a text message. Professional athletes develop superb sets of physical responses and routines that are stored in procedural memory.

When you repeat a set of activities over and over, the corresponding memory items can be stored, and recalled at a later date with little conscious thought. For example, you may develop the habit of brushing your teeth every evening, or taking the dog for a walk every morning. Learned, or habitual behaviours provide your subconscious mind with routines that can be followed with little or no conscious thought.

Declarative memory

Declarative memory, sometimes called 'explicit' memory, includes most of what we learn at school. Declarative memory has two main sub-types: 'episodic' and 'semantic' memories.

Episodic memory items describe events and their sequence. Episodic memories tend to be factual in nature and answer questions such as who, what, where, and when. Episodic memory is related to our concrete personal experiences.

Items in semantic emphasize items related to written language, word meanings, and general knowledge. Semantic memories reflect the details of our culture.

Semantic memory has s very significant limitation – our brains have had little time to evolve any special features to deal with written language. Writing was first used systematically only 5 000 years ago in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. Even then, only highly trained scribes and a few of the elite could read or write. Reading and writing have only been available to most of humanity since Johannes Gutenburg's development of the printing press in 1439. Universal education has been public policy in Western nations for less than 200 years. There has simply not been enough time to evolve any specialized neural networks to help us deal with written language. You can only store memories related to written language through conscious effort to adapt other memory types. As any student can tell you, academic learning is typically much more difficult than procedural learning.

Classifying Memories by Retention Time

Your memory lets you relive events in your mind that actually occurred at some time in the past. That is the whole purpose of having memories. So by its very nature, memory includes a time factor.

The division of memory into 'immediate-term memory', 'short-term memory', 'medium-term memory', and 'long-term memory' is again somewhat arbitrary. However, everyday experiences and experiments in applied psychology suggest that at least four time scales are needed to explain the many features of human memory. The different time scales probably correspond to specific neurological processes, but so far no one knows exactly how memories are stored.

Immediate-term memory

Immediate-term memory helps you to keep track of everything that is going on around you at this moment. Although sensory input is filtered so that only significant information reaches your conscious mind, even most of this filtered sensory input is soon forgotten. We need to know that a car is approaching, or that there is a big puddle off to the right, and we need to keep track of that information for a few moments. However, after a few seconds our focus of attention shifts to other items of concern, and the car and puddle are forgotten. The contents of immediate-term memory correspond to our stream of consciousness.

Immediate-term memory can store items for up to 30 seconds. We can laugh at the punch line of a joke because we can still remember the beginning of the joke, but are often unable to recall the whole joke a few moments later – it has already faded from immediate-term memory. Thirty seconds is still long enough to monitor our surroundings and decide if anything important is happening. It is long enough to think of something to say, compose a sentence, and speak it without forgetting what we are doing.

The 30-second limit for immediate-term memories prevents your mind from being swamped with trivial information.

Short-term memory

Short-term memory receives selective information from immediate-term memory. Short-term memory is devoted to storing significant events and experiences that have occurred within the last few minutes. Items in short-term memory can normally be utilized for up to a day. Unless the events in this time frame are important, unique, or unusual, your memories of them start to fade in a few hours.

You can deliberately add items to short-term memory by repeating and emphasizng information. For example, there is a simple memory game in which about four dozen different articles are placed on a tabletop and covered over before participants enter the room. The cover is then removed and participants have two minutes to memorize the names of as many items as possible. Then the articles are re-covered, and the challenge is to see who can write out the longest list of items that were on the tabletop. One strategy is to repeat the names of single items several times, and then recall as many of those names as possible from short-term memory. Another strategy is to mentally group items with similar features, then memorize the group names and hope that the group names will help you remember individual items.

Why do we need short-term memory? Why don't we just remember everything we encounter? Everyday events present a steady stream of information to our brains. Any effort to keep track of every single detail would soon overwhelm our mental capacity. Instead, we have a fairly efficient filtering system so that events of little account are soon forgotten.

From a neurological perspective, the mechanism that creates memories is associated with the hippocampus in the midbrain complex. When this part of the brain is damaged, individuals are no longer able to create new short-term memories. The creation of longer-term memories seems to involve the formation of little bumps along the dendrites of neurons. These 'dendritic spines' facilitate the formation of new synapses with nearby axons. As explained by Dr. Morgan Sheng,

"new synapses can be constructed and existing synapses can be eliminated in response to experience" and "dendritic spines... change their number and shape in response to... experience and in response to electrical signalling in the brain."

Medium-term memory

Material that is deemed important, unique, or unusual in short-term memory is automatically passed on to medium-term memory and is stored for up to a month. You have to resort to more emphasis and repetition to deliberately store information in medium-term memory. A student studying material over several days is able to store it in medium-term memory and can then make use of that material during tests and exams over the next few weeks.

Neurologically, the synapses at dendritic spines are reinforced as we repeatedly reuse the same neural pathways, and short-term memories tend to become medium-term memories.

Unless information stored in medium-term memory is used again within a month, that information begins to fade. Studies have shown that during holidays of two or more months, students typically forget about forty percent of the specific subject knowledge they had mastered before the holidays began. Fortunately, this does not mean that all the studying effort before a holiday is wasted. Information that has faded from your medium-term memory can be refreshed with only a fraction of the original learning effort. After a few days of review, students are ready to continue their studies where they left off.

Long-term memory

Long-term memory contains information that you remember for years. Information related to your professional expertise and your continuing interests in life tend to be stored in your long-term memory. One of the best techniques for deliberately storing information into long-term memory is to use that information in a variety of situations over several months. However, even information in long-term memory can become more difficult to recall if it is neglected for a number of years.

Classifying Memories by Capacity

Different types of memory also have distinct capacities.

Working memory

Working memory coincides with immediate-term memory, and serves as your workshop for conscious thought. The finite capacity of working memory is a key factor in your ability to ponder events in the world around you. A classic study in applied psychology by George Miller demonstrated that the average person is capable of keeping track of just seven bits of information at the same time. A few people can regularly keep track of a few more items; some people can only keep track of four or five items at a time, but working-memory in the average person is limited to seven items. This simple property of working-memory puts severe constraints on our thinking processes.

The limit of seven working-memory registers is very restrictive, but it is a fact of life. To convince yourself that this is true, try a few simple experiments. Check the license plates of parked cars as you walk down a street. How many cars can you pass before you start to forget some of the license plate numbers? Read the titles of several books in a row on a library shelf, how many can you remember? Roll a pair of dice a few times and mentally note the numbers rolled, then try to recall the numbers in sequence.

Working-memory in the conscious mind is analogous to the memory registers in a computer's central processing unit (CPU) . There are usually just a few dozen memory registers in a CPU. These few registers are used over and over again as data is brought into the CPU, item by item, from billions of more permanent memory registers.

Other memory banks

There have been no definitive measures of the capacities of short, medium, or long-term memories. People have the ability to memorize long poems, passages from several books, and statistics from sports leagues and are then able to quote from their memories at will. We each have a whole lifetime of memories that we can call on at any time.

Medium and long-term memory seem to have unlimited capacities. It may be more difficult to get items into medium and long-term memories, but once there, your brain serves as a vast warehouse to store those memories.

3.1.4 Roadblocks to Academic Learning

For students, this section may contain the most important information in the whole book, perhaps even the most important information in a whole life-time of learning!

As discussed above, each of the three classifications of memory contain features that impose formidable roadblocks to academic learning:

  1. Your brain has no specialized memory banks for storing written material.

  2. Your immediate-term memory tends to forget items after 30 seconds.

  3. Your working memory can only keep track of about seven items at a time.

No wonder learning from lectures and studying from textbooks are challenging tasks! Our brains are not well adapted for dealing with written information. We can deal with a maximum of seven items at the same time in our conscious mind, and even those seven items will fade from consciousness in about 30 seconds if they are not used productively. Fortunately, there are strategies for overcoming each of these roadblocks.

Dealing with written material

As you study written or printed material, you are striving to create declarative (explicit) memories with semantic content. However, you have no inherent neural networks devoted to semantic content, so you have to piggyback onto other networks. Your sensory networks for hearing and vision are among the most highly developed networks available for conscious use. Thus you have a choice of two effective strategies: make use of your hearing networks by sounding out the written material so your brain can hear it as well as see it, or make better use of your visual networks by visualizing the situations that printed words depict.

Aural learners tend to use phonics when learning to read and are often better at spelling and learning foreign languages. Visual learners tend to use the sight method when learning to read and are often better at spatial tasks and problem solving. The best strategy is to switch back and forth between aural and visual modes to best suit the material you are studying.

Dealing with the 30 second factor

Another major challenge for students is to find ways to over-ride the tendency of immediate-term memory to automatically delete items after 30 seconds.

How can you manage to remember the contents of an entire lecture? The blunt truth is that you cannot. You can only select what you regard as the most important components of a lecture. Then, one at a time, you can promote each chosen component to short-term memory by mentally emphasizing and reviewing it. The challenge is to salt away each important component in short-term memory before you encounter the next nugget of information.

When dealing with written material, you have the luxury of being able to reread important passages as often as you like. However, it is best to divide long passages into smaller segments that can be read completely within 30 seconds. Otherwise you will tend to forget the beginning of a passage by the time you get to the end of it.

Dealing with the seven item limit

The limit of seven items in working memory is a fundamental characteristic of the human brain. Failure to take this limitation into account underlies much of the frustration associated with learning and thinking tasks. If you try to keep track of more than seven data items at a time, you start to forget some of them. Fortunately, there are two basic strategies to compensate for this limitation.

First, you must focus your attention on one task at a time. Diversions and idle thoughts can take up valuable spaces in your working memory, and thus limit your ability to work on challenging tasks. If your mind wanders, you may only have three or four instead of seven spaces available in your working memory.

Second, you need to systematically group similar items together in your mind so that a whole group only takes up only one space in your working memory. The causes of World War II, the positions of chess pieces after the third move in a game, or the Laws of Thermodynamics should each be organized and grouped into a single item in working memory. Your capacity to manage information in working memory can thus be greatly enhanced.

3.1.5 Linking Memory Items

When you store an item of information in your memory, it is automatically linked to other items already in memory. This is a fundamental concept. Memory items do not exist in isolation. New memory items are always linked to older memory items.

The links between memory items are essential in the remembering process. For example, when you have difficulty recalling a person's name, a common strategy is to recall other items associated with the person. Where and when did you meet this person? What were you doing at the time? Were there other people present? As you recall these items, you are searching for a link to the memory item containing the person's name.

When you first hear the news of a momentous event, that occasion is strongly linked in your memory with your circumstances at that moment. You often hear people say, 'I remember exactly where I was and what I was doing when I heard about....'.

The constructive linking of memory items is vital to the learning process. If you systematically categorize and link new memory items as they are encountered, then over time you will build an efficient and effective library of memory items. Storing new items and retrieving items upon demand will then be a relatively simple task. However, if you pay little attention to learning and neglect the creation of appropriate links for new information, then your library of memories will tend to be chaotic. In a chaotic memory, retrieving old items upon demand becomes a challenging task. The creation of efficient and effective memories is a cumulative process – an habitual way of thinking.

Advertisers make frequent use of repetition and association in an effort to to create links in your memories. Advertisements for a product are deliberately repeated in the media, over and over again. And the product is almost always presented in association with happy, healthy people having a good time. Then when consumers think of having a good time, memory links often lead to memories of the advertisements – leading the consumers to consider buying those products. (Also note that most video advertisements are less than 30 seconds long – advertising moguls may, or may not, be up to date with the latest in cognitive science but they do know what works.)

Fortunately, you can use the techniques of advertising to create and design your own sets of memory links. The process involves three simple steps: emphasis, association, and repetition. When you decide that information is important, it is given emphasis. When you compare, contrast, and organize information, you are creating associations. And when you repeat the emphasis and associations, the links become stronger.

3.1.6 External Memory Banks

No discussion of memory would be complete without considering the importance of external memory banks that you can add to and recall from at will. Humans have developed a number of technologies to extend their abilities for storing information. External memories have the additional advantage that they can be easily shared with others.

Written records

During the past five thousand years, humans have used the written word to extend their memories. Writing information on paper, papyrus, vellum, clay, or stone is a great way to remember it. Jotting down ideas while working on a problem can provide a valuable extension to your short-term memory. Writing and maintaining a set of notes is an excellent method for extending your medium-term memory. Texts, novels, journals, and reference works make it possible to share long-term memories with other people over extended periods of time.

Digital records

During the past fifty years, another type of memory has become available to human brains – digital memory. Computers and digital memories are rapidly assuming a key role in the storage of information for individuals, for businesses, for science, and for governments. Making effective use of digital records is a becoming a vital skill for clear thinkers.

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3.2 Thinking and Learning

The foundation for thinking and learning includes caring for and protecting your brain, gaining an understanding of basic learning modes, classifying subject matter, and seeking approaches to make learning more efficient.

3.2.1 Brain Maintenance

The most basic step you can take to facilitate new learning is to provide regular care and protection for your brain, your 'learning machine'. Your brain is an integral part of your body, so any steps you can take to maintain and protect your body will also benefit your brain. There are also specific actions you can take, and habits you can develop, to help keep your brain functioning at optimal levels.

There are no surprises in this section. It is mostly common sense. The challenge is to apply that common sense on a regular basis.

Physical health

To think clearly you need a healthy brain, and a healthy brain works best in a healthy body.

Air

Your brain needs lots of oxygen, so clean air and strong lungs are important for clear thinking. Your brain consumes about twenty percent of the oxygen that your lungs deliver to your blood, even though your brain represents a much smaller fraction of your body mass. A good oxygen supply to your brain starts with deep breathing in clean fresh air. Avoid polluted air. Take any steps you can to manage asthma as well as any other allergies that affect your breathing.

The habit of smoking cigarettes impedes your breathing in at least two significant ways: it coats the lining of your lungs with soot and tar thus reducing their efficiency; and it increases the amount of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide in your lungs, further reducing their ability to absorb oxygen. For clear thinking, the habit of smoking cigarettes should be replaced by deep breathing in clean air. Even second hand smoke can be detrimental to your lung efficiency.

Whenever possible, do your thinking in environments with good air circulation. If you work in a closed room with poor ventilation, the amount of oxygen in the air tends to decrease while the amount of carbon dioxide increases. For example, the traditional business meeting in a closed room with several people exhaling carbon dioxide and possibly smoking, tends to become less productive the longer the meeting lasts.

Water

Our bodies are about ninety percent water by weight. Blood, lymph, and spinal fluid are all based on water. Every cell in your body is filled with a fluid that is mostly water. Water provides the principal medium for transporting substances around your body. Molecules move across fluid filled cells. Blood and lymph circulate around your body delivering nutrients and collecting waste. Most of the body's fluids are re-circulated, but about two litres are excreted each day. Thus, for good health and clear thinking, you need to drink at least as much as you excrete. A little extra water can take some pressure off the filtering systems. You should drink a minimum of two litres of clean water, free of contaminants and bacteria, every day.

Food

Good nutrition is a basic step towards clear thinking. Your body requires food for energy and for the maintenance of cell functions. Nutritious foods that are relatively easy to digest supply that need for energy. In particular, nerve cells and brain cells need glucose for energy. Your body also needs small, but important daily doses of vitamins and minerals.

There is still much debate about which specific foods and supplements may be most effective in boosting brain development and performance. There is general agreement that omega-3 acids found in fish and flax seed do support neural activity.

Exercise

Regular exercise helps to promote clear thinking. Exercise helps keep your body functioning properly. Exercise and muscle action support the action of the digestive system; and help with the circulation of blood, breathing, and the more sluggish circulation of the lymphatic system.

Rest

Rest is another factor that affects health and clear thinking. While the biology and psychology of sleep are subjects of continued research, few would disagree that a good night's sleep helps you feel alert and energized. There are also indications that the regular cycles of sleep and dreaming are a factor in establishing long-term memories. The average adult needs 6 to 8 hours of sleep for optimal functioning during waking hours. (The properties of sleep are considered in more detail in section 6.3.)

Head protection

Protecting your head seems like an obvious thing to do, but according to the Brain Injury Association of America over one and a half million Americans suffer from a traumatic brain injury in any given year, and 80 000 of those people are left with a long term disability.

Your brain is a delicate structure, and although it is encased in the bones of your skull it is still susceptible to impact injuries. When your head suddenly changes direction, your brain can slam into the inside of your skull causing a concussion, and other physical damage.

The commonest causes of brain injury are automobile collisions, sports collisions, tripping and falling, and battle injuries. Automobile injuries can be reduced by driving defensively, driving a car with front and side impact air bags, and wearing seatbelts. Head injuries from sports activity can be reduced by following safety guidelines and wearing protective headgear. Head injuries from falls around the home can be reduced by removing tripping hazards, by developing the habit of checking your footing as you move about, and by practising balance exercises with activities such as Tai-Chi. Probably the best way to minimize head injuries from combat is to use clear thinking to reduce the need for using force to resolve issues.

First aid

Simple knowledge and skills in first aid can reduce other risks to your body. Hand washing is the simplest, and often the most effective, way to prevent infections that can damage any part of your body including your brain. A very high fever lasting over several hours can lead to brain damage. Your brain can be damaged if it is deprived of oxygen for just five or six minutes, so learning the techniques of artificial respiration might allow you to save someone's life and help preserve their brain power. Shock and heat stroke are two other relatively common conditions that can affect the brain, but the effects can often be mitigated with simple first aid.

In summary, taking common sense precautions to care for your body, head, and brain are fundamental steps towards clear thinking.

Mental health

Efforts to maintain a positive attitude, an optimistic outlook, and respect for yourself and others can have a profound impact on your sense of wellbeing, and your ability to think clearly. There are a number of specific steps that you can take to promote your own mental health.

Develop constructive habits

We all develop habits; we tend to do some things the same way every-day. You can take advantage of that tendency to deliberately select and develop habits that make you feel better and enhance your daily experiences. Develop habits that will assist you in getting ready for the day – exercise for ten minutes before your shower, always put your wallet or purse in the same spot on your dresser; always check the weather before choosing your wardrobe for the day, and always check for your keys before you lock the car door. Take a few moments each day to appreciate some aspect of your environment – tend a plant, observe the night sky, wonder at the shapes of clouds, pat a dog, or sing a song. Find something to do each day that is positive – pick up some litter, compliment someone, encourage someone, say hello to a neighbour.

Think positive thoughts

It is a simple concept, but you can choose what you think about. Although days can be busy and tasks time consuming, you can always find time for some positive thoughts. Think about cherished family members, your friends, your pets. Think about past events you have enjoyed. Think about future events that you are looking forward to. Think about what you accomplished yesterday and what you want to accomplish today.

Develop supportive relationships

There are over six billion people in the world. Find some friends who share similar interests and have personalities that you enjoy. Take the time and energy to support those around you who are struggling to get ahead in the world. Find others around you who have strengths that you can draw upon in a time of need. Seek special friendships that will enrich your life and the lives of those you care for.

Develop techniques for dealing with adversity

Bad things happen. No one is successful at every attempt with every project. Adversity and setbacks are an integral part of daily life. Develop strategies to 'duck and cover' when necessary. Keep a 'bag of tricks' that you can use to restore your normal optimism – listen to your favourite music, walk through your favourite park, read your favourite author, talk to a friend. Just knowing that you have strategies for coping with adversity can be a source of strength when you need it most.

Respect others

Make systematic efforts to respect the rights and thoughts of others. Before judging others, try to mentally apply the old adage of 'walking in another's shoes'. As you try to appreciate the points of view of others, you automatically reassess your own position. Respecting others leads to self-respect and a positive attitude towards life.

Develop a sense of empathy for the plight of others. It can be more rewarding to assist others than it is to climb one more rung on the ladder towards elitist success.

Be realistic

Work within your capabilities for security and calm, but reach beyond that occasionally for stimulation and a new sense of accomplishment. Try to develop a realistic sense of your own strengths and weaknesses. Then design your daily activities to take advantage of your strengths and to strengthen your weaknesses. Give yourself a daily challenge, but a challenge that is within reasonable reach. Hang a banana a few feet above a monkey and he will jump for it. Hang a banana a hundred feet above a monkey and he will soon dismiss it.

Seek win-win situations – you cannot lose! In a duel to the death, someone is going to be badly hurt. In a pumpkin growing contest, everybody ends up with a big pumpkin. Beware of competitive win-lose situations. Sometimes a win-lose competition is invigorating, sometimes it is part of a struggle for survival, but a win-lose competition always produces at least as many losers as winners.

Seek assistance

Seek the help of a physician or counsellor if negative thinking persists. There are a variety of resources available that can help you deal with negative behaviours, gloomy moods, and depression.

Intellectual health

Our capacity for advanced thought is the characteristic that defines us as humans and separates us from all other life on Earth. Intellectual health includes an open mind and a joy for learning.

Joy for learning

A joy for learning is fostered by curiosity and a determination to understand why things are the way they are. A joy for learning brings satisfaction when a new understanding is reached, and it initiates a quest for patterns and answers when a new unknown is encountered.

A joy for learning also involves a love of books. There are millions of books in the great libraries of the world, and thousands more are published every year. Books bring you in contact with the best minds of the past and contain a detailed record of our history and culture. Books contain a wealth of knowledge of our present world and provide a window on possible futures. While not every book is a masterpiece, the creation of books provides one of the best means for individuals to organize and record their own thoughts and adventures. Most books are only published after an author has spent thousands of hours planning, writing, and editing.

A willingness to change

Intellectual health includes a willingness to adopt new ideas and approaches for dealing with everyday events. Even when your current knowledge has been hard won, new information and new theories can add insight and explain inconsistencies.

Intellectual health involves accepting that learning is a challenging but worthwhile endeavour, and that errors and failure are learning experiences.

To cultivate intellectual health, you should develop interests and relationships that support, stimulate, and challenge your standard thought processes. You should actively seek new learning opportunities, and develop habits of thought that demand clear thinking and critical judgement.

Learning in early childhood

Adaptability is one of the key features of a human baby's intellect. The same baby can adapt to life as a Peruvian in the Andes or as a Bedouin in the desert. Without taking any formal lessons, a child in China can learn to speak Mandarin while a child in Spain can learn to speak Spanish. A child in an urban setting learns to negotiate city traffic, ride elevators, and manage home security systems. A child in a rural setting learns to play in the woods, distinguish between crops and weeds, and how to care for animals. When younger children suffer serious brain injuries, they are often able to recover much faster than older persons with similar injuries.

Early childhood learning involves establishing the basic neural pathways that are likely to be of value during the child's entire lifetime. Early physical and social environments determine what those needs are likely to be. In his book, First Three Years of Life (1995), Burton White emphasizes the importance of early childhood learning, and argues that we should provide an enriched environment for our young children. An enriched environment helps to establish a broad collection of neural pathways. A broad collection of neural pathways lays the foundation for a lifetime of learning and clear thinking.

3.2.2 A Model of Learning

There has been a lot of educational research devoted to improving student learning, but when all is said and done, there are just two main stages in the learning process. The first stage of the model initiates the learning process and consists of three sub-components: tell me, show me, and let me discover. The second stage consolidates learning and includes: practice, making associations, and applying what has been learned.

Stage #1 – Initiate Learning

There are three basic paths to initiate the learning process: tell me, show me, and let me discover.

Tell me – is the dominant learning path of a lecture. Teachers and parents tend to favour this path in order to convey lots of information in a relatively short period of time. In a stable society, the features of civilization are passed from generation to generation via the tell me path. We want our children to assimilate our laws and customs, not discover their own. We want our children to learn efficiently from talented teachers, not struggle to discover every concept on their own.

Show me – is the dominant learning path of demonstrations, coaching, and much informal learning. In the past twenty years researchers have discovered that our brains possess special 'mirror neurons' that are dedicated to show me learning. Specific mirror neurons fire when we observe someone else performing a task, when we perform that task ourselves, or even when we just think about performing that task. It is thought that mirror neurons are the keys to learning language and understanding the actions of others.

The existence of mirror neurons may also explain why some tasks are relatively easy to learn, while others tend to be much more difficult. When a learning task has physical manifestations, our mirror neurons can help us to copy and reproduce those manifestations. We can learn to speak a language and use new vocabulary by listening to a fluent speaker. It is more difficult to learn to write a story by watching an author at work because the key steps occur inside the author's brain. Mirror neurons are designed to help us learn how to skip rope, but are not designed to help us learn history.

Let me discover – is the dominant path for learning from personal investigations and trial-and-error experiences. This learning path is relatively slow but thorough. When you work hard to discover something for yourself, you have also completed most of the work required to consolidate and remember that learning.

Discovery learning is relatively rare. Even most discovery lessons at school are really show me lessons in disguise, since the required background information has been provided and the equipment has been arranged so that students tend to discover the object of the lesson by falling into it. True discovery learning occurs only when we invent new information for ourselves by combining old information in a novel and useful way. As any struggling inventor will tell you, most of the time the discovery learning approach does not lead to a practical result. Still, every now and then, discovery learning can lead to something very interesting.

Stage #2 – Consolidate Learning

Once initial learning has taken place, the new information has to be consolidated, or most of it will soon be forgotten. The three main activities for consolidating new learning are: practice, associate, and apply.

Practice – is the most basic and fundamental approach for consolidating new learning. Practice helps you to confirm that you have mastered the details of new learning, and provides the repetition that is necessary to establish that information firmly in your memory. To be most effective, practice should be conducted as soon as possible after the initial learning, then again after a day, after a week, and after a month.

Make Associations – is the key to helping you recall what you have learned with appropriate memory cues. There is little use in learning something if you cannot recall it in the future. Creating associations for learning is analogous to adding colourful tags to your luggage so you can easily find your bags amongst hundreds of similar bags at a busy airport. Associations for learning are mental in nature. As you analyze new learning and decide which features are important, which features are similar to what you already know, which features are unique, and which features are ambiguous; you are creating associations that will link your memories and make that new learning easier to recall.

Sometimes finding useful associations is the most challenging part of the learning process. If what you are trying to learn appears to be a hodgepodge of unrelated information, then it is difficult to create useful associations. You may have to go back and reorganize your learning task so that it makes sense to you. Then it is easier to make meaningful associations.

Apply – means you should make use of your new learning to make it more relevant. You can apply new learning to simplify tasks that you have already been working on, or you can tackle new tasks. Applications of new learning automatically include elements of practice and the creation of associations. Applications also add an important motivational component to your learning – your learning has value.

3.2.3 Classifying Subject Matter

In analyzing the learning process, researchers and educators often group everything that can be learned into just three categories: knowledge, skills, and attitudes.

Knowledge

Ultimately all knowledge can be regarded as information about specific items, or sets of items. All knowledge can be sorted into five basic categories:

  1. Facts (e.g. World War I ended on November 11, 1918)

  2. Systems of facts (e.g. columns of stock prices in the business section of a newspaper)

  3. Algorithms (e.g. the recipe for baking a cake)

  4. Concept systems (e.g. the precepts of democracy, and the structure of Euclidean geometry)

  5. Rule systems (e.g. the traffic laws of Kentucky, and Latin grammar).

A key feature of these categories is that they are open-ended. There is no limit to new knowledge. No matter how much you know there is always more to learn.

Skills

Skills can be divided into two main categories: psychomotor skills, and cognitive skills.

Psychomotor skills involve the co-ordinated movements of muscles and limbs to achieve specific results such as swimming or playing a trombone. Psychomotor skills are mastered through repeated trial-and-error efforts, and efforts to imitate others who have already mastered the desired skill. The first tentative steps of a baby learning to walk provide a classic example of psychomotor learning. Psychomotor skills are stored in procedural memory.

Cognitive skills involve the co-ordinated thought processes required for problem solving, such as how to describe an emotion in a poem you are writing, or how to analyze a logical puzzle. Cognitive skills involve your ability to apply a variety of strategies such as sorting, comparing, classifying, and decision-making; and are used by your conscious mind to deal with novel situations that you encounter in your daily life. Cognitive skills are stored in declarative memory. The essential message of this book is that cognitive skills and clear thinking can be learned and practiced, just like any other skill.

Many tasks, such as delivering a speech, require the simultaneous application of both psychomotor and cognitive skills.

Attitudes

Establishing attitudes involves your values and your mental approach to various subjects and situations. Your attitudes are an essential component of your learning efforts. With a positive attitude your chances of success are optimized.

It is important to realize that your attitudes are learned. You are not born with a set of attitudes about the world. Your current attitudes have been acquired as a result of your experiences in life and your mental habits in dealing with those experiences. Much of your success as a learner will depend on your ability to build positive attitudes towards the material that you are studying.

3.2.4 Efficient Learning

You know you are learning more efficiently when you are able to learn more in less time and with less effort.

Past learning

Your ability to learn new material today depends to a large extent on the learning you did yesterday. It is easier to find patterns to describe new material when you already have a large, well organized, collection of learned items. If you do not know anything about engines, then it will be difficult to appreciate the function of valves and camshafts. If you do not know anything about complementary colours, then decorating an apartment will be an extra challenge. Your ability to learn new material tomorrow depends to a large extent on how much and how well you learn today.

It is never too late to start efficient learning, but the earlier you start the better. Experts in a subject area have accumulated and organized their skills and knowledge over an extended period of time. If you want to become an expert, start today!

Organization of material

It is important to put effort into preparing and packaging material that you want to learn. Suppose you had the task of memorizing the letters: NALSL IFRA OWB WLISND. It could be done, but it would be difficult. There is no apparent pattern to the eighteen letters. They could be alphabetized: AA B D F II LLL NN O R SS WW; then there would be only eleven groups of letters to learn. However, if the letters are rearranged into words to form a little message: RAIN FALLS WINDS BLOW, then the learning task is much simpler. When new material is organized into meaningful patterns, learning can be much more efficient.

Finding patterns

How do you find patterns? In general, the search for useful patterns is a time-consuming task that depends on persistence and chance. Fortunately for students, the search for patterns in most fields of knowledge has already been done for you. Much time and energy has already been spent to organize any material you might want to learn. Your task is then to make use of an existing pattern.

If a pattern is not obvious then instructors, texts, other students, and your own growing experience all provide inspirations for finding and creating patterns for organizing new information.

The task of finding a pattern and organizing information involves repeated examinations of that information along with repeated searches for the most effective associations. This is exactly what is required to store that information as a linked network in your memory. After organizing information, the only learning tasks remaining are more repetition, and practice with applications.

Memorization

When you want to memorize information, there is no substitute for repetition. Neural connections in the brain seem to get stronger and last longer when the same signals are repeated several times, and repeated again over a variety of time-scales. You should go over any material you want to memorize several times, then again the next day, then again the next week, then again the next month. Going over material may involve reading it to yourself, reciting it out loud, or writing it down on paper.

Active learning

Active learning involves taking your material and applying it in a variety of situations. You may attempt to answer related questions, work on sample applications, or explore variations by asking yourself 'what if' questions. 'What if' questions are of the type: 'What if I doubled this quantity and then ran the experiment?', 'What if Napoleon had won the battle of Waterloo?', 'What if Picasso had been visually impaired?'. Trying to answer 'What if?' questions extends your understanding and helps you to connect new items to other relevant material you have already learned.

Easy learning

Some material is easy to learn, while other material seems to be much more difficult. Here are some conditions that can make learning easy:

  1. Your learning task is just a step or two beyond your current knowledge and skill levels.

  2. You have a positive attitude towards the learning task. It is something you want to do. It is fun. You can see that it will be of value to you in the future.

  3. You can visualize the final goal and can plan a path towards that goal.

  4. The learning task requires you to deal with only seven or fewer items at a time, so that your immediate-term memory is not overextended.

  5. Any required equipment and materials are readily available.

Difficult learning

The conditions that correspond to difficult learning tasks are the opposites of the conditions that lead to easy learning tasks. A learning task becomes difficult when one or more of the following situations exist:

  1. The learning task requires prerequisite knowledge and skills that you do not have. The more prerequisites you are missing, the more challenging the task.

  2. You have a negative attitude towards the task. You have already failed at similar tasks. You can see no future value for the task.

  3. You cannot visualize what you are supposed to learn, or how to begin the learning task.

  4. The learning task requires many separate steps, and you have to manipulate more than seven items at a time in your immediate-term memory.

  5. Required equipment and materials are not readily available.

  6. There is a large volume of material to learn and your time is limited.

  7. The task involves complex logical structures.

  8. The task requires long hours of focused work, and even minor errors can lead to failure.

Many games and toys present easy learning tasks and are thus very popular. Learning to bake an apple pie may be just on the border between easy and difficult. There is a vision of a steaming apple pie fresh from the oven; the steps are laid out in a recipe; but several steps are required, and making edible pastry is a prerequisite skill that may be lacking. Learning to repair your television set would probably be in the difficult category since there are a number of perquisites in digital electronics and communications theory that would be required. It is also unlikely that you would have access to the needed materials and test equipment.

Start today to learn as much as you can, about as many topics as you can. Any learning task that you master today will simplify all your learning in the future.

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3.3 Language and Clear Thinking

Language is a powerful tool for organizing and summarizing your thinking, and for conveying your thoughts to others. Spoken language is used to communicate information, to influence others, and to entertain. Written language is used to store the sentiments of spoken language. Skills in both spoken and written language are essential aspects of clear thinking. We need language skills to help us formulate our own thoughts and to enable us to communicate with, and influence others. We also need language skills so that we can analyze what others are saying to us and to read what they have written.

3.3.1 Language as a Code

At the beginning or the 20th century, there were still over six thousand distinct languages in the world, although the growth of modern communications is gradually reducing that number. A language begins as a set of verbal codes for describing what we find important in the world around us. It is possible to code anything that can be experienced, but the design of the code varies from culture to culture. A message is built by selecting words from a common vocabulary, and then arranging those words using rules of grammar.

The Inuit have several dozen words to describe different types of snow and ice. The distinctions among shades of blue and green can vary in different cultures. Number systems can vary from culture to culture. The terms one, two, and many were sufficient for describing quantities in many early languages ; the Romans used a system of letter codes to number objects (Example: MMIX = 2009); the Maya developed a number system with base 20 that could easily describe any number into the millions.

Even when a common language is used, communication is not always clear and straightforward. For example, English authors of the 18th century tended to make use of run-on sentences and an extensive vocabulary. Now in the 21st century their works are sometimes difficult to comprehend. Consider the following extract from Of the Standard of Taste by David Hume, 1757:

" It is evident that none of the rules of composition are fixed by reasonings 'a priori', or can be esteemed abstract conclusions of the understanding, from comparing those habitudes and relations of ideas, which are eternal and immutable."

In a similar manner, their efforts to be absolutely clear, modern lawyers tend to compose statements that can only be understood by other lawyers.

Sometimes the meaning of a statement is deliberately made obscure. Roger Bacon (c1270) expressed the sentiment that knowledge in the hands of the common person was dangerous, and described seven classical techniques for obscuring the truth in written statements from the uninitiated. In 1384, John Wycliffe translated the Latin Bible into the English language, however the clergy were reluctant to put the word of God into the hands of peasants and labourers. Twenty-four years after his death, Wycliffe was declared a heretic, his body was exhumed and burned, and his English translation was suppressed for over 100 years. The science of cryptology is devoted to coding information so that only those with a secret key are able to decode it. Encoding information has become a standard practice in computerized record keeping.

The effective use of language is not a simple matter. Designing a clear and concise message is a complex task that is part art and part science. It is an additional challenge to include emotional overtones that will attract an audience and still support the main message.

3.3.2 Elements for Emphasis

Languages also contain a variety of mechanisms for emphasis such as rhythm, rhyme, alliteration, and repetition. Many words and phrases are specifically included in a message for their emotional impact. A spoken message can be further strengthened with the judicious use of tone and body language.

Emotional words and phrases

Words and phrases with emotional connotations are frequently used to activate emotional thinking in an audience, and at the same time block rational analysis. The use of emotional words and phrases have two common applications: to communicate that the author, or speaker is a 'good guy' and what he/she says should be supported, or that the target of criticism is a 'bad guy' and what that target says should be scoffed at and considered untrue.

Here are a few common examples of the use of emotional words and phrases:

  1. The repeated use of religious phrases such as 'God bless you', 'let us pray', or 'God is great' is designed to initiate ritual behaviour, stifle independent thought, and engender anger towards anyone who does not partake in the ritual.

  2. The use of curses is designed to signal that the author, or speaker, is emotionally involved but conveys little rational information.

  3. Invoking the image of desirable but defenceless persons such as babies, children, or maidens in distress is intended to evoke sympathy for the vulnerable, and anger towards anyone who might injure them.

Civic leaders often use positive emotional words to describe their own policies, and negative emotional words to describe the policies of opponents.

Clear thinkers take note. Our minds are keyed to respond to emotional appeals. Our best defence against having our thought processes deliberately manipulated is to watch for emotional words and phrases, and to then consider the situation rationally before deciding to participate emotionally.

Tone and body language

Speakers use more than words to communicate. They use variations in tone and body language to emphasize their message. Here are just a few examples of using tone for emphasis:

  1. A loud voice implies that the speaker is becoming emotional.

  2. A soft voice suggests that the message is confidential.

  3. A sharp and commanding tone implies that the speaker is in charge of the situation.

  4. A hesitant voice suggests that the speaker is lacking confidence.

Body positioning and facial expressions add to the versatility of language. The examples speak for themselves: a smile, a frown, a shrug of the shoulders, a nod of the head, a shake of the head, a shake of the index finger, a gesture with a raised middle finger, a wink, a slouch, a jutting chin, eyes wide and pupils dilated, eyes half closed and pupils contracted, an erect posture, arms crossed, leaning towards someone, and a gaze turned away.

3.3.3 Comparisons

Comparisons are more than entertaining diversions; they are powerful techniques for extending our existing knowledge to new situations. Comparisons help us to decide among alternatives, aid in clarifying our own thoughts, and provide an effective means for conveying new information to others. While there are literary uses for similes, metaphors, and allegories, the two most valuable comparisons for clear thinking are the simple comparison and the analogy.

Simple comparison

A simple comparison is used to make a direct list of similarities and differences among selected objects or systems. The structures, properties, and characteristics of the objects are examined for close matches, and large deviations. The process of finding and comparing features among objects is an exercise in clear thinking. Which features are similar? Which features are significantly different? Do the characteristics of one system provide clues to the characteristics of another system?

For example, suppose you compared an apple tree with a sugar maple tree. Both are deciduous trees that flower in the spring. Both are hardwoods. A mature apple tree has a height of about 8 metres, is pollinated by bees, and produces a tasty fruit that ripens in the fall. In contrast, a mature sugar maple tree has a height of about 30 metres, is wind pollinated, produces its seeds in the form of keys, and can be tapped for sap to make maple syrup in the spring. Both trees produce valuable crops. Apple trees require more pruning and an apple crop is susceptible to insect infestations. Mature maple trees can be harvested to produce lumber for fine furniture.

Analogy

An analogy is an extended comparison between distinct systems that are unrelated, but have similar relationships among their components. Your knowledge, familiarity, and understanding of one system can then be used to gain insights into the operation of the less familiar second system. An analogy is a powerful tool for extending your existing knowledge and understandings to new and unfamiliar contexts.

An analogy is a valuable educational tool, as well as a tool for clear thinking. As you search for an appropriate analogy to explain a concept to someone else, you have to analyze the initial system to establish its key features and relationships – a valuable step in improving your own understanding of the first system. Then you have to search your memory to find a second system with similar relationships that will be more familiar to your audience – a process that will help you to link your memories together in an organized manner. Then when you find a good analogy, it will help your audience to improve their understanding of the relationships in the first system.

Examples: A shepherd caring for his sheep, in some ways, is analogous to a preacher caring for his parishioners. The motions of the gears in a machine are, in some ways, analogous to the operations of a large bureaucracy. The expansion of the surface of a balloon is analogous to the expansion of the universe.

Of course, few if any analogies are perfect. While you and your audience may appreciate the explanatory aspects of an analogy, discrepancies soon become apparent in the range of parallel relationships. Finding the useful limits of an analogy requires comparisons and evaluations – both effective learning processes.

3.3.4 Rhetoric

Modern rhetoric is the study of techniques for effective speaking and writing. The foundations of rhetoric as a field of study lie in the classical past and rhetoric was still regarded as a standard part of a knowledgeable person's education well into the 19th century.

In rhetoric the use of language has two aspects: form – how something is expressed; and content – what is expressed. A communication can be designed to appeal to reason (logos), to emotion (pathos), or to the characteristics of the audience (ethos).

Rhetoric has five accepted skill areas:

  1. Invention – strategies for framing content such as cause and effect, comparison, specialized topics, and relations.

  2. Arrangement – the elements of the structure of a presentation such as the introduction, statement of facts, arguments in support, refutation of counter arguments, and conclusion.

  3. Style – the artful expression of ideas to co-ordinate the use of language with the topic, and the characteristics of audience. Julius Caesar's phrase, "I came, I saw, I conquered", (Veni, vidi, vici) is a classic example.

  4. Memory – includes memory aids for a particular presentation; the creation of a store of general knowledge that can be used extemporaneously to supplement a presentation; and techniques to assist the audience in remembering the key points in a presentation.

  5. Delivery – usually refers to oral presentations and includes volume, tone, pitch, speed, gestures, pronunciation, facial expressions, and emphasis.

Traditionally, rhetoric is applied in three principal branches of oratory:

  1. Judicial oratory deals with events from the past and is used to accuse or defend in the pursuit of justice.

  2. Deliberative oratory deals with the future and is used to exhort or dissuade the listeners in support of a cause.

  3. Epideictic oratory deals with the present and is used to praise or criticize someone's virtue or vice.

The ability to speak well is still highly valued, but in the early 21st century we tend to regard it as a natural talent rather than a learned skill. As a consequence, we also tend to succumb to the persuasive power of an effective speaker without making a critical analysis of content.

The movie, Thank You for Smoking (2006) provides an interesting demonstration of the potential for the misuse of rhetoric. In this movie, the principle character is a lobbyist for the tobacco industry who uses his skill in rhetoric to confound his critics.

3.3.5 Debates

A formal debate is an organized discussion of a well-defined topic, and as such provides a forum for applied clear thinking. The topic of a debate is often expressed in terms of a question that can be answered as either yes or no. Speakers take turns delivering prepared statements and then making impromptu responses to each other's arguments. A debate is designed to encourage participants to be thorough and accurate, and to support claims with evidence. Speakers use their skills in rhetoric to attempt to persuade members of an audience to accept the arguments that they present.

Formal debates are governed by rules designed to lead to a defined conclusion. Discussions in legislatures, courtrooms, and political campaigns often assume the style of a formal debate. A debate is typically followed by some procedure to indicate the audience's preference for the various arguments: members of a legislature cast their votes, a jury deliberates, an audience may vote or cheer, an academic community may decide to accept or reject a line of research.

Note that the decision of the audience in a debate does not necessarily correspond to the truth, or to the most logical argument, or to the best-researched argument. While the vote of an audience may be influenced by the presentations in a debate, it also depends on the pre-existing interests and prejudices of the audience.

Informal debates can also be stimulating, informative, and entertaining as long as the participants feel emotionally secure and retain a sense of humour. At times, informal debates can degenerate into disagreements over poorly defined concepts. In such disagreements, limited information is provided and limited logic is used. Conditions can deteriorate further into verbal battles in which statements are made to intimidate and humiliate an opponent. Then the clever use of language becomes a weapon rather than a means of communication and the goal is not clarity, but victory in a struggle for status.

Clear thinkers need to recognize and then avoid wasting energy in vociferous informal debates.

In summary, the ability to speak and write is one of the most dominant features of human culture, and mastery of language is one of the greatest aids to clear thinking. Clear thinking is imperilled when we spice our language with lots of emotion, emphasis, suggestion, and innuendo. We need to determine the essential arguments being presented, and the reliability of information used as supporting evidence. While entertaining and emotional language can add fervour to everyday life, it does little to enhance clear thinking and valid reasoning.

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Chapter 4: Tools for Clear Thinking

4.1 Reasoning Processes

4.2 An Introduction to Probability

4.3 The Nature of Scientific Investigations

4.4 Building a Personal Philosophy

Another of the goals of clear thinking is to improve your ability to reason effectively with whatever information is available to you.

You can train your brain to take advantage of four basic reasoning strategies and the fundamentals of probability theory to help you assess information and build a durable personal philosophy.

4.1 Reasoning Processes

Reasoning processes are the means that we use to analyze information, and make judgements and decisions – what to do next, when to act, when to pause.

Most of our reasoning processes are variations and combinations of just four approaches to thinking: deductive thought, inductive thought, emotional thought, and dealing with authoritarian edicts. The conclusions that you reach using these processes will vary with the knowledge that you have accumulated and the world view that you have established.

4.1.1 Deductive Reasoning Processes

Deductive processes are based on the precise use of language. The standard approach is to begin with a set of definitions and assumptions, and then to systematically follow the associated logical implications.

Deductive reasoning is an essential ingredient in the fields of logic, mathematics, and computer programming.

Logic

Logic is a powerful tool for building complex arguments from basic concepts, and for the reverse process of taking a complex argument apart to examine its essential components.

A logical argument begins with a few initial assumptions and definitions. Then more complex ideas can be formed by combining these simple assertive statements using the standard conjunctions of and, or, not, and if .–. then. If you begin with carefully crafted assumptions and definitions, your subsequent logical deductions can often lead to insights that were not initially apparent. (Note that interrogatives and emotional statements have no status within logical arguments.)

The simple-to-complex application of logic can be used to construct a philosophical argument or a mathematical theory. The truth of such an argument, or theory, is based on the truth of the original assumptions and the accuracy of the logical constructions.

The converse approach is to start with a complex argument and then work backwards towards the essential definitions and assumptions that form the underpinnings of the argument.

Strictly speaking, logic exists only in the minds of humans and is independent of reality. In practice, the assumptions and definitions used in logic often reflect the best available interpretations of reality – an inductive approach.

The abstract methods of logic can lead to very practical results. George Boole (1815 – 1864) used a logical process to develop a system of mathematics using just two numbers, 0 and 1. He was able to show that all of our mathematics using base-ten could be reduced to equivalent statements in base-two. Several decades after his death, Boole's binary algebra was used to create electronic logic gates that now form the core of every digital computer in the world.

Figure #6: Four types of reasoning

Deductive geometry

Geometry is a field of mathematics that deals with shapes and boundaries. The origin of geometry is lost in the mists of time, but by 2000 BCE geometry played a key role in the allocations of agricultural land after annual floods of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in Mesopotamia, and the Nile River in Egypt. Geometric properties were also used in the design and construction of fortresses, temples, and pyramids.

About 300 BCE, the Greek mathematician Euclid, summarized and organized all that was known about geometry in a book called The Elements. This work was so thorough and complete that it was used as a standard geometry text for the next two thousand years. The Elements is more than a collection of geometric properties. As students study Euclidian geometry, they are also studying the process of deductive reasoning. The six volumes on plane geometry begin with a set of just three postulates and two definitions, and then all the other geometric properties of plane figures are derived using deductive logic.

Algebra

About 825 CE, an Arabian mathematician in Baghdad summarized all the known techniques for solving equations in a book entitled Al-jabr wa'l muqabalah. Al-Khowarizmi's work was so successful that a branch of mathematics is named after his book. Initially, algebra consisted of detailed instructions, or algorithms, for solving different types of equations. Over the past thousand years, the subject has grown and been refined so that algebra is now based on definitions, postulates, and rules of logic.

Using algebraic techniques, a mathematical statement can be rearranged into an infinite number of equivalent statements. Given a complex statement, a typical goal is to find the simplest possible representation that still contains all the information of the original statement. For example, the concept of equality can be used in combination with the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division to convert a linear equation into a variety of alternate forms. Thus, the equation 3x – 7 = 5 can be logically re-arranged to yield x = 4.

When similar mathematical problems reoccur in a number of situations, it is practical to devise a streamlined approach. An algebraic theorem can be created that reduces a whole sequence of logical steps to just one line. Quoting the theorem and skipping all the associated details then simplifies solving similar problems in the future. Mathematicians like to use theorems so they can work more efficiently. Unfortunately, these shortcuts can make formal solutions difficult for non-mathematicians to follow.

Algebra is not the only field of mathematics that utilizes proofs and theorems. Currently, there are over two hundred recognized fields of mathematical research. In fact, you can create your own field of mathematics with just a few definitions and postulates. The challenge is to create a system that has interesting and possibly useful features.

Computer programming

Programming a computer is a challenging task in deductive reasoning. A computer language is highly structured, all the terms are carefully defined, and all processes are completely logical in nature. When you create a computer program – every word, every number, every comma, and every bracket must be used in accordance with the rules of the computer language you are using. A program will not run on a computer until every syntax error is corrected.

Even when all the syntax errors are eliminated, a computer program may still contain errors in logic that produce false results in unexpected situations.

Students new to computer programming often find the cold logic of a machine very frustrating. When results do not turn out as expected, one often hears the comment, 'But I meant to instruct the computer to do this!' A computer pays no attention to emotion or intention – it uses pure logic to do precisely what you tell it to do.

Deductive proof

Deductive reasoning flows from precise definitions for classes of objects, and to the operations that can be performed on those objects. There are only three basic strategies that lead to a deductive proof:

  1. Direct proof – you create a step-by-step logical path from your starting information to a final statement. Then if your assumptions and starting information were correct, you have proven that your final statement must also be correct.

  2. Indirect proof – in a limited number of cases, you can list all the possible outcomes, and then show that all but one of the outcomes leads to a logical contradiction. The one remaining outcome must then be true. It is like solving a murder mystery by proving all the possible suspects, except George, must be innocent. Therefore George must be guilty.

  3. Mathematical induction – in a very limited number of cases involving patterns with natural numbers, this deductive technique can be used to prove that a numerical pattern must hold true within a given range of natural numbers. The term 'mathematical induction' is somewhat misleading. While finding the pattern in the first place is an inductive process, proving that the pattern holds true is actually a deductive process.

4.1.2 Inductive Reasoning Processes

Inductive reasoning is based on discovering patterns in repeated experiences. Once a pattern is found, a statistical analysis can be used to predict (See section 5.2.) the chances of a similar event occurring in the future. We use informal inductive reasoning every day in almost every action we take. A more formal approach to inductive reasoning provides the basis for the scientific method.

The search for patterns

The search for a pattern among observations is the central component of inductive reasoning. Sometimes a pattern is simple and clear; 'It hurts every time I poke myself with a fork'. Sometimes patterns are difficult to find and it requires careful observations over an extended period of time. The ancient Mesopotamians and Mayans made extended observations of the Evening Star and the Morning Star before they realized that these observations were of just one object, the planet Venus, as it moved in its orbit about the Sun.

Informal inductive reasoning

We all use knowledge gained from past experiences to guide our current actions, so we all use inductive reasoning. For example, suppose you see a jug of water on the table and note its shape and distance. Then based on past experiences you decide whether you can extend your arm and pick up the jug without offending anyone else at the table and without dumping water all over the place.

Physical processes can involve several factors, so simple observations do not always provide clear insights. Historically, many processes seemed either random (day-to-day weather) or mystical (the transmission of disease) in character. For example, malachite is a green mineral that crumbles easily, but when heated by an intense fire it is somehow transformed into copper. Without any knowledge of chemistry such a transformation would remain a mystery of nature. To accommodate such magical properties and random events, rituals were often devised to accompany best practices in an effort to appeal to divine powers for assistance. When a procedure worked, apparently the rituals were effective and the gods were co-operative, when a ritual did not work either the gods were angry or there was some error in the rituals. For example, at the festival of Beltane, Celtic peoples celebrated a number of spring rituals to rejuvenate the land and ensure fertility. Farmers leaped over bonfires and farm animals were driven between fires as they were transferred from winter pens to summer pastures. Most years the land and the people were fertile; sometimes they were not.

Formal inductive reasoning

Formal inductive reasoning is commonly known as the scientific method. The scientific method involves making systematic observations, and searching for patterns in a physical process. Typically, a specific question is asked, a series of experiments is conducted, careful observations are made, the results are analyzed, and a concluding statement is made.

Example: It seems that water always boils at the same temperature. Is that actually the case? Applying the scientific method might involve the following actions and guiding questions:

  1. Boil a pot of water and measure the temperature of the water.

  2. Repeat the process several times. Is the temperature always the same?

  3. Would it make a difference if a different type of pot was used?

  4. Would it make a difference if the experiment was conducted at different times of the day?

  5. Would it make a difference if salt water was used?

  6. Would it make a difference if it was raining, or if the Sun was shining?

  7. Would it make a difference if the experiment was conducted at a different elevation?

  8. Would it make a difference if a different thermometer was used?

Each of those questions involves a factor that might influence the measured boiling point of water. Which factors to investigate is determined by the need for accuracy. If you just want to boil an egg, then accuracy within a degree or two is probably sufficient. If you are studying a complex chemical reaction, then accuracy within a hundredth of a degree may be required. The 'official result' is that distilled water, at a pressure of one atmosphere, boils at 100.0 °C. Adding impurities to water, or changing the atmospheric pressure does change the boiling point.

Not all events lend themselves to scientific investigation in the laboratory. Some events such as continental drift, earthquakes, volcanoes, and galactic supernovae are very slow, random, or infrequent events. There are no means to control any variables that might be involved. However, scientists can still study these events by designing, testing, and deploying suitable instruments for collecting data. Then when an event does occur, scientists can gather as much data as possible. Over time, data are collected from several similar events. The collected data can then be used to construct models to account for the observations, and to predict future behaviour.

4.1.3 Reasoning and Authoritarian Edicts

An edict is a public statement, or command, delivered by some authority. The nature of an edict allows little room for reasoning. You either accept an edict, or you do not. And that is the key to reasoning and authoritarian edicts. Clear thinking can help you analyze the nature of the authorities that govern your life and the nature of specific edicts that those authorities deliver.

Automatically following an edict is the simplest course of action. Refusing to follow an edict may involve a reasoned decision to not follow that specific edict, or a reasoned decision to not acknowledge the power of the issuing authority. In either case, a decision to disobey often represents an ethical choice and includes an element of personal risk. Refusal to obey is usually taken as a challenge to the power of the issuing authority, and authorities are seldom pleased when they are disobeyed. A child who disobeys a parent might be scolded. A student who disobeys a teacher might be sent home. A citizen who disobeys the law might be imprisoned. A Catholic who disobeys the Pope might be excommunicated. A soldier who refuses to follow an order might be shot.

Not all authorities and their edicts have the same scope and power. For convenience, authorities can be divided into levels in order to simplify any analysis of the edicts that they may issue.

Authorities at Level A

Level A authorities are respected members of your family and your community. This includes parents, other family members, teachers, coaches, leaders of local service organizations, and community religious leaders. These authorities are known personally and they rely largely on the powers of their personalities to enforce their edicts. When all goes well, edicts issued by these authorities are for your personal development and guidance.

Authorities at Level B

Level B authorities are members of government bodies. Their edicts are laws intended to manage the social activities under their jurisdiction. They can levy financial penalties or use the physical force of the justice system to enforce their edicts. A simple test to examine the validity of a law is to ask the question, 'What would happen if everyone obeyed that law, and what would happen if everyone disobeyed that law?' For example, if no one ever assaulted another person, then your community would be much safer; however, if everyone regularly attacked one another, then your community would be in chaos. So a law prohibiting assault seems to be a reasonable and valid edict.

Authorities at Level C

Level C authorities possess expert knowledge and skills needed by society. Scientists, engineers, medical doctors, and religious leaders all fall into this category. Scientists, engineers, and medical doctors acquire their knowledge via induction and deduction. Religious leaders acquire their knowledge via revelations from select prophets.

Through research and analysis, scientists determine theorems and 'laws of nature' that can be used to predict the results of future experiments. A key feature of scientific predictions is that they can be verified by direct experimentation. As new knowledge and skills are acquired, theorems and laws of nature are modified and updated.

Through study and revelation, religious leaders predict which behaviours in this world will lead to privileged positions in the next world. However, religious predictions about the next world can only be taken on faith. Religious leaders seldom exhibit flexibility regarding their edicts. For example the First Vatican Council in 1870 formalized the doctrine of Papal Infallibility, to match the doctrine of Infallibility of the Church. Essentially these edicts say that God will not allow the Roman Catholic Church to err in its belief or teaching. Still, as new knowledge and skills are acquired and social conditions change, religious edicts and recommended behaviours can and do change, although at a slower pace than scientific edicts.

4.1.4 Reasoning with Emotions

According to the dictionary, emotions are "feelings as opposed to reason; a strong feeling; a subjective reaction involving psychological and physical changes". There is no reasoning involved in the generation of an emotion, so 'reasoning with emotions' may seem to be a contradiction of terms.

Emotions initiate rapid-response activities that have been pre-programmed in your brain. In a simple hunter-gatherer society, emotions would have provided stimulii to help your ancestors avoid dangers and seize opportunities that would enhance their chances of survival.

However, in the complex social settings in which we now find ourselves, an emotional response may not always be appropriate.

The process of reasoning with your emotions involves the following steps:

  1. Recognize that a stimulus that has produced the emotions that you feel.

  2. Recognize the subsequent actions that your emotions are trying to inspire.

  3. Pause to assess the situation.

If someone yells at you, your emotional response might be to throw rocks and run. If your neighbours are attacking a wrongdoer, your emotional response might be to join in. If you find a bag of candy, your emotional response might be to eat it all. If you meet an attractive person, your emotional response might be to instigate mating behaviour. These are the primitive responses that you might expect to see in a chimpanzee exhibit at a zoo. Our emotional responses need to be moderated according to the norms and morals of society.

Emotions generated in the hindbrain

These emotions are triggered by the immediate urge for survival. There is little conscious control over these emotions. Just try holding your breath for two minutes. The urges to breathe, satisfy thirst, satisfy hunger, and find shelter are emotions that drive us to take the actions that are required to stay alive.

Emotions generated in the midbrain complex

Emotions of this type are triggered by events in a social setting. These emotions are based on competitions with other humans for security and limited resources. Lust, love, greed, anger, hate, camaraderie, and the pleasure of winning are typical of emotions generated in the midbrain.

Emotions generated in the forebrain

Emotions of this type are triggered during intellectual participation in society. Satisfaction at completing a task, intellectual pleasure at discovering a new connection, friendships based on common interests, the enjoyment of humour, and the enjoyment of art are typical of emotions generated in the forebrain.

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4.2 An Introduction to Probability

Probability is a branch of mathematics that provides methods for calculating the chances that specific events will occur when random selection is involved.

Many tend to shy away from using the methods of probability because it involves computations. However, a basic knowledge of probability and statistics (probability's close relative) is essential for following the developments in all branches of economics, science, and medicine, and for understanding many natural phenomena and games of chance. Clear thinkers need to grapple with the mechanics of probability. Avoiding probability is like avoiding vitamins. As more and more of the world's knowledge is digitized and analyzed, the need for a basic understanding of probability becomes more profound.

Almost every action you take has a chance of success and a risk of failure. Pausing to consider the total number of possible outcomes, and making a realistic estimate of the number of successful outcomes can help you to make intuitive estimates of probability. You can then use those estimates to guide any decisions related your possible actions.

Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician, developed the first theory of probability in 1654, while investigating problems related to gambling. His work began the development of this powerful new branch of mathematics.

Probability provides a bridge between the abstract approach of deductive reasoning and the practical approach of inductive reasoning. With probability theory you can systematically assess quantitative data from the real world. The results are not absolute truths, but the most reasonable interpretations of the available information.

4.2.1 Basic Definitions

An 'outcome' is the specific event that occurs as the result of a process with an aspect of randomness. When tossing a coin, the possible outcomes are a HEAD or a TAIL. When rolling a die, the possible outcomes are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. If there is no random aspect involved, then there is no need to use probability.

The term 'random' is used here to imply that all of the possible outcomes are equally likely. There is no bias or external influence that would compel one outcome to occur more often than another. In a random process there is no way to predict a specific outcome for just one trial.

If you cannot predict an outcome, what is the point of probability? While you cannot predict the outcome for a single trial, you can predict the pattern of outcomes for a large number of trials, and you can predict the chance of obtaining a particular outcome for a single trial. For example, suppose that a box contains three red balls and seven green balls. If you were blindfolded and selected just one ball – what colour would it be? You cannot guarantee the colour of the selected ball, but the chances are that seven times out of ten the ball would be green.

The 'probability' of an event occurring is just the ratio of the number of ways that event can occur, to the total number of possible outcomes. The probability of tossing a coin and getting a HEAD is 1 out of 2, or 0.5. The probability of drawing a HEART from a deck of shuffled bridge cards is 13 out of 52, which reduces to 1 out of 4, or 0.25.

Defined this way, the probability of an event is always a number between zero and one. A probability of zero for an event means that the event will never occur. A probability of 0.33 means the event will occur about one third of the time. A probability of 1.0 means the event will occur every time. Probabilities can be expressed either as fractions or as decimal numbers. The decimal format is usually easier to deal with when several calculations are involved, or a number of probabilities are to be compared.

The 'odds' of an event occurring is just the ratio of the number of ways the event can occur, to the number of other possible outcomes. In the example with the three red balls and the seven green balls, the probability of selecting a red ball is 3 out of 10 or 0.3, while the odds of selecting a red ball are 3 to 7. The odds notation is often used when making wagers.

The probability and odds notations emphasize different aspects of the same information. The probability notation has a greater range of application.

4.2.2 Two Types of Probability

The probability of an event can be determined using either a theoretical method or an experimental method.

The theoretical method

The theoretical method requires a detailed analysis of all the possible outcomes of an experiment. Once you can describe all of the possible outcomes, then you can state the theoretical probability of an 'event A' as:

**P(A)** = Number of ways 'event A' can occur / Total number of outcomes.

With this definition you can calculate the theoretical probability of drawing a KING from the top of a deck of shuffled cards as **P(KING)** = 4 / 52, or 0.0769.

The experimental method

The experimental method requires a large number of trials. Using the same example, in order to find the experimental probability of drawing a KING you would shuffle a deck of cards, turn over the top card and note whether it was a KING or not. Then you would repeat the experiment a large number of times. Finally you would calculate the probability as:

**P(KING)** = Number of times a KING was drawn / Total number of draws.

What constitutes a 'large number of times'? You can calculate the experimental probability after each trial, and continue making additional trials until the probability settles down to a relatively constant number. For example, after just 10 trials you may have found no KINGs, or several KINGs, and the experimental value would vary considerably from one trial to the next. But after a few hundred trials, the value of **P(KING)** would change very little after each additional trial.

The beauty of the system is that if your analysis of the situation is correct, and if your experiments are carried out correctly, then as you conduct more trials the value of the experimental probability approaches the value of the theoretical probability. The system is self-checking.

4.2.3 Applications of Probability

A few of the many applications of probability are described below.

Science

In the mid-19th century, Ludwig Boltzmann made use of probability theory in his study of the thermodynamics of gases. Boltzmann assumed that a gas was composed of molecules that bounced around in a container like tiny billiard balls. By calculating the probability of collisions of molecules, he was able to predict the pressure of a gas in a container as a function of temperature. According to his model, the pressure in a gas was result of billions of molecules bouncing of the walls of a container. The agreement between experimental and theoretical probabilities lent great weight to Boltzmann's theory.

Gambling

Pascal's original inspiration had been a problem involving gambling. Probability theory is still a cornerstone of the gambling industry. In casinos, the rules of all games of chance are biased so that the house wins about 51% of the time. Sometimes a customer wins and sometimes a customer loses, but in the long run the house makes a 2% profit on all bets.

Lotteries are another popular game of chance, frequently used in charity fund raising. In one popular lottery, a player selects six numbers from the numbers 1-through-49. It turns out that there are about 14 million ways to do that, so the probability of selecting a single winning ticket is 1 out of 14 million. For comparison, the chance of being killed by lightning in any year is about 1 in 6 million.

4.2.4 Expectations

The 'expectation' related to the outcome of an experiment is found by multiplying the probability of an event times its potential reward, or cost.

Insurance

Probabilities and expectations are fundamental concepts in the insurance industry. For example, suppose the probability of a particular type of house burning down in any given year is one in a thousand, and the owner wants insurance against such a loss. How much should the insurance cost? For an insurance company to break even, the insurance fee should be equivalent to the expected loss, or one-thousandth of the value of the house. If the probability of a house burning down is lower, the fee should be lower. The system works because an insurance company has many customers, all paying fees matched to the value of their houses and the probability of that type of house burning down. Some years there may be lots of rain, few fires, and fewer insurance claims. During other years there may be an above average number of fires. Insurance companies have to gather accurate data on the value of homes and the risk of house fires, and then use that data to calculate expectations. Similar factors apply to life insurance, and car insurance.

Estimating expectations

The ultimate contribution of probability to clear thinking occurs when you systematically make estimates of the expectations related to decisions that you are about to make.

For example, should you buy that lottery ticket? Suppose a lottery ticket costs $2, the grand prize is $20 million, and the probability of winning is one-in-14 million. Then the expectation for success is $1.43 (one-in-14 million x $20 million), while the expectation for failure is $2.00 (to the nearest cent). Over many lottery draws, you can expect to spend $2.00 in order to win $1.43. Perhaps there is $0.57 worth of entertainment in participating. At any rate, the lottery profits usually go to a good cause.

In summary, every decision involves choices, every choice has a probability of being successful, and every choice has consequences. With a basic knowledge of probability, you are more likely to pause and make an effort to analyze these factors in an objective manner.

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4.3 The Nature of Scientific Investigations

A scientific investigation involves a blend of inductive and deductive reasoning. In experimental science the emphasis is on the design of procedures and instruments, followed by systematic observations. In theoretical science the emphasis is on the deductive process of finding equations that produce the same patterns as the observations found in experimental science.

4.3.1 A Closer Look at the Scientific Method

The scientific method has been refined over the past four centuries and now represents an excellent model for clear thinking. The scientific method is a set of activities and strategies. It is a method of thinking and communicating. It is a procedure for systematically increasing our knowledge and revising our view of reality.

Modern scientific research includes the elements described below.

Accumulation of knowledge and skills

Science students spend three or four years at university as undergraduates and study subjects such as anatomy, astronomy, biology, chemistry, earth sciences, mathematics, physics, and zoology. Their studies include scientific theory and experimental techniques. After graduation those students with the interest and aptitude compete for positions at graduate school. Successful applicants then begin a multi-year program leading to a doctoral degree in a specific field. After another round of competition, successful applicants are employed in research settings in government or industry, or go on to teach and conduct research at a university.

Literature reviews

New findings are published regularly in scientific journals around the world. Scientists develop skills in reading and searching this flow of information for new concepts and approaches that apply to their field of interest.

When a scientist begins research on a new topic, the first step is a thorough search and review of all the relevant publications to determine what other researchers have already accomplished.

Focus on a specific topic

Once a review of the literature has been completed, scientists narrow their attention to a more specific topic. A particular question is identified that needs to be answered or a particular property is identified that needs to be explored further.

Experimental design

Once a topic has been selected, an experiment is designed that will allow the required data to be collected. The experiment may require new equipment and/or new procedures. Often the success of an experiment depends on an ingenious new technique or the use of new technology. New telescopes, new microscopes, new particle accelerators, new detectors, new satellites, and faster computers all provide new ways for examining the properties of nature.

Observations

The cornerstone of the scientific method is the systematic observation of phenomena. Systematic observations focus on one property at a time, under carefully controlled conditions. All observations are recorded. Anomalies are noted. The goal is to make objective and quantifiable observations, i.e. observations that are numerical readouts on instrument scales. Instruments are carefully calibrated and have known precisions. Whenever possible, experiments, and observations are repeated many times, on different occasions, and at different locations with different observers.

Observational data is often referred to as raw data – the data actually collected by reading the scales on instruments. Raw data needs to be interpreted. A voltage may represent the intensity of light. The motion of an object may be an indication of an applied force. Interpreted data is then analyzed statistically. The data is summarized in tables and graphs. Correlations and values of statistical significance are calculated and examined. There is a search for patterns in the data (an inductive process), and more observations are made to test the persistence of any patterns that are found.

Theoretical analysis

In a theoretical analysis, the data from an experiment is used to construct a model. These models are usually mathematical relationships that can reproduce the known observations and make predictions about future observations. Constructing a scientific model involves searching for the simplest set of definitions and assumptions that are needed to produce the desired results. While definitions and assumptions can be arbitrary, they are most useful when they accurately describe aspects of physical reality, such as the formation and shape of molecular bonds between atoms.

Publication

Both observational and theoretical scientists strive to publish the results of their research. Publication brings them recognition from their peers and furthers the cause of science. Published results become the grist for the next round of research.

Most scientific progress follows from refinements and extensions of accepted data and theories. As research becomes more complicated and more expensive, there is a trend for scientific investigations to be made by teams of scientists rather than individuals. As more research is carried out at more institutions around the world, it is not unusual for several teams to be working on related features of the same problem at the same time.

Disputed scientific results

When the scientific method is so elaborate, why is there sometimes controversy over the results of a scientific investigation? There may be too few observations, disagreement over the accuracy of the raw data, disagreement over the interpretation of the data, or disagreement over the assumptions used to construct a model. Most disagreements among scientists are over details, not the broad sweep of an investigation.

Sometimes the controversy over a scientific investigation is political in nature. If the results of a scientific investigation are accepted, then a change in government policy may be necessary; or an expensive project will have to be started, stopped, or altered. The arguments about the evidence for human impact on climate change tend to fall in this category.

4.3.2 Mathematics and Science

The rules and procedures of mathematics are based on logical deduction, a process that occurs totally in the minds of humans. At the same time, the procedures of science are based on systematic observations of the external world. If that is the case, how is it possible for mathematics to be so useful in describing the behaviour of the universe as discovered by science? For instance, how was it possible for Isaac Newton (1643 – 1727) and Gottfried Leibniz (1646 – 1716) to invent calculus in the 17th century, and that same calculus was able to describe the motion of moon rockets in the twentieth century?

The answer lies in the feedback that occurs between deductive and inductive thinking, and between mathematics and science. No humans, including mathematicians, are isolated from the real physical world. Everyday experience becomes an integral part of even the most abstract thinker's mental processes.

Newton created his methods for dealing with infinitesimals and anti-differentiation specifically to deal with calculations related to the motions of planets. An essential part of his genius was his skill in selecting the most appropriate definitions and postulates from which the rest of calculus could be derived.

When searching for the best mathematical equations to represent scientific observations, there are always many possibilities. Making the best choice involves a combination of 'curve fitting', and selecting the simplest equations that work over the widest range. It also helps if the selected equations have interesting features with implications for additional research.

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4.4 Building a Personal Philosophy

Philosophy is the study of the principles underlying all knowledge. Philosophers ask fundamental questions about our existence and seek universal answers. Philosophers study fields of knowledge, contemplate the implications of that knowledge, and have refined clear thinking to an art form. To the ancient Greeks, philosophy was the love of practical and theoretical wisdom. The thoughts and writings of the greatest philosophers have mirrored their own societies, and have helped to shape the subsequent thought processes of all humanity.

Not everyone has the opportunity to become a professional philosopher. Historically, philosophers were either independently wealthy or had wealthy patrons. Since the Middle-Ages, most philosophers have found employment within religious or educational institutions. A philosopher needs to have a sharp mind, a keen memory, and an insatiable curiosity.

4.4.1 A Sampling of Philosophers through the Ages

The following samples provide just a glimpse of the work by some of the world's greatest thinkers. While a sentence or two cannot possibly convey the extent and depth of a philosophy, it is hoped that these glimpses will inspire you to delve further into topics of special interest, and to contemplate the development of your own personal philosophy.

  1. Thales of Miletus (Greece, c600 BCE) – sought a naturalistic explanation for observable phenomena rather than attributing events and observed properties to the whims of gods.

  2. Carvaka (India, c600 BCE) – developed a rationalist and skeptical philosophy that emphasized the material world of the present. He rejected the Vedas (roughly the equivalent of the Hindu bible), denied the existence of an afterlife, the supernatural, and knowledge gained through experience. He proposed that the only purpose of life was to avoid pain and attain sensual pleasure.

  3. Lau Tzu (China, c600 BCE) – the founder of Taosim. The individual should seek to avoid materialism, act spontaneously, achieve inner peace, and commune with nature. People should turn away from the folly of human pursuits and instead discern and follow the natural flow of life.

  4. Pythagoras (Greece, 570 – 480 BCE) – developed a theory of music based on simple ratios and attempted to extend the use of ratios to explain the ultimate nature of reality.

  5. Kung Fu-Tzu (China, c550 BCE) – also known as Confucius. He composed The Way of Goodness that focused on the attributes one should strive for in order to stay on the path towards good conduct within a civil society. Society works best under the guidance of a good ruler. Individuals should evaluate potential actions to decide if those actions can be completed without violating what is right.

  6. Socrates (Greece, 470 - 399 BCE) – was concerned with practical questions of how we ought to conduct our lives. He asked probing questions to analyze what others claimed to know. He proposed that the greatest danger to society was the suspension of critical thought.

  7. Plato (Greece, 427 – 347 BCE) – was a student of Socrates. There is a realm of eternal forms that provides the patterns that we experience through our senses. This universal form of man was later adapted by Christianity to represent the image of God.

  8. Aristotle (Greece, 384 – 322 BCE) – was a student of Plato and a tutor of Alexander the Great. The concept of purpose could be used to explain all phenomena, and the purpose of man is to reason well in accordance with virtue. He emphasized the interpretation of nature based on observation and classification. Aristotle's reputation was such that many of his conclusions were treated as absolute truths and much of his interpretation of nature was incorporated into Christian theology. For example, placing the Earth at the centre of the universe was espoused by Aristotle, and was advocated by Christian doctrine until the Copernican revolution in the 1600's.

  9. Epicurus (Greece, 341 – 270 BCE) – supported the atomic theory of Democritus and added the concept that the observable universe was due to collisions among atoms. The pursuit of happiness was the elimination of pain, there was no afterlife, and there were no avenging gods. He formulated the problem of evil associated with the concept of an all-loving, all-knowing, all-powerful god. How can evil exist in the presence of such a being?

  10. Marcus Aurelius (Rome, 121 – 180 CE) – expressed concern for slaves, the poor, and the imprisoned. Divine will had given man the ability to reason, and it was within the grasp of man to be in concert with the rational purpose of the universe. He was a stoic and believed that the only infallible good is virtue as expressed in wisdom, justice, courage, and moderation.

  11. Al-Suhrawardi (Iran, 1154 – 1191) – developed the Illuminationist philosophy, an extended analogy between the flow of light and the complexities of life. Experience was gained through the senses and through mystical thought. To achieve self-awareness one must engage in a variety of ascetic activities such as forty-day retreats and vegetarianism.

  12. St. Thomas Aquinas (Sicily, 1225 – 1274) – explicitly reconciled the philosophy of Aristotle with that of the Catholic Church. He devised five proofs for the existence of God: there must be something that is the ultimate cause of all change; there must be a first cause; something cannot arise from nothing so there must have always been an original something; there must be some original good from which all other good is derived; and all things aims towards some ultimate goal implying that there is a guiding influence.

  13. David Hume (England, 1711 – 1776) – proposed that knowledge is based on relationships among sensory inputs. The existence of God, the self, and logical necessity are man-made creations to provide models for explaining sensory perceptions. Inductive reasoning is the process that leads us to make generalizations from observing a number of similar cases, but inductive reasoning does not necessarily lead us to the truth.

  14. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (France, 1712 – 1778) – was the leading philosopher of the enlightenment, the age of reason, and the Romantic Movement. The general will is the composite will of all citizens, with each citizen pursuing his/her own interests. He was an advocate of direct democracy to formulate the public will, and stated that individuals in a democracy had the responsibility to follow the general will. He labelled this concept the social contract.

  15. Immanuel Kant (Germany, 1728 – 1804) – had a passion for mathematics, logic, and science. He published Critique of Pure Reason (1781) in which he discussed the principles underlying objective judgements of reality. In Critique of Practical Reason (1788) he provided a rational justification for ethical judgements. In order for humans to interpret the world, the human mind has to impose structures on the stream of sensory data reaching the mind. Substance and cause/effect could only be applied within a spatial and temporal framework.

  16. Adam Smith (Scotland, 1723 – 1790) - published The Theory of Moral Sentiments and The Wealth of Nations. In a free market economy, if every individual works solely for his own benefit, then there will be unintended consequences to the benefit of society at large.

  17. Mary Wollstonecraft (England, 1759 – 1797) – was the first prominent feminist. In her book, Vindication of the Rights of Women, she states that women's natural abilities are suppressed in a male-dominated society. She called for better education for women, the abolition of the monarchy, and reduction in the powers of the Church. She declared that slavery and the ill treatment of the poor were immoral.

  18. John Stuart Mill (England, 1806 – 1873) – published A System of Logic and Utilitarianism. He claimed that the fundamental guide to moral action is the principal of greatest happiness. Individuals should strive to increase pleasure and reduce pain. Morality is sometimes required to deter specific kinds of conduct. What is right is good, and what is good promotes the greatest happiness for all.

  19. Alfred North Whitehead (England, 1861 – 1947) – co-author with Russell of Principia Mathematica. He rejected materialism. The study of science cannot be separated from its cultural, social, and political environment. Nature is simply that which is perceived. Science should address the relations between perceptual events, rather that abstract aspects of matter.

  20. John Dewey (America, 1859 – 1952) – was a pragmatist. Truth corresponds to successful rules for action. Knowledge is a state that occurs when humans develop habits of behaviour that have proven successful. He divided the reasoning process into five steps: devote effort to resolve a disturbance; extract significant elements; construct competing hypotheses; rank the hypotheses; and use experiments to weed out unacceptable hypotheses.

  21. Ludwig Wittgenstein (Vienna, 1889 – 1951) – wrote Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. He examined the connections among language, thought, and reality. The meaning of linguistic statements must be determined by the nature of the world. Words are tools that we employ to describe reality. A context is also required to convey the meaning of words.

  22. John-Paul Sartre (France, 1905 – 1980) – wrote Being and Nothingness. He was an existentialist – existence precedes essence. Man exists first and then struggles to define the meaning of life. There is no God to provide purpose; individuals have to choose the life they think best.

4.4.2 Your Personal Philosophy

We are all philosophers to some degree. We all speculate about the nature of life, the forces that govern our world, and the mysteries of the universe. For a balanced life with minimal internal conflicts, it is important to develop a personal philosophy that is consistent with your everyday activities and with your interpretation of the meaning of life.

Analyzing, organizing, and integrating your own thoughts into a philosophy of life is a very productive processes. A personal philosophy provides you with a framework for thinking about the human condition, just as a topographical map provides a cross-country hiker with information about the location of hills, waterways, roadways, bridges, forests, and swamps.

There is no standard toolbox for building a philosophy, but the following features provide a basic foundation.

Knowledge

A philosophy of life requires knowledge. A broad knowledge of the cosmos, the world, the properties of life, and the human condition are required. Without knowledge there is no basis for understanding. Knowledge of other existing philosophies is a key component in building your own philosophy. There is no need to 're-invent the wheel' and you probably do not want to repeat the mistakes of others.

Skills

A variety of thinking skills, as outlined in this chapter, is also required in the development of a personal philosophy. Without thinking skills, your knowledge is of little value.

An Understanding of cause and effect

A basic understanding of the relationships among events allows you to examine the implications of your observations. Does the appearance of a comet in the sky foretell ominous events in the affairs of men, or does it reflect on the structure of the solar system? Was there a drought last year because the rain god was displeased, or because the ocean currents had shifted? Did Aunt Martha die because someone had put a curse on her, or because her parachute failed to open?

Values

Your personal values underlie all your decisions. What is important in life? Which human behaviours are to be emulated? Which are merely acceptable, and which are to be shunned?

Ultimate Goals

What are the ultimate goals for your life, your community, and all humanity? Ultimate goals provide distant targets for you to work towards. These goals may never be reached, but they determine the direction of your efforts.

Practical properties

If your philosophy is going to serve as a guide to daily living then it should also include some very practical features.

Pragmatism

While your life's ambition is to achieve your ultimate goals, you also need more specific goals that are attainable today under your current circumstances. You have to survive today before you can meet the challenges of tomorrow.

Consistency

A philosophy should be consistent in the sense that all the parts work together. When you build an engine you don't want any parts missing, left over, or put in backwards. Building a consistent and integrated philosophy is a challenging process because your thought patterns tend to be stored separately in your brain by categories based on your physical capabilities and your past experiences. It is not a simple matter to bring all your memories, beliefs, and expectations under a single mental umbrella. However, it is worth the effort, for with a consistent view of what life is all about, you can face a variety of intellectual and social challenges with no internal conflicts. With no internal conflicts, your mind is free to concentrate its full power on the tasks at hand.

Flexibility

While a personal philosophy should be based on fundamental principles, it should also be flexible enough to accommodate new knowledge and new skills. Assuming that your philosophy is complete and without any flaws, is equivalent to assuming that you know everything and that you are always right.

Positivism

Maintaining a positive attitude encourages you to work towards your goals. Positive attitudes are based on optimism and respect: respect for yourself, for society, and for the environment. A personal philosophy should also include a sense of humour so you can laugh at your own foibles and occasionally the whims of the universe.

A personal philosophy does not have to emerge fully grown; it can be constructed bit by bit and at levels that are successively more abstract.

4.4.3 The Quest for Truth

How is finding the ultimate truth related to the four basic modes of reasoning that were reviewed at the beginning of this chapter?

In the deductive process, your conclusions follow directly from your initial definitions and assumptions. You may obtain a better understanding of the implications of those definitions and assumptions. However, since your definitions and assumptions are arbitrary, the associated deductive reasoning cannot lead to any ultimate truth.

Inductive reasoning is based on observations and probability theory. It is a pragmatic process for predicting future events, not for discovering ultimate truths.

Authoritarian edicts from this world are of the form, 'The boss says that's the way it is'. And since 'the boss' has coercive power, that is indeed the way it is – for now. Authoritarian edicts from on high are of the form, 'God told Fred, and Fred told me'. Those sources of information are not always reliable.

Emotional reasoning has the form 'that's just the way I feel about it'.

The quest for the ultimate truth continues.

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Chapter 5: Food for Thought

5.1 Evaluation of Information

5.2 Basic Statistics

5.3 Models, Theories, and Laws

5.4 The Theory of Evolution

If information is food for thought, then information that has been organized, analyzed, and evaluated provides fine cuisine.

Statistical analysis is an effective approach for organizing and evaluating information. Models, theories and laws provide useful frameworks for organizing and clarifying frequently used information.

5.1 Evaluation of Information

There is a saying in the computer business: 'Garbage in leads to garbage out' (GIGO). No matter how good your computer hardware and software, if the starting data is meaningless, then any resultant output is also going to be useless. In a similar manner, no matter how brilliantly you analyze a situation, if you start with faulty information then any conclusions will also be faulty. For clear thinking, it is essential to make every effort to ensure the quality of the information that you are dealing with.

5.1.1 Types of Information

First you have to decide what type of information you are dealing with.

Data versus information

Data is collected from basic observations; typically personal accounts or readings from instruments such as a thermometer, a ruler, or a weigh scale. Raw data does not become information until it has been filtered, processed, and interpreted.

Filtering data involves removing obvious errors (someone recorded the data in reverse order, or used the Fahrenheit rather than the Celsius scale). Processing data involves sorting data into categories, making tallies in those categories, and making preliminary calculations. In preparing your taxes you have to sort all your slips for income and all your receipts for expenditures into categories and add them up.

Interpreting data involves comparing observed data values with expected values based on past experience. Then you can make statements such as 'serious crime is down', 'poverty is up', or 'the volcano is about to erupt'.

By the time raw data has been converted into information, it has usually been massaged into a familiar format. Often this process works so well that you are not aware that information may have been subtly modified to meet your expectations. On occasion, the conversion of data can even result in information that is in conflict with reality. You need to be aware of this possibility and should always be prepared to double check data, procedures, and assumptions.

Sources of information

Information can come from a variety of sources, and each source can have its own strengths and weaknesses.

First hand versus indirect

Information can be derived from first-hand sources: people who were actually present when an event occurred, or from others who have already gathered accounts of events from a variety of sources. In history texts, most accounts are based on second or third hand descriptions, and previously published summaries.

Trained observer versus casual observer

Even a first-hand account is not necessarily a good source of information. If you have ever watched television interviews with witnesses to an event, you know that their responses tend to emphasize their own emotions and observations from a narrow point of view. In contrast, trained observers look for significant factors in the events taking place around them.

Suppose a meteor has just crashed into a parking lot. A casual observer might say, 'I was just coming out of the laundromat when there was this bright flash of light over that way and then there was a loud crash and dirt was flying everywhere. The dog next door started to howl.' A trained observer might be able to add, 'There was a flash of light in the north-east, brighter than the Sun, accompanied by a roar like a freight train, followed by an impact in the parking lot that left a hole about two metres deep and twice as wide. The ground was so hot the asphalt was melted for another three metres around the crater.'

Measured versus estimated

Information based on measurements is generally more accurate than personal estimates. An instrument simply provides numbers on a standard scale, without any emotional content. Records of instrument readings tend to remain constant over time, whereas mental estimates tend to vary in the direction of the more dramatic over time.

The information in the meteor impact example would have been even more reliable if an observer had used instruments to measure the path of the meteor, the size of the crater, and the temperature of the surroundings.

Unique versus repeatable

Information can be based on unique one-time events such as an artistic performance, or the devastation of an earthquake. If you were not there at that time, you missed the event and have to rely on the accounts of others.

Most of our information about the world around us is derived from continuous or frequent events, such as the height of tides or the magnitude of the electric charge on an electron. Observations that can be repeated and measured with instruments are generally more reliable.

Ultimately the interpretation of data involves assumptions, analysis, experience, and judgement. It is still possible for different people to reach diverse conclusions based on the same original data.

5.1.2 Quantity and Quality of Information

The quantity and quality of data available have a direct impact on your ability to solve any related problems. Fans of the old television series, Star Trek, will recall that the computer on the star-ship Enterprise often responded to queries with the phrase 'insufficient data' when asked to interpret a perplexing event.

If you were a travel agent, your ability to serve your customers would depend on the range, depth, and accuracy of your knowledge of holiday possibilities. Recommending a beach resort that turned out to be a motel on a rocky shore between two parking lots would not generate many repeat customers.

Sources

The source of new information should be one of your first concerns. Where did the information come from? Can that information be verified by other sources? Where did those sources get their information? Are the sources distinct, or do they all ultimately derive from one source? If so, can that one source be trusted? As a particular item becomes more pivotal in your thinking, it becomes more important for you to confirm that its sources are reliable and independent.

The most reliable information that you can work with is information that you can personally verify. You can talk to the people involved, you can repeat the experiments, you can examine the instruments, and you can test the techniques used to analyze the data.

Accuracy and errors

When the term 'accurate' is used to describe information, the implication is that the information is essentially correct.

Observations of physical events always include a variety of possible errors. Errors can be random. For example, if part of an instrument is loose or broken, every measurement can lead to a slightly different result. Errors can be systematic. For example, the end of a ruler maybe worn and then every measurement indicates a length that is slightly too short. Errors can be due to carelessness. For example, a worker may be tired and simply forget to complete one several steps in a procedure.

A golfer estimates the distance to a green, wind speed, and wind direction before selecting a club, lining up the shot, and swinging the club with the required velocity. Each of those estimates and actions have associated errors. The resulting distance between the ball and the pin provides a concrete measurement of the accuracy for the whole procedure.

Consistency

A procedure is consistent when the same results are obtained over several trials. At a driving range, a golfer's drives are consistent if they all land relatively close to each other. For example, if nine out of ten drives landed to the left and in front of a target, one could say the golfer's shots were very consistent, not necessarily accurate, but consistent. Consistency is generally good, because then you can make systematic corrections to improve accuracy. The golfer can adjust her direction of swing towards the right and increase the club velocity slightly. The results should then be both consistent and accurate.

Level of complexity

Some information can be obtained by a simple observation. You can stick your hand out the window to determine if it is raining right now.

Other information may require several observations, assumptions, calculations, and/or indirect measurements. Information derived from complex processes can also be subtle and require several levels of interpretation. For example, before a chemist can describe the average velocity of the atoms in a gas he first has to identify the types of atoms in the gas, measure the temperature and pressure of the gas, and then calculate the average velocity predicted by the 'speed distribution law for gases'.

Bias

All information has a bias of some kind. All humans generate their own biased view of the world and, intentionally or not, add some of that bias to information that passes through their hands. Your neighbour to the south adds a personal slant when talking about your neighbour to the north. A broadcaster adds bias to the news when selecting which items to include in the evening news. Politicians add bias to information in order to improve their chances of re-election. Theologians bias information to support their views of redemption. Scientists profess to be objective, but on occasion still add subtle bias to information so that it supports their own hard won views of the universe.

Even the reading on your outdoor thermometer on the back porch is biased. Is the thermometer in the shade or in sunlight? Is it near the ground or up near the rafters? How quickly does it adjust to changes in temperature? How accurately does the reading on the thermometer represent the temperature of the air on the other side of the porch, or across the lawn?

Your challenge is to attain a reasonable assessment of the bias for any particular source of information, and to estimate how that bias may affect your sense of judgement. You should avoid making far-reaching decisions without first taking the bias in your information into account.

5.1.3 A Skeptical Approach

It is often useful to retain a skeptical approach to information. Any new information may in fact be correct, it may be close to correct, or it may be totally incorrect.

How can you distinguish between a new concept that has great potential, and a fraudulent or foolish concept? A skeptical evaluation is based on examining the authority of the source, the quantity, quality, accuracy, and consistency of the information; and whether the proposed interpretation falls within the bounds of accepted theories. When new information is controversial then higher standards of skepticism should be met before it is accepted.

It is not always an easy task to separate unbelievable claims from bizarre, but possibly correct assertions. The Skeptics Society (www.skeptic.com) has taken that task as its primary function and provides a valuable resource for anyone wondering about a scheme or theory that sounds too amazing to be true.

Most novel theories are ultimately proven to be unfounded. However, every now and then a new theory is initially rejected for lack of convincing evidence, but is ultimately proved correct. For example, in 1915 Alfred Wegener, a Swedish geologist, published The Origin of Continents and Oceans in which he proposed the theory of continental drift. Wegener had collected evidence showing that about 300 million years ago the continents of Earth had all once been part of a super-continent that he called Pangaea. His evidence included the shapes of today's continents that fit together like a giant jig-saw puzzle, and matching rock formations, fossils and plants at corresponding points on the boundaries of the present continents. Wegener's evidence was interesting but it was not convincing. His contemporaries ridiculed his theory because he was unable to explain how the continents could move over the surface of the Earth. Then in the 1950's, explorations in the deep Atlantic Ocean provided evidence that the ocean floor was spreading outwards from a mid-Atlantic ridge – causing North and South America to separate from Europe and Africa. By the 1960's this new evidence led to the general acceptance of Wegener's theory of continental drift.

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5.2 Basic Statistics

When data is systematically sorted, arranged, and analyzed its general character becomes more apparent and any patterns within it become more obvious.

Statistics is the branch of mathematics concerned with the collection and analysis of numerical information. Statistical analysis proceeds through three stages:

  1. Sorting and organizing data

  2. Preparing summaries of trends in the data

  3. Searching for correlations and making predictions.

Each successive stage becomes a little more complicated but provides additional information. Statistical information is used extensively in the realms of finance, government, industry, science, meteorology, and sports. Statistical information is often used to clarify and support explanations and arguments in everyday events.

Clear thinkers need to have a basic understanding of statistical concepts so that they are better able to evaluate the significance of such explanations and arguments.

5.2.1 Sorting and Organizing

Sorting and organizing are the most basic statistical operations. Folding laundry and putting away the dinner dishes are simple examples of sorting and organizing. Other simple procedures such as alphabetizing, and arranging from smallest to largest, from earliest to latest, or from most expensive to least expensive can also achieve useful results. When there is a lot of data to organize and sort, the actual procedures may be dull, but the results can be significant.

Here are a few examples:

  1. Collectors of all types organize their collections. Philatelists (stamp collectors) organize their stamps by country, by year, by subject matter, by quality, and/or by value so they can show off their collections, locate specific stamps already in their collections, and know which stamps are still needed to complete portions of their collections.

  2. During every business day at any major stock exchange, millions of shares in thousands of corporations are traded. Summarizing and organizing all that information is completed daily and the results are published in the business sections of newspapers. Potential investors can then check the newspaper listings for any stocks of interest and find the highest and lowest prices for the year, the highest and lowest prices for the previous business day, and the total number of shares traded in any listed stock on the previous day.

  3. In 1735 Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish biologist, first published his Systema Naturae. Through several editions, he developed a system for classifying and naming all living things that is still used today. His naming conventions were eagerly adopted and biologists around the world were able to use the same name to describe the same living organisms. Using Linnaeus' system, the similarities and differences of over 2.5 million species became more apparent, laying the foundation for Darwin's theory of evolution.

  4. In 1869 Dimitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, published his scheme for organizing the known elements according to their atomic weight and their chemical properties. He demonstrated that when the elements were arranged by atomic mass, their basic chemical properties tended to repeat with a regular pattern. He accurately predicted that new elements would be discovered with specific weights and properties, to fill gaps in his scheme. The arrangement of elements in the table provided vital clues to understanding the electron shell structure of atoms. Every chemistry student still studies the periodic table as a basic guide to the properties of the elements.

In many areas specialists have already organized and published standard knowledge. For clear thinkers, there are great benefits to be gained in mastering these systems. There are still other situations in which creating your own system for sorting and organizing data can provide significant benefits.

5.2.2 Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics involves preparing graphs, calculating representative numbers, and calculating measures of consistency. The methods of descriptive statistics are designed to summarize collections of numbers so that any key patterns, or trends, become more obvious.

Even if you never create your own descriptive statistics, being able to understand averages and charts, and their limitations, is an essential skill in the modern world.

Charts

Charts and graphs are constructed to summarize and illustrate the essence of collected data. Bar graphs are useful for illustrating changes in data from one period to the next. Pie charts are useful for emphasizing how a total quantity is divided up - such as an annual budget, voter preferences, or the contents of the universe. Line graphs are used to illustrate trends that occur as variables are changed. Line graphs are typically used to show the price variations of a company's stock over time.

The type of graph and the range of the graph's scales are normally chosen to best illustrate the key features of the data. A note of caution – just as a digital photograph can be compressed or stretched to make the same person look skinny or fat, the scales on a graph can be selected to make trends in the same data look large or small.

A frequency distribution graph is particularly useful in descriptive statistics. The various possible values of a parameter are divided into categories and are shown on the horizontal axis. The frequency with which items are found in each category is shown on the vertical axis. For example, the manager of a fast food restaurant might make a frequency distribution graph for the average number of donuts sold on each weekday. He could then use that information to decide how many donuts to bake for Friday's customers. If he bakes too many there will be leftovers, if he does not bake enough he may lose customers.

When there are many categories, a frequency distribution graph typically takes the form of a hill. The highest point on the hill represents the most frequent value. A tall narrow hill indicates a strong central tendency in the data. A low broad hill indicates that the data is more evenly distributed. A normal distribution is a symmetrical frequency distribution graph and has many applications in statistics.

Representative numbers

Sometimes you want to reduce a whole set of data to a single number – the average annual income, the average temperature in July, or the percent of the population that is over age sixty-five.

Finding the average value, or mean, is the simplest and most frequently used computation in descriptive statistics. You just add up all the individual values and then divide by the number of values. If three different workers earn $10, $12 and $17 per hour, then their average wage is $13 per hour.

Sometimes not every value has the same importance and a 'weighted mean' is more appropriate. Suppose you scored 15/20, 45/100, and 33/50 on three math tests. What is your average math score? If you assume the tests have equal value, then you could convert each score to a percent: 75%, 45%, and 66%, and then average those scores to obtain 62%. If you assume that the tests should be weighted according to the number of marks available, i.e. a 'big test' should be worth more than a 'quiz', then you could add up all the marks earned and divide by the total marks available to obtain a weighted average of 55%.

There are two other approaches that can be used to represent a whole set of data with a single number.

When all your data is arranged in order, from the smallest to the largest, the number in the middle of the list is the 'median'. There are as many numbers smaller than the median as there are larger numbers. The median of the numbers: 23, 44, 47, 72, 81 is 47.

When a set of data is arranged in order, it is easy to see if some values are repeated. If there is a most frequent value, it is called the 'mode'. The mode corresponds to the most probable result if one data item is selected at random from a whole set of values.

Average values are used in a variety of applications. Insurance companies use data on the average ages of death to construct mortality tables and set appropriate insurance rates. Clothing designers use data on average body dimensions to determine the range of clothing sizes to manufacture. Chemists use average values to describe the properties of chemical compounds.

Statistical consistency

The spread of values in a set of data is an important property of that data. If the values are fairly close together, then the data can be thought of as consistent. If the values are scattered over a wide range, then the data can be thought of as inconsistent. Consider the following two cases:

  1. Fred earns $10 per hour and Martha earns $90 per hour. Their average wage is $50 per hour, with a wide range of $80.

  2. Bob earns $49 per hour and Natasha earns $51 per hour. Their average wage is also $50 per hour, but the range is just $2.

A simple technique for indicating the spread of the original values involves listing the differences between the original values and the average, and then averaging those differences to find the 'mean deviation'. The average wage in the first case is then $50 ± $40 ($50 plus-or-minus $40), and in the second case is $50 ± $1.

5.2.3 Inferential Statistics

The methods of inferential statistics are used to make predictions and estimates:

  1. Predictions about future trends, assuming that current trends continue

  2. Estimates of the characteristics of a whole population, based on data collected from a representative sample.

Probability theory is used along with inferential statistics to set limits on the accuracy of any predictions or estimates.

The first part of a weather report is typically devoted to describing the weather events that have already occurred today – sunshine, rain, winds, or storms (descriptive statistics). The second part of a weather report is typically devoted to predicting the weather for tomorrow, and perhaps the rest of the week (inferential statistics). For example, 'there is a 40% chance of rain by the end of the week.'

Random samples

In many situations it is difficult, or impossible, to gather information from every member of a population. In a pre-election poll it would be very expensive and time consuming to ask every voter in the country for his or her political preferences, and then repeat the survey every week during an election campaign. If you were testing the crash worthiness of automobiles, it would be pointless to crash-test every car to make sure it was safe. The concept of a sample is fundamental to inferential statistics. A sample is a collection of items that is selected at random to represent a whole population. In a pre-election poll, perhaps 1000 voters from across the country are asked for their political preferences. Perhaps fewer than ten cars of a production model are crash tested each year to demonstrate the safety features of that model.

The notion of random selection is a key feature of a sample. A 'random sample' implies that there is no bias in the selection of the sample items; every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. If you asked people applying for hunting licenses for their views on gun control, their replies would probably not be representative of the whole population.

Limits on predictions

When inferential statistics are used to make a prediction or an estimate, the results are likely to be more accurate when they are based on a larger random sample and when the data collected is more consistent.

Calculating the limits on the accuracy of a prediction or estimate can be a bit complicated. For example, a poll of the Canadian electorate in March 2007 found that the Conservative Party had the support of 38% of the voters. This number was followed by the phrase "within 3 percent, nineteen times out of twenty". Perhaps only 1000 out of twenty million potential voters were sampled. Data from the 1000 responses would then have been used to construct a model of the whole population. Finally, with the aid of probability theory, it was estimated that if the same poll were repeated twenty times, only once would the result indicate that support for the Conservative Party was outside the range 38% ± 3%, or from 35% to 41%.

A basic understanding of statistical methods has at least two distinct advantages. First, it is very useful to be able to grasp and evaluate what others are describing with statistics. Second, when used properly, statistical methods provide clear information, with known ranges of errors, about the world we live in. Statistical results should be cherished when they are based on objective data gathering and analysis.

5.2.4 Interpreting the Validity of Statistical Arguments

"There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics" (a remark often attributed to Mark Twain)

Numerical data and statistics are generally regarded as reliable information. Unfortunately, vested interests often make deliberate efforts to distort statistical information in order to support their own causes. Here are a few examples.

Emphasize and omit

The simplest technique for distorting statistical results is to emphasize particular aspects of a wider statistical study, while omitting other aspects. For example, on 17 February 2006, President Bush (USA) announced, "About twenty-five million seniors have signed up for this new plan since January 1st", referring to a new Medicare prescription drug plan. The intent was to emphasize that large numbers of seniors had signed up for the plan at that time. However, the Boston Globe reported that the "actual number of volunteer enrollees is much smaller, about five million" (http://thinkprogress.org ). The other twenty million seniors had been automatically enrolled, or already had drug coverage from their former company's health plan. The figure of twenty-five million was not incorrect, but was misleading in the way it was used.

Select a biased sample

Another technique is to deliberately select biased samples. For example, in 2004 the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) conducted a survey of Internet users and published the result that "24% of Internet users download pirated movies". A criticism of this MPAA finding was later published at a number of websites. The MPAA implied that their finding applied to all Internet users while their survey sample included only users with broadband access (less than 50% of all users at that time). The MPAA also characterized all downloads of video material as pirated, whether it was or not. The sample was deliberately biased so that the result would lead to a perceived higher percentage of pirated downloads.

Create your own data

In some cases outright fraud is used to produce faulty statistical results. For example, on 11 January 2006, the scientific journal Nature reported a story from South Korea. The renowned scientist Woo-Suk Hwang had been charged with fabricating data to support his work involving the cloning of embryos and stem cells. Apparently, in two major studies Hwang's data had been deliberately fraudulent.

There is some comfort to be derived from the fact that all of the above examples were detected because of the inherent nature of statistical information. If anyone carries out a statistical investigation or quotes statistical results of any significance, that information can be checked and verified.

The bottom line is that statistics provides the best-known set of tools for garnering evidence about the state of the human condition and the state of the universe. However, we still need to use caution when we are presented with statistical results. There are some who would misuse statistics to distort information. Those same people attempt to hide their distortions behind the prestige generally associated with statistical methods.

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5.3 Models, Theories, and Laws

Models, theories, and laws are designed to make things clear and simple. They are used in all branches of science and technology to explain and summarize patterns that have been observed in nature. As simplifying concepts models, theories, and laws are fundamental aids to clear thinking.

5.3.1 Models

A model is just an extended analogy between a real world system and a simpler system. The simpler system has been chosen, or designed, so that it still has many of the essential aspects of the real world version.

There are three general types of models:

  1. The real world is reduced to a simpler model. For example, toy trains and airplanes are smaller and simpler versions of real world trains and airplanes.

  2. A model is first created and then used to build something in the real world. Architects often create a model of a new building, then draw plans that can be used to construct the actual building. Historically, designers of sailing ships carved a small model of a hull with a pleasing and effective shape. Then they drew lines on the model to simulate the location of ribs, took measurements along those lines, multiplied by a suitable scale factor, and created patterns for the actual ribs that would form the framework of a working ship.

  3. A model is designed using all the relevant information, and then studied to gain additional insights about the real world. An astrophysicist starts with observations of a variable star, and then combines that information with knowledge of gravitational fields, nuclear reactions, magnetic fields, and energy transfer to build a mathematical model of the star's interior structure. If the mathematical behaviour of the model can be adjusted to match the observed behaviour of the star, then the astrophysicist gains a greater understanding of why and how the brightness of a star varies over time.

Models of the third can be physical: "Let this basketball be the Earth, and this baseball be the Moon". Or models of the third thype can be abstract: "Let P be profit, S be the selling price, and C be the cost, then P = S – C". These models can also be quite complicated. An urban designer can prepare a model of an entire city. A physicist can develop a set of complex equations to describe the electron structure of an atom.

Constructing a model is a powerful technique for understanding and explaining sets of relationships, but a model is not an absolute description of reality. It is an organizing principle that includes all the available information. The success of a model depends on your knowledge of the real world and your skills at model building.

The scale-of-application for a model is another important factor that is not always appreciated. For example, viewed from across the room you can see the beautiful patterns in a Persian carpet, but from right in front of your nose you may only detect a random collection of coloured knots of wool. A model of a crystal cannot be scaled down to explain the structure of quarks in the nucleus of an atom, nor scaled up to explain the structure of the solar system.

Successful models often go through systematic revisions as technology allows more accurate, more extensive, and subtler observations to be made.

For example, the model of the Earth as a flat surface is a good approximation for most daily events. We plant gardens, build buildings, drive to work, and construct maps covering hundreds of square miles – based on the assumption that the world is flat. Although we know there are hills and valleys, the mental model of our local environment as a flat plane is simple and effective. However, when larger distances are involved and more accurate observations are made, a sphere is a better model of the Earth. Ships sailing out to sea disappear over the horizon, and television signals travelling in a straight line can only be detected for about 100 km before they are lost behind the curvature of the Earth. The location of Polaris (the North Star) shifts higher in the sky as you travel along the curved surface of the Earth towards the North Pole. Even more precise measurements are required for studying the geophysics of the Earth and for planning the orbits of near-Earth satellites. Then the world is revealed to be not a sphere, but an oblate spheroid. It is slightly squashed at the poles with a few lumps here and there.

Chapters 6 and 7 are devoted to building a model of the mind that is of the third type.

5.3.2 Theories

A theory presents a simplified pattern that connects a wide range of observations. The pattern of a theory makes related information easier to understand and provides a means to make predictions about future observations. A new observation can be used either to check an old observation, or to test the theory in a range where no other observations have been made.

A model of a theory

Joining the dots on a page to create a line drawing is an interesting child's game. 'Is it a dog or a canary?' When there are only a few dots, you can draw just about any figure. The outcome becomes more obvious as the number of dots increases.

The process of joining-the-dots provides a good model for the first stages in constructing a theory. Instead of drawing a line figure to connect dots, a theory builder looks for a mathematical relationship that will connect all the known information.

Proving a theory

A theory is only useful because it helps us to make sense out of a collection of information, or a variety of observations. The best demonstration for the validity of a theory occurs when the theory is used to make predictions that are verified by later observations.

However, a theory cannot be proved true for all cases simply because you can never test all possible cases. Proving that a theory is always true is like proving your great-grandmother was always honest. You can provide evidence for hundreds of situations in which your great-grandmother was perfectly honest, and reasonably conclude that she was a model citizen, but you cannot prove that she never, ever, told a white lie or borrowed a turnip from her neighbour's garden without authorization.

In contrast, a theory can be disproved with a single counter example.

There are at least two styles of theories: informal and formal.

Informal theories

Informal theories are based on casual observations and intuitive analysis. We create and use informal theories all the time. For example, you might theorize that the floor in front of you will remain solid and your next footstep will not pass through it. You might theorize that since it is 8 o'clock on Tuesday night, your favourite television show should be on Channel 6 right now. Most informal theories are subject to revision when contrary evidence is encountered.

Many ancient religions embraced informal theories about the workings of the world. The capricious natures of storms, earthquakes, and volcanoes were often attributed to the fickle behaviour of human-like gods. Many ancient religions also supported the concept that a king had been chosen by the local god to rule the land as the god's representative. The king thus assumed divine powers. Religious theories, however, were seldom open to review even when they ran into disagreement with more accurate observations of nature.

Formal theories

Formal theories are based on careful observations that have been repeated over time, and patterns are often expressed using mathematics. A formal theory is only useful because it provides a consistent structure for a growing array of observations. A formal theory is often widely published to deliberately invite criticism, testing with new observations, and additional refinements.

Making precise observations, then creating and testing theories sounds like a lot of work. It is! That is how scientists earn their living. Scientists spend years learning the appropriate background material. They design specialized equipment to make accurate and precise measurements. They expend great efforts in sifting and analyzing data in search of new patterns. The creation of a new theory can be the culmination of a lifetime's work. It is most satisfying when a new theory unites disparate concepts, stands up to intense scrutiny, and makes predictions that are verified by new observations.

Another important property of theories

In order for a particular theory to acquire general usefulness it has to have another important property – it has to mesh with other accepted concepts, facts, and theories. Successful theories are not created in isolation. Successful theories fit into a set of mutually supportive theories, each based on the best observational evidence available.

A successful theory of nutrition has to explain which foods are best to eat, and also has to mesh with what we know about the human digestive system, the biology of living things, organic chemistry, and ecosystems on Earth. When a theory of nutrition provides a concise summary of everything we know about food, and is also consistent with related observations and concepts, then we can have confidence in the conclusions and predictions based on that theory.

The value of theories

Theories provide a framework for relating a large number of otherwise isolated facts. Theories provide a systematic approach for summarizing existing knowledge, thus making it easier to learn, understand, and apply that knowledge. Existing theories provide challenging opportunities for other investigators to seek new information that will confirm those theories, lead to revisions, or lead to whole new theories.

A well-tested theory may be one of the ultimate products of clear thinking.

5.3.3 Laws of Nature

'Law of nature' is a term sometimes used to describe basic properties that are easily stated, or can be expressed by a simple equation. Scientifically, there is no distinction between the authority of a theory and a law of nature.

A law of nature can also describe a single aspect of a more general theory. For example 'Hooke's Law' is a simple equation describing the force required to extend a spring, and is part of a larger theory of material science. Similarly, 'Snell's Law of Refraction' can be described by a simple equation, and is one part of a larger theory of optics. Snell's Law has a wide range of applications, from the design of lenses in reading glasses, to the cut that will give a diamond maximum sparkle.

A law of nature may be so pervasive that it becomes an umbrella structure for a whole theory. For example, although 'Newton's law of universal gravitation' can be expressed by a simple equation, it also defines the fundamental notion of Newtonian gravity – that every mass in the universe is attracted to every other mass in a very predictable manner.

The term 'law of nature' also implies that a relationship applies for all time, and in all places. Of course, one has to be aware that no law of nature has ever been tested for all time and in all places. In fact, after 300 years of successful applications, Newton's universal law of gravitation was rewritten to become a component of Einstein's theory of general relativity.

Despite the sometimes-confusing use of terminology, the concepts described by models, theories, and laws are very efficient approaches for organizing and summarizing large amounts of data. A successful model, theory, or law helps you to make sense out of a collection of individual cases, and provides direction in exploring untested but related cases.

5.3.4 Paradigms

A 'paradigm' can be defined as a system of related assumptions and values that determine your outlook or approach to associated matters. The paradigm of modern public education in the western world includes the concepts of a classroom full of students with a teacher standing at the front, with daily lessons, and with tests that measure the learning progress of the students. When assumptions or values replace old ones, the phrase 'paradigm shift' is sometimes used.

Often we are not aware that we are operating within a paradigm. We often assume that our existing situation and view of the world represent the natural order of things.

Some paradigms can be quite constructive. The concept of the rule of law and the concept of inalienable human rights are valuable paradigms fostered by the United Nations.

Some paradigms can have quite negative consequences. For thousands of years:

  1. The economic paradigm of slavery was accepted world wide.

  2. Beating children and wives was accepted as a natural part of a man's behaviour.

  3. Social classes were (and often still are) used to determine a person's social worth.

Once a paradigm is pervasive in your environment, it is very difficult to realize when and how your thinking is being biased by that paradigm. One approach to detecting paradigms is to read broadly from authors in different settings. Often you will be surprised to see that it is possible to take a completely different approach to the same situation. One of the goals of clear thinking is to identify, and counter, the effects of baseless and negative paradigms. Once such a paradigm is recognized, you can make appropriate corrections to your own thought processes, and over time you can try to clarify the perceptions of society at large.

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5.4 The Theory of Evolution

The theory of evolution is one of the ultimate scientific theories and is the cornerstone of our understanding of life processes on Earth. As such, it is worth special consideration in the final section of this chapter.

During the age of European exploration, biological specimens were collected from all over the world. Once the specimens arrived in Europe, naturalists began the systematic classification of these plants and animals using the naming scheme proposed by Carl Linnaeus. The subtle differences between related species were the cause of much speculation. Apparently conditions in nature could lead to selective breeding of plants and animals.

The creation of whole new species via evolution was considered by a number of biologists, but initially there was no agreement as to a possible mechanism. Then in 1859, Charles Darwin published The Origin of Species. Darwin summarized the existing evidence for the evolution of life and proposed 'natural selection' as the mechanism that made it work. Since that time, the theory of evolution has been refined to include data and theories from a wide range of scientific investigations.

We know that species can become extinct. In fact, during the past few centuries humans have been the active agents in killing off all the members of several species such as the dodos birds, carrier pigeons, and moa birds.

We know that selective reproduction can alter the average characteristics of a species. For thousands of years farmers have applied selective breeding to obtain more productive plants and animals.

We also know that species can evolve without human intervention. One or more new versions of the influenza virus evolve each year requiring the creation of new vaccines for immunizations. One of the reasons that the AIDS virus is so difficult to treat is because it evolves so rapidly in a patient's body that today's treatment may not work tomorrow. In 2006 there was great concern that a new virus attacking the bird populations of the world would evolve into a contagious human form.

Evolution is more complicated than 'survival of the fittest', but once the necessary ingredients are understood, evolution loses much of its mystery and can be regarded as a natural part of life.

5.4.1 Pre-conditions for Evolution

The evolution of living things requires a number of pre-conditions. These pre-conditions are not causes of evolution, but set the stage and allow the actual mechanisms of evolution to operate.

Pre-condition #1: Reproduction of cells

Robert Hooke first detected cells in a thin slice of cork in 1665 using a microscope of his own construction. Investigations over the next two hundred years yielded more knowledge about the basic structure of all living things, and in 1838, Schleiden and Schwann published the cell theory . In modern terms, the cell theory states that:

  1. All living things are composed of cells

  2. New cells are formed by the division of pre-existing cells

  3. All cells share fundamental chemical compounds and metabolic activities

  4. The activity of an organism is the sum of the activities of its individual cells.

The mechanisms of cell division are of particular importance for understanding the theory of evolution. Every cell contains a structure called the nucleus. Within the nucleus, all the instructions to control the activity of the cell are contained in a few dozen pairs of chromosomes (23 pairs in humans). Under a microscope a chromosome appears as a short lumpy string of material. Biologists have determined that chromosomes contain thousands of substructures called genes made of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and that the genes control inherited traits. In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick determined that DNA molecules consist of two long chains held together in a double spiral structure, and that the chains are formed from just four simple organic compounds. The arrangements of these compounds along the double helix of DNA contain the code of life.

In cell division, each DNA structure unwinds into two long chains. Each chain then rebuilds the missing half from extra material in the cell, to form a new double helix of DNA. Then the two sets of DNA move to opposite ends of the cell, the middle of the cell contracts and the parent cell divides into two daughter cells. Each new daughter cell has a complete set of DNA. Any minor alteration in the replication of a cell's DNA that is not fatal, is a mutation that is passed on to all future generations of that cell.

Pre-condition #2: Capacity for rapid population growth

Plants and animals have a tremendous capacity for reproduction.

Every tree has the reproductive potential to cover the entire Earth in just a few generations. For example, each year a single apple tree produces over a thousand apples. And each of these apples is capable of producing a whole new apple tree, if it happens to fall on fertile ground. It takes about fifteen years for an apple tree to reach maturity, so in fifteen years the first year's apples could create a thousand more mature second-generation trees. Those trees could produce a million new trees a year; and so on. Just counting the newly matured trees at 15 year intervals, in 60 years a single apple tree could produce enough new trees to cover all the land on Earth.

In the animal kingdom, consider the racoon. A female racoon reaches maturity in two years, and after that can produce six kits a year. Suppose we started with five pairs of racoons and they produced six kits a year for ten years, then we would have over two thousand baby racoons. In thirty-eight years we would have over seven billion baby racoons. That's more than enough for every person on Earth to have a pet racoon.

If all life has such a fantastic potential for growth why aren't we up to our eyeballs in apple trees and racoons? Not all offspring survive. Disease, starvation, accidents, and battles over territory devastate the numbers in each new generation of every organism, from earthworms to humans. However, given a chance, any organism is ready to burst out from these restrictions and to populate the Earth with its descendants.

Pre-condition #3: Variations of characteristics in a family

Within every one of us resides the potential to produce offspring with a wide range of characteristics.

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes in every cell in their bodies; one of each pair comes from the father and one from the mother. When an egg cell is created in the ovaries of a female it includes just element from each pair of chromosomes. Since the selection from each pair is random, there are over 8 million (2 to the power of 23) possible combinations for creating an egg cell. A similar process occurs in the production of sperm cells in the testicles of a man. When a sperm fertilizes an egg, the corresponding chromosomes reform as DNA pairs. There are an amazing 70 000 billion (2 to the power of 46) ways to achieve this. A single couple has the theoretical capability to produce billions of unique children.

Pre-condition #4: Variations of characteristics in a population

In a large population composed of many families, any measurable characteristic is found to vary over a wide range of values. For example, suppose you measured the weight of a million adult European males and constructed a frequency graph of the results. You might find that weights ranged from less than 45 kg (100 lb) to more than 180 kg (400 lb), with most individuals in the 70 kg (154 lb) to 110 kg (242 lb) range. You could conduct similar studies of any characteristic, such as the strength of index fingers or the ability to hear soft sounds, and you would obtain similarly shaped distribution graphs.

Pre-condition #5: Time and the age of the Earth

Evolution requires extended periods of time, corresponding to thousands of generations.

The order of significant events in the geological history of the Earth is recorded in layers of rock. You can see these layers in any cliff or eroded bluff. More impressive layers can be seen across larger features such as the Alps in Switzerland or along the walls of the Grand Canyon in Arizona. Layers are visible because they have different textures and contain different types of minerals.

Geologists have developed a classification system to describe the relative ages in Earth's history based on the structure of these layers in the Earth's crust. This system describes the Earth's history in eons, eras, periods, and epochs. Eons are the largest chunks of time; periods are the shortest. Geologists and prospectors have used their knowledge of rock layers to discover and trace the seams and veins of valuable mineral deposits.

Some layers of rock contain fossils. A fossil is the mineralized remains of an ancient plant or animal. Specific types of fossils tend to occur in specific layers, and the layers can cover extensive regions. For example, the Burgess Shale in Yoho National Park in British Columbia has been declared a World Heritage Site because it contains a wide range of fossil invertebrate animals from the Middle Cambrian age. Layers of sedimentary rock from the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods are famous for the fossilized dinosaur bones they contain.

How can the actual age of these layers and the Earth be estimated? Several approaches have been tried. In 1650 Archbishop James Ussher of Armagh published the results of his analysis of the Bible, correlated with Babylonian history, in which he determined that the world was created in 4004 BCE. The work of Ussher was a valid interpretation of the available historical data. His notion, that a rational process could be used to determine the age of the Earth, inspired many future investigations of the same question.

In 1779 the French naturalist Comte du Buffon estimated the age of the Earth to be 75 000 years. This age was based on experiments exploring the cooling of the Earth from an original molten state. In 1862, the physicist William Thomson refined this method and found an age for the Earth between 20 and 400 million years. In 1899, John Joly estimated the age of the Earth to be 90 million years based on the rate at which salt accumulated in the oceans.

Radioactivity was discovered in 1896. When an atom decays by emitting radiation, it is transformed into another type of atom, and the rate at which this happens can be measured in the laboratory. Knowledge of the rates of decay for radioactive material can be used to determine how much time has elapsed since a rock was in the molten state. For radiometric dating of rocks the most useful reactions involve the transformation of uranium into lead. The age of a rock sample can be determined by comparing the relative amounts of lead and uranium that the rock contains. The oldest rocks on Earth found with this method are about 4.55 billion years old.

Using models of stellar evolution, astrophysicists estimate the age of the Sun at 5 billion years. And based on additional astronomical observations, cosmologists estimate the age of the whole universe to be about 13 billion years. So an age of 4.55 billion years for the Earth is consistent with basic astronomical data.

This age for the Earth can then be used to date the geological periods based on rock layers, and the fossils in the corresponding layers can also be dated. The oldest fossils of bacteria are thus estimated to be about 3.5 billion years old. The oldest creatures such as worms and trilobites are about 550 million years old. The dinosaurs roamed Earth during the period from 250 to 65 million years ago. The oldest hominoid fossils have been found in Early Miocene deposits (22 million years old) in Kenya.

If an average human generation spans 22 years, then there have been about a million generations for human evolution to take place.

Pre-Condition #6: Energy

It takes energy to power life. Plants gather their energy from sunlight, herbivores harvest the sun-energy stored in plants, and carnivores harvest the sun-plant-energy collected by herbivores. Living forms are more successful when they are more effective in gathering and converting the available energy to grow and reproduce.

With an understanding of the six pre-conditions described above, we are ready to delve into the actual mechanisms of evolution.

5.4.2 Evolution at Work

There are four active mechanisms that lead to the evolution of species.

Mechanism #1: Competition

The mechanism of competition corresponds to Darwin's 'survival of the fittest'. Plants compete for water, sunlight, and the attention of insects to pollinate them. Animals compete for food, territory, and mates. Individuals have to compete with members of their own species, as well as other species for the limited life-giving resources they can find. In stable conditions, the growth potential of every species ensures that there are always more offspring produced than can possibly survive. Only the toughest, luckiest, and most adaptable individuals make it to adulthood. The average characteristics of a species become precisely the characteristics that maximize an individual's chances of survival under the prevailing conditions.

In many species, it has been observed that individuals sometimes sacrifice themselves to protect others in their family, or social group. How can such altruistic behaviour exist if evolution is based on competition for survival among individuals? In the latter part of the 20th century the competition mechanism was modified to read 'survival of the fittest genes'. In most cases, survival of the fittest genes still corresponds to survival of the fittest individual. But in a familial group, all the individuals share common genes. So if the survival of the whole group is threatened, it is an effective strategy for a few individuals to sacrifice themselves in an effort to protect the whole group. A mother may give her last morsel of food to save her children. A soldier may face an invading army to protect his city. Individuals can give their lives to help to ensure the survival of their own genes.

Mechanism #2: Environmental changes

According to geological evidence, the climate on Earth changes over time. Most of the changes are cyclic and occur gradually over thousands of years. At any location on Earth there have been periods of drought, periods of heavy precipitation, periods of relative cold, and periods of relative warmth. Occasionally, major events such as volcanic eruptions or asteroid impacts produce rapid changes in climate.

Every change in climate provides plants and animals living in those regions with fundamental challenges. Will they still be able to compete successfully for food and water? Will they still be able to reproduce? Will they still be able to survive? As the environment changes, the old average characteristics are no longer the optimal values. Individuals with some extreme characteristics are now more suited for survival. The giraffe with a longer neck will be able to reach the higher leaves on a tree. It will tend to survive and produce offspring with longer necks. The camel that can walk farther after drinking less water will have a greater chance of surviving when the water supply is dwindling. The offspring of such a camel will tend to inherit this same characteristic. The average value of inherited characteristics in a population will gradually shift as climate change continues.

Note that the characteristics of individuals do not change, but individuals that already have advantageous characteristics in the new climate are more likely to survive and produce offspring. Even individuals with extreme characteristics may not be able to survive if climatic conditions change too quickly. The species may become extinct.

Mechanism #3: Mutations

Occasionally during the division of a cell, an error occurs in the duplication of DNA and a mutated gene is created. If the mutation is not fatal, it is passed on in the altered DNA to all future generations of that cell. Mutations can be caused by radiation passing through a cell, by the cell absorbing novel chemicals, or by a random error in the complex process of cell division. When a mutation occurs in an egg or sperm cell, the mutation is passed onto future generations of that individual.

An organism can cope with some minor genetic errors. There are two copies of each DNA strand; when one DNA strand is altered there is a backup DNA strand from the other parent that can sometimes be used to correct faulty coding. The impact of dominant versus recessive genes and the specific location of a genetic mutation can also affect a cell's ability to survive.

The process of life is extremely complicated and one would expect most major genetic errors to produce fatal results. However, the growth potential of every species ensures that there are always more offspring produced than can possibly survive. On a rare occasion (perhaps one in a million, or one in a billion), a mutation leads to a modified characteristic that enhances an individual's chance of survival. Just a small change – such as slightly improved night vision – could lead to the difference between surviving, or being eaten by a predator. Individuals with improved night vision would then have a greater probability of producing offspring, and those offspring would also inherit that improved night vision. Over several generations, that modified characteristic could become the new normal characteristic for the whole species population.

Note that mutations lead to modifications of existing characteristics, or the addition of new features. No single mutation can replace a complicated organic structure with a different complicated structure. Evolutionary changes due to mutations occur a bit at a time, and tend to be add-ons rather than replacements.

Mechanism #4: Co-evolution and punctuated stability

Every species is part of a larger ecosystem. The lives of many species are linked together in an environmental niche. When the climate is stable, the characteristics of all the species tend to evolve towards stable values that maximize each species opportunities for survival in that niche. As long as the conditions remain stable, the characteristics of these linked species tend to remain relatively stable as well. Such a period of stability may last for several million years. However, if the stability of the environmental niche is altered then a rapid spurt in evolution tends to occur in all the related species at the same time.

The stability of an environmental niche can be altered by changes in the climate, by a mutation that alters an important characteristic of just one of the species, or by the introduction of a new species from outside the system. All the species in the niche will then evolve until a new equilibrium is reached.

In summary, there are at least six preconditions necessary for evolution to occur: the role of DNA in the reproduction of cells, the capacity for rapid population growth, genetic variations within a family, genetic variations across a population, a period of time spanning at least hundreds of generations, and the input of energy from an external source. There are four main mechanisms that actually drive the process of evolution: competition for resources, changes in the environment, mutations, and the co-evolution of species.

5.4.3 Cultural Evolution

In human evolution, cultural traits can be deliberately passed on to following generations and produce advantageous results. When resources are scarce, any cultural advantage can make the difference between survival and extinction.

In antiquity, techniques for producing durable sharp stone points and blades were passed on from generation to generation. Once an effective design was attained, stone tools for the same purpose tended to retain the same form in a culture for thousands of years. The technical advantage of effective tools favoured the survival of that culture.

Consider the first hunter to raise an orphaned wolf cub as a hunting dog. That hunter would probably be more successful in catching game and feeding his family. In tough times, a hunting dog could be the difference between surviving and starving. That cultural advantage could be passed on to future generations. It is pure speculation, but it is possible that Cro-Magnons learned to use hunting dogs and Neanderthals did not. Perhaps that is why Neanderthals became extinct and we survived.

During the reign of Henry VIII, British foundry workers developed a technique for casting inexpensive iron cannons that could replace costly bronze cannons. British warships were then developed as efficient floating gun platforms, and soon 'Britannia ruled the waves'. As a consequence, many cultures were 'discovered' and conquered by the British, and by 1900 the British Empire spanned the globe. The technical-and-social skills of the British certainly affected the evolution of many other cultures on Earth.

5.4.4 Some Final Thoughts

During the last hundred and fifty years the theory of evolution has been refined and extended to mesh with many other branches of science including: archaeology, astronomy, biology, biochemistry, chemistry, genetics, geology, palaeontology, and physics.

The theory of evolution is not beyond criticism. The job of a scientist is always to refine, extend, and test current theories. However, critics often fail to recognize the broad base of human knowledge that is incorporated in the modern version of evolutionary theory. The theory of evolution is not just the work of Charles Darwin; it is the culmination of the work of thousands of scientists in many fields of study.

The theory of evolution is a unifying concept in a tidal wave of new human knowledge. With this knowledge we are forging a new understanding of the universe. This understanding does not diminish, but increases our awe at the various levels of order and complexity in the universe.

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Chapter 6: The Conscious Mind

6.1 Basic Elements of the Mind

6.2 A Model of the Conscious Mind

6.3 Variations in Consciousness

To many the mind is like a magic box. You brain gathers information and somehow thoughts are generated. In this chapter, a simple model of the mind is constructed that utilizes the information described in earlier chapters. Although the model is basic, it is hoped that it will help you gain a better understanding of your thought processes.

6.1 Basic Elements of the Mind

"The brain's main function is to keep the organism of which it is part, alive and reproducing. All its other tricks – the ability to appreciate music, to fall in love, to create a unified theory of the Universe – arise out of that single overriding ambition."

6.1.1 The Concept of Mind

Defining the human mind can be a philosophical challenge, a mystical event, or the prosaic task of fitting most of what we know about our mental activities into a descriptive chart.

Primal processes

A single-celled paramecium can swim through its environment by co-ordinating the sweeping motion of thousands of tiny cilia on its outer layer. It can capture prey, digest food, and excrete waste. It can reproduce. Thus, a single-celled animal can participate in all the basic processes of life, even though it has no neurons, and is thus incapable of any thought processes. The 'behaviours' of a paramecium are strictly electro-chemical reactions to stimuli received from its environment.

Each of us is composed of billions of individual cells, and each of those cells lives out its life much as a paramecium would. Each of us is really an integrated collection of the cell colonies that make up our various structures and organs. Perhaps many of our behaviours are simple responses to external stimuli, like a paramecium, rather than the result of conscious or subconscious thought. Or, perhaps the collective urges of the individual cells in our bodies are reflected in the overall activity of our minds.

A model of human behaviour

The biological purpose of the mind – to keep us alive and reproducing – is embedded in our very being.

In the stimulus-response model developed by B. F. Skinner, a subject is provided with a physical reward when a target activity is performed, and is ignored otherwise. Over time, a series of random acts can be shaped into a sequence of planned behaviours. For example, a pigeon can be taught to play a simple tune on a keyboard.

A more elaborate model of behaviour requires a five-step sequence:

  1. Your brain receives a stimulus from your sensory organs.

  2. In response, your brain creates an urge that demands to be satisfied.

  3. A sequence of actions is then initiated to satisfy that urge.

  4. When the urge is satisfied, your pleasure centre is stimulated.

  5. You attain a sense of contentment.

Many of your thoughts and actions are generated in this manner. The reward for completing an intended activity is typically the release of suitable neurotransmitters in your brain such as dopamine, serotonin, or endorphins that provide a neural sense of pleasure and contentment.

There is an important difference between the stimulus-response model and the five-step model of human behaviour. In the stimulus-response model, a controlling external agent (the experimenter) provides both the target activity and the rewards. In the five-step model, the subject's own mind generates the target activity and creates the urge to complete that activity.

Philosophical ideas

The nature of the mind has long been the subject of philosophical speculation. 'Dualism' and 'monism' have emerged as two of the main schools of thought on the subject.

Dualism

Dualism is the position that the mind and body are in some way separate from each other.

The ancient Egyptians believed that each person possessed a 'Ka' (roughly equivalent to the mind) and a 'Ba' (roughly equivalent to the soul). The Ba was thought to leave the body at the moment of death, but if the body was properly preserved the Ba was able to return to its tomb each night.

Hindu philosophers, Aristotle, and Plato also adopted the dualist position. In the 17th century, Descartes emphasized that the mind was associated with consciousness and self-awareness but was distinct from the brain.

The Christian church preaches that the soul exists as an entity distinct from the body. According to the Apostles' Creed, at resurrection (during the time of final judgement) the souls of the dead will proceed to either Heaven or Hell. The Roman Catholic Church further specifies that at resurrection, the soul will be reunited with the body, and the whole reconstituted person will be judged.

Monism

Monism is the position that the mind is an integral part of the body, and that all mental activity can, or eventually will be, described by physiological processes that take place within the brain.

Buddhism and Transcendentalism advocate that mind and body are both part of a larger phenomenon that is not easily perceived. Two other noted monists were Parmenides in the 5th century BCE and Spinoza in the 17th century CE.

6.1.2 Introduction to the Subconscious

Our mental processes are far more complex than those that we specifically direct with our conscious mind. The subconscious is the main topic of Chapter 7, but is introduced here to help clarify the roles of the conscious mind.

An example of subconscious activity

Even while your mind is engrossed with conscious activity, your subconscious is busy playing a major role in the background.

For example, suppose that you decide to read a novel. Before you can consciously ponder the meaning of sentences, your subconscious mind first has to adjust the muscular tension on the lenses in your eyes so you can focus on the page, adjust the diameter of your iris' to match lighting conditions, and prepare to track your eyes back and forth across the page. Then as you begin reading, your subconscious perceives the patterns of light and dark marks on the page, converts those patterns into letters, then into words, and then assigns meanings to the words. If you find the reading material particularly interesting, your subconscious even takes over control of your arms and hands to hold the book and turn the pages and somehow creates an inner picture corresponding to the action portrayed in the novel.

Exchanges between the conscious and the subconscious

You routinely pass messages back and forth between your conscious and subconscious minds.

All learning of facts and skills can be regarded as a process in which information is stored in your subconscious for future use. For example, as a youngster you probably spent a number of hours learning how to tie your shoelaces and that process took conscious effort with lots of repetition. Now as an adult, you can normally tie your shoes with very little attention because the process is managed by your subconscious.

The continuous input from your senses is filtered and edited in your subconscious mind. Only sensations regarded as significant are allowed to intrude on your consciousness. For example, you may be working away at a task outdoors – washing windows, painting a picture, picking apples, or just lost in thought when conditions begin to change. Perhaps there is a change in the intensity of sunlight, the birds are suddenly quiet, or the leaves begin to rustle in the wind. At some point this input is forwarded from your subconscious to your conscious mind; you stop what you are doing and check your environment: 'Is something up?'; 'Do I need to take action?'

6.1.3 Fundamental Components

The conscious mind, the subconscious mind, and the physical brain are basic components of your mind. Some would also add a dash of spirituality, but for our model that would only add complications without providing any compensating clarifications.

A definition of the mind

The human mind can be defined simply as the combination of the conscious and subconscious activities of the brain, along with the physical structure of the brain itself. Adding the physical brain to that definition of the mind lets us include the networks of neurons and synapses in the brain as well as the impulses travelling along those networks, and the neurotransmitters in the synaptic gaps at any given time.

Including neural impulses and neurotransmitters in the definition of mind may help to capture some of the ephemeral nature of the mind that is often associated with dualism.

Three components of your mind

The anatomy of the physical brain has been the subject of many investigations, but its structure is so complex and subtle that much still remains to be learned. Despite the complexity and the unknowns, a three level model of the physical brain was presented in section1.1 that consists of the hindbrain, the midbrain complex, and the forebrain. These three main components of the physical brain play a significant role in the models to be developed of the conscious mind (below) and the subconscious mind (Chapter 7).

We all experience conscious and subconscious thoughts every day, yet investigations into the basic natures of the conscious and subconscious minds tend to be complex and controversial. The ambitious goal in this chapter is to follow a number of threads of thought that can be used to construct a model of the conscious mind.

Whatever the mind is, or does, there is little doubt that such activity occurs within the confines of the skull. Studies of brain injuries confirm that specific mental functions are lost when particular regions of the brain are damaged. Studies of brain functioning with MRI scans confirm that specific mental tasks result in more activity in particular regions of the brain. As long as you live, your brain is busy thinking and maintaining bodily functions.

The profound implication is that when we die, our brains cease to function, neural impulses grind to a halt. Our personal minds cease to exist, just as a computer program fades away when the power is switched off.

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6.2 A Model of the Conscious Mind

Through the ages, there has been much philosophical debate about the nature of consciousness and its relation to the mind, and the mind's relation to the brain.

It is generally agreed that consciousness is the property of the mind that gives us a sense of ourselves as individuals, and of ourselves as participants in the activities that occur around us. An understanding of the conscious mind is also central to an understanding of the subconscious mind. You can use one to define the other, and you can gain an appreciation of their separate properties by comparing and contrasting the typical activities of these two domains.

6.2.1 Cognitive Archeology

Julian Jaynes (1920 – 1997), a professor of psychology at Princeton University, was one of the first to propose that human consciousness has evolved over time. While many of the specific arguments in his book The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind (1977) have been refuted, his basic proposal has spawned the new field of cognitive archeology.

Merlin Donald, in Origins of the Modern Mind (1991), proposed that social and cultural needs combined with evolutionary changes in the brain, and led to three distinct stages in the development of the human intellect:

  1. Mimetic consciousness (starting 1.5 million years ago) as evidenced by the production of sophisticated stone tools.

  2. Mythic consciousness (starting 150 000 years ago) as evidenced by the use of symbolic representations and cave paintings.

  3. Technically enhanced consciousness (starting 75 000 years ago) as evidenced by notched bones and various other systems for recording information.

Steven Mithen, in The Prehistory of the Mind (1996), proposed an alternate interpretation of the archaeological evidence. In his model, the ancient human mind had four isolated domains of intelligence: linguistic, social, technical, and theoretical; and over time these domains began to interact with each other to generate an integrated response to the environment.

There is a growing acceptance that the human intellect has evolved, is still evolving, and can be further enhanced by directed personal effort.

6.2.2 Historical Views of Consciousness

In the western world, before the 17th century, there was no distinction between the concepts of 'conscience' and 'consciousness'. Your conscience was your inner control over the commission of sin. The connection between consciousness, moral decisions, and just punishment has persisted over time and is now embedded in the legal principle that you can only be criminally guilty for acts that you were conscious of committing at the time.

In 1689, John Locke published his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, in which he developed the concept of psychological awareness as a basis for personality and self-identification. Many philosophers make a distinction between 'phenomenal consciousness' – being aware of sensory input, and 'access consciousness' – being aware that information is being processed internally.

The evolutionary advantages of consciousness would probably include the abilities to evaluate alternatives, to solve problems, to detect errors in procedures, to plan, to learn, and to create mental constructs.

6.2.3 A Simple Model of Consciousness

By focusing on just the observable properties associated with consciousness, it is possible to generate a very simple model of consciousness.

Basic properties of consciousness

V.S. Ramachandran , a neuroscientist at the University of California, lists three conditions for consciousness to exist:

  1. You are able to receive a neurological sensation and are able to interpret what it means to you.

  2. You are able to store that sensation, at least temporarily in memory.

  3. You are aware of wide range of possible responses.

For example, suppose you stub your toe on a table leg. The following elements imply that you are conscious of the event: first, you experience a sensation of pain and you realize that you have injured your toe; second, the pain lingers in memory for a moment in time; and third, you can consider a variety of possible reactions from crying in pain to moving the table to a new location.

A limit on consciousness

The derogatory phrase, 'He can't walk and chew gum at the same time', is used to suggest that someone has a limited mental capacity. The phrase also underlines the fact that, even when fully alert, our conscious brains can only keep track of a few distinct tasks at the same time.

We often have the impression that we are doing three or four things at the same time. For example, you may be watching television, taking part in a conversation, and eating a snack at the same time. However, a careful analysis of the situation would probably show that your attention is switching back and forth between these tasks rather than monitoring them all simultaneously. When something interesting occurs on television, that is where your attention will probably be focused. At the same time you may continue to eat the snack and, somewhere at the back of your mind, you may monitor what your spouse is saying for key words or emotional content. After a few minutes, when there is a pause in the action on television you may discover that your snack has disappeared and your spouse is saying, 'Have you listened to a word I said?'

This limitation is exemplified by the difficulties you would experience if you tried to bounce a ball, recite the alphabet, and subtract two fractions all at the same time. We also know that it is challenging to reflect on your problem solving techniques, while actually trying to solve a problem. The best we seem able to do is to rapidly switch back and forth between one task and another.

In computer parlance, the ability to rapidly switch back and forth between tasks is called multi-tasking. The CPU in a simple computer can execute just one step at a time, in just one program at a time, yet because it has a high operating speed and can rapidly switch back and forth among various programs, it gives the appearance of dealing with several tasks simultaneously.

Talking on a cell phone, while driving a car seems to push the ability of our conscious minds to multi-task between two demanding processes at the same time.

In some situations, the ability of the conscious mind to block out other thoughts and focus on just one task at a time can be an asset. An aircraft controller is more effective when full attention is devoted to directing airplanes. A student is more effective when full attention is devoted to a single learning task.

If you can do only one thing at a time, how in fact do you manage to walk and chew gum at the same time? Your subconscious comes to the rescue. Walking is a skill that you have practiced for years. When you focus on the skills of walking, you can consciously move each leg and watch were you put each foot, always being careful to keep your balance. But when your attention is diverted to another activity, such as unwrapping a stick of gum, your subconscious is ready to take over the walking task and you do not miss a step.

In a simple analogy, your conscious mind is in the driver's seat as you travel along the road of life, while your subconscious is a collection of passengers in the back seat who at times can reach forward and step on the accelerator, apply the brakes, or turn the steering wheel.

A model of the conscious mind

Your immediate-term memory contains the latest significant data related to your local environment as well as information about decisions that need to be made in the next few moments. You may need to decide whether to turn left or right, whether to continue hunting or return to camp, whether to eat the last available food or share it, or whether to judge a person guilty or innocent.

Recall from section 3.1 that your immediate-term memory contains an average of just seven information items from your senses and your memories, and is able to hold that information for only about thirty seconds. These properties of immediate-term memory explain why there appears to be a stream of consciousness. New information items are continually being added to immediate-term memory, decisions are being made, and old items are either being shifted into longer-term memory or dropped from memory all together. When a particular item is of interest it can be refreshed and kept in immediate-term memory for another thirty seconds, or it can be moved on to your short-term memory.

In this model of the conscious mind (See Figure #7), consciousness is simply the information being processed in your immediate-term memory at any given moment (while you are awake). Your focus of attention is just the scope of that information.

Figure #7: A model of the conscious mind

This simple model of consciousness satisfies Ramachandran's three criteria. Significant neurological sensations are part of the normal content of immediate-term memory, so the first two criteria are satisfied as an event is interpreted and stored in memory. And according to the model, the primary function of immediate-term memory is to consider alternatives, so Ramachandran's third criteria is also satisfied.

With this model, consciousness is not a mysterious property of the human spirit; it is just a continuously updated set of data items in immediate-term memory that may require a choice from among alternatives.

6.2.4 Consciousness in Animals

This simple model of consciousness has the implication that consciousness is a natural property of any animal with an advanced neural system. To sort out which animals might possess a suitably advanced neural system, and thus a degree of consciousness, a simple system for classifying mental systems has been devised. In reality, the range of mental systems in animals is continuous and there are probably many species with properties that overlap the proposed levels.

Simple systems

A simple animal system contains no neurons, although it may consist of up to a few thousand cells. Such an animal can participate in all the basic processes of life, even though it is incapable of any thought processes.

Protozoa, sponges, and hydra are examples of simple systems. Embryos of higher animals pass through a blastula stage, which is a simple system of several hundred cells arranged in the form of a hollow sphere. At that stage of development there is no cell differentiation in the embryo, thus no neurons, no thinking, and no consciousness.

Simple systems co-ordinate the activities of cells by sending electro-chemical signals across neighbouring cell boundaries.

Non-conscious systems

As animals with simple systems get bigger and bigger, the efforts to co-ordinate cellular activity by sending electro-chemical signals from cell-to-cell begin to fail. A larger animal with millions of cells utilizes neurons to carry communication signals quickly and efficiently to and from all parts of its body.

Rather than connecting individual cells to each other, neurons transmit signals from cells to a central point, where the signals are processed, and then responses are forwarded to appropriate cells. That central processing and switching organ is the animal's brain.

Animals with simple brains are capable of responding to environmental stimuli with actions that have been genetically encoded (instincts). They are animals with brains, but are non-conscious.

Insects and mollusks provide good examples of non-conscious mental systems.

Conscious systems

Still larger animals, in complex physical and social environments, require a more rapid and adaptive approach for dealing with life-threatening situations. They have to be able to consider alternatives and make choices. These animals are conscious.

Applying the model of consciousness proposed in the previous section, it is reasonable to assume that the conscious part of an animal's brain is associated with its immediate-term memory. A basic classification scheme for mental systems is provided in Table #3.

Table #3: A classification of mental systems

While one aspect of an animal's brain works at the conscious level, the rest of the brain's activity is said to occur at the subconscious level.

With the proposed definitions of consciousness and sub-consciousness, it is apparent that conscious activity is a refinement of an animal's mental activity while the bulk of neural signal processing still occurs at the subconscious level.

Humans are conscious and self-aware. If I were not conscious I would not have been able to write this book, and if you were not conscious you would not be able to read it. However, the classification system outlined in Table #3 suggests that many other animals are also conscious beings. Is that notion plausible?

Anyone who has interacted with chimpanzees, orangutans, elephants, dogs, or dolphins would probably agree that they possess a degree of consciousness. Chimpanzees exhibit simple problem solving skills and the ability to use abstract symbols to communicate. Orangutans can learn by imitation. Elephants have been known to exhibit signs of grief over the death of a family member and can retain memories over decades. Dogs develop distinct personalities and can make their emotions very clear with facial expressions and wagging tails. Dolphins are friendly, curious, and quick to learn from human trainers.

It is apparent that many animals, in addition to humans, are conscious beings.

6.2.5 Unique Features of Human Consciousness

From an evolutionary perspective, one would expect different species in the animal kingdom to possess varying degrees of consciousness – from the non-conscious state of a slug to the conscious state of modern humans. One would also expect to find varying mental capabilities among the billions of humans on Earth. One would even expect that individuals would display varying degrees of consciousness, from time to time.

While it is apparent that many animals possess a degree of consciousness, it is also obvious that human consciousness and mental capabilities are far superior to any other animal on Earth. Chimpanzees can master up to a few hundred symbols for simple communications such as 'Where is Sam?' or 'I want a banana.' Humans have vocabularies with thousands of words enabling them to publish daily newspapers, write books, and launch communication satellites.

Human consciousness is different in quality from that of other animals because we have more information to work with, and have a greater range of social and technical issues to deal with. We are skilled at rapidly shifting items in and out of immediate-term memory so that we can remain alert to what is happening around us and, at the same time, are able to assemble the best information available for making decisions. With practice and effort we are even able to multi-task and make decisions regarding diverse issues at virtually the same time. Humans have highly developed capacities for processing information, applying learned behaviours, and developing novel solutions to problems. Humans have the ability to contemplate the implications of past and future events.

There is another interesting question involving consciousness. Will it ever be possible for a computer (or a robot) to develop a state of consciousness? Some have argued that it is not possible to create true artificial intelligence and consciousness, but those arguments might just be critiques of our own lack of knowledge rather than proofs that artificial intelligence and consciousness are impossible.

Animal evolution towards consciousness has been energized by the Sun and motivated by the release of endorphins in the brain to stimulate survival and reproduction. Perhaps a computer could be given the ability to obtain its own power, and a suitable reward system could be devised to motivate one computer to build a better computer. Such an evolutionary approach to artificial intelligence might be more productive than any attempt to sit down and deliberately design a machine with artificial intelligence. In fact, the world's largest manufacturers of computer chips already use elaborate computer programs to design successive generations of CPUs that are so complex that no single human can comprehend all the intricacies of the designs. Perhaps several steps have already been taken along the evolutionary path to artificial intelligence.

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6.3 Variations in Consciousness

We sometimes take our consciousness for granted. Since you are conscious at this moment, you might assume that you are always conscious, and that your level of consciousness is constant. However, there are a variety of conditions that can affect your state of mind. Your consciousness can vary from fully alert to comatose.

6.3.1 Towards Unconsciousness

An examination of unconscious states can help to provide a clearer understanding of consciousness.

To be conscious is to be aware of your surroundings, capable of thought, able to exert your reasoning powers, and capable of experiencing physical and emotional sensations. In contrast, when you are fully unconscious you are no longer aware of yourself or your surroundings, and you are unable to respond to environmental stimuli.

A loss of consciousness is often a symptom of a serious condition such as restricted flow of blood to the brain, or physical brain damage. Some common causes of unconsciousness include poisoning, hypothermia (too cold), hyperthermia (too hot), stroke, shock, epilepsy, electric shock, diabetic coma, drug overdose, heart problems, and a blow to the head.

A period of unconsciousness can vary from just a few seconds after a fainting spell, to a permanent coma after a traumatic head injury. On arousal, an unconscious person passes through a period of confusion before becoming fully conscious. The longer a victim has been unconscious, the longer the period of confusion tends to last.

States of reduced consciousness

There are a number of intermediate conditions in which a person, while not unconscious, is in a reduced state of consciousness. Here is a list of some conditions that are associated with a state of reduced consciousness:

  1. Drowsiness – A person is awake but has lost any sense of focus and is about to fall asleep.

  2. Meditation – A person deliberately puts his/her brain in a state somewhere between consciousness and sleep. The brain is trained to ignore normal sensations from the environment.

  3. Confusion – A person is awake but disoriented. Responses to environmental stimuli are inappropriate. The person is bewildered, perplexed, and disoriented.

  4. Amnesia – A person is unable to recall, part or all, of past experiences. Amnesia can result from a physical brain injury, emotional shock, or chemical damage to the brain.

  5. Delirium – A person has diminished ability to pay attention; is confused, disoriented, and unable to think clearly. Delirium is not a disease but a set of symptoms that can result from a myriad of causes. The condition typically lasts from a few days to a few weeks.

  6. Shock – A person experiences profound mental and physical depression resulting from a severe physical injury or emotional disturbance. Shock can reduce the flow of blood to the brain and cause fainting or prolonged unconsciousness.

  7. Concussion – A concussion results from a minor blow to the head. The person may suffer a brief loss of consciousness, may be confused, headachy, abnormally sleepy, and forgetful. A concussion can affect memory, judgement, reflexes, speech, balance and co-ordination. These symptoms can last from a few hours to several days.

  8. Dementia – A person experiences a gradual decline in mental ability in which memory, judgement, attention, and the ability to learn are impaired.

  9. Amentia – A person is semi-conscious, disorientated, unable to speak, unable to move, and emotionally indifferent. Amentia is typically associated with reduced mental capacity.

  10. Schizophrenia – Persons suffering from this disease often hear internal voices, are convinced that their opinions and beliefs are true despite evidence to the contrary, are easily distracted, and are unable to think in a logical fashion. They are conscious but in many ways are disconnected from reality.

  11. Drug overdose – A person can experience reduced consciousness due to an overdose of drugs or intoxicants. A variety of drugs can interrupt normal brain function and produce altered mental states. The effects may be temporary or permanent.

States of unconsciousness

There are also a variety of states in which a person is actually unconscious, for at least a brief period of time. Persons are unconscious when their consciousness is completely disabled. At least enough of their subconscious mind has to remain functioning in order to keep their bodies alive (managing blood circulation, breathing, and digestion) but they are not responsive to external stimuli.

Here is a list of some conditions that are associated with a state of unconsciousness:

  1. Sleep – During normal sleep the body and mind are without ordinary consciousness. Sleeping individuals either awake spontaneously after a few hours, or can be aroused by physical stimulation. (Sleep will be considered in more detail in the next section.)

  2. Hypersomnia – This is an excessively long or deep sleep. Awakening a person in hypersomnia requires energetic stimulation, but the person can still function normally when awake.

  3. Stupor – Someone in a stupor is experiencing a very deep sleep and can only be temporarily aroused by energetic stimulation. When in a stupor, you are still sensitive to pain.

  4. Catatonia – Catatonia is a syndrome characterized by periods of physical rigidity, negativism, and excitement, followed by stupor.

  5. Anesthesia – Drugs, neurological disease, or paralysis can produce a state of anesthesia. While anesthetized, an individual is unresponsive to touch, cold, or pain. Under general anesthesia, there is a loss of feeling in the whole body and the person is unconscious.

  6. Cerebral contusions (brain bruises) and lacerations (brain tearing) – A serious head injury has rendered the individual unconscious. This type of damage can be permanent and the victim may remain in a comatose state.

  7. Coma – A person in a coma appears to be in a deep sleep. However, the person is completely unconscious, cannot be aroused, and is not sensitive to pain. A coma is usually associated with a serious medical condition.

There is a range of states between full consciousness and complete unconsciousness. To be fully conscious you need to be healthy, wide-awake, attuned to your environment, and fully focused. For clear thinking, full consciousness is your obvious first choice, although there are some who advocate using meditation to assist with clear thinking under some conditions. (Meditation will be addressed again in section 7.4.)

6.3.2 Sleep

Our lives are divided into periods of wakefulness and periods of sleep. While we are awake, input from our senses is forwarded to our brains and is actively processed to guide our activities and thinking. While we are asleep, input from our senses to our brains is dramatically reduced, our physical activity is curtailed, and our thinking processes are directed internally.

Much of our daily activity is planned around our need for a regular sleep period. We each have a biological clock attuned to a 24-hour cycle of day and night. A healthy adult human typically requires 5 to 9 hours of sleep during every 24-hour cycle. The need for sleep gradually changes with age. On average, a baby sleeps about 15 hours per day, while a senior sleeps about 7 hours per day. In aggregate, we spend about one third of our time on Earth asleep.

Pioneering research conducted by Seymour Benzer and Ron Konopka led to the discovery of a gene on the X-chromosome of Drosophila (fruit flies) that controlled their circadian rhythm. By causing mutations in this gene they were able to produce flies that had 19-hour days, 29-hour days, or random length days. The implication is that whatever the reasons for sleep, those reasons are built into every cell in the bodies of fruit flies. And since the cells in our bodies contain similar genes, our need for sleep is probably built in at the cellular level as well. When you feel tired at the end of the day, there are billions of cells in your body all asking for a nap at the same time.

Sleep seems to be necessary for survival and good health, but exactly why is not well understood. The urge to sleep typically grows near the end of a day, until we satisfy that urge. If someone is deprived of the opportunity to sleep for more than a day, the urge to sleep becomes more dominant and judgement becomes impaired. Soldiers on watch, operators of machinery, truck drivers, and pilots will eventually fall asleep even if it is obvious to the individuals that their lives will then be in peril.

How does your brain put you to sleep?

Latest research suggests that there are three components to sleeping that are controlled by three regions of the brain. The hypothalamus synchronizes our 24-hour circadian rhythm throughout the whole body, the thalamus sends out the signals that determine your level of wakefulness, and the brain stem controls the cycles from light sleep, to deep sleep, to rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Sleep is an active mode with its own set of activities.

Sleep myths

All parts of the body slow down during sleep. In fact, parts of the brain are more active during sleep.

  1. We sleep to rest. Sleep may provide an opportunity for the body to restore itself after a period of wakeful activity. Interestingly, fit and active people actually sleep less than those who are more sedentary.

  2. When we sleep, our bodies simply grind to a halt. Sleep and wakefulness are states that are both actively controlled by the brain.

  3. Sleep deprivation will lead to mental instability. With sleep deprivation, the urge to sleep increases, your ability to complete physical tasks is impaired, and your ability to make sound judgements is impaired. However, one or two periods of sleep will restore normal functions.

What is sleep?

Although the activity of sleeping is still somewhat of a mystery, it does have typical observable characteristics. A person who is sleeping:

Lies down, or slumps in place without any muscle effort to maintain an upright position.

  1. Is quiet and still.

  2. Has a low response to stimulation of the senses.

  3. Awakens spontaneously or with gentle stimulation.

Sleep cycles and brain waves

In 1929 a Swiss psychiatrist, Hans Berger, first used an electroencephalogram (EEG) to measure brain activity during sleep. An EEG measures the overall electrical activity of the brain at different frequencies and displays the results as wavy lines on a strip chart recorder. EEG measurements show that each night during sleep our brain activity passes through a number of well-defined cycles. The most common EEG frequencies observed during sleep are named after letters of the Greek alphabet so you may hear references to alpha, beta, gamma, delta, or theta waves in discussions of sleep cycles.

A typical night's sleep activity passes through the following phases: you feel drowsy and alpha waves dominate while you fall asleep; your sleep then passes through 5 or 6 cycles of about 90 minutes each.

Each cycle passes systematically back and forth through five stages:

Stage 1: Light sleep – When questioned a person may claim to have still been awake.

Stage 2: Medium sleep – A person is definitely asleep, but may react to loud noises.

Stage 3: Deep sleep – If awakened a person is confused and disoriented.

Stage 4: Relaxed sleep – Muscles are relaxed; blood pressure is lower, heart rate and breathing rates are lowered.

Stage 5: REM sleep – Muscles are still relaxed but a person's eyes can be seen to move rapidly back and forth under the eyelids, as if following an active visual field. Blood flow to the brain increases.

Our brains are active all night long. Most dreaming occurs during Stage 3 and Stage 5 sleep. Most sleep-talking, sleep-walking, and nightmares occur during Stage 3 or Stage 4.

Why do we sleep?

All mammals, birds, and most other creatures sleep during some part of each day, and it is generally agreed that sleep must serve some basic biological function that enhances survival. The nature of that function remains poorly understood.

Sleep may be a process to conserve energy. When an animal falls asleep its metabolic rate decreases by about 10% and its body temperature falls by about 2ºC. Hibernation is an extension of sleep and has an obvious energy conservation function.

Periods of sleep might help to keep an animal safe from predators. If you can obtain enough food and drink in half a day, and are tucked up cozy, safe, asleep, and out of harm's way for the rest of the day then there is less chance that you will stumble into some other hungry creature and be eaten.

Perhaps we sleep so that we can dream.

Dreams

It used to be thought that dreams were infrequent, unpredictable, and of very short duration. Dreams were thought to be bizarre, unrealistic and emotionally charged. However, research over the past 50 years has led to a better understanding of the dream process.

The basic technique of dream research involves monitoring the EEGs of sleeping research subjects. Changes in the EEGs suggest when subjects are dreaming. Based on many studies, it is apparent that dreams occur during all stages of sleep and about one quarter of our sleep-time involves dreaming. When awakened, and asked about their dreams, the accounts of subjects indicate that the contents of most dreams are mundane, realistic, and have a thematic structure. REM sleep evokes the most predictable, frequent, and prolonged dream experiences.

The quality of a dream is related to the mental state of the dreamer. Talented visual thinkers tend to have more visual dream content. Depressed patients tend to give dream reports with a depressive tone. Schizophrenic patients tend to give dream reports that are disorganized and incoherent.

Dreams seem to be remarkably independent of specific stimuli before, or during sleep. When subjects watched films that were violent, sad, or pornographic before sleeping, there was no measurable effect on subsequent dream content. When sleeping subjects were subjected to sounds, light flashes, cold water, or mild electrical shocks a dreamer might add the input as a temporary event, but the theme of a dream tended to remain unaffected. Some individuals have dreams that are repeated over several nights, and some dreams do involve emotional events. Many nightmares have some sort of chase sequence in which the dreamer struggles to avoid a dangerous peril.

Your conscious knowledge of a dream's content dissipates rapidly on awakening. If you want to remember the contents of a dream you were experiencing, you have to repeat the story several times or write it down as soon as you wake up. This rapid dissipation of dream content could be explained if the experience of dreaming is actually the flow of information through your immediate-term memory while you are asleep. Recall that immediate-term memory can only hold about seven information items for up to thirty seconds. And while you are asleep immediate-term memory would receive little input from the senses, so most of its contents would have to come from your subconscious mind.

Thus the model of the conscious mind can be extended to provide a simple description of dreaming. Consciousness is the flow of information through your immediate-term memory while you are awake. This input can come from your senses or your subconscious mind. Dreams are the flow of information through your immediate-term memory while you are asleep. Since external stimuli are largely ignored during sleep, virtually all of your dream content must come from your subconscious mind.

What are dreams for? Although the functions of sleep and dreaming are not well understood, dreams seem to have at least three practical functions:

  1. Dreams seem to be involved in sorting information collected during the day, and perhaps dreaming assists in filing that information away in memory. This function would account for the mundane themes yet unusual combinations of topics in most dreams. You have to browse through existing memories to find the best location for a new memory, and you want to cross-reference a new memory to other topics to increase its usefulness. There is some research that suggests a session of sleep with regular dreaming helps to entrench memories.

  2. Dreams may be involved in rehearsing possible real life scenarios. In dreams you can work through a wide variety of possible actions and consequences. Dreaming may be analogous to security training when you contemplate, plan, and practice for all kinds of possible scenarios. The security comparison is apt because at a fundamental level our daily actions are all designed to enhance our chances of survival. Many nightmares are probably rehearsals for avoiding danger.

  3. Dreams wake us up in the middle of the night so we can avoid wetting the bed. That may seem like a trivial purpose for dreaming, but avoiding bedwetting is a basic social need and humans are social animals.

Before proceeding to Chapter 7 and a model of the Subconscious, let's take a moment to summarize and clarify the meanings of a few key terms:

  1. 'Non-conscious' is a term used to describe the neural systems of simple animals.

  2. In animals with more complex neural systems, mental activity is divided into two realms, 'conscious' and 'subconscious'.

  3. There are a variety of conditions that can reduce an animal's level of consciousness.

  4. Trauma can render a conscious animal 'unconscious', a state in which all conscious and some subconscious activities are curtailed.

  5. 'Sleep' represents a period of reduced consciousness. While you sleep, your subconscious mind keeps your body functioning. During a quarter of the time you are asleep, your subconscious channels information through your immediate-term memory that then becomes the subjects of your dreams.

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Chapter 7: A Model of the Mind

7.1 Initial Explorations of the Subconscious

7.2 A Model of the Subconscious

7.3 Putting it all Together

7.4 Harnessing Your Subconscious

With a better understanding of your subconscious mind you will be better prepared to direct its potential in completing your daily tasks.

If it were possible to master even a fraction of the power of your subconscious mind then you could reduce inner conflicts, become more adaptable and tolerant, and lead a happier more productive life.

7.1 Initial Explorations of the Subconscious

Studying the subconscious mind is a difficult task, since by definition subconscious activity is beyond the reach of consciousness.

According to the model of consciousness developed in Chapter 6, your conscious mind is limited to processing the information that flows through your immediate-term memory. By implication, all your other mental activities must occur in the realm of the subconscious. Your subconscious mind maintains your autonomic systems that keep you alive. Your subconscious monitors input from the environment and draws anything unusual to the attention of your conscious mind. Your subconscious also keeps many of your voluntary activities running on autopilot until your conscious mind decides to take control for a few moments. Your subconscious manages most of your learning and memory updates.

7.1.1 Analogies for Subconscious Activity

Your mental processes and routines are encapsulated in neural networks, and signals passing through these networks correspond to your thoughts. When your mind is stimulated by, and then engaged in analyzing new input, all the relevant pathways are activated. However, in your conscious mind you are only aware of activity in the particular pathways that comprise the focus of your attention (the items in your in immediate-term memory).

An operating-system analogy

In the operating system analogy, your conscious thoughts correspond to the current program displayed on the monitor, and your subconscious thoughts correspond to all the other background programs that are running at the same time. Your inherited and learned mental behaviours are stored in neural networks, analogous to the computer programs in an operating system. Initiating and executing a mental behaviour is equivalent to calling up a program and following its instructions.

The forest-pathway analogy

In this analogy, your neural networks correspond to pathways through a forest. Your conscious mind corresponds to the pathway that you are currently travelling, while your subconscious mind corresponds to all the other paths around you.

A single pathway might correspond to a concept, a relationship, or a behaviour pattern. Some primal pathways have existed from the day you were born, and are well-travelled. Other primal pathways are hard to reach; they are overgrown and hidden by brambles. Many new pathways are created as you encounter life's experiences during your formative years. Other pathways are created as you deliberately construct and rehearse new thoughts.

As you travel along any given pathway, environmental stimuli are constantly suggesting alternate paths to follow. Every moment of thinking presents a variety of new pathways to choose from. You can take a well-worn pathway, a path that detours around a rugged hill, a pathway that passes by a refreshing spring, or you can set off on a new route through the trees. The path that you do choose becomes the focus of your attention and thus becomes your conscious thoughts. All the other pathways that you happen to cross along the way, and nearby pathways that you can glimpse through the trees correspond to your subconscious thoughts. As you divert your thinking from one pathway to another, the new pathway becomes your new centre of consciousness.

The forest-pathway analogy requires one extra feature – if you receive an external stimulus, you are able to jump across the forest to a new pathway related to that stimulus. If someone asks you about your 12th birthday, if you hear something on the news, or if you detect a long forgotten sound – your conscious mind can jump to any pathways linked to those stimuli.

The forest-pathway analogy has some very interesting implications for clear thinking.

  1. Building neural pathways, through experience and with training, increases the capabilities of both your conscious and subconscious minds.

  2. While the general process of building pathways occurs over a lifetime of learning and thinking, specific new pathways can be built through repetition and rehearsal.

  3. You can access some of your subconscious thoughts by altering your focus of attention. Then your new focus of attention enters your conscious mind and your old thoughts fade into your subconscious.

How can this analogy of a few pathways through some trees capture the intricacies and complexity of all your thoughts? The analogy becomes more realistic if you envisage a forest the size of the Amazon jungle and you have the ability to zip along trails of any length in the blink of an eye.

7.1.2 Freudian Basics

Many of the concepts in psychiatry and psychotherapy are based on ideas first developed by Sigmund Freud in the early 1900's. Freud proposed that the subconscious mind has three components: the 'id', the 'super ego', and the 'ego'. He proposed that unresolved conflicts among these three mental components were the main source of mental stress and instability.

The id

Freud's id represents our most primitive needs. The id has instinctual urges of sexuality, aggression, and the need for instant gratification. When you sense urges such as 'I need it; I want it, now!' Freud would say you are being prompted by your id.

The superego

According to Freud, the superego provides your basic sense of morality to counteract the impulsive id. The superego develops during early childhood encounters with moral and ethical expectations. In adults, the superego acts as the moral agent that links your conscious and unconscious minds.

The ego

The ego utilizes subconscious personality traits to represent your conscious self, and acts as a balance between the id and superego. The ego provides your ability to adapt to reality and helps you to interact successfully with the exterior world. Your ego has much to do with the mental image you have of yourself and how you think others perceive you. Efforts to protect one's ego and preserve 'face' dominate much of human social activity.

The details of Freud's structural model of personality have been challenged, debated, discredited, resurrected, and modified for several decades. The model of mental stress created by internal conflicts is still generally accepted and is often used as a basis for corrective psychoanalysis.

Freud's work has two important implications for clear thinking. First, he pioneered the concept of a three-level subconscious mind. The concept of a three-level subconscious mind will be utilized in section 7.2. Second, Freud emphasized that conflicts in the subconscious can lead to internal stress and poor thinking. A summary of techniques to reduce internal conflicts and make better use of the subconscious is presented in section 7.4.

7.1.3 The Brain as a Three-Level Structure

Paul MacLean developed a three-level model of brain structure and function . His model was based on an evolutionary approach to human development. His three-level model (triune brain) consists of the reptilian complex, the limbic system, and the neocortex. The biological aspects of this model were outlined in section 1.1, and the corresponding components were labelled the hindbrain, the mid-brain complex, and the forebrain. In this sub-section, we would like to consider the psychological properties of this model.

Reptilian complex (hindbrain)

MacLean describes the reptilian complex as rigid, obsessive, compulsive, ritualistic, and paranoid.

Limbic system (mid-brain complex)

The limbic system devotes much of its energy to emotions, especially the "four F's" of psychology – feeding, fighting, fleeing, and sexual behaviour.

Neocortex (forebrain)

The neocortex makes up about two-thirds of the mass of the human brain. The neocortex manages considered thought, fine motor control, planning for future events, spatial interpretations of the environment, language, and artistic endeavours.

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7.2 A Model of the Subconscious

It is assumed that the hindbrain, the mid-brain complex, and the forebrain arose in an evolutionary fashion, and that at each stage of this evolution the mind required a subconscious component. These components are closely associated with: the three-level model of the physical brain adopted in section 1.1; Freud's id, ego, and super ego; and MacLean's triune model of the brain.

When making additions to a country farmhouse, all modifications always have to occur in conjunction with a fully functioning system. On a working farm, the family has to continue living in its house while any renovations are made. If a new kitchen is added, the old kitchen is still used all during construction. In a similar manner, as the human brain evolved, the old version had to remain fully functional even as new features were added. This implies that the old subconscious mind at Level I had to remain functional even as more sophisticated components at Level II, and then Level III, evolved.

Presumably each level of the subconscious receives input from the senses, has control of some physical activities, manages some memory functions, and provides motivating output (emotions) to direct behaviours for survival. Each level also has its own unique characteristics, otherwise it would not stand out as distinct from the other levels.

A three-level model of the subconscious has the advantage of providing a simple but powerful concept for explaining a wide variety of human behaviour.

Figure #8: A three-level model of the subconscious

7.2.1 The Subconscious Mind at Level I

Subconscious activity at Level I is associated with functions typical of the hindbrain, Freud's id, and MacLean's reptilian complex. These include the survival functions needed to keep the body alive and functioning.

Maintaining the body

Your subconscious at Level I maintains breathing and heart rate, digestion, normal sleep, response to minor infections, response to minor damage, and monitoring of the environment for unusual events. All this activity normally takes place without any conscious control. On occasion and with focused effort you can modify these activities to some extent. For example, you can slow down your rate of breathing but you cannot stop it. You can relax and breathe deeply to facilitate sleep, but few of us can consciously decide to fall asleep at a given moment. You might be able to focus on tightening muscles near a minor laceration to reduce bleeding, but you cannot consciously will all bleeding to stop.

Basic physical skills

In addition, any basic physical skills that you have practiced and mastered such as crawling, walking, running, and keeping your balance, are under the control of your subconscious at Level I most of the time. Mastery means you can utilize that skill without having to consciously think about the details.

The subconscious mind at Level I also controls and activates a number of more subtle everyday activities.

You are typically using Level I skills when you turn your head to locate source of a sound; sniff the air to seek the source of an unusual odour; or blink to lubricate and clean your eyes. Level I skills help you use the relative angles of your eyes to estimate the distance to objects. If you happen to detect the bending of individual hairs on your arm, you interpret those signals as a small creature moving over your arm.

Your subconscious skills at Level I are also expert at detecting and interpreting subtle variations in facial expressions and body language. You can usually interpret a person's mood with a quick glance at their posture and expression. The angle of a person's head indicates where they are looking. You know people are becoming more interested as the pupils of their eyes dilate.

Your subconscious skills at Level I can also detect pheromones that indicate the sexual energy of a person. Those skills also bring up your arms quickly to shelter your face and head from any perceived blow, and to pull back your hand from an object that is too hot, too cold, or electrically energized.

7.2.2 The Subconscious Mind at Level II

Subconscious activity at Level II is associated with functions typical of the midbrain, Freud's ego, and the limbic system in MacLean's triune brain model. These functions supply emotions and memories to help keep us functioning in a dynamic environment.

Rapid emotional response

Input from the senses passes through the thalamus in the mid-brain complex, and then follows a variety of routes. One route for any potentially dangerous or emotional information leads directly to the amygdala for an immediate response such as a smile, a jump back, or a lunge forward. The three basic survival strategies of fight, flight, or appeasement are fundamental components of your brain's survival system in the amygdala.

Instincts

Studies of baby animal responses show that they have a built-in tendency to shrink from just a few specific stimuli. Most instinctual fears appear to be activated only when exposure to a potential danger includes some kind of negative feedback. For example a baby monkey does not have an initial fear of snakes. However, if on first seeing a snake a baby monkey also sees a fear response in another monkey, then the instinctual fear of snakes is permanently activated from that moment on.

The young human mind is also sensitized to react to the fear of others for a range of potential dangers. We seem to have proto fears of reptiles, spiders, large swooping birds, and heights. Unfortunately there is no indication of instinctual fear for the greater dangers of disease, automobiles, and human violence.

Models of reality

The subconscious mind at Level II sorts through sensory input and past experience to help you construct a model of reality. Here are a few examples:

  1. Since those are trees, this is dirt, and there are birds and bugs flitting around – this is probably a forest.

  2. Here is a walkway crowded with people, there are stores on both sides, there is a distant roof overhead, and signs are pointing to a food alley – this must be a shopping mall.

  3. The hero flies through the air, survives vicious attacks unscathed, always defeats the forces of evil – this must be a fantasy.

7.2.3 The Subconscious Mind at Level III

Subconscious activity at Level III is associated with basic functions typical of the forebrain, Freud's super ego, and the neocortex of MacLean's triune. These functions help humans to function in a social setting.

Language

You subconscious at Level III is distinguished by its advanced language capabilities for listening, interpreting, composing and speaking, and composing and writing.

Your listening skills depend not only on what you hear, but also on your knowledge of the language being used, and your ability to interpret volume, tone, context and social setting. You have to be able to separate words from background noise and often have to fill in missing syllables and words. Once a string of words is constructed, you still have to interpret the intention of the speaker.

Communications via telephone or radio require extra interpretative effort by a listener since the visual and social clues are missing.

Your speaking skills are just as demanding. First you have to convert an idea into a string of words. Then you have to manage your breathing and speaking mechanisms to create a series of intelligible sounds. You can also vary volume and tone, and add body language for emphasis. On top of all that you have to gauge the social setting and your audience to estimate whether your remarks are going to be appropriate and effective.

Writing skills are similar to speaking skills with the added tasks of imagining the audience. You also have to adhere to stricter requirements for grammar and spelling, and you need to master the demands of fine motor control required to utilize the medium you have chosen for recording your words.

Problem solving

Problem solving skills are another hallmark of your subconscious at Level III. Human activity requires a continuous stream of problem solving, from dealing with social issues such as 'What do I wear?' to more technical issues such as 'How can I do this?' Chapter 8 is devoted to problem solving.

Social awareness

Maintaining a sense of social awareness is another important activity of your subconscious at Level III. This part of your brain seems to be in perpetual action, scanning the social environment to determine the relative social status of others. 'Are they male or female?' 'Are they leaders or followers?' 'Do I owe them respect, or do they owe me?'

A key part of your social awareness is your own self-image. Your subconscious at Level III systematically generates a self-image that you use in making daily decisions about what you are capable of accomplishing.

However, in constructing our self-images, research has shown that we tend to overestimate our skills and overlook our flaws. When our actual skills and abilities are compared with our own estimates, the correlation factor is only about 0.2 (an accuracy of about 20%).

An inflated self-image is good for the ego, but not very good for clear thinking.

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7.3 Putting it all Together

If we take the model of the conscious mind, developed in Chapter 6, and add it on top of the three-level model of the subconscious mind developed in the previous section, then we create a simple four-part model of the whole mind. See Figure #9 below.

Figure #9: A four-part model of the mind

A key feature of this model is that the subconscious mind and the physical brain are integrated. Each level of the subconscious is directly associated with a physical part of the brain and each level of the subconscious has its own memory, skills, emotions, and sensory input. Another feature of this model is the implication that much of the neural activity in our brains occurs at the subconscious level.

Research by Joseph Le Doux (The Emotional Brain, 1996) provides supporting physical evidence for a model of the mind with more than one level of subconscious. He found that there are at least two channels for the flow of sensory input. One route leads directly to the mid-brain complex for a rapid response, while a second route reaches the forebrain about 0.25 seconds later for a more detailed evaluation. So you might jump up when you see a big spider, but then realize that it is harmless as it goes about its business.

The four-part model of the mind provides a framework that can lead to a better understanding of your conscious and subconscious capabilities.

7.3.1 Applications of the Four-Part Model

As with any model, the only value of the four-part model of the mind is in helping to organize the known facts and properties, and helping to explain the operation of a complex system. Dividing subconscious activity into three levels is a somewhat arbitrary procedure, perhaps analogous to classifying the flowers in a garden into three height categories. However, there does seem to be a correspondence among the subconscious activities and the physical structures of the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain. Similar comments could be made regarding the assignment of distinct memories, skills, emotions, and sensory input to each level of the subconscious.

The three levels of the subconscious, each with four subsections (memories, skills, emotions, sensory input) lead to a total of twelve subsections. The focus of attention of your conscious mind changes constantly during the course of a day as the twelve subsections of your subconscious compete for its attention. Typical functions of the subsections of the subconscious are summarized in Table #4.

Table #4: Typical functions of the subconscious levels

Priority of interrupts

According to our model of the mind, there are at least twelve sources of information continually competing for the seven information slots available in your immediate-term memory. How can the model deal with such competition?

An analogous situation occurs in the operation of computers. The CPU in a computer hums along at several million cycles per second while it switches back and forth among several subprograms running at the same time. Computers can also be connected to a variety of other devices such as printers, scanners, keyboards, the Internet, and extra memory devices. Often more than one program or device wants the attention of the CPU at the same time. To handle this type of situation, a system of priorities is built into programs and devices, and the CPU is programmed to deal with the highest priority items first.

The mind seems to have an analogous set of priorities: potential hazards are dealt with first, then emotional reactions, and finally analytical thought. When we are in a calm and safe environment, our mental activity flows along in a semi-automatic mode. We are free to analyze and daydream to our heart's content. But if we step on a sharp object or sniff a foul chemical in the air, those sensations take priority and our attention is snapped back to our immediate environment.

7.3.2 Conscious – Subconscious Interactions

Your subconscious mind can interact with your conscious mind to produce a range of positive or negative influences.

Support for conscious activity

While you walk down the street talking to a friend, your conscious thoughts may keep you on the sidewalk and guide your discussion. At the same time, your subconscious mind is helping you to keep your balance, co-ordinate your leg movements, co-ordinate your speaking with your breathing, and helping you to control the fine muscle movements of your tongue and lips to produce words. Your subconscious mind is working to support your conscious activity.

Monitoring of the environment

At a sports event you can be surrounded by thousands of cheering fans, but your conscious mind is occupied with the tasks of following the action on the playing field. At the same time your subconscious mind keeps track of what is going on around you, especially unusual events. If the person in front of you spills a box of popcorn and cries out, your focus of attention is liable to be diverted to that situation for at least a few moments. Your subconscious mind continuously monitors your environment and notifies your conscious mind of significant changes.

Distraction

Some people have difficulty staying on topic while recounting a recent event. As they talk, one topic seems to lead to a related but irrelevant topic. Their subconscious minds seem to be following sets of linked memories and feeding that information to their conscious minds, without any relation to the original topic. A similar type of thinking sometimes occurs when you want to focus on a challenging task but find that your mind keeps sliding off towards less onerous and more attractive contemplations. You may intend to spend the next hour studying Latin for a test on Friday, but find yourself daydreaming about your date for Saturday night.

Conflict with conscious thought

Sometimes your conscious and subconscious minds can be in conflict. Your conscious mind has decided that you need to diet and that you have already had adequate nutrition for the day. Somewhere from the depths of your subconscious mind the thought persists that you deserve to eat one more little snack, and that doing so will bring you great pleasure and satisfaction. In such a conflict, your subconscious is relentless. Significant conscious effort is required to alter a previously established behaviour pattern.

Intuition

Your intuition is a reflection of your subconscious mind at work. Your subconscious mind is continually monitoring sensory input, and comparing your current situation with similar past experiences. Conclusions and recommendations from your subconscious mind are often passed on to your conscious mind in the form of intuitive insights. Your conscious mind is aware that a judgement has been made, but is unaware of the reasons for that judgement.

While interacting with others we can subconsciously detect minor muscle twitches and shifts in body position that may provide clues about what a person is about to do, or the truthfulness of what they are saying.

During a busy day you may subconsciously detect subtle changes in your environment such as a change in air pressure, a change in temperature, a change in humidity, or a change in an animal's behaviour. A combination of these subliminal changes may lead to an intuitive thought in your conscious mind.

Your intuition is not always right. It is just a proposal from your subconscious mind. When you buy a lottery ticket because your intuition tells you that today is your lucky day, that probably just means your subconscious mind wants to win the lottery as much as your conscious mind.

Morality, guilt, and other social imperatives

Morality is shaped by the general rules for acceptable behaviour in a given society. Some would claim that moral behaviour is universal in nature, but a quick survey of history suggests that almost any behaviour has been acceptable at some time, in some society. Tying heretics to a stake and burning them alive, nominally to save their souls, was an accepted practice of the Christian church well into the 18th century. The enslavement and reduction of humans to the status of property was generally accepted around the world until the 19th century. Scattering cluster bombs across a landscape to render the land uninhabitable is still a standard military practice in the 21st century.

Moral considerations are only a problem for individuals when conflicts arise between intuitive motivations and social guidelines.

Guilt is associated with past events. Feelings of guilt are often supplied to your conscious mind by your subconscious mind as part of a routine to keep your future actions in line with moral concepts. When you have a nagging feeling that you should not have done something that you did, you know one part of your subconscious is chastising another part for a questionable moral decision.

For example, if hit a loyal friend because you are angry over an unrelated incident, there is a good chance you will soon feel guilty about your behaviour towards your friend. Feelings of guilt, generated by your subconscious, can be helpful if they guide you toward more constructive behaviour in the future. Feelings of guilt can be destructive if they become too pervasive and inhibit your ability to think clearly.

Consciousness and free will

Your behavioural patterns are embedded in neural networks that you have inherited or developed during your lifetime. Environmental stimuli are continually interrupting your current train of thought and starting you down alternate neural pathways. When your body runs low on energy, you are stimulated to eat. When a bug flies towards your eye, you are stimulated to blink. When you feel cold you are stimulated to seek warmth.

How does free will enter into this process?

How much control do you really have over your thoughts and the actions that you take? You often face decisions that will affect the physical and social standing of yourself and others. What is the mental basis for your decisions? In the same circumstances, why do some people do 'good' things while others do 'bad' things? Numerous factors probably affect your decisions as you choose which mental pathways to follow. Free will involves moment-to-moment decision-making, but inherited pathways and a lifetime of experience also influence each decision that you make.

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7.4 Harnessing Your Subconscious

"Over the years I have evolved methods to force my subconscious to do all this – the really hard work – so I, sitting up here in the conscious, sunlit penthouse, enjoy the benefits of the labors done in the dank, moist basement." (Gregory Benford, In Alien Flesh, p94, 1986 [a collection of science fiction stories])

As early as 1860 the German physician and physicist, Hermann von Helmtoltz, proposed that we are unaware of the majority of our mental activity. According to the four-part model of the mind developed above, the majority of your mental activity occurs in your subconscious. And your subconscious mind obviously performs varied and vital functions, otherwise you could never survive.

How much influence can your conscious mind exert over your subconscious mind? Can you find ways to enhance the direct exchange of information between your conscious and your subconscious? Can you make better use of your powerful subconscious mind in your conscious deliberations? An improved flow of information would provide the potential for better conscious control of your neural processes, and the ability to modify your habits and to think more clearly.

There are few studies that directly measure the properties of the subconscious. Thus, attempts to harness the subconscious are often speculative in nature and much of the discussion in this section is based on anecdotal accounts.

Without realizing that you are doing it you already use a variety of strategies, approaches, and practices to harness your subconscious. Your subconscious monitors all sensory and memory input, monitors your conscious thoughts, and observes the resultant signals sent out to your body. If you had the ability to deliberately flag conscious thoughts as important for your subconscious to analyze, then that would improve communications in that direction. And if you could enhance your ability to detect messages from your subconscious, then communications in the other direction would also be improved.

7.4.1 Techniques for Harnessing Your Subconscious

A number of techniques have already been developed to help individuals reach their 'inner self' that are equivalent to harnessing their subconscious minds.

Meditation

During meditation you are fully conscious, but strive to contemplate your inner thoughts without interruptions from the environment. If you are successful at reaching a meditative state, external stimuli are suppressed and there is just you, your thoughts, your breathing, and your heart beating. Some claim that meditation is useful for marshalling the body's defences to relieve pain, heal injuries, fight infections and disease, and control addictions.

A meditative state can be reached through relaxation and the reduction of environmental stimuli. Some practices include performing a simple repetitive task, saying a simple phrase repeatedly (a mantra), relaxing and contemplating a peaceful setting, or using hypnosis.

Researchers at the University of California at Los Angeles Department of Psychiatry are studying the effects of meditation on the well-being of teens and adults with attention deficit/hyperactivity (ADH) disorder. Preliminary results suggest that a few training sessions in meditation can 'reduce stress and improve attention, emotional balance, and self-awareness'.

The use of sensory deprivation was originally investigated by the military in the 1950's as a technique to destabilize candidates for interrogation. However, by the 1960's it was realized that the first few hours of sensory deprivation had significant positive effects. The lack of external stimulation triggers a relaxation response. Muscle tension, blood pressure, heart rate, and oxygen consumption are reduced. Blood vessels dilate and cardio-vascular efficiency is improved. Chemicals associated with stress such as epinephrine and cortisol fall to lower levels in the blood while more endorphins are released in the brain. You remain awake but your brain waves slow down to about 6 Hz, characteristic of the theta-state that you reach just before falling asleep. This state of body-and-mind is similar to the meditative state reached by experienced Yogi and Buddhists.

There is now a growing movement to use Restricted Environmental Stimulation Technique (R.E.S.T.) flotation chambers to assist individuals in reaching a profound meditative state. A float tank is a light-proof, sound-insulated chamber filled with about 30 cm of water and Epsom salts. The water-salt solution is kept at skin temperature and provides enough buoyancy to keep you floating with your face out of the water. As you lie in a flotation chamber most external stimuli are blocked, and you float with a sense of weightlessness. The effects of R.E.S.T. flotation have been investigated at a number of universities including Stanford, Harvard, and Yale. Several commercial organizations now provide R.E.S.T. flotation experiences.

Other experiments have shown that while in a relaxed meditative state, your brain is able to learn quickly and efficiently from audio and video messages. For example, float tanks are used by a number of top athletes to enhance their training for mental and physical challenges.

Mental rehearsals

Athletes have also learned that mental rehearsals for challenging maneuvers are almost as effective as actual physical practice. A basketball player can improve success in scoring baskets through repetitive mental rehearsals of shooting the same shots. Downhill skiers can enhance their performances by imagining themselves making all the best moves that they want to repeat in an actual competition. Formula One racers can reduce actual lap times after imagining themselves accelerating, braking, turning, and shifting gears as they complete a mental lap around a race course.

With enough practice and rehearsal, you can often leave control of complex actions to your subconscious. Your subconscious mind has more speed and mental power, and can often outperform your conscious efforts.

Recitation

The simple process of expressing your own thoughts aloud utilizes a variety of neural pathways and has a number of benefits for clear thinking. It forces you to put your ideas through a linear analysis so they can be converted into a string of words. It forces you to search through your vocabulary bank to find the most appropriate words to describe your thoughts, ideas, and problems. It allows your ears to hear your thoughts, and then your own words are processed as input through your ears and another important part of your brain is brought into play to analyze what you are hearing. Your subconscious mind is activated to deal with all of these processes.

Music and art

Music has patterns in rhythm and tones that can stimulate or relax your mental activity. Stimulating music increases your sense of energy and the urge to be active. Relaxing music can lull your senses and make it easier to sharpen the focus of your attention.

Visual art presents colour, shape, texture, images, and symbols that can inspire creativity and stimulate your memory.

Imagination

Unleashing your imagination allows your thoughts to proceed without inhibitions, restrictions, or assumptions. Your subconscious is then given free rein to present unusual combinations of ideas to your conscious mind. Composing new combinations of ideas is the essence of creativity.

Daydreaming

Daydreaming involves a state of rest and semi-meditation. You may be watching waves roll on to a beach or relaxing in a shower, and drift into a semi-conscious state. In such a state you tend to lose touch with environmental stimuli and let your thoughts drift. While in this relaxed state your subconscious can sometimes work through problems or analyze situations more efficiently than your conscious mind. Any ideas that come to you while daydreaming are usually soon forgotten (like dreams), so if you think of something creative and you want to save that idea, you should record it as soon as possible.

7.4.2 Managing Your Focus of Attention

William James, the early American philosopher and psychologist, concluded in The Principles of Psychology (1890) that the capacity of consciousness is limited and selective. This conclusion is consistent with the definition of the conscious mind as the contents of immediate-term memory. Research in neurobiology has also found that focused mental activity is accompanied by activity in specific neural networks, which implies that there is a physical basis for the concept of focused attention.

Your attention can be directed to analyzing stimuli from your environment, or from subconscious signals. Continuously selecting the focus of your attention is one of the most important functions of your conscious mind.

The bumblebee problem

Consider the problem of recognizing a bumblebee. The colour, the size, the shape, the buzzing sound, and the activity of the insect are all detected separately and have to be integrated in your subconscious mind into the concept of 'bumblebee' before that message can be forwarded to your conscious mind. Then your conscious mind has the choice of focusing its attention on the bee and following it as it flits from flower to flower, or it can ignore the bee and continue with what it was doing before.

Another interesting feature of the bumblebee problem is that it confirms that the senses have 'buffers', or short-term memories for storing input. Your senses receive a continuous stream of new information that is analyzed and integrated with other input and scanned for interesting features. However, your brain does not know what is interesting until it has had enough time to integrate all the information gathered by the senses. That information has to be stored in the meantime so that it is available for reference. All of this processing and decision-making occurs so quickly that most of the time your conscious mind is unaware that it is happening.

The function of focus

Your conscious mind is designed to keep you aware of your changing environment. Most of the time, you want your conscious attention to shift from item to item as you monitor your surroundings. However, on occasion it is highly advantageous to be able to ignore most environmental stimuli and focus your attention on one specific task. The ability to focus your attention means that you are able to devote all the resources of your conscious mind and your immediate-term memory to a single task of your choice.

It takes practice and determination to focus your attention on a single topic because other items from your environment and your subconscious are continually clamouring for your attention. Once a state of focus is achieved, your conscious mind is able to devote its maximum power to dealing with your chosen topic.

Students often like to do their homework while listening to music. Does music help or hinder their study efforts? It depends on both the assignment and the style of music. If an assignment is dull and repetitive, then enjoyable music may lighten the mood and add a dash of inspiration. If a task is challenging, then quiet background music may help to block out other environmental distractions until they fade from consciousness, leaving the mind focused on the task. If a task is frustratingly difficult, then total silence may be necessary before the mind is able to focus on such a task.

Concentrated problem solving

The conscious mind is well suited for dealing with most of life's challenges. However, when you face a difficult problem with many components, your full mental concentration is required. When you are successful in focusing your attention, the rest of the universe seems to disappear, even you disappear, and only the topic of interest exists.

For example, when you read a good story you are often completely engaged in the plot. In your mind, you are right there by the shoulder of the main character, following the action and encouraging the characters to behave as you would wish. Your mind has been completely focused by the skilful writing of the author.

Similarly when you are working on a challenging task such as painting a portrait, hitting a baseball, or solving an equation, your conscious mind can be completely focused on that one task to the exclusion of all others – at least for a few moments. As you become more skilled at achieving full focus, you are better able to achieve success with your chosen tasks and activities.

Diffuse focus

Alternatively, when you are seeking inspiration from your subconscious, a state of diffuse focus can be desirable. A state of diffuse focus is the opposite of focused attention and is related to both a meditative state and daydreaming. As you move towards a state of diffuse focus your conscious mind is deliberately emptied of significant information and you feel as if you are in a warm and comforting fog.

A state of diffuse focus can help you solve complex problems that have resisted your conscious efforts. Sometimes the aspects of a problem can overload your conscious mind making it difficult to find a solution. In such a situation, switching to a state of diffuse focus can provide an opportunity for your subconscious mind to contribute novel ideas that your conscious mind may have overlooked.

You can practice reaching a state of diffuse focus by relaxing, closing your eyes, breathing deeply, and pushing extraneous thoughts out of your conscious mind. In a state of diffuse focus, external stimuli are suppressed while your conscious mind is free to ponder thoughts submitted by your subconscious.

7.4.3 Better Communication with Your Subconscious

The more you learn and the more you organize your memories, the more powerful your thinking becomes. As the quantity and quality of your neural pathways increase, the potential for making more effective use of your subconscious increases. Your subconscious then becomes a library of neural networks that you can learn to access more effectively.

Modifying subconscious subprograms

Your subconscious normally runs a number of subprograms to keep you alive and functioning. In addition to its standard maintenance functions, your subconscious occasionally injects emotional input and survival urges into your consciousness. It also monitors what your conscious mind is up to, so it can retrieve needed information from memory and add intuitive conclusions.

This activity of your subconscious leads to a vital question. What impact can your conscious mind have on what your subconscious does?

Autonomic subprograms

We know the subconscious runs a number of subprograms that control functions such as breathing, digestion, heart rate, blood pressure, and blinking, and coughing reflexes. Do you have any conscious control over these subprograms?

Most of the time, you breathe without any conscious thought. While you cannot consciously decide to cease breathing, you can alter your breathing patterns. You can choose to take deep breaths or shallow. You can choose to breathe slowly or rapidly. You can even choose to hold your breath for about a minute.

Your eyelids blink every few seconds to clean and moisturize the surface of your eyes. You can choose to blink more rapidly, to wink by blinking just one eye, and with effort can stop your eyes from blinking for a few minutes at a time.

To some extent you can even consciously alter your heart rate and blood pressure. Vigorous activity and threatening situations will cause your pulse and blood pressure to rise. It is also possible to practice relaxation techniques to reduce your heart rate and lower your blood pressure.

The key point is that even functions that are normally considered beyond conscious control can be modified to some extent by conscious effort.

Emotions as subprograms

Your limbic system provides you with primitive and high-speed emotional responses to life's challenges and opportunities. Your limbic system can bypass reason, logic, and normal morality. In social settings your limbic system can, and sometimes does, get you into hot water. If, after an emotional outburst or inappropriate behaviour, you ask yourself, 'Why did I do that?' or 'Why did I react that way?' chances are you are recovering from a limbic system outburst.

You do not want to suppress all of your emotions. You want to be able to encourage and prolong positive emotions. Even some negative emotions provide motivation to alter your behaviour in a positive direction. For example, at times feelings of shame or guilt can help to steer your behaviour in a more constructive direction. However, if not justified, those same emotions can inhibit your normal behaviours. Negative emotions such as anger, hate, and vengeance are emotions that are best managed as effectively as possible.

There are a few simple approaches to managing your emotions:

  1. Do all you can to insert a time delay between a stimulus and an emotional reaction. A time delay of just a few moments gives your conscious mind and your subconscious at Level III an opportunity to assess the situation in a more logical and rational manner. Your initial emotional reaction may prove to be justified, or it may not.

  2. Develop the habit of analyzing your emotions. Ask yourself, 'Why am I feeling this way?', 'What stimulus has evoked this emotion?' and 'Should I pause and extend this sensation, or should I squelch this sensation?'

  3. Practice creating your own emotions in controlled situations. Find activities that make you happy, situations that make you sad, conditions that arouse your anger, images that frighten you. The key is to become aware of the stimuli that trigger your emotions. Then you will be better able to manage emotions that are generated by external stimuli.

The more important a decision is to you, the more important it is to separate the logical and the emotional components. You will probably experience strong emotions when you are about to marry someone, start a business, buy a house, enlist in the army, or join a mob. Those are precisely the situations that require a careful analysis before you act.

There is one more important point to make regarding your emotional subprograms. You should always keep in mind that there are people out there in your social environment who are expert at manipulating your emotional responses for their own benefit. Some may be well-intentioned, but most are deliberately short-circuiting your rational thinking to achieve their own ends.

Skill subprograms

Every time you master a skill through practice and repetition you have trained your subconscious mind so that it is able to take over basic tasks related to that skill. While your subconscious handles the basics, your conscious mind is free to focus on more challenging aspects of your day.

Knitting provides a simple example. When you are first learning to knit, you have to pay close attention to the movement of the needles and the position of the wool. Skilled knitters can engage in conversation while their knitting needles are clicking away so fast that an observer can hardly follow them.

Playing a musical instrument provides another good example of a skill subprogram that, once mastered, is managed by the subconscious. A beginning guitar player has to pay close attention to the fingering for chords, notes, and the various scales. Once these basic skills have been mastered, a guitar player can focus more on the flow of the music and the development of musical style.

Our ability to develop physical skills demonstrates that we are able to deliberately create new neural networks in our subconscious. We can also practice and develop skills based on abstract thought processes. We can become skilled at making comparisons, analyzing information, writing speeches, finding patterns, and evaluating real estate or a country's potential for war. As our conscious skills get better in these areas, so do our subconscious skills.

Biofeedback

In the field of system analysis, 'feedback' occurs when part of a system's output is diverted and added to the input stream. Normally, feedback is used to regulate a system to keep it performing within acceptable limits. A room thermostat monitors part of the output from a furnace and sends a signal back to the furnace controls, which then switch the furnace on-and-off as required to maintain a steady temperature. When riding a bicycle, if we start to tip off to one side our internal sense of balance is alerted and signals are sent to turn the handlebars to correct the situation.

'Biofeedback' is a term that was coined in the 1960's to describe a technique in which people could be trained to control certain internal processes, when given the ability to monitor subtle physical responses. These feedback signals may be as simple as a flashing light or as elaborate as a multi-dimensional video display. Biofeedback became a more practical technique as advances in electronics led to more sensitive and less expensive detectors. The three main types of detectors are:

  1. Electromyography, which measures muscle contraction

  2. Thermal biofeedback, which measures skin temperature

  3. Neuro-feedback, which measures brain wave activity.

With biofeedback, you can be trained to lower your blood pressure, slow your heart rate, and relax your muscles. Biofeedback is now used to help patients cope with a whole range of conditions from attention deficit disorder, to muscle spasms (Association for Applied Psychology and Biofeedback, www.aapb.org). Tthere are many accepted applications of biofeedback, and the field is still under active development.

Biofeedback is another means for the conscious mind to communicate with the subconscious mind. The success of biofeedback is another clear indication that such communication is possible.

Direct communication

In order for you to survive, communications between your conscious and subconscious minds must proceed efficiently and effectively every day of your life. You can facilitate those communications by organization, by training, by managing your emotions, by developing specific skills, and through the use of biofeedback.

On occasion it would be helpful if you could communicate directly with your subconscious and thus have more direct access to some of its capabilities. Imagine the possibilities if you could talk directly to your subconscious and make requests such as: 'My lower back on the right is aching, please relax those muscles.', 'The cut on my foot seems to be infected, send more white blood cells to that location.', 'I remember that man's surname is Jones. I was introduced to him last week. Check my memories for his first name', or 'Search my memories for everything I know about the connection between Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare.'

When people talk to themselves, they are voicing their thoughts, framing questions, and testing their ideas. Expressing your thoughts aloud can be an effective way to organize your conscious thinking. According to the model of the mind developed above, your subconscious is always monitoring your environment like a NSA satellite, so every word you express is analyzed for significance. (The National Security Agency monitors world communications for information related to the interests and security of the USA, www.nas.gov )

If you can talk directly to your subconscious, just by shaping the words or creating a vision in your conscious mind, is it reasonable to expect a response? If it was easy to conduct that kind of communication, we would all be doing it and the question would be irrelevant.

While you consciously work on a problem, your subconscious mind often seems to be looking over your shoulder and working on the problem as well. Now and then ideas and insights just pop into your conscious mind. Here are two famous examples from the history of science:

  1. Archimedes (c287 – 212 BCE) is often remembered for his discovery of the principle of flotation. As the story goes, while taking a bath in ancient Syracuse one day, he noticed that the water level in the tub rose and fell as more or less of him was submerged.

  2. August Kekulé (1829 – 1891) was a noted German chemist who did pioneering work on the structure of molecules. Among his discoveries was the ring structure of the chemical, benzene. He claimed that the idea for the ring structure came to him in a daydream in which a snake seized its own tail.

Note that great ideas cannot materialize out of the blue. You have to be seriously working on a problem before your subconscious can help you out.

The overall conclusion is that while part of your subconscious is inherited, other aspects are formed during your daily experiences as you develop new skills and knowledge. With practice and organized effort you can begin to make more efficient use of your subconscious capabilities.

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Chapter 8: Solving Problems

8.1 Types of Problems

8.2 Problem Solving Techniques

8.3 Avoiding Problems

8.4 Looking for Problems

8.5 Two Applications

Real world problems encompass a broad spectrum of challenges. Problems can be big or small, easy or difficult, interesting or dull. One thing is certain, we all face problems on a daily basis. How we handle those problems has a direct bearing on our quality of life.

Dealing with problems is not always a simple matter of finding solutions. Many problems are best avoided in the first place. Some problems are best managed rather than solved. A challenging problem for one person may be of no significance to another. Some make it their profession to seek interesting problems.

8.1 Types of Problems

Problems can vary in importance, in degree of difficulty, and in degree of urgency. Problems can be mechanical, biological, or logical in nature. Problems can involve a single person, a group of people, or a whole nation.

When you are faced with an urgent problem, your first instinct is often to dig in and start working on it. However, it is prudent to take a few moments to analyze and classify a problem before trying to solve it.

8.1.1 What is a Problem?

A problem exists when you face a challenge and you are not sure how to proceed. You may not know what action to take. You may know what action is required, but not how to execute the required steps. You may be all set to take action, but be uncertain when to act. A task may be beyond your current abilities or resources. You may not have enough information, or your information may not be of high enough quality. You may not have enough time to complete a solution.

Note that problems are not always onerous obstacles to be avoided or overcome. Sometimes problems can be positive and enriching challenges that make life more interesting.

8.1.2 The Nature of a Solution

An essential aspect of dealing with a problem is determining the characteristics of the solution that are looking for. If you do not know what a solution looks like, how will you know when you are making progress towards it? How will you know when your problem is solved?

Note that a solution for one person can create a problem for another. You can irrigate your fields by damming a stream that crosses your property, but then farmers downstream may suffer from a lack of water. The development of electronic calculators led to accurate and inexpensive devices for routine calculations, but made it necessary for educators to re-examine the mathematics curriculum.

Not all problems can be solved. If you want to flap your arms and fly to the Moon, you are bound to be disappointed. Not all problems are within your control. If you want the stock market to go up 1000 points next week, it could happen, but your influence would probably have little effect.

The range of problems that you can successfully tackle also depends on the priorities that you assign to various problems, and your skills in managing your time and resources. You could devote your time and energy to solving a thousand calculus problems next week, but that would detract from your efforts to complete a best-selling novel.

Solving a problem can be beyond the capabilities of your current resources. Coping with an invasion of locusts is beyond the resources of any individual farmer. The task of building a robot to perform brain surgery is beyond the current capabilities of doctors and engineers.

The solution to a problem can change with time. The goals of warfare used to be simple: 'crush your enemy and steal all you can'. In the 20th century the goals of warfare became more complex: 'crush your enemy, steal all you can, and then convert your defeated foe into a stable friend that will support your own government's future policies'. That third component of modern warfare was neglected at the end of World War I, and that neglect led directly to World War II.

A solution to a problem may involve developing a procedure such as how to repair a leaky faucet or how to land a damaged airplane. A solution may involve containing a situation such as preventing the spread of spilt milk, or stopping the spread of a new disease. A solution may involve just working towards a goal, such as reducing the number of weeds in your lawn.

8.1.3 Classifying Problems

The process of classifying a problem is in itself a basic problem solving strategy. Judging the relative significance of problems is an important component of the classifying process. 'What do I do first, plug the leak in the forward hold or put out the fire in the engine room?'

Small, medium, and large

Not all problems have the same significance. Breaking a shoelace before leaving for work is a minor problem; losing your job is a major problem.

Not all problems have the same significance to all persons. If you sprain your ankle, you are confronted with a number of problems: how to ease the pain, how to manage the injury so that it will heal quickly, and how to reduce the amount of walking you have to do. To a fellow citizen across town, your injured ankle is of little concern.

Even the same problem can have a different significance depending on the circumstances. If your car runs out of gas as you pull into a service station that is a much smaller problem than if it runs out of gas on a major highway in the middle of rush hour.

Timing can also affect the significance of a problem. A large payment that is due this afternoon is liable to be more significant than if the same payment is due in ten years.

Degree of difficulty

Problems can come in various degrees of difficulty, from very simple problems that you can solve in a few minutes, to very complex problems that may never be solved. A problem is more difficult when the situation is more complex, the number of steps needed for a solution is large, or the required resources are scarce.

Most Sudoku puzzles can be solved in less than a half-hour of focused effort. Finding a cure for cancer is a much more difficult problem.

You may have to seek additional instruction before you are qualified to tackle a problem. For example, it would be much easier to sew a dress after you had learned how use a sewing machine. It would be much easier to shoe a horse after you had apprenticed as a rural blacksmith.

You may need to assemble a team before attempting a problem that cannot be completed by one person. For example, a politician has to develop a broad base of support before introducing new legislation. You would need a crew of construction workers to build a new hospital. You would need an army to invade another country.

You may need to solve a series of precursor problems before you can attempt your primary problem. For example, before you could start a colony on the Moon you would have to develop a capable space ship, a launching facility, communication facilities, an astronaut-training program, a design for the colony, and have appropriate supplies delivered to the site.

How important is the problem?

Estimating the importance of a problem is a key factor in deciding how much time, energy, and resources you are willing to spend in solving it.

Estimating the importance of a problem helps to establish priorities so you can answer questions such as: 'Which problem has to be dealt with first?' and 'What portion of my limited resources should be devoted to dealing with this problem?'

Estimating the importance of a problem is a subjective process. If you earn $40 000 a year and lose $20 000 on the stock market, it is probably a significant problem. If you earn over $4 000 000 a year, then a $20 000 loss on the stock market is probably a less serious problem.

Suppose that after several years of effort, there is one flaw remaining in an experimental process for converting wood chips into diesel fuel. Eliminating that last flaw would be a high priority problem, since once it was resolved the whole process could be patented, the investors could be repaid, and society could make use of a new fuel source.

Mechanical, organic, or logical

A problem can also be classified as mechanical, organic, or logical.

Mechanical problems have some physical phenomenon at their root. Typically, such problems can be solved by efforts such as gluing it back together, changing the gear ratios, transporting it from here to there, or building a better mousetrap.

Organic problems have their roots in biological systems. They may be based on human frailties or environmental concerns. There may be an outbreak of a new disease or an oil spill in the arctic.

Logical problems are based on cognitive processes. Can you debug the program, solve the equation, write the essay, translate the speech, solve the puzzle, or determine the most likely outcome?

Ignore, manage, or solve

Many problems present you with options: you can ignore them, you can contain and manage them, or you can choose to solve them outright. A noisy muffler on your car provides a good example. The car still works, so you might choose to ignore the extra engine roar and the possibility of asphyxiating yourself with exhaust fumes. You might choose to make a temporary repair and fasten part of a soup can over the hole in your muffler with a twisted length of coat hanger wire. Or you might choose to solve the problem by visiting your local car repair shop and having a new muffler installed.

Some of the problems that we choose to ignore exhibit minor symptoms that slowly gain in importance such as: weight gain, peeling paint, and the national debt. We hope that if we ignore the symptoms, the problem will magically go away or that there will be a much more suitable time in the future to deal with the problem.

The problems that we tend to manage, rather than actually solve are often extended in time and scope. Not enough storage space, an irritating neighbour, youth crime, and environmental damage are examples of problems that would probably fall into this category.

Problems that are of immediate concern and that can be solved with specific action tend to be dealt with more promptly. Questions on a physics test are dealt with energetically in the time available. Jurors in a criminal trial deliberate until a decision is reached. A move to a new home is managed in accordance with closing dates.

While a leaky roof may be tolerated, a creaking roof that is about to collapse cannot.

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8.2 Problem Solving Techniques

If there was a guaranteed procedure for solving any problem, then you would not have any problems, just some extra work.

A number of techniques that can be used to tackle challenging problems are described below. For convenience, these problem-solving strategies are summarized at the end of the section in Table #5.

8.2.1 Summarize and Research

Summarizing the available data helps to clarify the scope and magnitude of a problem, and helps you to focus your attention on specific aspects. You need to become familiar with all the relevant information, and to present that information to yourself as clearly as possible.

After the standard techniques of sorting and classifying information have been applied, decisions can be made regarding what is significant and what is extraneous. The quality of the data and the reliability of the sources should also be considered.

You can take better advantage of your sophisticated neural pathways for processing visual images by summarizing key information in a table or a labelled sketch.

Background research should be regarded as an essential step in your efforts to solve significant problems. Few problems are unique. There is a high probability that someone else has already worked on a problem similar to yours. With a bit of research on the Internet or in a library you can often obtain an overview of such efforts. Published results often include descriptions of what worked, what did not work, the most promising avenues for follow-up studies, and the characteristics of major impediments to success.

When appropriate, consult one or more experts in your problem area. Expert advice at the beginning of a major problem-solving project can save you much time and anguish.

Consider stakeholders

If your problem, or its solution, will affect others it is highly recommended that those people be consulted on a regular basis. The 'stakeholders' can often provide valuable insights that will help you find a better solution and avoid future problems.

A solution is only of use if it is successfully implemented. Implementation that affects people normally requires their co-operation, and their co-operation is more likely when they feel that they have been involved in the process. A solution that is imposed on an unsuspecting population is often resisted or rejected.

8.2.2 Allocate Your Resources

Resource allocation is a significant aspect of problem solving. While the problems in life are without end, your resources are limited so choices have to be made. Your limited resources include your time, money, physical resources, skills, expert knowledge, and good will.

Consider the classic case of writing a university exam. How much time should you allocate to answering any given question, and which questions should you attempt first? It is always reasonable to take a few minutes to read over all the questions at the beginning of an exam and rate their degree of difficulty. Then you should always answer the easy questions first. And you should allocate your time for each question according to a minutes-per-mark ratio. Suppose that you have 120 minutes to earn 100 marks; the implication is that a question worth 10 marks should be answered in approximately 12 minutes. Rating questions and establishing a marks-per-minute ratio provide useful guides for allocating your resources during an academic exam.

Home renovations provide another example of resource allocation and problem solving. While you may wish to totally renovate your home, your financial resources are probably limited and your patience in tolerating disruptions may also be limited. You have to choose with care the extent of the changes that you can afford and the scheduling of renovation activities.

Every attempt at problem solving involves making choices and allocating resources. The allocation of your resources should be based on obtaining a reasonable chance of success while still holding some resources in reserve for dealing with any potential complications and unexpected emergency situations.

8.2.3 Basic Strategies

There are a number of basic problem-solving strategies that can be applied to most problems.

Top-down

With a top-down strategy, you begin with general principles and work towards specific examples that ultimately include the problem situation. The direction of general-to-specific gives the strategy its name.

If you planned a meal using a top-down strategy, you might start with the nutritional requirements of an average adult and the nutritional values for a variety of foods, and eventually arrive at an appropriate shopping list, and finally a recipe for tonight's supper.

The creation of legislation and governmental institutions in the United States of America has followed a top-down process. The Declaration of Independence was issued in June 1776. The new Constitution was written in 1787 and approved by congress in March 1789. This was followed in the same year by the passage of the Bill of Rights containing the first ten amendments to the constitution. Since that time, all other laws and governmental bodies of the United States have had to fit within the framework of the amended Constitution.

Most large computer programs are designed top-down, beginning with a detailed set of performance specifications. Then the primary and secondary features of the program are designed and specifications are created for exchanging information between parts of the program. The actual writing of computer code does not begin until the top-down design has been completed.

Bottom-up

As the name suggests, the bottom-up strategy is the opposite of the top-down. When using a bottom-up strategy for problem solving, you start with a specific aspect of a problem and then work towards a general solution.

If you want to improve your physical fitness, a top-down approach might include buying a new jogging suit and a book on weight lifting. A bottom-up approach might begin with skipping dessert and walking to work.

A bottom-up approach to home-building would begin with digging foundations and hammering nails. A top-down approach to home-building would begin with a site plan and an architectural design.

A trip to your family doctor for a yearly check-up would be part of a top-down approach to your health. A trip to the emergency department at your local hospital is usually a bottom-up strategy.

Left-right

The top-down and bottom-up approaches both imply that solving a problem involves an ordered sequence of events. The term 'left-right' is used here to imply that a problem can be approached from a number of different directions at the same time.

The left-right approach is commonly used in problem solving when you have a definite starting point and a definite goal. For instance, if you want to unravel a tangled ball of string, you often have to work alternately with one loose end, and then the other. If you want to build a bridge across a river, it is often feasible to start construction from both banks with the goal of meeting in the middle.

Problems in deductive geometry often require a left-right approach. In these problems you typically begin with a given set of information and are seeking a particular conclusion. A left-right approach involves starting with the given information to see what other conclusions can be reached. Then you contemplate the 'answer' and work backwards; 'If this statement is true, then what else must also be true?' You work alternately from the 'beginning' and then the 'end' with the goal of finding a sequence of logical statements that will meet somewhere in the middle. (Mathematicians, and wise students, then rewrite their solutions to make it seem as if there was a smooth and obvious deductive path from the given information to the desired conclusion.)

Trial-and-error

The trial-and-error approach involves making a reasonable estimate of what is required and then attempting to solve the problem using that estimate. The trial-and-error approach is most effective when your problem is part of a well-behaved system. Then the results tend to improve systematically as your estimates get closer to some optimum value. The key to success with a trial-and-error approach is to pause and analyze the results after each attempt at a solution. Then you can make systematic improvements in your estimates. Random guessing is generally a waste of time.

For equation solving, there are a variety of numerical techniques that make the trial-and-error process as efficient as possible and ensure that no potential solutions are missed. The essential feature of 'numerical methods' is that successive trials are not random, but are based on computations that systematically lead towards a solution. The ability of computers to rapidly carry out extensive and repeated computations makes them an ideal aid when using numerical methods for problem solving.

Trail-and-error methods should be avoided when dealing with delicate situations such as brain surgery, and when dealing with systems with critical values such as explosive devices.

8.2.4 Some Advanced Strategies

If the basic strategies are ineffective, there are a variety of other approaches that can be applied to problem solving. These strategies involve models and analogies, logical analysis, and statistical analysis.

Models and analogies

The use of models and analogies allows you to create and examine a similar, but simpler problem. Analyzing the simpler problem often provides insights into the behaviour of the original and more complex system.

For example, predicting the motion of a tornado in a turbulent atmosphere may be a daunting task beyond the power of a supercomputer. However, analyzing the motion of a rotating cone moving through a smoothly flowing fluid is a much simpler task and might provide useful insights and clues for predicting the motions real-world tornados.

Logical analysis

In a situation with clear definitions and rules governing relationships, it is possible to make use of logical analysis in problem solving. Algebra, geometry, calculus – in fact all branches of mathematics – are subject to logical analysis.

Situations that combine human interactions with logical analysis are 'fuzzy' in nature and require approaches that are more flexible. 'Game theory' has evolved as a branch of applied mathematics that deals with strategic interactions between humans, when the optimal choice of one person depends on the choices made by other participants. The underlying assumption is that all participants will make rational decisions based on their own preferences.

Statistical analysis

In some situations there are no precise rules to govern interactions, but many observations have been made and lots of data is available. In those situations, a statistical analysis can reveal patterns in the data, and the patterns can be used for making predictions.

Weather forecasts are based on statistical analyzes. No one knows exactly how wind, sun and rain are going to interact over hours and days, but powerful computer analyzes of data collected from thousands of weather stations and weather satellites can be used to make reasonable forecasts of national and local weather patterns for the near future.

In modern cryptography, the breaking of secret codes involves statistical analyzes and powerful computers to examine millions of possible coding schemes. Alan Turing pioneered this approach at Bletchley Park, in Britain, during World War II. With the help of first-generation electric computers designed by Turing, the code breaking team at Bletchley Park was able to decipher many of the intercepted German communications. That information played a significant role in shortening the duration of the war.

Most studies of the safety and effectiveness of new medicines are based on statistical analysis. Biological systems are so complex that no one knows exactly what is happening at the molecular level in your body when you take a medicine. So, large groups of volunteers are required to test a new drug. Statistical analyzes are used to establish that most of the time when you take a particular drug, you can expect these benefits and occasionally those side effects.

8.2.5 Still More Strategies

Despite your best efforts you will always encounter problems that seem unsolvable. What do you do then?

Re-evaluation

Sometimes it is wise to stop and re-evaluate your problem solving efforts. Is this problem that important? Is it worth more of your time, energy, and resources? Are there more productive ventures you could work on?

You may want to upgrade the significance of a problem and bring in more resources; you may want to downgrade the significance of a problem and withdraw some of your resources. You may want to abandon a problem altogether. While re-evaluating the need to solve a difficult problem you should clarify your own motives and prepare a plan of action that will maximize your chances of success.

Luck

We are all ready to accept a quick solution to a problem that occurs by happenstance. Why work hard when you can get lucky? That is why gambling and the sale of lottery tickets are so popular. Some problems, such as solving a jigsaw puzzle, do involve an element of chance. The first piece you pick up may complete a challenging part of the puzzle, or you may have to search through pieces for several hours to accomplish the same task. More often, experience and a systematic method lead to a simple solution that makes it appear that luck played a role.

Luck can play a role in situations that require just one positive event to greatly simplify your problem. Most real world problems involve many steps and require a systematic approach in which luck has no potential role. Luck may play a role in your taking a different road home and avoiding a traffic jam, but luck will not help you paint the garage.

Hard work

Most challenging problems are ultimately solved with hard work over an extended period of time. If you face a difficult problem and are motivated to solve it, then be prepared to spend a lot of time and effort.

Suppose that one of your children is misbehaving on a regular basis. This is a major problem that can require years of effort, much patience, consultation with experts, trial-and-error, and lots of luck.

If you want to start your own business, you face a host of problems that have to be solved. It is not enough to have a good idea and a grand opening ceremony. Hard work over an extended period of time will be required to make your business a success.

Novel point of view

There is a tendency to stick with your initial approach and assumptions when working on a given problem. This tendency can lock you into a limited range of thought patterns that can, in turn, limit your ability to solve that problem.

We are creatures of habit and tend to reuse recently activated neural pathways when we repeat similar actions. If you sit in the same position, with the same information spread in front of you, as you repeatedly go over aspects of a difficult problem, there is a tendency to repeat exactly the same line of reasoning. When you get stuck on a problem and seem to be repeating the same steps over and over, a new approach can lead to a wider range of thought and action that may lead to better results.

Finding a novel approach may be as simple as sitting in a different chair, asking a different question, or changing an assumption.

In a procedure called 'brainstorming' you are encouraged to speculate, without restriction, and to write down all the ideas that come to mind. While a list of unrestricted speculations typically contains mostly irrelevant material, it can also include an idea that stimulates further thought in a new and useful direction. Brainstorming can work with an individual, but it is more effective with a small group. Brainstorming with a group adds the possibility that one person's wild speculation will stimulate novel thoughts in another person, and those novel thoughts may lead to a more practical problem solving approach.

Closest similar problem

A particular problem may prove very difficult to solve, but has features similar to other problems that have already been solved. It is possible to gain insights into your current problem by studying the solutions to these related problems. If your problem follows the pattern of the most closely related cases, then perhaps your problem will have a similar solution.

A Viking, lost at sea, could utilize sailing lore and conclude that a stationary smudge of clouds on the horizon might be surrounding the mountains of a distant island. His knowledge of similar situations could thus provide him with the ability to find land when none was in sight.

Medical diagnosis often employs similar-case analysis. When you visit a doctor with your own personal set of flu symptoms, your doctor may have already seen several patients with similar symptoms. Those other similar cases could then form the basis for an initial diagnosis of your particular situation.

Change a problem to make it simpler

Sometimes a problem, as you find it, is simply too difficult to solve. However, if you make one or two simplifying assumptions, then solving the problem may become a realistic task. This technique is often used in mathematics, science, and engineering.

The key to this technique is the judicious choice of simplifying assumptions. There is little point in solving your financial problems by assuming you are a millionaire, or solving a problem in rocket science by assuming you have invented an anti-gravity device. A good assumption eliminates awkward details while having minimal effect on the overall situation.

When estimating the amount of material required for a job, carpenters typically calculate the amount of wood in the finished product, and then increase that amount by ten percent to allow for waste (splits, knots, and short pieces that cannot be used). Experience has shown that expecting ten percent waste is a reasonable assumption in carpentry. It is not necessary to examine every piece of wood and pre-plan every cut before ordering material.

Einstein's equations of general relativity are very difficult to solve for the real universe, so cosmologists usually begin by making a fundamental assumption. Although the universe obviously contains planets, stars, and galaxies, on a very large scale it is useful to assume that the mass of the universe is evenly distributed in all directions. This basic assumption allows the equations of general relativity to be solved for a number of interesting cases and allows cosmologists to make predictions about the behaviour of the universe for billions of years into the future, and backward into the past.

Ask for assistance

When you are having serious difficulty with an important problem, ask for assistance. Almost always, there are others with expertise and experience who can help you with particular aspects of a problem. Often there are co-workers or friends who are pleased to be asked for help. In helping you they are able to make good use of their own skills, are able to feel a sense of satisfaction in providing assistance, and are helping to create a problem-solving network that they may someday need to access themselves.

Time for reflection

Compared to the speed of a computer, the human brain works at a snail's pace. If possible give yourself time to mull over the different aspects of a problem. Your conscious mind has to work with the limitations of immediate-term memory, but your subconscious mind can sift through thousands of your memories. Give your subconscious mind time to do its work.

We have all had the experience of reflecting on a past conversation and thinking of more effective things that we could have said, if only we had thought of them at the time. Given time, your subconscious mind can often come up with better ideas.

Time for reflection is most beneficial when you have already organized, analyzed, and attempted to solve a problem. After that, your subconscious has all the pertinent information laid out before it and can peacefully chug away through your stored memories looking for items that might provide useful clues the next time you consciously consider the problem. Given more time, there is a better chance that you will find a better solution.

The various problem-solving strategies are summarized in Table #5.

Table #5: A summary of problem solving strategies

8.2.6 Verify Your Solution

No solution is complete until you have checked that it contains no obvious errors; it satisfies the parameters of the original problem; and field-testing has shown that it works under realistic conditions.

First organize, rethink and rewrite your final solution. The process of organizing and simplifying often uncovers a variety of minor errors. Second, apply your solution to a few very simple cases for which you already know the results. If your solution does not work for simple cases, it probably will not work in more realistic situations.

Always double-check your solution against the requirements of the original problem. You may have found a magnificent solution, but for a different problem. It is always reassuring to confirm that the original requirements have been met.

Field-testing is recommended whenever others are expected to apply your solution to a variety of new cases. Field-testing a solution serves three vital roles:

  1. It demonstrates that others can understand your solution. You may have produced a brilliant solution, but if no one else can understand it, it is of little value.

  2. It demonstrates that your solution is workable and can be effectively used by those for whom it was intended.

  3. It provides an opportunity to receive comments and suggestions for making further improvements to your solution.

8.2.7 Review and Consolidate Your Work

Finally, it is important to document the methods you used, and the solution that you obtained.

When your problem solving efforts are well documented, you are prepared to apply what you have learned to future efforts. This is particularly true for students. It is not enough to solve a problem and obtain the 'right answer'. You also need to think about how you solved that problem and how you might use those same methods on similar problems in the future. Without this type of consolidation, little learning takes place and every new problem has to be solved again from scratch.

Often a solution by itself is not sufficient. You may also have to convince others that your solution actually works and that it is the best, fastest, most practical, most economical, or most environmentally friendly approach. You may have to defend your solution and demonstrate that any funds were spent properly, that it represents your own work, that safety rules were followed, or that the laws of the land were not broken.

You may also want to examine your solution to determine if it provides any new insights, or a better understanding of the general situation.

You should also consider the implications and ramifications of your solution. Sometimes a solution to one problem can create other problems that are more serious than the original. You can buy the biggest, most comfortable sofa in the store but if you do not have enough space for it in your current home, you have created another problem. You can kill all the weeds and then find that nothing else will grow either. You can build an expressway to relieve traffic and end up facilitating the abandonment of the city core as more people move to the suburbs.

Starting about 1980 and continuing for most of a decade, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of the United States supplied funding, training, and weapons to Muslim extremists in Afghanistan and Pakistan. The objective was assist in the overthrow of the Soviet-backed government in Afghanistan. The strategy worked – but it also led to the creation of the Taliban and Al Queda movements, which soon became enemies of the United States.

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8.3 Avoiding Problems

Your knowledge of any working system can allow you to make reasonable predictions about how it will react to various inputs. At work and at play, your ability to think clearly and anticipate what might happen, can help you avoid a range of problems before they occur.

The basic strategies for avoiding problems are to anticipate, plan ahead, and shape the appropriate environment.

8.3.1 Anticipate

Knowledge of specific situations and the expectations, skills, and limitations of yourself and others often allows you to manage events in order to reduce the potential for encountering related problems.

Anticipate social needs

If you know that a person is liable to be cranky on Monday morning, why not arrange for low demand activities on Monday and wait until Tuesday to announce a new project? If you can predict that a teenager will ask to use the family car on the weekend, why not ask him/her to take it in for a tune-up and a safety check earlier in the week? That way you have some assurance that the car is in good working order, and the teenager has a vested interest in keeping it that way. If your spouse likes to go out for dinner on special occasions and an anniversary is approaching, why not make reservations at a favourite restaurant?

Anticipate physical requirements

The last time you went for a hike you ended up with feet that were wet and sore; why not shop for better hiking boots and socks before you venture forth again? There is always a possibility that your computer will crash with the loss of important computer files; why not get into the habit of creating back-up files? The last time the power went out you had difficulty finding a working flashlight, why not purchase a hand-cranked flashlight and store it in a convenient location in your home?

In engineering, it is standard practice to calculate the required strength of elements in a structure and then to build components with double or quadruple those strengths. The extra strength provides a 'factor of safety' to allow for unexpected stress and loading. Most major systems on the American space shuttle are built in triplicate so that the ship can continue to function even if a main system and its first backup have failed.

Anticipate the reactions of others

Driving a car provides lots of opportunities to avoid problems through clear thinking. Even though other drivers are supposed to follow the rules of the road and make reasonable decisions, they often do not. They may be forgetful, distracted, unskilled, or simply discourteous – but in many situations, after observing the behaviour of the drivers around you for a few seconds, you can predict that they are going to change lanes, turn, stop, or make some unusual manoeuvre. This type of anticipation and planning can help you avoid problems on the road before they occur.

8.3.2 Advanced Planning and Preparation

When dealing with large and complex systems, advanced planning and preparation can also help you avoid, or at least reduce the impact of potential problems.

Dealing with complexity

When you are dealing with any project that is large, complex, and/or expensive then careful planning is the best way to avoid significant problems. Careful planning should include a detailed written plan, consultation with experts, and the creation of step-by-step procedures. It is far easier to deal with a potential problem at the beginning of a project than it is to make major modifications after the project has been partially completed. It is far easier to conduct a careful survey and then build a wall in its correct location, than it is to try to move the wall after it has been built.

Timing and scheduling often play a role in major projects. Projects grind to a halt if supplies, equipment, and/or workers are not available when needed. Costs mount rapidly if supplies, equipment, and/or workers are sitting around before they are needed.

On a personal level, two examples of endeavours that can benefit from careful planning are your educational career and your vacations.

In education you should look ahead several years to find a direction that will best satisfy your needs, ambitions, interests, and abilities. Once you have decided on an educational goal, you should work backwards from that goal to your present situation and make lists of courses you need and standards that you have to meet, since most advanced programs require prerequisite courses with minimum academic standards. Without adequate planning, you can end up spending an extra year or two at school making up for missing prerequisites.

When going on vacation, you often have to plan several months in advance in order to get the flights and accommodations that you want. Tourism is one of the world's largest industries, and chances are that thousands of other travellers want to visit the same places that you do. You can also enhance your vacation experience by learning more about your travel destination.

Carpenters have a saying that sums up the essence of this section, 'measure twice, and cut once'. In other words, plan carefully and you will not have to repeat your efforts or waste material.

Contingency plans

Contingency plans are plans that you make for situations that are unlikely to occur, but are very serious if they do. When making a contingency plan you can carefully consider alternatives and identify the essential steps of the best plans.

Fire drills at home, at school, and in industry; life-boat drills on cruise ships; and the pre-flight review of emergency procedures on airplanes are common examples of contingency planning. Note that contingency planning requires the development of procedures, the design and provision of equipment, and step-by-step rehearsals. Then if an emergency situation does arise, people can quickly react by following the recommended procedures.

A clear thinker should anticipate, make contingency plans, and be ready to act in response to situations with high stakes and limited response times.

8.3.3 Shaping the Environment

One last approach to avoiding problems is to shape your environment so that events and activities lead naturally to the intended result with minimal intervention.

As a very simple example, the drain in any bathtub is located at the lowest point so that water will drain completely when the plug is pulled. If the drain were located anywhere else in the tub, there would always be extra work required to remove all the water after a bath.

The Montessori method of education makes frequent use of equipment that is self-evaluating. If children can place sets of geometric shapes in the corresponding recessed places on a board, then they can see for themselves that the task has been completed correctly. If a child can prepare fruit and pour juice without an accident, then they have obviously succeeded in serving a snack.

A proper fence around a yard can provide a safe place for children to play with minimal supervision.

In industry it is easier to operate in a neat control room with clearly labelled dials and colour coded switches than it is if all the switches and dials look alike and are distributed across a control panel at random.

Building a canal can simplify the transport of goods by water. Building a bridge across a valley can simplify travel. Reducing air pollution can ease suffering due to asthma and allergies.

Shaping your environment using elements of design, engineering, and creativity can eliminate a host of potential problems before they occur.

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8.4 Looking for Problems

Rather than avoiding problems, some individuals, professions, and industries thrive on problems. Many professions are based on dealing with problems that are beyond the capacities of lay people. Many recreational activities are based on finding and working with entertaining problems.

Humans like challenges. Detectives need crimes to solve. Surgeons need damaged bodies to repair. Mathematicians need equations to solve. Plumbers need leaks to fix. Teachers need children to teach.

8.4.1 Problems for Students

Problems constructed specifically for students provide both learning challenges and a means for evaluating student performances.

In most student assignments, tests, exams, and contests – problems are provided in written form along with rules restricting time and the resources that can be used. Most student problems are intended to help students learn and consolidate the material being studied. Students can usually assume that any assigned problems can actually be solved. Lots of practice in solving problems in a given subject area is the very best strategy for developing problem-solving skills in that subject area. Relative-student-skills in problem solving are often used to grade and rank students.

8.4.2 Professional Problem Solvers

Experts and professionals in any field have specialized knowledge and experience that allow them to deal efficiently with problems that a lay person would find very challenging. Experts and professionals like to deal with these problems; their livelihoods depend on being presented with problems that require their knowledge and expertise.

Professional problem solvers include medical doctors, dentists, lawyers, architects, engineers, computer programmers, auto mechanics, and police detectives.

There are others, including university professors, government and industrial researchers, and inventors who deliberately seek out problems that no one else has been able to solve. Their professional success is based on their ability to find and solve unique problems. Their work contributes to humanity's library of knowledge and problem-solving techniques.

8.4.3 Recreational Problems

Many of us enjoy working on problems as a form of recreation.

Jigsaw puzzles, Sudoku puzzles, crosswords, table games, and video games are all designed to provide invigorating challenges for the human mind. The only reward in these activities is the satisfaction of solving the puzzle.

Many of our creative hobbies involve significant problem solving. What are the best materials to use? How can certain effects be achieved? Is there a more interesting way to achieve a similar result? A partial list of creative hobbies includes amateur astronomy, carpentry, collecting, painting, photography, sewing, sculpting, and writing. The products of these hobbies can often be purchased elsewhere ready-made, but there is a great source of satisfaction in creating something yourself and being able to solve all the attendant problems.

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8.5 Two Applications

As you read through the following descriptions of problems, try to identify the various problem-solving strategies that are being used. You can probably devise alternate strategies that would work just as well.

8.5.1 The Monty Hall Paradox

There was a popular television game show in the 1970's called 'Let's Make a Deal' with host Monty Hall. In a regular segment of the show, a contestant was shown three doors and was given the details of a really good prize that was behind one door, and poor consolation prizes behind the other two. With a lot of showmanship, the typical game then proceeded as follows:

  1. The contestant selected Door #1, Door #2, or Door #3, hoping the prize was behind that door. The door was not opened at this stage of the game.

  2. Monty then opened one of the other two doors to reveal a consolation prize.

  3. The contestant was then given the opportunity to switch from the original selection to the third and last door.

The problem is to determine whether or not switching doors would have been a good strategy. This is a problem in deduction. The key to its solution is to find a way to express the components of the problem so that the implications are more obvious.

At a first glance, the following statements seem to be correct:

  1. Since there are three doors and your selection is essentially random, the probability of winning the grand prize after your first selection should be one in three.

  2. After Monty reveals a consolation prize, there are only two doors left, so your chances of winning should increase to one in two.

  3. There appears to be no obvious advantage to switching your choice; there are still two doors with a big prize behind only one door.

In reality, participants who switched doors won about two times out of three. That is the paradox. How could switching doors be an advantage? If you search the Internet using the key words 'Monty Hall paradox' you will find hundreds of sites that explore this problem.

To simplify the discussion, let's assume that the prize is behind Door #1, but as a contestant you do not know that. You still have a random choice of one of the three doors. As Monty takes his turn he will always open one of the two remaining doors to reveal a consolation prize, never the door to the grand prize.

Working through the possibilities:

  1. If you picked Door #1 – then Monty will open either Door #2 or Door #3. In this case, if you switch from Door #1 you lose.

  2. If you picked Door #2 – since Monty knows the prize is behind Door #1, he has to open Door #3 revealing a consolation prize. In this case if you switch to Door #1 you win.

  3. If you picked Door #3 – then similarly Monty has to open Door #2 revealing another consolation prize. Again, in this case if you switch to Door #1 you win.

The net result is that if the prize is behind Door #1 and your first choice is random, then two times out of three, you will win the grand prize if you switch doors after Monty reveals a consolation prize. The same pattern applies if the prize is behind Door #2 or Door #3.

The key to the paradox is the phrase Monty 'has to open' in the second and third possibilities. For example, if the prize is behind Door #1 and you have selected Door #2, then Door #3 is the only choice available for Monty to open without spoiling the game. In two cases out of three, your initial choice plus Monty's forced choice direct you to the winning door.

8.5.2 Dealing with Employee Theft

Suppose that you own a small retail store with a dozen employees. Your sales have remained steady, but your profits have dropped and you suspect that the cause may be employee theft. What can you do to deal with this problem?

First you should remind yourself that reliable and efficient employees are a business's greatest asset. You want to take all reasonable steps to encourage and reward your good employees. Any action taken against an employee needs be judicious and planned to cause minimum disruption to your business.

Second, you should conduct some background research and reassess the general situation. 'Shrinkage', as it is often called, is a common problem in any business. Somehow, the revenues at the end of the week are less than they should be. There are a number of potential causes, including:

  1. Poor inventory control – sometimes you do not receive all the inventory that you have paid for, some inventory may be damaged and has to be written off, some sold items are returned, some items are discounted, or some items are given away for advertising.

  2. Poor accounting – through poor bookkeeping you may not really know how much inventory was sold at what prices, you may not know the true total of your expenses, or you may not know how much you owe others, or others owe you.

  3. Theft – items may be stolen by shoppers, by employees, or by third parties after your business is closed for the day. Theft may be described as pilfering – a little here, a little there – or theft may be described as a money-making operation for a professional thief.

Prevention is a major component in controlling shrinkage. You may need to update and develop better procedures for inventory control and accounting. You may need to do a better job of selecting employees in the first place.

You may need to hire a security expert to review your procedures for dealing with customers, handling cash, and securing inventory. You may need to organize a professional development program for your employees outlining any new procedures and emphasizing the benefits of being part of a prosperous business.

If an employee is caught with incriminating evidence, you may call the police and press charges, you may fire the employee, or if the offence was minor you might be able to work out an ad hoc rehabilitation program. In all such cases it is essential to carefully document your evidence and your actions. In general, problems involving people need to be dealt with carefully and according to established procedures.

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Chapter 9: Getting it Right

9.1 Decision-Making

9.2 Dispute Resolution

9.3 Dealing with Errors

9.4 Patterned Behaviour

You face decisions and disputes, and make errors on a daily basis. With focused effort you can make better decisions, do a better job of managing disputes, and reduce the impact of your errors.

Humans also tend to adopt patterned behaviours to reduce their thinking overhead. One has to be very careful not to let habits, rituals, and beliefs replace reasoned thought in crucial situations.

9.1 Decision-Making

Every action we take is the result of a decision. Do we take our coffee with milk or cream? Do we wear the red outfit or the blue outfit? Do we turn left or right to go around that tree? Do we save or spend? Do we apply for that job or not? Which of the political candidates should we vote for?

Decision-making can involve a choice between two alternatives, the ranking of alternatives, the elimination of the worst alternatives, or the selection of the best alternatives.

The simple 'if – then –jump' construct is one of most useful processes controlling all the computers in the world. This simple line of code provides a computer program with the ability to compare two numbers, decide if they are equal or not, and then jump to other corresponding lines in the program. This very basic decision-making process underlies the ability of computer programs to solve complex problems and appear to mimic some aspects of human thinking.

The following example illustrates this important concept. Just about any quality can be expressed as a number, for example the colour green could be '6' and red could be '7'. At some point in a computer program, suppose the variable A corresponds to the colour of a sweater that you want to order over the Internet, and B corresponds to the colour of the sweaters in stock. Then a segment of a computer program might look something like this:

300 If A = B then jump to line 400.

400 Print "We have your sweater in stock."

600 Else If A <> B then jump to line 700

700 Print "Sorry we do not have that colour at the moment.

(The symbol <> is often used in computer programs to mean 'not equal to'.)

The rest of this is section is devoted to examining strategies for making the best decisions in challenging situations.

9.1.1 Clarify Your Choices

The first step in the decision-making process is to clarify what your choices are. This involves gathering the pertinent information, arranging that information so that similar features in the choices can be easily compared, and then summarizing the options that are available with each choice.

The next step is to analyze each choice to consider all the potential consequences. Once the costs and benefits of each available choice are clearly defined, the decision-making process is greatly simplified.

Benefits

What is a benefit? A benefit could be a gain in physical resources, financial resources, social status, or future opportunities. A benefit could represent enhanced chances of survival for yourself, your family, or your nation. A benefit could be enhanced comfort, increased personal power, or decreased workload.

In most situations, each of the possible choices that you can make has some associated benefits; otherwise there is no point in making it a choice. Some benefits associated with a choice are obvious; some are more obscure; some may require reasonable predictions of events in the future. Some benefits occur almost immediately; some may not occur unless other favourable events also occur. There can be major benefits, secondary benefits, and deferred benefits associated with any choice

The benefit of a choice may be that it has the least negative consequences.

Costs

In most situations, each of your possible choices also has some associated costs. Some costs are obvious; some are hidden; some may require reasonable predictions of events in the future. Some costs may occur almost immediately; some may never occur unless other unfavourable events occur as well. There can be major costs, secondary costs, and deferred costs associated with any choice.

The failure to recognize all the costs, especially 'hidden' costs is one of the commonest sources of difficulty in decision-making. Sometimes hidden costs are simply overlooked; sometimes they are ignored or deliberately hidden to bias the decision-making process.

Money, time, and physical energy are obvious costs. Lost purchasing power, psychic wear and tear, damage to the environment, and social repercussions are some of the costs that tend to be ignored.

Other factors

There are a few other factors that should also be considered before making a choice.

Can a decision be reversed? If it could be reversed, what would be the cost? What would be the cost of not making a particular decision? What is the cost of not making any decision? What is the cost of delaying a decision? Is a particular choice guaranteed? Are any of the choices 'win-win'? Are there other choices that have yet to be considered?

Suppose you plan to purchase a new car this year. There are literally thousands of makes, models, and options to choose from. It is a challenging task to collect and compare all the available information. The Canadian Automobile Association (www.caa.ca) provides some information on costs that allows you to begin comparing the expenses associated with different vehicles. The safety ratings of automobiles can be checked at www.safecar.gov. As you gather more specific information for side-by-side comparisons, it becomes easier to make a reasoned decision.

9.1.2 Choose a Strategy

Seeking the 'best choice' is the most obvious strategy in decision-making situations. However, other strategies often play a role in decision-making.

Eliminate the worst:

Sometimes it is more important to avoid making a poor choice than it is to make the best choice.

This strategy is often used during the first visit to a new restaurant. When there are many menu selections and you are not sure what you might enjoy most, a common strategy is to narrow the range of choices by eliminating the choices that definitely do not appeal. A vegetarian might first mentally delete all the meat dishes. Someone on a first date might first delete all the dishes with garlic. Someone on a diet might first delete all the dishes with rich creams and sauces.

During World War II, the psychologist J. P. Guildford devised aptitude tests that were used by the US Army Air Force to help in screening candidates for pilot school . After implementing these tests the failure rate in pilot training was reduced by over 60%. Guilford's psychological tests were not designed to select the best pilots, but to help identify and eliminate the candidates who were unlikely to become pilots.

Some employers use a similar strategy when hiring and promoting – especially when union rules and/or civil laws make it very difficult to dismiss an employee for incompetence. In such a situation, an employer's first concern is to ensure that they do not hire an unsuitable candidate. After unsuitable candidates have been eliminated from the process, the employer cannot go too far wrong in hiring any of the remaining applicants.

Pick the lowest bid

In the lowest bid strategy, you create a set of specifications describing what you are looking for and then allow qualified suppliers to submit their offers. Many contracts for public works are awarded this way.

The lowest bid process has two main objectives. First, the process is intended to be open and fair so that all suppliers have an equal opportunity to make their bids. Second, the process is intended to reduce costs. If a bid is inflated then it probably will not be lowest and thus will not be accepted.

It might be fun to buy a new car using a lowest bid process. You would describe the car that you want and then all the auto dealerships in town would have until the end of the week to submit their bids. All you would have to do is open the envelopes and call the winning dealer to get the car you want at the lowest price in town.

Rank the choices

Another decision-making strategy is to rank all your choices, from highest to lowest, and then select the top ranked choice. In order to rank choices, you have to first establish a set of criteria to rate various aspects of each choice. Then you apply those criteria and construct a final ranking for all your choices.

Suppose that you are trying to decide among ten possible destinations for your next vacation. Using a scale of one-to-five, you could rate cost, accommodation, travel time, local attractions, and safety for each possible destination. Then all you would have to do is add the scores to determine where you are going for your vacation.

9.1.3 Evaluate Your Decisions

It is always worth the time to look back on your decisions, to reflect on the processes that you used, and the factors that influenced your choices. Contemplating past decisions can help you to make better decisions in the future.

Good decisions

A good decision occurs when the results are positive and conditions are improved. Everyone is happy; resources have been used efficiently; and the requirements of the situation have been satisfied.

In the best possible scenario, everybody benefits – you, your associates, society, and the environment. You are able to attain a maximum benefit at minimum cost. A decision to reduce waste and clean up litter around your home would probably fit into this category.

Stupid decisions

A stupid decision is typically made when you are rushed and you just did not bother to properly assess the consequences of your choices. You may have started with poor information, you may have acted too quickly, possibly you were duped, or you were just not thinking clearly.

Consuming alcohol or drugs, and then driving a car or operating machinery is a common stupid decision.

Bad decisions

A bad decision typically occurs when you put too much emphasis on immediate consequences and ignore long-term consequences. The long-term consequences turn out to be more negative than you expected; or somewhere in your decision-making process you have made an error and overlooked a serious defect.

For example, a common practice in espionage is to entrap a person who may be a source of valuable information. Such entrapment is often based on evidence of a minor betrayal, or of a sexual exploit. Once you make a bad decision and are compromised in this way, you and your social position are no longer under your control, but are in the control of your 'handler'.

Pressured decisions

Sometimes, under duress of some kind, you may make decisions that you normally would not. A person, agency, or situation has activated your emotional 'hot buttons' and thus influenced your actions.

Many economic and environmental decisions are made under pressure to provide short-term gain with little regard for long-term pain. Local voters pressure politicians to reduce taxes, cut social programs, and create jobs today, often at the cost of the environment and jobs tomorrow. The shareholders of corporations may push for larger profits today, often at the cost of the environment and profits tomorrow.

Many salespersons operate in the realm of pressured decisions. They know how to appeal to your sense of pride, your sense of greed, your fears, and your desires. They strive to make an item appear irresistible and often add comments such as, 'The offer is only good for a limited time', and 'Someone else has also expressed interest, so you need to decide right now'.

Whenever you feel that you are being pressured to make a decision that you are not comfortable with, you need to remove yourself from the situation as soon as possible. Then, in a calm and deliberate manner, review your choices. You should also reflect on your own weaknesses that others were trying to exploit, and try to assess the true motives of those who are doing the exploiting.

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9.2 Dispute Resolution

Disputes are people problems, as opposed to logic, resource, or supply problems.

Resolving a dispute involves dealing with competing claims among the various protagonists. The claims may involve real property, personal rights and powers, or social rights and powers. You generally know exactly what actions you would like to take but are unable to do so because someone else claims that your actions would infringe on their rights.

The resolution of disputes is not a minor issue. An Internet search with the term 'dispute resolution' quickly demonstrates that there are books, journals, university programs, and a variety of institutes all devoted to the subject. Civil law and family law provide legal frameworks for dispute resolution in our society. International agreements and treaties are frameworks for dispute resolution on a grand scale.

9.2.1 Types of Disputes

The severity of disputes can range from mild disagreements to vociferous arguments, legal sanctions, or acts of violence – including war.

Short descriptions of four common types of disputes are discussed here. It is sometimes awkward keeping track of who is who in a dispute, so let us use the labels 'Fred' and 'Mac' to distinguish the two main protagonists in a generic dispute.

Misunderstanding

Often Fred and Mac are in dispute only because they have expressed their positions poorly. Once their descriptions of the conflicting situation are expressed in common terms they often discover that they are in agreement on most points and are prepared to negotiate a fair and just solution on any remaining issues.

Fair share

Fred and Mac both want to claim their fair share of a particular resource. A dispute arises when their claims overlap. A dispute can also erupt when either Fred or Mac wants to change the status quo and increase their share of a resource.

Children often argue over the division of food, or toys, or space. A simple procedure to manage these situations is to ask one child to make the division of the disputed resource, and then let the others have first choice in picking their portions. After a few practice runs, the first child learns to make the division as even as possible.

A labour union may stake a claim to higher wages as the workers' fair share of higher corporate profits, while the shareholders want to keep the higher profits. Such a dispute is first dealt with in labour-management negotiations. If those negotiations fail to produce an agreement the union may initiate a labour strike. In negotiated settlements, supporters of either side are often satisfied only if the process has been long and difficult. If it appears that a settlement was easy to reach, then members of each side assume that they could have increased their share with more effort.

Power play

Fred has more power than Mac, and uses that power to claim a bigger share of Mac's resources. A dispute arises only if Mac fights back. Sometimes, Mac fails to see Fred's clear advantage and unwisely resists. Sometimes, Fred fails to see that Mac is stronger than he looks and is defeated in a showdown.

A bully in the schoolyard, on the factory floor, or in the boardroom uses the power play strategy to dominate others. While a direct confrontation can sometimes be effective, it is often more productive to deflect, accommodate, and/or reform the efforts of a bully.

The stakes are higher when a power play is well publicized. Then the protagonists are not only disputing a specific issue, but can gain or lose significant prestige among their peers.

Military strategy is devoted to designing successful power plays. Sen Tsu's Art of War (c500 BCE) provides advice that has proved valuable through the ages. Here are a few nuggets from the Art of War:

  1. Knowledge of your potential enemies is vital.

  2. Never attack when you are outnumbered. Only attack when you have superior forces.

  3. Victory comes from taking advantage of your opponents' actions.

  4. A conflict is bad, but a long conflict is disastrous even if you are ultimately victorious.

Carl von Clausewitz's On War (1832) provides another classic analysis of power play strategies. Sources such as these provide valuable and cautionary advice if you are contemplating involvement in a power play at any level.

Revenge

In the past, Fred has taken advantage of Mac, or at least Mac thinks so. Now Mac wants redress in the form of revenge. Revenge is a primitive emotional response, a desire to get even with someone. The basic philosophy of revenge is expressed by the Biblical phrase, 'An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth.'

Revenge is associated with anger and the urge to become violent. As a consequence, disputes based on revenge are very difficult to deal with in a rational manner.

In a blood feud, if a family member is slain it is the sworn duty of the nearest male relative to avenge that death by killing the offender, or another member of the offending family, clan, or tribe. Unfortunately, one revenge killing automatically leads to efforts at counter-revenge. In 16th century Japan, revenge killings were called 'katakiuchi'. In 17th century Corsica, family honour was preserved through a vendetta. In 19th century Kentucky, these patterns of violence were called family feuds.

Quest for power

Disputes can arise between competitors for power. A dispute may be over who gets to use the school yard swings at recess, whose ideas are accepted at a meeting, which candidate can convince enough voters to get elected, or who gets to rule the kingdom.

When Fred and Mac both want to be chief of the tribe, a dispute ensues. If Fred and Mac are skilled at arousing the support of others, the dispute can grow into a physical contest in which the most violent and ruthless will dominate.

In the 1640's, a dispute between the English parliament and King Charles I, over who had the authority to collect taxes, erupted into civil war. Eventually, the Parliamentarians won under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell. Charles was executed, the monarchy abolished, and Cromwell was declared Protectorate for life. However, soon after Cromwell's own death in 1658, Charles II (the son of Charles I) was installed as the new king of England. Parliament did manage to retain many of its new-won powers.

In 1740 the emperor of Austria, Charles VI, died with no male heir. He had tried to arrange his affairs so that his daughter, Maria Theresia would inherit his crown but leaders in neighbouring states also laid claim to the title, and the war of Austrian Succession was instigated. This developed into a complex series of wars spanning the years 1741 to 1748 that eventually included Austria, Germany, France, England, Spain, Sweden, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire. Maria Theresa and her husband, Francis I, prevailed in this vast power struggle. The fates of the populations in half of Europe were imperilled by this quest for personal power.

Saving face

Many disputes are based on efforts to 'save face'. Humans have a strong inner sense of justice according to their position in the social order. We may excuse an insult from higher up in the pecking order, but are quick to take offence at any actions of others that will diminish our social status.

Maintaining, or regaining, social status can have a significant impact on all of our dealings in our communities, and are often the source of disputes.

9.2.2 Stages in Dispute Resolution

While not all disputes can be resolved, most can be guided through a number of stages towards an acceptable solution.

Recognition of the problem

It is difficult to make any progress towards resolving a dispute if one of the parties refuses to admit that there is a problem, or insists that any problem is entirely the responsibility of others. The first step is for all parties to recognize and accept that indeed there is a dispute. Then the parties can begin to assess each other's positions, and establish the boundaries of the dispute and the main points of contention.

The parties want a solution

Once it is accepted that there is a problem, the next step is for all the parties involved to acknowledge that they want a solution. If Fred is determined to exact revenge, or finds the dispute more entertaining than harmful, then there is little chance of resolving the dispute.

Lower the emotional content

Once it has been accepted that there is a problem and that a solution is desirable, it is essential to engage Level III reasoning powers. Emotional actions to resolve a dispute are seldom as constructive as actions designed with rational thought and consideration.

Accept that some resolution is inevitable

Some resolution to every dispute will be reached one way or another, sooner or later, and with or without the co-operation of the parties involved. On a hot summer afternoon Fred and Mac have a dispute over who has the bigger bowl of ice cream. After half an hour, their dispute will be irrelevant.

In a labour strike, the situation will be resolved agreeably, or the workers will lose their jobs, and/or the company will go out of business. In the meantime, both the workers and the business suffer financially.

In a prolonged custody dispute either one parent, or both, will participate in raising their children. In the meantime, their children are growing up in a broken home and in a few years they will be independent adults.

Cost / benefit analysis

Once the parties in a dispute are thinking rationally, it is time to look at all the available options and to construct an extensive cost/benefit analysis for each option. It is important to include all possible options, and all current and future costs.

Once the information in a cost/benefit analysis is agreed upon, it is a relatively simple matter to examine the implications of each option, to eliminate the worst choices, and to find the options that produce the best results or, at least, cause the minimum damage.

Give and take

In making a final choice of options it may be necessary to compromise, you may win on some points while conceding on other points.

Compromise includes a clear thinking component in which you attempt to maximize benefits and minimize costs. Compromise also includes a positive emotional component as you work towards fair treatment for all parties and build a consensus for future interactions.

In a well-solved dispute there is a sense of satisfaction and accomplishment at having met and mastered a real-life challenge.

9.2.3 Dispute Resolution at Work

Dispute resolution has been formalized in a number of social settings. Here are a few examples.

Sports

Athletic competitions are usually conducted according to an agreed set of rules. The rules describe the field of play, allowable equipment, and the characteristics of acceptable play. The rules of almost every sport also include mechanisms for dispute resolution. Umpires, referees, and judges are appointed to manage the conduct of a competition and to assign penalties for minor violations during a competition.

In less organized sports, the players themselves create the rules, manage the game, and enforce the rules. Generally in such sports, participation is more important than winning, but talent and good play are still recognized. The fundamental, yet unwritten, rule is that a player can be ostracized from the game if he/she is unwilling to co-operate and repeatedly cheats, dominates, or hurts other players.

International diplomacy

International diplomacy is intended to improve communications and trade, and to solve disputes that might hinder relations among states. When communications, trade, tourism, economic co-operation, and security improve between nations – then diplomacy is working well. When nations expel each other's diplomats, set up trade barriers, block communications, and declare war – then diplomacy has failed.

The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961) established the international laws and procedures for dealing with diplomats, ambassadors, and high commissioners. The appointment of a diplomat is initiated by the sending country, but must be approved by the receiving country. The physical premises of an embassy and its diplomats are not subject to the laws of the host country.

The ambassadors and diplomats act as public relations officers for the home country, provide information to the home country about affairs in the host state, conduct negotiations as required, and represent the persons and property of home citizens who may have been mistreated in the host state.

Treaties are negotiated by independent states and are governed by the Vienna Convention of the Law of Treaties (1969). Only the legal authority of a country's central government can bind that state in a treaty.

Family counselling

Families form the basic social and economic unit in society. A family can consist of members from several generations including parents, children, and elder parents. Sometimes aunts, uncles, and cousins are also included in the family unit. Family members are expected to contribute to the smooth running of the family unit, while still exercising a degree of autonomy in managing their own lives.

When all goes well, family members show affection, communicate well, share experiences, and provide support and constructive advice to each other. The family group also has to manage a wide range of problems affecting its members such as physical health, mental health, the challenges of youth, the challenges of the elderly, educational and professional careers, maintenance of the home, and maintenance of personal relationships.

Disputes often arise among family members over how to manage these different problems. Successful families develop a range of strategies for coping with such disputes, but when disputes are persistent and threaten the very structure of the family, a variety of community resources should be consulted for assistance.

Most communities provide a range of family counselling services. In addition there are many private organizations that provide an even wider range of services. These services all exist because family disputes are relatively common and often difficult to resolve without expert mediation and advice.

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9.3 Dealing with Errors

The best approach for dealing with errors is to systematically minimize the number of and impact of your errors, and then to use the errors you still make as opportunities for learning.

Improving your analyses, your procedures, and your decision-making can reduce the frequency and severity of your errors.

9.3.1 Common Sources of Errors

The following sub-sections describe the typical sources and characteristics of errors.

System Errors

Many errors occur simply because a system is poorly designed. System errors typically fall into three categories: faulty physical design, faulty communication, and faulty procedures.

Faulty physical design

Some problems are due to errors in design. The nature of the system then leads to errors in performance. You put the new rug by the door so everyone will see it, but visitors keep tripping over it. The latch on the gate is awkwardly placed so you often leave the gate open. Your hand-held calculator has so many mathematical functions associated with each key that you often get them mixed up. The wiring in a machine was not properly shielded from moving parts.

The design of physical systems should always be field tested to ensure that they can be effectively used as intended.

Faulty communication

Errors due to faulty communication can occur when you do not understand exactly what you are doing, when you didn't read the directions, or when you didn't clearly explain what you wanted. For example: you put up the wallpaper in the wrong room; you take the wrong medicine; you tell the wrong person; or you answer the wrong question. Clarifying verbal instructions, designing better labels, and field-testing written instructions could have avoided these errors.

Faulty procedures

Whenever we perform complex procedures, there is a possibility that one or more of the steps has been poorly designed will lead to an error in the final results.

Cooking recipes borrowed from friends or clipped from a magazine often contain faulty procedures. You add a cup of water, as per the recipe, and discover later that it should have been only half a cup. You stir in the sugar at the beginning as instructed and discover later that the sugar should have been sprinkled on the final result.

When an activity will lead to significant results, take the time to double-check your instructions and your procedures. When possible, simulate your activity and practice it until you can consistently produce the results that you expect. Take note of the old adage: 'An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure'.

Accidents

An accident occurs when a random event produces an unintended negative result. The wind suddenly changes direction; a car turns left when you expected it to turn right; a mouse chews through some wires and shorts an electric circuit.

Major accidents often result from the accumulation of several less significant errors. A traffic accident may be due to a combination of poor vehicle maintenance, poor road design, poor driving skills, and poor weather.

When a significant action is contemplated and there is the potential for a serious accident, a systematic review of standard procedures is recommended.

Poor Health

Your ability to think clearly is degraded when you are ill, tired, or suffering from pain. In these circumstances, your attention is divided and it is difficult to focus on a single task. As a result errors can occur.

If you are half-asleep and let your toast burn, that may not be too much of a problem. But if you are an airline pilot and are suffering from jet lag after a long flight, you may miss important details in your landing procedures.

When you are facing important situations that require your full attention, you should do everything in your power to be in top physical shape at that time. If you know you are not in top physical form, it is advisable to delay any significant problem solving exercises until you are feeling better.

Carelessness

A careless error occurs when someone neglects to do something that should have been done. A driver forgets to fasten his seatbelt, a homeowner forgets to change the furnace filter, a surgeon forgets to count all the sponges after an operation.

Sometimes you know exactly what you should be doing, but during a moment's inattention you do something else that leads to an error. Careless errors tend to occur when a task involves several steps and the focus of your attention drifts to another topic. As a consequence your working memory is overloaded and one or more steps of your task are dropped from your immediate-term memory. The result is a careless error.

Focus on any important task until it is completed. If the need to recall other information is distracting you, pause for a moment and write your ideas down, then proceed with your full attention on the task at hand.

9.3.2 Contributing Factors

There are often a variety of related factors that contribute to errors.

Lack of Experience

Errors often result when you attempt a challenging task with minimal preparation.

Limited knowledge

Your chances for making an error are greatly enhanced if you are lacking knowledge and/or experience in a field of interest.

It is important for you to recognize when you are beyond your level of expertise. You should know that it would be dangerous to try to fix your toaster with a fork. You should know that it would be a frustrating experience to debate economic issues with a professor of economics.

Lack of knowledge and experience can be cured with directed effort. You can take a course in appliance repair. You can read books and attend courses on economics.

Poor judgement

Poor judgement occurs when you take action before considering all the relevant information. Most other people, in similar circumstances, would have acted more prudently.

A recreational skier may decide not to wear a helmet. A cook may decide to turn off an irritating smoke alarm. A driver may decide to overtake a slower car when the view of oncoming traffic is obscured. A shopper may decide to make an expensive purchase on impulse.

Stupidity

Stupidity occurs when you should know better, but you do not take the time to think clearly. For example, you might dig a hole for a fence post in your backyard without first consulting the utilities to find out where the telephone, water, and gas lines are buried; or you might fail to properly tighten the blade on your new power saw. The results of this type of stupidity may be minor or major, depending on your luck.

Inflated Self Image

Everyone has at least one area of expertise of which they can be justifiably proud. It may be skill at a handicraft, it may be knowledge of wildflowers, or it may be knowledge of commercial real estate. You should be confident in your area of expertise and be prepared to discuss it as an equal with anyone else similarly qualified.

However, it is not always a simple task to measure your expertise against the current standards in that field. Overestimating your expertise can impede your ability to think clearly. Within your area of expertise, if you overestimate your abilities you may fail to pay proper attention to the advice of others who are better qualified. And it is not unusual for individuals to assume that their expertise in one field automatically applies to any other field of interest. In such a situation the failure to pay proper attention to the advice of others can handicap your ability to think clearly on any number of topics.

Conceit

Conceit is defined as having too high an opinion of oneself or of one's ability. If you are conceited you tend to assume that your skills and knowledge are more extensive than is justified by objective measures. As you overestimate your own knowledge and abilities, you tend to underestimate those same qualities in others. Thus, the basis for your judgements and decisions is easily warped away from reality and towards your own interpretation of the world.

Arrogance

Arrogance can generate similar impediments that lead to unnecessary errors. An arrogant person assumes that they have inherent qualities that make them superior to others. Such a person may indeed have more than their share of social rank, power, money, or popularity. However, such qualities often result from fortuitous circumstances rather than innate ability. They happened to inherit wealth; they happened to live during a time of peace and prosperity; they happened to be at the right place at the right time and were offered an exceptional opportunity.

The handicap of arrogance is to assume that if you are rich, famous, titled, a chess master, or a gifted cricket player; then you are automatically superior in all areas of human endeavour.

The actions of General Douglas Haig, in planning and conducting a series of attacks know as the Battle of the Somme, during the World War I provide a prime example. The British began the battle with an eight-day artillery bombardment of German positions to devastate the enemy and cut though the fields of barbed wire between the two forces. However, about a third of the shells did not explode. The Germans were well dug in and suffered relatively minor damage and the barbed wire was mostly still intact. Regardless, the British soldiers were ordered to attack as planned at 7:30 am on July 1st, 1916. Since the British troops were inexperienced and might panic or retreat in disorder, the troops were ordered to walk (not run) side-by-side towards the German lines. British officers followed with drawn pistols to shoot any deserters. The soldiers walked right into German machine gun fire. Reports of the disaster that were sent back to headquarters were disbelieved and similar attacks continued all day. By the end of the first day, the British had suffered about 20 000 killed and 40 000 wounded. The offensive on the Somme continued for months until stopped by freezing weather on the 18th of November. Six miles of ground had been taken. The final casualties were estimated to be: 415 000 British, 195 000 French, and 600 000 German. The leadership decisions of General Haig at the Battle of the Somme could be used as an example under every category in this section, but arrogance seems most appropriate.

Righteousness

Righteousness is a form of arrogance in which people have positions of authority that have been conferred by a religious organization. Given the cloak of righteousness, their pronouncements are then above the criticism of mere mortals. Perhaps the most notorious example of righteousness is the dogma of the 'divine right of kings' practiced in Europe for about a thousand years. A king who was blessed by the Pope, and thus conferred by God, had absolute power to rule his kingdom. If you assume you have divine power, then you are liable to commit more than your share of errors.

In March 2002, the religious police (the Commission for Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice) of Saudi Arabia stopped schoolgirls from fleeing a burning building because the girls were not wearing the correct Islamic dress. Of 800 pupils, 15 died. The police may have considered their actions to be righteous, but they certainly were not thinking clearly.

Be proud of what you accomplish. Be confident in your abilities. But when evidence warrants, always be prepared to re-examine your assumptions, your data, and your conclusions. There are a lot of hardworking, skilled, and intelligent people who should not be dismissed just because you have already made up your mind.

Unchecked Emotions

Unchecked emotions can lead to a variety of errors. Emotions have evolved to provide rapid and direct responses in a non-verbal world. Emotions direct you to advance, retreat, start, stop, slow down, or speed up.

In a simple world, your emotionally triggered actions may routinely determine whether or not you survive. In a complex social setting your emotions can urge you towards inappropriate behaviour. You cannot always rely on your emotions to provide an accurate interpretation of the world.

9.3.3 Managing Errors

You can work to systematically reduce the quantity and seriousness of any errors you might commit. The basic strategies are:

  1. Avoid as many errors as possible before they occur.

  2. Reduce the impact of any errors that are made.

  3. Learn from your errors so the chances of repeating them can be reduced.

Avoiding Errors

Planning ahead is the simplest and most effective approach for avoiding errors before they can occur.

Simple planning for minor projects has two advantages. First it gives you time to consider what you are about to do, and second it encourages you mentally rehearse the steps involved. Both of these mental processes help you to avoid accidents and careless errors. Before you leave home, run a quick security check – the canary has been fed, the windows are closed, the appliances are switched off, the alarm system is on. As you leave home for school or work, you are entering a new environment. Take a moment to check that you have everything you will need for the day – your wallet, your keys, appropriate outer wear, and any notes or equipment that you intended take with you.

Large projects require a written plan including a list of all the steps involved along with corresponding deadlines and a description of the finished product. Poor planning for a complex project is a recipe for failure. Planning is absolutely vital when a large project is divided into sub-tasks to be completed by independent groups. Consider the task of digging a tunnel through a mountain by two teams starting on opposite sides of the mountain. It takes careful planning to ensure that the two tunnels will meet as intended. Consider the construction of a modern automobile. Thousands of parts are manufactured in factories around the world and are then brought together at just the right time to be assembled into a complete vehicle.

Consider the production of a complex computer program. Various sub-teams create thousands of lines of programming code that all have to be integrated and work together without a hitch to form the final product.

Consider the fate of the aircraft carrier USS Hancock during the battle for Okinawa in April 1945. The ship was hit by a kamikaze plane that caused a tremendous explosion on deck, killing 62 sailors and wounding another 71. Executive officer William Raborn led the emergency crews:

"Though the bomb had blown a large hole in the deck and fires threatened to do in the ship, Raborn and his crews, in the midst of blinding smoke, so effectively suppressed the flames and patched up the deck that the Hancock was able to land her planes returning from a mission. Like everything else, Raborn reasoned, firefighting was a matter of preparation, equipment, and teamwork...". (Thomas Parrish, The Submarine – A History, 2004, p270.) Raborn had planned for the possibility of a major fire and was thus able to minimize the damage to the USS Hancock.

Reducing the Impact of Errors

While it is impossible to plan for every possible error that may occur in life, there are reasonable steps that you can take to reduce the potential harm from errors that you do make.

The first step is to admit when you have made an error. The most ethical, and usually most practical approach is to admit to all concerned that you have erred. You need to admit to yourself, at least, that you have committed an error and that conditions would be better if you had acted differently. It is unproductive to insist that you acted wisely when you did not.

When possible, do what you can to limit the scope of any damage. If you knock over a jug of milk, try to stand the jug up again before all the milk runs out. If you shipped the wrong product because it was labelled improperly, delay any more shipments until all the remaining labels can be checked.

Begin the repair process as soon as you are able. Direct the spilt milk away from other items and start mopping up. Contact your customers, and make arrangements to ship the correct product and retrieve the erroneous delivery. Often, the longer you wait to take action the worse the problem becomes.

Looking to the immediate future, decide what other actions can be taken to minimize the damage? You may have to go to the store for another jug of milk. You may have to offer your customer an incentive to compensate for any costs related to the mix up.

Learning from Your Errors

Everyone makes errors. Learning from your errors is a fundamental survival skill.

Find out what went wrong

Take the time to review the steps that led up to an error. Where did you make your mistake? Were your assumptions wrong? Were you misinformed? Did you forget to do something? Were you unprepared? At what points could you have done something different that would have prevented the error?

Plan to avoid similar errors in the future

What procedures should you establish to avoid similar errors in the future? If you can avoid repeating your mistakes then you are automatically making progress.

The National Transportation Safety Board (www.ntsb.gov) is an independent agency of the United States government that is charged with investigating every civil aviation accident and any other significant transportation accident, and then issuing safety recommendations aimed at preventing similar accidents in the future.

Errors made today tend to limit your opportunities tomorrow. If you can reduce the scope of today's errors, then you are automatically in a better position to begin tomorrow. Uncontrolled and uncorrected errors rob you of energy and resources. The impact of your errors tends to mount up like a bad debt. Any success you have at reducing errors will produce returns like an investment with compound interest.

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9.4 Patterned Behaviour

Many of our behaviours are essentially programmed responses to sets of stimuli from the environment. In particular, habits, rituals, and beliefs can evoke patterns of behaviour without any conscious thought or guidance.

You create, adopt, or adapt habits, rituals, and beliefs to help you cope with a variety of situations. However, you should be cautious when surrendering your conscious decision-making to patterned behaviour.

9.4.1 Habits

A habit is a personal routine that you follow on a regular basis, often without conscious thought. Some habits are deliberately created to make life simpler. For example you may develop the habit of always taking your shoes off before entering your home. Some habits may confer no real advantage, but become part of your routine. You may always put on your left sock first, or you may always take the same route to work and always park in the same spot. Some habits can lead to negative results but we never stop to examine them. For example you may have the habit of watching the evening news on television while you eat your evening meal. This habit may lead you share in the angst of television-news without taking the time to relax and enjoy the food you are eating.

In dealing with habits, the first challenge is to select and develop habits that will assist you with routine tasks. The second challenge is to identify and eliminate habits that tend to hamper your enjoyment of life.

9.4.2 Rituals and traditions

Rituals and traditions are patterns of behaviour that are generally accepted within a group and are preserved from generation to generation. Rituals and traditions are intended to provide guidance for standard activities and to generate a common bond among the participants. Rituals such as weddings and religious services tend to be more formal. Traditions such as launching a ship with a bottle of wine, or making New Year's resolutions tend to be less formal.

Rituals and traditions can be positive, neutral, or negative. By their nature, all rituals and traditions are carried out with little critical thought, and thus represent action in the absence of clear thinking.

The ancient ritual of sacrificing animals to a god was a variation of normal animal butchery. It definitely became a negative ritual when it included human victims. Many ancient civilizations are reputed to have performed human sacrifices to appease the gods. According to legend, Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter Iphigena to the goddess Artemis. According to Roman records, the Celts sacrificed prisoners to war gods and new born babies to harvest gods. In the Americas, the Aztecs, Mayans, and Incas all included human sacrifices in their religious rituals. In Asia, sacrifices were routinely made to the goddess Kali. In the Christian faith, the crucifixion of Jesus is regarded as the final sacrifice to God, putting an end to that ritual. Still, the celebration of the Eucharist in which Christians symbolically consume the flesh and blood of the sacrificed Jesus reminds us of a darker and more ancient ritual.

The design of the harness for workhorses provides an example of a negative tradition. By 3000 BCE, the Sumerians had begun using horses to pull ploughs and wagons, and they made use of the same yoke-harness that had previously been developed for oxen. Oxen have wide shoulders, so a yoke over the shoulders with a strap across the chest worked well with them. Unfortunately, horses have relatively narrow shoulders and the yoke-harness tended to choke them as they pulled a load. Still, the use of the yoke-harness with horses became a tradition that was passed from generation to generation for about four thousand years. An improved harness with a padded horse-collar was finally accepted in medieval Europe. Workhorses suffered and were used inefficiently for four millennia simply because a faulty tradition was passed on without any clear thinking.

Negative rituals and traditions are not always easy to identify, nor are they easy to change once they are discovered. Still, individuals should routinely ask, 'What am I doing? Why am I doing it? Is there a better way?'

9.4.3 Beliefs

We create our own mental models for various aspects of reality, or we are provided with them by an authority figure such as a parent, a teacher, or a religious person. The key difference between a mental model and a belief is the emotional attachment we have for a belief. We want the belief to represent reality, even when it is at odds with objective information. Beliefs have a variety of characteristics that can be untangled using the three level model of the human brain developed earlier in Chapters 6 and 7.

At Level I, beliefs tend to be based on models of reality that we have constructed with evidence from just one or two experiences. Old George says a black cat crossed in front of him and two days later he fell and broke his leg; beware when a black cat crosses your path. Young students often notice that 2+2 equals 4 and that 2x2 also equals 4. It then becomes a challenge to convince students that although 3+3 equals 6, 3x3 equals 9 rather than 6.

At Level II, beliefs have a higher emotional content and we tend to mentally isolate some beliefs to avoid potential conflicts with reality. A gambling addict may believe that he can give up the habit any time and that selling the family car to finance one more trip to the casino is a good investment. A religious convert may believe that a death-bed confession will atone for a lifetime of abusing others.

At Level III, beliefs tend to be based on models that have been good predictors of properties in some aspects of the real world. Such a model becomes a belief when we become emotionally attached to it and start to ignore contradictory information. The Austrian physicist, Ernst Mach (1838-1916), spent his life studying and teaching about the fundamental properties of matter. He came to believe that anything that could not be directly perceived by our senses should not be regarded as a real entity. This belief led Mach to reject the atomic model of matter during the same decade that his scientific colleagues were making great advances in atomic theory.

We all have beliefs of one kind or another, but we must recognize that a belief is only a belief because we are determined to work with limited information. If Mach had said 'Based on the available evidence it is my conclusion that there are no such entities as atoms' that would have been a statement in accordance with clear thinking. However, the flat denial of the existence of atoms took Mach into the realm of belief. Once you make a mental decision that is absolute, you have created a new belief – you have decided that no new information can be relevant and you have made an emotional commitment to perpetuating your decision.

The strong emotional component of a belief renders believers susceptible to manipulation by others. Many crimes against humanity have been committed over the centuries by believers who thought that they were protecting ideals or glorifying a god, when in fact they were being used to enforce the will of a diabolical leader.

As a clear-thinker you should always base your actions on your best interpretation of reality. Always consider your options and try to avoid a 'steel-trap mentality'. Be wary of others who claim to have discovered the absolute truth about anything.

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Chapter 10: Managing Your Resources

10.1 Your Health

10.2 Your Security

10.3 Your Time

10.4 Your Wealth

10.5 Your Material Goods

10.6 Your Leisure

Your health, your security, your time, your wealth, and your material possessions are limited resources. You can learn to better manage these resources and avoid many of life's common hassles. When your personal resources are well managed you have more time and energy to devote to other constructive efforts.

10.1 Your Health

A healthy body is your most valuable resource. Your physical health and mental health are the foundation of your existence. Without them your whole being is in jeopardy. While aspects of brain maintenance were discussed in section 3.2.1, the emphasis here is more on your general health.

Average life expectancy in the industrialized world is about 80 years at birth, about 85 years if you make it to age 60 in good health. You can extend your life expectancy by taking reasonable steps to avoid accidents and maintain your physical and mental health.

10.1.1 Basic Health

Since many diseases have a lifestyle component, there are a number of practical steps you can take to enhance your physical health. Giving up smoking, restricting the use of alcohol and other recreational drugs, eating a balanced diet, and getting regular exercise can provide some protection against cancer, heart attacks, stroke, and lung diseases. You should also monitor your blood pressure and weight, and seek medical attention if you detect any unusual symptoms.

Eat well

Eating well ensures that your body is supplied with the energy it needs to get you through every day, and the raw materials it needs to repair normal wear and tear.

When you eat well, your brain releases endorphins to reward you for your efforts, thus providing one of the basic pleasures in life. The challenge is to eat sufficient good stuff without overindulging in the bad stuff.

Eating well can be enhanced with specific knowledge and skills. You can learn the basics of nutrition. You can search your neighbourhood shops for the best sources of wholesome ingredients. You can develop your skills as a cook so you can economically prepare those ingredients to produce tasty meals. It would also be useful to enhance your understanding of digestive processes, agricultural methods, and the best techniques for storing foods.

Sleep well

No one knows quite why, but a good night's sleep is restful and invigorating. There is no simple procedure that will guarantee a good night's sleep, but there are a few simple steps that can only help:

  1. Set aside sufficient time for sleep each day.

  2. Establish a calm evening routine.

  3. Rest on a comfortable bed.

  4. Ensure a flow of fresh air.

Naps and power naps can also be refreshing. A nap is a short sleep of about half an hour sometime during the middle of the day. A power nap is a few minutes of complete relaxation during a period of otherwise intense mental activity.

Exercise regularly

Your body is an organic system that survives by pumping fluids through your blood vessels and around your lymphatic system. Your heart and body muscles provide the pumping action for these systems, so a strong heart and regular exercise are what keep you functioning properly.

Your cardiovascular system provides your cells with glucose (from your digestive system) and oxygen (from your lungs). Your cells combine these raw materials to produce energy to drive your muscles. Your muscles are connected to your bones by tendons. When your mind activates your muscles to move your bones, you are on your way.

There are all kinds of activities and games to choose from at all skill levels; consult your community resources.

Avoid common infections

Your good health is a precious commodity so you should take prudent actions to avoid common infections and diseases.

The simplest measures to avoid common diseases are to reduce the tendency to touch your eyes and mouth during the day, and to wash your hands regularly. If an acquaintance has a contagious illness, limit contact with that person until the infectious phase has passed.

Keep a personal record of any illnesses, allergies, inoculations, and treatments. When you interact with the medical system, be prepared to describe any symptoms as clearly as possible. Be aware that for every test, over-the-counter medication, and prescription drug there are side effects and risks as well as potential benefits. When and if you ever have to make a life altering medical decision, do not hesitate to get a second opinion, and do some background reading on your own.

Develop reasonable procedures to control bacterial growth when storing, cleaning, and cooking food.

Manage stress

Dealing with stress is a universal concern. Some stress can be beneficial. Stress helps you to focus your attention and it tests your ability to deal with emergencies. Too much stress, over too much time, can be harmful. If possible, adjust your attitudes so that fewer situations cause you to feel stressed. You can only do your best to deal with a situation; anything else is beyond your control. If necessary, modify your environment at home or at work to reduce the level of stress that you feel.

Relax

When you relax, you want to slow down and relieve stress; you want to give your body and your mind a chance to rest and recover. The first step in relaxing is to recognize that you are often stressed beyond your normal tolerance level. Next you have to decide that you need to, and want to, relax. You might consider the following steps for some immediate relief:

  1. Stop whatever you are doing.

  2. Get comfortable.

  3. Take a few deep breaths.

  4. Release the tension in your muscles.

  5. Close your eyes and imagine a calm setting

  6. Push any thoughts about urgent concerns into your mental background.

  7. Put your head down and take a five-minute 'power nap'.

Just a few minutes of relaxation can refresh you for several more hours of hard work.

Manage pain

Some pain is good. Pain tells you that part of your body is damaged. Pain also provides a negative experience so you will take better care to avoid situations that might cause you pain.

Too much pain for too long is not good. Pain receptors are the only sense organs that continue to issue signals at full strength as long as the stimulus lasts. Pain from an injury does not diminish until the damaged tissue is repaired.

Acute and debilitating pain can be alleviated with drugs, and that is a good thing. Persistent pain can often be managed with drugs as well, but there is a danger of becoming addicted to those drugs.

There are some indications that pain can be partially managed by the mind itself. If you have a minor ache and then focus your attention on that ache, you can end up in great discomfort. However, if you can divert your attention to some other interesting activity, you may not even notice that same ache. During combat, or intense sports competitions, the pain from an injury is sometimes deflected from the conscious mind until the action is over and the person has time to reflect on any injuries. If pain can be deflected by your subconscious, the implication is that it is also possible for your conscious mind to exert a measure of control over pain. It may be feasible to reduce the intensity of a pain by reassuring yourself that you are safe, that the situation is being reasonably managed, and by deciding that there are other important matters that need your attention.

10.1.2 Mental Health

Mental health is the second vital component of your overall health. There is much you can do to help establish and maintain a healthy state of mind.

Build some leisure, relaxation, and routine into your days to balance high priority tasks and challenges. Challenges keep your mind alert, routine tasks provide guaranteed success, leisure and relaxation allow for down time and enrichment.

When you do run into mental snags, it is important to realize that you are not alone in the world. When you need assistance, seek advice and help from family, friends, co-workers, and professional services.

Supportive habits

Developing supportive habits is the most fundamental action you can take to enhance your mental health. You have to work at establishing and maintaining positive relationships with family members, co-workers, and friends. You need to develop avenues for your creative talents and sources of satisfaction at home, at work, and during your leisure activities.

Sources of mental illness

Mental illness can be short term or long term; simple to deal with or debilitating. There are three general sources of mental illness:

  1. A person may suffer from a physical abnormality in their brain such as a tumour, a genetic malfunction, or a defective blood supply. As medical skills increase, more of these problems can be managed with surgical treatment.

  2. A person may suffer from a chemical abnormality in which their brain produces too much, or too little, of particular bio-chemicals that are required for normal mental processes. Often these problems can be managed with medications.

  3. A person may suffer from faulty neural networks that have developed after prolonged exposure to inappropriate behaviour. Faulty neural networks can lead to behaviours that cause long-term difficulties. Often these problems can be managed with social support and the help of psychoanalysis.

Depression

Occasional depression is part of our emotional repertoire and helps us to deal with events that produce profound sadness. You can speed your return to a normal outlook by thinking positive thoughts, switching to activities that you enjoy, and avoiding tragic stories and films.

Sometimes a person feels depressed when there is no obvious source of sadness. Symptoms of this type of depression include:

  1. A disruptive change in sleeping patterns

  2. Feeling dull and listless

  3. Change in appetite, often with weight gain or loss

  4. Low self esteem

  5. Inability to concentrate

  6. Agitation, restlessness, and irritability

  7. Inactivity and withdrawal from usual activities

  8. Feelings of hopelessness and helplessness

  9. Inability to derive pleasure from normally pleasurable activities

  10. Recurring thoughts of death or suicide.

Persistent or frequent depression is indicative of a problem that must be treated seriously; consult your doctor for expert assistance. There are effective treatments that can help you break out of a cycle of negative feedback, and thus relieve most bouts of depression.

There are also several common addictions involving drugs, alcohol, smoking, and gambling that can be avoided or treated in their early stages – especially when you are able to keep the rest of your life in order. Fixing one broken system is enough of a challenge; fixing a number of broken and interrelated systems is a much more difficult task.

Regarding suicide and homicide

About 30 000 deaths are officially attributed to suicide each year in the USA. Since the details of many accidents are undetermined, the actual number of suicides is probably greater, and may even approach the number of deaths involving motor vehicle accidents. Thus, monitoring the mental health of yourself and your family members, and seeking early treatment for depression should be an important component of home safety.

In contrast, the number of deaths from homicide, even in the USA, are only about half of the deaths from suicide. You are twice as likely to kill yourself as to be killed by someone else.

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10.2 Your Security

There are no guarantees in this world, but there are steps you can take to prevent and avoid a number of problems related to the security of yourself and your family. The commons sources of potential problems include accidents, the activities of other humans, and the forces of nature.

10.2.1 Accident Prevention

Safety awareness can help you avoid accidents at home, at play, and at work. Most dangerous accidents are due to carelessness and/or poor planning. Learning to recognize potential hazards and using appropriate caution to then avoid them can help to keep your body and brain in proper working order.

Avoiding accidents

As can be seen in Table #6 accidents are the fifth leading cause of death, and each year account for over 100 000 deaths in the USA.

Table #6: Leading causes of death for all ages

Although accidents are only the fifth leading cause of death for all ages, accidents are the leading cause of death from birth to age 44. In addition, males are twice as likely as females to die from an accident. By definition, an accident involves human error, so the risk of being injured or killed in an accident can be reduced by prudent behaviour.

The main causes of accidental death in the USA are summarized in Table #7. The data for 2002 are typical for any year in the past decade.

Table #7: Five leading causes of accidental death

There are more deaths each year from motor vehicle accidents than the next four leading causes combined. According to data from the National Center for Statistics and Analysis (www.nhtsa.gov ), about 40% of all fatal car crashes involve moving out of the proper lane, driving too fast, or failing to yield the right of way. About 30% of driver fatalities involve the use of alcohol; single vehicle accidents are just as deadly as multiple vehicle crashes; and Friday, Saturday, and Sunday evenings are 70% more lethal than any other times on the road.

There are a few basic steps can you take to avoid injury in a motor vehicle accident: drive with care, do up your seatbelt, do not drink and drive, and keep your car in proper repair. A course in defensive driving would also be a wise investment.

Around the home, poisonous substances and drugs should be identified, labelled and safely stored. Any first aid courses that you take should include information on how to help poison victims, how to provide artificial respiration, and how to assist choking victims. Surprisingly, a large proportion of the fatal falls occur on one level. Each year thousands of people die by slipping, tripping, and stumbling; so a home safety check to improve footing and handholds is well warranted, especially for the elderly.

10.2.2 Personal and Family Security

Personal and family security covers a lot of ground, but the over-riding concept is to contemplate a wide range of possible negative events and then apply reasonable care and caution. A moment's forethought can forestall a lifetime of suffering.

Improving home security

Robbery and fire are the two most common breaches of home security. There are simple steps you can take to reduce these threats.

Most robbers only ever intend to break into an empty residence. When away for the day, or on holidays, make your home look lived-in. If necessary, have someone pick up the mail, cut the grass, and water the garden. Leave blinds and curtains partially open and use timers to switch lights on and off. Have quality locks installed on doors and windows. Leave an extra key with a neighbour rather than under the front doormat. Be reluctant to brag about newly acquired wealth or an expensive possession. Friends-of-friends of friends may not be your friends, and may be tempted by tales of your portable wealth.

Common sources of home fires include kitchen fires, faulty wiring, careless use of candles, and children playing with matches or lighters. Any appliance that produces enough heat to ignite cloth or paper should be used with care. All family members need to be very careful with any open flame. A fire extinguisher in a prominent location provides a reminder for everyone to be cautious, and provides a handy means for extinguishing a small fire.

There are a few other essential steps you should take to protect your possessions in case your home is ever burgled or damaged by fire. Personal and family documents should be stored in a fireproof box and tucked away in a secure corner. Valuable original documents should be stored in a safety deposit box. Your home insurance policy should have separate riders for any individual items with unusually high value. Valuable computer files should be backed up and copies should be stored in a separate location.

Avoid putting all your eggs in one basket and then leaving that basket on the dining room table while you go on a six-month vacation. Think twice before setting off fireworks in the basement.

Personal and family ID

Life in a complex and technological culture requires systematic organization of your personal affairs. Any neglect in this area can lead to significant problems for you and your family.

One of the most important tasks in the modern world is being able to prove who you are. Authorized identity documents (ID) are needed when dealing with any government agency – from paying your taxes, to obtaining a passport. You need ID to get a mortgage or a driver's license. You need ID to get on an airplane or a cruise ship. You even need ID to enrol at a school or take a university exam. So it is important to obtain and organize your own ID papers, and that of your family members.

The two most basic ID items are your social insurance (or social security) card and your birth certificate. You must apply for both of these items from government agencies. If you are a parent you should apply for these ID papers on behalf of each of your children, soon after they are born.

A driver's license is the next most common form of ID. To obtain a driver's license you have to first provide some other form of identification, and then pass a skills test on the operation of a motor vehicle.

If you are married, then you should have a copy of your marriage certificate. You will need this if there are any legal changes in your relationship. A copy of your marriage certificate will probably be required when applying for any pension benefits.

If you have been a member of the armed forces, then copies of the appropriate documentation will be needed to apply for any benefits.

At each stage of your educational career, you should obtain copies of any certificates, degrees, and transcripts. These are often required when applying for advanced studies, or your first job.

At various times you will own credit cards, bank accounts, and insurance policies. Keep track of these properties; record their descriptions and keep this information in a safe place.

Biometric identification is now technically feasible and is something every family member should consider. You can easily save a few locks of hair and the fingerprints of each family member as an emergency reserve for biometric ID. If no other ID is available, then this information can help to confirm who is who.

Wills, powers of attorney, and insurance

Wills, powers of attorney, and insurance can protect yourself, and those you care for, from unnecessary financial harm.

A will is an essential document in estate planning. While we all hope to live long and prosperous lives – accidents, disease, and assaults do occur. Creating a will is a simple procedure that will help to ensure that your estate is distributed the way you want it to be distributed. A will can also speed up the distribution process, and avoid a host of legal problems for your heirs.

A power of attorney is a legal document intended to protect you and your financial resources if you should ever become incapable of managing your own affairs. In a power of attorney for property you legally declare that a person of your choice has the authority to manage your property and finances on your behalf if you are incapacitated. You can also provide guidelines and specific instructions in your power of attorney. In a power of attorney for personal care you can legally declare who will make medical decisions on your behalf if you are incapacitated. Again, you can provide guidelines and specific instructions. Usually all you have to do is fill in some standard forms and have your signature witnessed. With these powers of attorney your spouse, or trustee, can pay your bills and make timely decisions regarding your medical treatment. Without these powers of attorney, your spouse or chosen trustee would have to sit on the sidelines while a government bureaucracy slowly turned its attention towards your affairs.

An insurance policy is a legal device for sharing financial risk. In the long run, the average person spends about the same amount to acquire insurance, as they will ever receive in benefits. Several types of insurance are appropriate to provide a range of protection for you and your family:

  1. If you die, then life insurance can provide an income for your survivors.

  2. If your home is damaged or destroyed by natural causes, then home insurance can provide some funds for repairs or replacement.

  3. If you are injured in an automobile accident, or your car is damaged or stolen, automobile insurance can provide some monetary compensation.

  4. If you are sued, liability insurance can offer a degree of financial protection.

The purpose of insurance is to protect you and your family from financial disaster due to specific causes. While insurance premiums can be expensive – basic life, home, and car insurance should be regarded as essential.

A note of caution – insurance companies can increase their profits by charging higher premiums and settling as few claims as possible. Read your insurance policies very carefully to ensure that you have the coverage that you think you have.

10.2.3 The Forces of Nature

Hurricanes, tornados, floods, blizzards, earth quakes, wind storms, and other forces of nature can cause a lot of damage in a short period of time. Despite the power of Mother Nature, there are reasonable and prudent steps that you can take to avoid or minimize the impact of such a disaster.

Avoiding disasters

The basic strategy for avoiding natural disasters is to keep informed and make reasonable decisions. If a hurricane is approaching, delay that fishing trip. If avalanche warnings have been issued, keep off the mountain slopes.

If you have the choice, establish your home in a reasonably secure location. Avoid the flood plain in a river valley, mountain slopes, and seaside cliffs. Do not move in next door to a munitions factory. If you build a house in a forest, use fire resistant roofing and siding materials, and clear the brush from around your home.

Reducing the impact of disasters

Although no one likes to think of a disaster occurring in their own neighbourhood – nasty events do occur. While you cannot prevent a disaster, you can take a few moments to prepare for a variety of negative events.

Individual families should develop basic plans for handling emergencies at home. The following contingency plans are recommended:

  1. Keep a first aid kit up-do-date, and learn how to use it.

  2. Practice family fire drills so that everyone knows the best and fastest way to exit the family home.

  3. Have a list of emergency phone numbers readily available.

  4. If you have a serious medical condition, wear a medic alert bracelet or necklace.

  5. Discuss and review basic child safety at home and in your community.

  6. Keep a three-day supply of food and drinking water on hand.

Make a preliminary disaster plan:

  1. Where would you find shelter outside our community from an exceptional fire or storm?

  2. What would you need to collect and take if you had to evacuate with one hour's warning?

  3. If family members are separated, what distant assembly points should they head for?

  4. Who is responsible for whom, at any given time? For example, who picks up Jimmy from school when both the parents are at work?

  5. Make sure you know how to shut off the water supply, electrical power, and gas supply to your home.

Humans do not think well under stress, so a little advance planning can be of great value if the worst should ever occur.

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10.3 Your Time

After your health, your time is your most valuable resource. Regardless of your material wealth or social position, your time in the universe is limited.

The world is a fascinating place and there are enough things to do, see, and learn to occupy dozens of lifetimes. Unfortunately you get only one shot at it. And during your finite life span, your physical and mental energy are also limited. The wise use of your time and energy determines the richness of your life's experiences.

10.3.1 The Time in Your Life

Each day has 24 hours, each week 168 hours, and each year 8760 hours. With reasonable estimates for the time you will spend sleeping, getting dressed, eating, doing chores, and routine work you would be fortunate to have 2000 waking hours each year for travelling, hobbies, entertainment, and personal quests. The essential point is that anyone's time for life's adventures is finite. No amount of wealth can buy you more time.

Time has another important property – you cannot save it. You have 24 hours to spend today and it will all be spent, one-way or another. If you are feeling out of sorts today, you can postpone a task until tomorrow but you cannot save any extra time from today to accomplish that task. You can work extra hard today, but tomorrow you still have only 24 hours to spend.

You should value every hour you have and be reluctant to waste any of your time. You should be reluctant to let others waste your time either through their incompetence or lack of respect.

You are always doing something, even if it is just sitting and staring at a blank wall. The challenge for a clear thinker is to find activities that are interesting and rewarding at the current moment, without restricting the potential for future adventures. Your future potential can be curtailed by taking unnecessary risks such as skydiving without a backup parachute. Your future potential can be restricted by wasting opportunities for personal growth such as playing trivial games all day rather than working and/or studying.

10.3.2 Plan to Use Your Time Wisely

With a little planning you can avoid common difficulties, maximize the use of your available time, and seek opportunities to reach your goals:

  1. Short-term planning helps you focus on today and tomorrow. What must be dealt with, what should be dealt with, and how do you really want to spend your time?

  2. Medium-term planning helps you look ahead a few weeks or months. In what order should tasks be scheduled? What appointments and meetings are scheduled, or need to be scheduled?

  3. Long-term planning helps you to look past this year into the next decade and the rest of your life. What are your long-term goals? Should you be laying the foundations for a new career, for marriage, for a new home, for starting a new business, for raising children, for retirement, or for parental care?

The combination of daily To-Do lists and a monthly plan provide a simple and effective means for organizing your time to achieve more success and greater satisfaction.

Pausing for thought, relaxing between bouts of activity, and savouring the delights of the moment are positive and productive uses of your time. Value every day as if it is your last, but hedge your bets by preparing for tomorrow as well.

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10.4 Your Wealth

The goal of financial management is to make good use of your limited purchasing power so you can obtain all of your basic needs, most of your comfort needs, and some of your luxury needs.

10.4.1 Family Finances

A few of us will become company executives, run our own successful businesses, inherit a fortune, win a lottery, or become famous athletes, musicians, or movie stars. Most of us are limited to our wages and the best we can do is to stretch our earnings.

The total amount of purchasing power that most of us will ever have is limited. If you work for the equivalent of $60 000 a year, for 40 years, then your total lifetime earnings will be $2.4 million. That may sound like a lot of money until you realize that about half will go to paying taxes at one level or another. Some of your remaining earnings should be put aside to help provide for your years of retirement.

There are only two basic ways to stretch your earnings: invest your savings, and shop smart.

10.4.2 Investing

When you save some of your earnings, you are storing current purchasing power for future use.

There are three standard approaches for increasing the value of your savings:

  1. You can loan your money to someone else, (deposit it in a bank) and earn interest. As a general rule, banks will pay a few percent over the rate of inflation.

  2. You can invest in a business and share in the profits. Buying shares in a corporation that issues dividends is a common way of doing this.

  3. You can buy a valuable item, such as real estate or art, and hope that the value of the item will increase over time. When you resale the item you make a capital gain.

Unfortunately, all forms of investment come with associated risks. You would be wise to seek expert advice before making any major investment.

10.4.3 Make Wise Purchases

Smart shopping has two basic components: spend wisely, and avoid unnecessary debt. When you spend wisely, you purchase only what you really need or want, avoid being overcharged, and seek out true value while avoiding unnecessary bells and whistles.

If you over spend and accumulate debts, you end up having to make interest payments that are typically equal to inflation plus at least ten percent. Without due diligence, you can easily end up paying a significant portion your purchasing power just to cover the interest on past debts. Governments often spend now and pay later, accumulating huge debts in the process. The government of Canada spends approximately one out of every four tax-dollars that it collects just paying interest on its national debt. The USA spends about one tax dollar in six servicing its debt.

Sound management of your financial resources can help make your life more comfortable, and remove one of the commonest sources of aggravation in family life.

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10.5 Your Material Goods

Your material goods should add to your enjoyment of life and assist in achieving your life's goals. With a little organization your material goods can be used more effectively, and provide more satisfaction, at lower costs and with less waste. When less effort is spent in managing your material goods you have more time and energy for other tasks, including clear thinking.

Material objects can be classified according to their expected lifetimes as consumable, semi-consumable, or non-consumable.

10.5.1 Consumable Items

Consumable items include food, toiletries, and communication services. You purchase these items, use them, and then they are gone. Any benefit or enjoyment is derived from the process of consuming them. Vacations may be your largest annual consumable item.

10.5.2 Semi-Consumable Items

Semi-consumable items can be used several times and may endure for a number of years. Still, you still expect to replace them on a regular basis. Semi-consumable items include clothing, electronics, small appliances, most tools, toys, books, and recorded entertainment. Semi-consumable items have little or no resale value.

The first task in managing semi-consumable items is to make wise purchases. Select items that will meet your needs, are durable, and are easily serviced. The other essential tasks in managing semi-consumable items are maintenance and storage. Some special collections such as sports equipment, coins, and books may require extra maintenance and organization.

10.5.3 Non-Consumable Items

Non-consumable items represent major purchases. You expect non-consumable items to last many years and to maintain at least a portion of their value. In business, non-consumable items are called capital goods. Non-consumable items include financial holdings, real estate, furniture, automobiles, jewellery, and other possessions that you expect to have a significant resale value.

Your home is usually the biggest non-consumable financial investment you will ever make. Keeping your home clean, neat, and organized will enhance your daily enjoyment of it and simplify many regular maintenance tasks. The basic components of the structural, power, heating, cooling, and plumbing systems should be inspected regularly and repaired as necessary.

An automobile is typically the second largest purchase in your life. Regular maintenance including oil changes and safety inspections can do much to prolong your years of trouble free driving.

10.5.4 Ownership

Material goods are integral components of civilization. They can help to keep you alive, amplify your physical abilities, and contribute to your enjoyment of life. Still, it is worth looking for the balance point between the effort spent accumulating material goods, the effort spent organizing and maintaining your material goods, and the benefits derived from possessing and using material goods.

The fundamental concept of ownership raises another interesting practical and philosophical point. We assume that when we own something that it is ours forever, but forever is a long time. In reality when you own something, such as a new car or a diamond necklace, you only possess it temporarily. In twenty years your car will probably be on a scrap heap. In a hundred years, your diamond necklace will belong to someone else. In the long run, we do not own anything; we only have temporary control of some things. The implication is that excessive effort devoted towards the accumulation of material goods may be misdirected.

Your most valuable collections are your experiences in life, not the physical objects that you control.

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10.6 Your Leisure

There are important advantages in developing and pursuing a variety of interests beyond your daily routines:

  1. You become a more interesting person. As you develop knowledge and expertise in a variety of fields, you are able to communicate with, and empathize with a greater range of people.

  2. You can switch between interests to stimulate different parts of your brain and explore different avenues for success.

  3. You gain a variety of skills and a range of knowledge that will help to prepare you for any unexpected challenges in life.

While an interest may be pursued individually, or with a group, almost all interests ultimately involve social interaction with fellow enthusiasts.

Staring into space or watching television, (conditions that are often confused) should not be equated with quality leisure time. Your leisure activities should relax, invigorate, and inspire you – not numb your mind and kill time until you have to return to work.

10.6.1 Time for Active Enjoyment

You should build time for active enjoyment into each day. Active enjoyment involves using your muscles to do something that is fun. Many people enjoy individual sports such as jogging, skating, weight lifting, or swimming. Many enjoy team sports such as basketball, volleyball, or tennis. Singing, dancing, or playing a musical instrument also provide many with active enjoyment.

Active enjoyment provides relief from other mundane activities, stimulates the flow of fluids and nutrients around your body, and stimulates the release of endorphins in your brain to improve your emotional state.

10.6.2 Time for Passive Enjoyment

Some of your time should also be set aside every day for passive enjoyment. Passive enjoyment occurs when we sense the beauty of nature and the results of human creativity. Passive enjoyment provides opportunities for appreciating the good things in life, helps us to relax, and helps provide motivation for coping with daily routines.

There are many forms of passive enjoyment for us to choose from. We can enjoy a beautiful sunset, the pounding of the surf, or contemplate other wonders of nature. We can listen to music. We can attend concerts, plays, opera, ballets, plays, and sports events. We can visit an art gallery or a museum. We can read a good book.

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Chapter 11: Clear Thinking and You

11.1 The Human Condition

11.2 Building Skills for Clear Thinking

11.3 Philosophical Issues

11.4 Applied Clear Thinking

The most sophisticated, adaptable, and capable creature that has ever roamed the surface of Earth is powered by the human brain. You are one of those creatures. You can enhance your native thinking abilities by increasing your use of rational thought processes and striving to think clearly.

You know you are thinking clearly when you are able to learn more with less effort; you do a better job of organizing new knowledge; you are able to deal with more problems and make better decisions; and you are able to avoid serious errors.

11.1 The Human Condition

Every human possesses unique characteristics, strengths and weaknesses. These are the features that make you who you are. With directed effort you can adapt some of these characteristics, take advantage of your strengths, and manage your weaknesses.

11.1.1 A Touch of Biology

The information processing capabilities of your brain set you far apart from all other air-breathing, omnivorous mammals. The neural activity in your brain forms your personality and makes you human. You reside inside your brain as a set of behaviours and memories stored in your neural networks.

As a living creature, you require a steady supply of air, about four litres of water, and 3000 calories of food energy – every day. Water acts as a universal solvent and transport medium in your body. Much of the food you eat is converted to glucose in your digestive tract. Glucose is transported to every cell in your body, and when combined with oxygen provides the energy for your cells' activities. Brain cells are unable to store glucose or oxygen, so if they are deprived of either of these raw materials, they are unable to function normally and your brain can suffer permanent damage within minutes.

You need to be aware of the strengths and limitations of your senses. When accurate and precise interpretation of your sensory input is vital to an important decision, that information should be double-checked before you act.

Your memories record your interpretations of the inputs and events that you regarded as important or unusual. Repetition and practice with information are the basic strategies for storing that information in your memory. Your memories of significant events are often rehearsed in your subconscious until the key elements can be recalled at will.

11.1.2 The Life Force

Living organisms are bursting with energy to reproduce. A single maple tree produces enough seeds each year to populate a whole forest. A single pair of salmon can produce up to ten thousand fertilized eggs in one spawning. Humans are not as prolific, but they do devote much of their energy dealing with the reproductive process and raising children.

At the cellular level, reproduction involves either simple cell division, or conjugation followed by cell division. In simple cell division, environmental conditions stimulate a mother cell to divide into two identical daughter cells. The vast majority of cell division follows this route. Occasionally, the process is more complicated and cell division is preceded by the joining of two separate cells to exchange or combine genetic material. This conjunction of cells confers survival advantages by providing an opportunity to repair any damaged genes in an individual cell, and by allowing positive mutations to be spread across an entire population.

While a human body consists of trillions of cells, conjugation is involved only in the fertilization of a single egg cell by a sperm to initiate the growth of an embryo. From that instant onwards, every cell in your body is created by simple cell division. One conjugation is followed by trillions of simple divisions. Barring errors in the process, every cell in your body contains exactly the same genetic information. Still, you do possess liver cells, muscle cells, nerve cells and so on. This differentiation occurs because the bio-chemical environment created by surrounding cells activates different genes on the chromosomes of your cells. As different chromosomes are activated, groups of cells produce the variety of organs and tissues needed to create your body. Thus, you end up as an interesting person rather than a giant blob of identical cells.

11.1.3 Clear Thinking and Sexuality

Since our species devotes much of its time and energy to reproduction and raising children, it is instructive to use the three-level model of the mind to interpret human sexuality and its social implications.

Level I activity in your hindbrain spurs your instinctual urge for procreation and drives you to seek fertile partners. Subconsciously you can also be energized by sexual pheromones emitted by a potential mate, and are consciously stimulated by images of sexual activity. Level I sexuality also contains elements of dominance, power, and sadism.

Level II activity in your midbrain complex is more focused on emotional involvement, romance, and love, but also contains the elements of jealousy.

Level III activity in your forebrain is associated with seeking extended relationships, life partners, family life, bonding, and shared experiences.

Much of human social activity, especially among adolescents and young adults, is devoted to mate selection and the attainment of sexual satisfaction. Understanding and managing your sexual emotions in tumultuous conditions is an important application of clear thinking, and a first step in dealing with human relationships.

In addition to the three internal levels of sexuality, there are wide-ranging societal values and restrictions that impinge on sexual activity. There are at least four domains of social life that establish behavioural patterns for human sexuality.

Inheritance

When parents attain wealth and power, they want to pass on those advantages to their children. Ancient inscriptions and documents illustrate that rules of inheritance have been a concern in all civilizations. The ancient law code of Hammurabi (c1750 BCE) and the law codes of the ancient Greeks (c400 BCE) both emphasized the rules for inheritance.

As inheritance became more important in society, more restrictions were placed on sexual activity, especially for women. To ensure the paternity of children, women were often physically separated from all males beyond their immediate family. This practice, that tends to reduce women to the status of chattels, still persists in many societies even in the 21st century.

Religion

Various religious practices and beliefs provide other sources of sexual mores. Polytheistic religions pay homage to a variety of deities possessing a wide range of human traits. Since these deities tend to celebrate human sexuality and fertility, the related mores tend to provide guidance for productive sexual activity. In contrast, monotheistic religions focus on a supreme being with sweeping powers. Followers commonly seek to restrict their own sexuality as a sign of sacrifice and devotion. There is a corresponding tendency to develop mores that impose limitations on sexual activity and to regard the sexuality of women as sinful.

Power

Sexual dominance of the strong over the weak, and of men over women has also been expressed throughout history in the institutions and practices of slavery, harems, concubines, and mistresses. Pillage and rape were standard rewards for participating in warfare. Mores established by the powerful tend to favour their own sexual activities and suppress those of others.

Media

In materialistic societies, our natural sexuality is regularly subsumed for commercial purposes. Modern advertising commonly utilizes sexual associations to enhance the appeal of consumer products. Selling erotic images, pornography, and sexual services are major world-wide industries. The overall impact of the commercialization of sex is to trivialize actual human interactions and relationships, and to engender more discrimination against women.

11.1.4 The Male-Female Continuum

There are numerous physical and mental traits that, taken together, constitute our sexual nature. Each of these traits, like all human traits, can be expressed over a range of values. While the sexual nature of most humans falls into either typical male or typical female categories, approximately ten percent of the population possesses traits that place them along the continuum between these categories.

In some societies, as in ancient Greece, a varied approach to sexuality was acceptable and even celebrated by the gods. However, at most times, in most civilizations there has been widespread legal and religious persecution of sexual behaviour beyond male-female interactions.

In the 20th century there was a growing recognition of the fundamental rights of all humans, regardless of their sexual orientation. The second article of the United Nations' UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS is particularly relevant to this topic:

Article 2: Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.

Raising children

A biological definition of survival is to 'live long enough to reproduce'. Selecting a partner and deciding to have children is a major decision in life that has far reaching consequences, both for your personal satisfaction and the utilization of your personal resources. Many factors impinge on such a decision: biological urges, personal pride, societal needs, personal finances, religious dogma, the quest for an heir, the challenge and satisfaction of creating a new human being, and your philosophy of life.

If you decide to have children, the importance of the first few years in the development of the young mind and body cannot be over emphasized. Major biological, mental, and social events occur during the first thirty-six months of life. With care and guidance a young child can attain a firm foundation in health and reasoning that will last a lifetime. What greater satisfaction can there be than the creation and education of a new human being?

You need valued, strong, healthy, intelligent, and educated women to produce valued, strong, healthy, and intelligent children. Young women, mothers-to-be, and parents of young children should be granted special support and protection in a society that values its own future.

11.1.5 A Touch of Psychology

Psychology is a branch of science that deals with individual human behaviours. A behaviour pattern is a co-ordinated set of muscular contractions accompanied by a flow of corresponding thoughts, and on occasion by glandular secretions.

Suppose you were a recent arrival from outer space, what typical human behaviours and activities would you observe?

Daily activities such as working, playing, eating, loving, and sleeping would be most easily detected. Over time you would notice a fondness for entertainment, storytelling, singing, dancing, festivals, and wearing costumes. You would also notice that while humans like to rest and conserve energy, there is often an underlying restlessness and a desire to accomplish and build. You would observe that humans are moderate risk takers, and that they tend to seek to situations that will generate satisfaction, pleasure, and delight while avoiding situations that provoke disappointment, sadness, and depression.

The Russian scientist, Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) was able to condition dogs so that they salivated at the sound of a bell. The implication is that even very basic behaviours can be modified. Why not modify your own behaviours to better serve your own interests?

Human strengths

The greatest strengths of humanity would have to include optimism, hard work, creativity, adaptability, and a caring nature.

Optimism

Most of us are optimists most of the time. We look forward to future events and situations. This optimism is reflected in the other positive characteristics of humanity. We work hard, create and build, make the effort to adapt to changing conditions, and express our caring for each other – all because we believe that the future is full of hope and adventure.

Hard Work

Humans work hard tilling the land, looking after children, constructing buildings, and conducting business. Wherever you go you can always find people putting forth concerted efforts and working long hours while attempting to reach their goals.

Creativity

Museums and art galleries are stocked with magnificent artistic creations. Humans have learned to work with all sorts of materials and media including ceramics, stone, metals, cloth, paints, film, and graphics to create visual art. Libraries are filled with millions of volumes of literature, science, and history. Theatre guilds, bands, orchestras, and opera companies abound to represent the performing arts.

Engineers, architects, trades people, technicians, and hobbyists exhibit their skills in building, shaping, and creating. We like to build; we like to create; we like to create art and perform.

Adaptability

Humans are adaptable. Every child has the inborn ability to thrive in any culture, in any climate on Earth. Adults are able to survive most natural and man-made disasters. Humans can migrate from one country to another, and are then able to adapt to wide ranges of social conditions and living standards. We have inhabited just about every corner of Earth that is capable of sustaining life. When our plans go awry, more often than not, we revise our strategy and try again.

Caring Nature

Humans are social animals; they want to belong to social groups, they want others to join with them; they want to protect and love their family members and their fellow humans.

Human Frailties

Most human frailties are related to the expression of negative emotions: anger, hate, greed, prejudice, and the urge to use violence.

Anger

You feel angry when the results of an incident do not meet your expectations. There is an urge to take aggressive action to chastise someone. The feeling of anger is often accompanied by a physical display such as a raised voice, staring eyes, raised hands, and a turning motion of the whole body. Anger may be directed at oneself or an inanimate object, but is usually directed outwards towards an individual or a group.

The first step in dealing with anger is to recognize that the feeling is internally generated as a Level I or Level II emotion. You are the creator of your own anger, so you have the power to extinguish it. Once you accept that your feelings of anger come from within, you can ask yourself whether you want to continue feeling angry. Just asking that question engages Level III thinking processes and gives you the opportunity to switch off your anger. Instead of feeling angry, evaluate the situation and think about the best action you can take to alleviate the problem.

Hatred

Hatred is a strong feeling of intense dislike for another individual that persists over time. Hatred is often the result of feeling that someone has deliberately harmed you, or someone you care for. Hatred is frequently accompanied by an urge for revenge and the feeling that the objects of your hate should suffer for their actions.

Hatred, like anger, is a powerful negative emotion that is generated internally. It is difficult to think clearly when your mind is dominated by hatred. This emotion tends to block Level III thinking, and facilitates additional negative thoughts and actions. The rest of the world will roll along regardless of your internal turmoil. To think clearly, you have to switch to Level III thinking and devise the best possible strategies for relieving your negative emotions.

Greed

In order to survive, people naturally want their fair share of available resources. In a competitive environment, people often want more than their fair share. Working for your share becomes greed when you seek to acquire far more of a resource than you need for survival, and far more than others have.

When you seek to earn ten times the average income of your fellow citizens that could be described as ambitious. When you seek to earn a thousand times the average income that is greed. Often the urge to acquire excessive resources can lead to addictive behaviour and poor decision-making.

Prejudice

Prejudice is a judgement or opinion based solely on whether someone does, or does not belong to a specific group. Prejudice can result in unsound positive, or negative, judgements regarding individuals or groups. Prejudice can be expressed by one person or by groups in a society.

We have a natural tendency to categorize. When we meet someone for the first time we automatically begin placing that person in a number of categories such as: male or female, young or old, rich or poor, attractive or not, a member of our community or not. And as we place a person in a category we also assign the attributes of that group to the individual. Normally any initial categorization is refined as we learn more about the traits and capabilities of the individual. Prejudice arises when we neglect to, or refuse to, reassess our initial judgements.

Common prejudices are based on sex, race, religion, caste, occupation, social status, and appearance.

Violence

Violence involves inflicting deliberate damage on persons or property.

There are at least three basic components to personal violence:

  1. A violent act can be stimulated by an emotional response to a perceived injury. This type of response has a primitive aspect in which the goal is to inflict sufficient damage to prevent further injury, and perhaps to gain a measure of revenge.

  2. A violent act can be associated with the breakdown of normal mental controls due to stress or physical brain damage. For example, there is growing evidence for a link between violent behaviour and a poor diet. If you experience violent episodes with no apparent cause you should seek medical advice.

  3. Violence, or the threat of violence, can be a systematic tool for a physically strong person to intimidate a weaker individual. Dictators, abusive persons, and bullies use violence in this way.

Violent acts can take you beyond moral and legal boundaries, and can cause long-lasting harm to others, and demean your own inner self.

We all have our personal strengths and weaknesses. Clear thinking can help you make the most of your strengths and minimize your frailties, especially in the realm of negative emotions.

An extra caution

There are unscrupulous, morally corrupt, and opportunistic individuals who will prey on your frailties for their own benefit. They may tempt you with offers too good to be true, they may frighten you with tales of boogie men, they may tell you what you want to hear to gain your confidence and then take advantage of your natural weaknesses.

It does not matter how bad people get to be that way. What does matter is that they represent a small but persistent threat to your happiness and contentment. You need to be prudent where you go, what you do, and how you display your wealth. Make it a habit to use Level III thinking to govern your behaviour with all but your most trusted friends. Beware of tempting deals and offers from unexpected sources.

11.1.6 A Touch of Sociology

Sociology is a branch of science that deals with group behaviours. Sociology is the study of the development and structure of human societies, and the behaviour of individual people and groups within a society.

Of the many aspects of sociology that can impinge on clear thinking, two have been selected here for comment: maintaining social status, and competition.

Maintaining social status

Humans are social animals and have a need to protect their status within their groups. The urge to maintain your status and impress others can have survival value for both the individual and the group. Maintaining status means you keep up with current trends, while gaining status demonstrates leadership in creating new trends. Maintaining and gaining status has two main components, keeping up appearances and preserving honour.

Keeping up appearances

Keeping up appearances involves superficial aspects of physical appearance, style of dress, and style of conversation. If you do not stand out in a group then you have managed to keep up appearances. If you set a new trend in appearance, dress, or conversation that is adopted by others then you may be regarded as a leader in style.

The superficial aspect of keeping up appearances is readily apparent in a cursory review of the history of fashion. Big hats or little hats; flowing robes, short pants and stockings, or long pants; clothes in red, green, white, or black; long hair, short hair, or no hair; and reciting poems, speaking in parables, or telling jokes have all been the ultimate in fashion at one time or another.

The ancient Maya esteemed a long pointed skull so they bound the heads of their newborn children with boards to deform their skulls and attain that shape. In the Ming dynasty of China, small feet were deemed to be a mark of beauty, so aristocratic women bound their feet; they were crippled but deemed beautiful.

There were also more fanciful attempts to impress others. In Elizabethan England it was fashionable for gentlemen of the court attach codpieces to the front of their trousers to emphasize their masculinity. In Victorian times, women of society wore bustles over their buttocks to emphasize their femininity.

In recent decades, the 'beauty' of extremely thin fashion models has been much admired by the media, and a waif-like appearance with silicone-enhanced breasts has become the desired profile for females. This trend has created much personal anguish over self-image and resulted in poor physical health for many young women.

Minimal effort should be devoted to the superficial task of keeping up appearances to maintain status. Ultimately it is the quality of one's mind, not correspondence with an artificial standard of appearance that is of significance in human interactions.

Saving Honour

Saving honour is associated with taking revenge for a social attack on someone's reputation. The process of saving honour tends to be highly emotional, destructive, and in the final analysis, is ineffective. No amount of violent activity on your part can restore honour, unless you claim the honour of being stupid and aggressive.

Honour is also based on an arbitrary standard of acceptable conduct. 'Anyone who says these words, takes that action, or crosses that line, will sully my honour and I will be required to take violent action to restore it!'

Until the mid 19th century, duelling was an accepted means for upper class males in the western world to deal with questions of honour amongst themselves. Duels followed elaborate rules and thousands of supposedly intelligent men were killed in stylized combat to settle points of honour.

Here are a few famous examples. Alexander Hamilton, featured on the American ten-dollar bill, was killed in a duel in 1804. The future US president Andrew Jackson survived a duel in 1806 by killing his opponent. In 1820, Commodore James Barron of the US Navy survived a duel by killing Stephen Decatur, another commodore in the navy. In 1832 the young French mathematician, Evariste Galois, died in a duel before he could finish his ground-breaking work on number theory. Gunfights in the old American west of the 1870's were the last vestiges of duelling. Common sense finally prevailed over the urge to risk life and limb in dealing with insults.

Another group of 'honour' crimes are committed by males against female family members. In a misogynistic culture, a female is often deemed to have brought dishonour upon a family by refusing to enter into an arranged marriage, being the victim of a sexual assault, seeking a divorce, or committing adultery. The mere perception that a woman has behaved in a specific way to 'dishonour' her family is sufficient to trigger a punitive attack. Such honour crimes are not just nightmares from twisted minds in primitive societies. In 1977, Princess Misha'al of Saudi Arabia made an unsuitable marriage. Her grandfather was adamant about restoring the honour that he believed she had tarnished, so she was charged with adultery and publicly executed. In 2005, the United Nations Population Fund estimated that the number of honour-killing victims around the world approached 5000 women. It is tragic and ironic that brutalizing the weak and defenceless is admired by some as a source of honour.

The concept of honour has to be dealt with very carefully. It is laden with deep emotional and cultural connotations that have absolutely no connection with rational thought.

Competition

Competition is a common element in social events. Friendly competition occurs in designed settings with rules and prizes. Serious competition occurs when demand for a resource exceeds the available supply, or when one group decides to gather more than its fair share of resources unto itself.

Friendly competition provides entertainment for participants and observers, and helps prepare participants for any serious competition that may be looming over the horizon. Most friendly competition follows simple rules and is enjoyed by all. However, even friendly competition can lead to serious incidents. Crippling injuries are relatively common in action sports. Accidents in competitions such as automobile racing, boxing, and sailing are sometimes fatal.

Serious competition can result in general mayhem, war, and class struggles. General mayhem comes first, when power is up for grabs and everyone is scrambling for resources. Out of mayhem comes war. Smaller groups of competitors coalesce into more organized and powerful groups, and conduct their operations on a correspondingly grander scale. Finally, class structures are created as the victors create social conditions that will entrench their new status as the masters of the spoils of war.

Competition always leads to the creation of winners and losers. The corollary is that there are almost always more losers than winners. Consistent winners can develop an inflated opinion of themselves. Consistent losers can develop an undeserved low sense of self-esteem.

A controlled level of competition can provide entertainment, constructive social interaction, and help individuals to sharpen particular skills. Turning every aspect of life into a competition with winners and losers embodies a negative philosophy that is destructive, both for the psyche of individuals and for society. The ultimate competition can be imagined with the last human, standing on a vast pile of the corpses, raising his arms in victory.

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11.2 Building Skills for Clear Thinking

The basic skills needed for clear thinking are analogous to the functional components of an intelligence service. An intelligence service gathers information from a wide range of sources. That information is sorted, organized, and cross-referenced. Then the information is searched for patterns and relationships, which are then analyzed and used to make projections. With better data and more expertise the projections become more accurate. Finally, any significant findings have to be effectively communicated to those in management and leadership roles for any appropriate action. In effect, we each run a one-person intelligence service.

11.2.1 Accumulate Knowledge and Skills

Learning is a cumulative process. As we learn more, we become more proficient at learning. And the more we know, the better prepared we are to enjoy the richness of life and to cope with any problems that we may encounter.

The sooner you start efficient learning the sooner you can start to accumulate well-linked knowledge. Recall that learning efficiently means that you take the time and effort to integrate new information with old information – to form a consistent mental database rather than a disorganized collection of odd facts. As your knowledge base grows, additional learning becomes easier and you begin to develop a sound foundation for clear thinking.

11.2.2 Organize Information for Clear Thinking

The organization of information is the difference between a pile of recipes and a cookbook, between a room full of books and a library, between a stack of satellite photos and a photographic atlas of the world. When information is systematically classified, grouped, cross-referenced, and filed, you are able to evaluate the quality of your information and to search for patterns.

At first glance the blaze of stars in the night sky seems unfathomable, but the systematic collection and organization of basic stellar information provided the foundation for astronomy. The ancient visual systems have been extended with the use of telescopes to reveal much about the structure of the physical universe.

It takes time and effort to establish a scheme for organizing information, and it takes more time and effort to place items of information within that scheme. Is organizing information worth the effort? If a collection of information represents an ongoing interest and you want to be able to work efficiently with that material, then any initial investment in organizing that material is time and effort well spent.

Decide what needs organizing in your life and then go to it. Information is not static. Be prepared to reorganize, to add more categories, to search for patterns, to look for trends, and to look for applications.

Note that there are many computer-based programs designed to help you organize information. An appropriate program can be used to organize your mailing list, your business contacts, your family tree, or the contents of a collection.

11.2.3 Build Your Skills in Rational Thinking

Skills in rational thinking are key components of clear thinking, for two very important reasons.

First, rational thought engages Level III thinking and provides a means for double-checking your instinctive and emotional thought processes. Instinctive and emotional thinking have the advantage of being faster than rational thinking; and emotional thinking can be a great motivator. However, you need to engage your forebrain and rational thinking when instinctive or emotional thoughts urge you to take serious action, such as investing all your savings in a dubious financial scheme. Even with rational reconsideration you may still decide to make the same investment, but if you do so, you will have a better understanding of the risks involved.

Second, rational thinking is based on powerful processes that have been devised by some to the brightest minds in human history. Rational thinking helps you to take advantage of these processes.

Rational thought and a consistent philosophical framework are very effective in helping you decide upon the most productive course of action in any given situation.

In particular, you are encouraged to master basic computational skills to deal with quantitative information. Once you are able to make reasonable mental approximations, you should then learn to make effective use of an electronic calculator. For a few dollars you can purchase a calculator with a wide range of computational functions that would have been a 'dream machine' for any mathematician in history, prior to 1970.

Clear thinkers should also make a concerted effort to understand and utilize the basic concepts of probability and statistics. More and more of our world is being digitized, and then analyzed in terms of numbers. Statistics is the natural tool for describing what all this data means. Probability is the basic tool for using that data to predict future trends.

11.2.4 Build Your Expertise

We all possess knowledge and expertise in some fields. We may be able to knit sweaters, bake bread, play a musical instrument, construct buildings, diagnose illnesses, fly a plane, or dive to the depths of the oceans. All such abilities require related expert knowledge.

Three levels of expertise

Expertise comes in three basic categories:

  1. A 'practitioner' possesses the skills and knowledge needed to work successfully in a given field. A practitioner can earn a living in his/her field after a standard program of education and training. Examples include trades with apprenticeships, and professions with educational requirements. Individuals can also develop practitioner skills through self-learning and diligent practice.

  2. An 'expert' is a very knowledgeable and skilled person. An expert has acquired exceptionable mastery after years of challenging experience. Perhaps only one-in-a-thousand practitioners in a field ever achieve the level of an expert. Recognized experts in government, industry, the military, or education would perform at this level.

  3. A 'world-expert' is a truly exceptional person with skills and knowledge that can be matched by only a few persons on the entire Earth. The world's top researchers and Nobel Prize winners would fit in this category.

With diligence and effort we can all increase and expand our range of expertise. With increased expertise in a variety of fields, we are better prepared to think clearly regarding matters in those fields.

Select areas of interest

It is physically impossible to learn all there is to know about the universe and its contents, so you have to narrow your range of interests. The first step in expanding your expertise is to select a limited number of fields that are of interest to you.

Learn all you can

Set about learning all you can about the standard knowledge and skills in your chosen fields. Read books, take courses, work on projects, and consult with experts.

Challenge yourself

When you deliberately tackle problems that are just beyond your current abilities, you can stretch your knowledge and skills. If you want to be a better carpenter but always build copies of the same birdhouse, your expertise as a carpenter has few avenues for growth.

11.2.6 Build Your Communication Skills

With effective communication skills it is easier for you to exchange information with others. The very process of arranging your own thoughts for sharing with others leads you to collect, analyze, summarize, and render your internal deliberations into a coherent format.

There are billions of humans on Earth, and at any given moment thousands of them are probably thinking about the same things that you are. On any particular topic, it is highly likely that someone out there has far greater knowledge and experience than you, or has a point of view that you have never considered. Communicating with these people to exchange ideas can greatly enhance your own thinking. The best way to establish contact with these people is to improve your mastery of various communications media.

Listening and talking

Unless it is your intention to dominate a conversation, you will always learn more by listening than talking. While in the presence of someone who shares your interests it is to your advantage to do more than just sit and listen. Strive to be an empathetic and an active listener. During a conversation or discourse ask yourself questions, contemplate the implications of statements, and try to predict the next logical component of an argument. Think carefully and compose good questions that show you have been paying attention and want to know more.

After listening to a knowledgeable speaker you may want to share your own point of view in order to clarify any points of difference between your thoughts and theirs. For such occasions, practice speaking distinctly, and with limited but appropriate gestures. It is also useful to practice building verbal arguments with an introduction, main points, and a conclusion.

Writing

Writing is a process that lets you convert neural stimuli in your brain into symbols on a page. Another person can then reconvert those symbols into neural stimuli and gain some insight into what you were thinking.

During normal thought, your mind tends to jump from topic to topic building up a spider-web of ideas. It takes diligence and patience to untangle such webs and produce a step-by-step framework for written thoughts. As you put your thoughts on paper you are forced to re-examine all your arguments, facts, and conclusions. As you write out your thoughts you are also rearranging, simplifying, and strengthening your neural networks. Writing something down helps to clarify your thought processes; helps you classify and organize your memories; and provides an external record of your thoughts.

Writing for others requires some artistry. A simple list of thoughts can be as dull as a grey sky in November and no one will ever read them, let alone spend time contemplating their significance. Artistry in writing involves engaging your audience with attractive vocabulary, familiar allusions, and a comfortable flow of ideas.

Artistry in writing also involves a number of practical skills such as spelling and grammar. Written work is almost always improved with thorough editing and polishing. What are you really trying to say? Is there a simpler or a more attractive way to say it? What do you expect the reader to gain from each sentence? Does your writing make sense when you read it aloud to yourself?

Reading

The ability to read provides access to the storehouse of human knowledge and is fundamental to a clear thinker. Reading is the most efficient means to absorb material prepared by others to inform you. It is a wise investment to put aside an hour or two each day for serious reading, and another hour for casual reading. It is also worth your time and effort to improve your reading skills so that you can read faster. You should also be able to alter your reading style to match the style of the material you are reading.

Other means of communication

Music, poetry, visual arts, simulations, plays, movies, and dance can also communicate information and human emotion.

11.2.7 Develop Your Ability to Focus

To be a clear thinker, you have to be able to focus all of your mental energy at a given time on a chosen task. There are three aspects to focusing your attention:

  1. You need general knowledge to help select significant topics of special interest.

  2. Once a topic has been chosen, you have to be able to restrict all your conscious thoughts to that one topic and block out any distractions.

  3. You have to maintain that centre of attention over time, hopefully until your analysis is complete.

Note that after fifteen or twenty minutes of focused attention, the glucose supply in the associated neural networks is depleted and continuing similar thoughts becomes more difficult. It is then time to shift your attention to another topic for a few minutes while your neurons are resupplied.

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11.3 Philosophical Issues

Constructing a reasonable and consistent philosophical approach to life can reduce life's angst, provide a foundation for action that is consistent with your philosophy, and free you to think more clearly.

While clear thinking by itself cannot provide answers to philosophical questions, clear thinking can help you to establish realistic perspectives, frame better questions, and clarify alternatives.

A philosophy is most effective when it is founded on the best available data and models of the universe, from the very small realm of atoms to the very large realm of clusters of galaxies. Our daily lives are conducted in the realm of human beings so an important part of your philosophy should also include the best and latest analysis of human capabilities and motivations. A philosophy should also include a practical scepticism and a pragmatic outlook, rather than a collection of statements of purported absolute truths.

11.3.1 Personal Philosophy

Acquiring basic knowledge about yourself, your society, and the world at large is a first step towards creating, or adopting, a philosophy of life. With a personal philosophy, you are better able to formulate your basic goals. With basic goals you have channels to guide your thoughts and your energy.

What is the purpose of life?

At some time or another everyone asks themselves: 'What is the purpose of any living thing?', 'What is the purpose of humanity?', and 'What is the purpose of my life?'

A more basic question is 'What is life?' What distinguishes living, from non-living matter? In everyday terms, answering that question is easy – living things grow and reproduce. Plants are fixed to the ground, or float in water, and obtain their energy from sunlight. Animals move around and eat plants or other animals to obtain their energy. In the micro-world the differences between living and non-living can become more subtle. A virus can exist as an inert crystal structure for many years, then it can spring to life when conditions are ripe, attack a nearby cell, and reproduce hundreds of copies of itself. In the broader universe the question of what is alive can be more interesting as well. In a novel called The Dosadi Experiment (1977), the science fiction writer Frank Herbert postulated that stars are alive. Astronomers have learned that stars consume nuclear and gravitational energy, they pass through life cycles, and their remains are ejected into space and thus seed the next generation of stars. At all scales, life seems to create some sort of order, process energy, and produce successive generations of similar individuals.

Human life is also part of the cosmos. Perhaps the key questions should be: 'Are humans special?' and if so 'What are our special properties?' and 'Why do we have these special properties?'

There are at least two fundamental views on the purpose of life:

  1. Human life is the creation of a Supreme God and all activities in the universe are designed to produce trials and tribulations this creation. These trials and tribulations serve as filters to help God select the most deserving humans to share the afterlife.

  2. On a large scale, activity in the universe follows fundamental patterns. Within those patterns are random variations that may affect life on Earth. Life on Earth is also affected by competitions among creatures for survival – from invading bacteria to invading human armies.

The problem of free will versus determinism

Are we free to determine our actions, or is the future already mapped out for us and we have to follow the script?

According to Christian philosophy, while God is all-powerful, He has created man with free will, so man can choose between righteous actions and sinful actions. To think other-wise is considered heretical.

Some might argue that your genetic makeup determines your actions and, indeed, many of our behaviours do seem to be genetic in nature. However, a key survival feature of humanity is its adaptability. We have behavioural tendencies, but we are adaptable and, given specific situations, we can make choices that will enhance our chances of survival.

The life of an individual

Biologically, the struggle to survive is identical with the struggle to produce living offspring. Through much of history the primary goals of humans have been to secure food, shelter, and security for themselves and their families. There was little time or energy to pursue any other goals.

In most of the modern world our survival is often taken for granted; we have attained abundant food and shelter, and reasonable security. Under these conditions, what is the purpose of an individual's life?

Here are three very basic philosophical approaches:

  1. An Epicurean philosophy tells us that life is short, there is much to learn, and we can take deliberate action to avoid pain and avoid causing pain. We can seek happiness and appreciate the wonders of the universe.

  2. A Stoic philosophy tells us to accept our fate, seek virtue and live in harmony with nature. By following reason we can avoid negative emotions, follow natural laws, and seek balance in nature and ourselves.

  3. A pragmatic philosophy tells us that life is a journey. We should enjoy this journey by observing, participating, and sharing our experiences. We should act to protect each other from the harm of random events and the destructive urges of rogue humans.

11.3.2 Setting Goals

Setting a goal and working towards it can be a life-shaping experience. Not everyone can be world famous, and not everyone will reach all their goals, but having a few well-chosen goals provides direction and motivation.

Before you can set practical goals you need a realistic view of yourself, including your strengths and your weaknesses. Learning who you are, where you are going, and why you are headed that way are significant challenges, especially for young adults.

You need short term goals so that you can experience success on a daily and weekly basis. Success with your short term goals also helps to provide motivation as you work towards your long term goals.

Devising your long term goals is equivalent to asking what message you would like to have carved on your tombstone. When your life is done, what would you like others to remember you for? Speculating on your potential accomplishments in life forces you to consider what you regard as most important, and how you would like to spend your time and energy on Earth.

Some care is required to ensure that your goals do not conflict with each other. If one of your goals is to own a pet elephant and another is to live in a penthouse apartment, you may have a problem. If one of your goals is to drive a racing car for a living and another is to help reduce global warming, those goals may also be incompatible.

11.3.3 Personal Ethics

Establishing a logical and consistent ethical framework can assist you in your efforts to think clearly. While goals provide a direction for your endeavours, ethics provide guidance as to which steps along the way are acceptable, and which are not.

Ethics is a branch of philosophy that involves the systematic study of morality and has at least three branches:

  1. Applied ethics deals with how you ought to behave in a specific situation.

  2. Normative ethics addresses the problem of how you can justify a moral position.

  3. Meta-ethics involves the study of the fundamental nature of ethics and morality.

Morals can be regarded as the everyday interpretations and actions that follow a code of ethics. Ethics are more fundamental than customs and etiquette, but less formal than civil or criminal law.

Sources of ethics

Ethical values stem from at least three sources:

  1. Ethics begin with evolved social behaviours. Such behaviour can be observed in all social animals including horses, wolves, chimpanzees, and humans. These behaviours govern leadership, group defence, mating, eating, grooming, and child rearing practices. As early hominoids acquired the use of stone tools and hunting weapons, they required more elaborate codes of social behaviour.

  2. Many basic rules for human behaviour are common across cultures and may provide the foundation for religious doctrines. Religions tend to encourage behaviour that is beneficial to its adherents. Historically, religions have also tended to provide justification for the special privileges of an aristocratic class.

  3. Moral values are also associated with custom, law, and basic human rights.

Codes of ethics

There are a number of codes of ethics that guide our individual and civil behaviour.

The Ethic of Reciprocity

The ethic of reciprocity, 'treat others as you want them to treat you', is a fundamental moral principal found in virtually all cultures and religious. The ethic of reciprocity, often called the Golden Rule, is an expression of basic human rights:

"Love your neighbour as yourself." – Old Testament (Leviticus 19:18)

"Avoid doing what you would blame others for doing." – Thales

"What you do not want others to do, do not do to others." – Confucius

"Hurt no one so that no one may hurt you." – Muhammad.

"Do for one who may do for you, that you may cause him thus to do." – Ancient Egypt

A modern interpretation of the ethic of reciprocity emphasizes that it should apply to all people, not just members of your own group. Mahatma Gandhi (1869 – 1948, pacifist and leader of the Indian independence movement) also noted that the ethic of reciprocity is incompatible with the concepts of revenge and retaliation.

The Ethic of Universality

While the ethic of reciprocity focuses on our behaviour towards other humans, the ethic of universality includes our behaviour towards the environment.

The ethic of universality asks us to evaluate the question: 'What are the consequences if everybody does the same thing that I am considering?' If it is moral and ethical for one person to act in a specific manner, then it is moral and ethical for everyone to act in the same manner. Would the result of everyone acting in that manner lead to an acceptable state?

I may decide to chop down a tree for tomorrow's heating fuel, but what if everybody in the world did the same thing? Would there be enough trees? Would there be any forests left to seed new trees? Would burning that many trees produce too much air pollution?

The ethic of universality is growing in importance as humans approach the boundaries of environmental exploitation.

The Ten Commandments

The Ten Commandments of the Jewish, Christian, and Moslem religions are often cited as a sound foundation for human ethics and morality. The first four of these commandments deal with the relationship between humans and God. The remaining six deal with relationships among humans. Edited versions of the commandments are often quoted, but the full text (Book of Exodus 20:1-17) contains language that some might find surprising:

"...I the Lord your God am a jealous God, punishing children for the iniquity of parents, to the third and the fourth generation..."

"...you shall not do any work (on the Sabbath) —you, your son or your daughter, your male or female slave..."

"...you shall not covet your neighbour's wife, or male or female slave..."

During the era in which the commandments were first recorded, worldly rulers had absolute power of life and death over every subject. Punishing children for their parents' faults, and owning slaves were accepted components of that society.

The language of the commandments reminds us that ethical codes are most relevant to the society and the times in which they are formulated. One of the challenges of ethics is to establish a code for human behaviour that will apply in all places for all time.

Establishing an ethical code

Taking the time and making the effort to devise a personal code of ethics is an excellent exercise in clear thinking. It requires you to think very carefully about the consequences of your behaviours, and then to consider the criteria for deciding which behaviours are acceptable and which are not.

A code of ethics provides a framework for thinking about human behaviour. A well-considered code of ethics can help you to avoid most problems in human relations before they occur, and provide guidelines for dealing with the remaining problems that do arise.

We tend to think very poorly under stress – a code of ethics provides well-planned guidelines and can help to point you in the right direction, even in times of duress.

Ethics and pragmatism

A code of ethics has to be practical for the individuals in a society or else it is automatically self-limiting. A group's code of ethics may impose restrictions on behaviour and require specific observances, but unless the code allows members to prosper in the real world, that group and its ethics are doomed to ultimate failure.

The United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing, commonly known as the 'Shakers', was a religious sect first introduced to the United States in 1774. They taught that it was only possible to remain free from sin by following a strict code of ethics that included hard work, communal ownership, and celibacy. The original Shaker communities grew through conversion and adoption; reproduction was contrary to their beliefs. Although Shaker membership grew to about 6000 people by 1840, their ethic of celibacy spelled their own demise and by 1900 there were only a few members left.

On occasion, the standards and structure of society have to be modified before a particular ethic can be implemented. For thousands of years the institution of slavery was an accepted part of virtually all societies and religions. The institution of slavery was never seriously reconsidered until the machines of the industrial revolution provided practical alternatives to human muscle power. Even then it took over a hundred years to establish 'freedom for all' as a basic human right.

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11.4 Applied Clear Thinking

We are thinking all the time – consciously and sub-consciously, rationally and emotionally – at all three levels of functionality. One of the goals of clear thinking is to help make these thought processes more productive, more thorough, and more enjoyable.

11.4.1 Clear Thinking Defined

In its fullest sense 'clear thinking' has many characteristics of a philosophy. It represents a constructive and holistic approach to thinking that helps you to make better use of your brain's potential.

The building blocks of clear thinking

Clear thinking includes three basic activities:

  1. Systematically gathering the best information available,

  2. Applying the best strategies for analysing that information, and

  3. Using the most powerful part of your brain to solve problems and make decisions.

Best information

Information is the raw material for clear thinking. The greater the quantity and quality of the information that you collect during your life, the easier it is for you to understand what is happening around you. Information should be collected from a variety of sources, and then organized and evaluated. The best information can be reduced to objective measurements and can be verified using a number of independent sources.

Best strategies

The best strategies for clear thinking are those that have been developed over thousands of years by philosophers, mathematicians, scientists, and social leaders. Among those best strategies are techniques that use logic, deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, probability, statistics, and the advice of experts.

Powerful part of your brain

Your frontal lobes are the most highly evolved and powerful part of your brain. The key to engaging your frontal lobes is to restrain your more primitive emotions and instincts. There are two simple techniques for doing this. First, delay your response to a situation. Just an extra fraction of a second gives your frontal lobes a chance to get in on the action. Second, systematically analyze the implications of different options. That kind of analysis automatically activates your frontal lobes and lets you utilize the information that you have been collecting and the thinking strategies that you have been practicing.

Integration of thought processes

The integration of your knowledge and skills is another important component of clear thinking.

Consider an analogy with a transportation system that is not integrated. You might find roads that end in the middle of a field, airports without any rapid transit to nearby cities, train stations with no parking for cars, and ships with no place to dock. You might arrive at an airport just as your connecting flight takes off without you. Or you might have to wait an extra day for a connection. In contrast, in an integrated transportation network you would be able to move seamlessly from one system to another and from place to place with a minimum of time and effort.

The analogy applies to your thought processes. When your knowledge and skills are fragmented you have difficulty applying what you have learned in one setting, to any other setting. You can work with fractions in math class, but you cannot layout a design in drafting class. You can cherish your family members one day, then abuse them the next. You can pray to your God for peace on Earth and then pick up a gun and systematically set about killing your fellow humans.

When you take the time to integrate your thoughts, your actions tend to be more thoughtful and more positive. When your knowledge and skills are integrated you can make much better use of them, and your actions tend to be much more consistent.

In summary, clear thinking involves systematic efforts: to acquire knowledge and thinking skills, to integrate mental activities, and to develop attitudes for enhanced participation in life.

11.4.2 A Fresh View

We should always seek out new knowledge and fresh points of view. Clear thinking can help us to utilize our abilities to look at old things in a new light. The search for fresh points of view can help you to learn more, make personal discoveries, and solve problems.

Yourself

Look at yourself in the mirror and what do you see. That body standing there is really just your space suit. The real you, the thinking, emotional you is located inside your skull. The more you think about more things, the more amazing you become.

Others

Other people around you are striving to make the best of their situations, just as you are. They may have grown up in a variety of physical environments, speak a variety of languages, wear a variety of clothes, and have a variety of social customs – but they are mostly kind, caring, and hard working.

Life around you

The 1996 film, Microcosmos, by Claude Nuridsany and Marie Pérennou provides an intimate view of the insect life in a French meadow. The film is a reminder that there is fascinating life all around us. You can seek out the features of life just about anywhere, observe it and enjoy it. You are part of that same collection of life that is unfolding in the universe.

As individuals we exist, we participate, and we observe. In many ways we are like leaves on a vine. We receive the spark of life from our ancestors who were a little closer to the root, we grow and live our lives, and then we pass on the gift of life to our descendants further up the vine.

The Universe

Pioneer investigators in astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, ecology, geology, mathematics, and engineering have provided us with the means to understand the basic workings of the universe. We owe it to ourselves to delve into this material as best we can to gain a better appreciation of what is happening on, and beyond Earth. The website for the Hubble Space Telescope (http://hubblesite.org) provides a most dramatic introduction to the vast array of cosmic structures. Look on in wonder, and let your wonder grow as you ponder the meaning of it all.

11.4.3 A Happier You

With clear thinking you will take better care of yourself, develop your thinking skills, and be more content with your place in the universe.

Happiness is a nebulous concept, but it seems to have at least three basic components:

  1. We want to obtain the basic needs for ourselves, and our families. Accomplishing that brings a sense of relief, accomplishment, and contentment.

  2. We enjoy engaging in activities and projects that provide a sense of satisfaction – we strive to be successful in completing tasks, to participate with others, and to reach specific goals.

  3. We seek activities that will earn us recognition and elevated status. We all want to be loved and respected. We like to have our accomplishments recognized.

The implication is that meeting basic needs, working on satisfying projects, and receiving recognition for who we are, and what we can do, are signposts on the road to happiness.

The accumulation of physical wealth beyond basic needs, does not appear in this description of happiness. Bags of money, fabulous jewels, and a luxury yacht do not necessarily bring happiness.

Happiness can also be enhanced with a better understanding of your thought processes. The three-level model of emotions can help you to relish your positive emotions and control negative feelings.

When you are happy and content, you also have the confidence to take reasonable risks. You are able to admit mistakes and then work to correct them.

Clear thinking can guide you towards more contentment and pleasure in your life.

11.4.4 The Pleasure of Learning

The opportunity for learning something new is always available, and every new concept that you encounter provides more food for thought.

Learning from mentors

Learning from a mentor is one of the most efficient and pleasurable routes to learning. With a mentor you have face-to-face contact; you share experiences, facts, and emotions. You can enjoy the personality of your mentor and have the benefit of personal guidance and timely feedback.

Learning from books

The ability to record thoughts and information in writing is one of the greatest accomplishments of humankind. The printing press and mass marketing make books one of the world's best bargains. The opportunities to learn from books are always available in bookstores and libraries.

Learning from a book is similar to learning from a mentor, except that the communication is one-way – from the author to you. Learning from a book is convenient. You can read, or re-read, any passage at any time. And you can take a book with you, just about anywhere.

Learning from other media

The Internet is perhaps the newest and most powerful new technology for learning. The Internet provides rapid access to an unlimited range of information, opinions, and databases.

Other technical media such as computer simulations provide opportunities for interactive learning along with diagnostic feedback. Photography can also capture information for detailed study.

Learning from hands-on experience

It can be challenging and enjoyable to learn from your own personal experience. You can explore a new city, investigate the action of waves, bake a cake, or build a garden shed. There are thousands of interesting experiences that you might want to try.

All learning experiences encourage you to take a new look at the world around you, and to admire the accomplishments of others.

11.4.5 The Joy of Thinking

It is our ability to think that gives us our special status on Earth. Thinking is what makes us human. You can only experience joy because you can think. Thinking is your ultimate source of joy.

The comfort of making sense out of information

There is satisfaction to be gained from organizing data and making sense of it. You can read the instructions and eventually put a new toy together. You can tackle challenging problems and puzzles. You can follow the daily motions of the stars and understand the rotation of the Earth.

Converting bits of data into organized information gives you the ability to understand, interpret, and evaluate what is happening around you.

The pleasure of pondering

There is unlimited pleasure to be had in simply contemplating what has been, what is, and what might be. You can revel in your own internal world as you wonder why things are the way they are, and speculate how the future would change if various factors could be altered.

The pleasure of creating

There is pleasure to be found in building a structure, painting a picture, composing a song, or writing a poem. Creative activity is a satisfying experience.

Enjoying the arts

Technology has provided us with the ability to access thousands of good books, and enjoy the creative works of thousands of actors, musicians, painters and sculptors. Contemplating the creations of world masters is another of the joys of life.

The 'Aha!' experience

One of the simplest moments of joy can be found in the 'aha!' experience, when you make a new connection between existing concepts. Suddenly things make sense; you understand a new concept; you see how to put the puzzle pieces together.

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About the Author

William Dodd has spent twenty-five years as a high school teacher of mathematics and computer science, and five years as a high school administrator. After retiring from teaching he worked for a year as an editor of mathematics texts for Pearson Education, and then wrote a number of articles for the Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada.

In creating Train Your Brain, he has utilized the works of a host of philosophers, scientists, thinkers, and authors and has sought to encapsulate and integrate many of their most significant conclusions.

You can contact William Dodd at circlebooks@hotmail.ca .

Acknowledgements

This project could not have been completed without the encouragement and support of my wife, Donna. The editing skills and constructive advice of Jo Ann Madill, Jacqueline Holloway, and Andrew Dodd were also most helpful. Thanks to Phyllis Day for her detailed review of the grammar and syntax, and to Ron Taylor and Dr. Sidney van den Bergh for their insightful comments and suggestions. Any remaining errors and oblique thoughts are mine.
