I WORRY ABOUT LOTS OF THINGS.
WHY ABOUT HUMAN UNIQUENESS?
HUMAN BEINGS, HOMO SAPIENS, ARE
MAMMALS OF THE ORDER PRIMATES
OF THE FAMILY
HOMINIDAE, THE GREAT APES.
HUMAN BEINGS ARE ANIMALS,
YET HUMAN MENTALITY
DIFFERS DRAMATICALLY
FROM ANIMAL MENTALITY.
OBVIOUS?
SURE.
WE ARE SO FAMILIAR
WITH HUMANS AND ANIMALS.
BUT THEN, FOR A MOMENT, I DETACH
MYSELF FROM COMMON KNOWLEDGE
AND THE FAMILIAR
BECOMES STRANGE.
PHYSICALLY, HUMANS AND
ANIMALS SEEM SO SIMILAR.
MENTALLY, HUMANS
SEEM SO SUPERIOR.
WHICH SURPRISES ME MORE?
THE SIMILARITIES OR
THE DIFFERENCES?
I GO AFTER THE DIFFERENCES.
HOW DO HUMANS
DIFFER FROM ANIMALS?
I'M ROBERT LAWRENCE KUHN AND
CLOSER TO TRUTH IS MY JOURNEY
TO FIND OUT.
I AM TAKEN BY HUMAN UNIQUENESS,
BUT, LIKE A CLOUD, IT IS
HARD TO GRASP.
COMPARED WITH ANIMALS, OUR
BODIES HAVE SIMILAR PARTS -
CELLS, ORGANS, BONES, BLOOD.
BUT BODIES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS,
METABOLISM, MOBILITY, AND THE
LIKE ARE LESS IMPORTANT.
BRAINS AND THEIR OUTPUTS -
PERCEPTION, COGNITION, BEHAVIOR
ARE MOST IMPORTANT.
HOW DO HUMAN BRAINS
COMPARE WITH ANIMAL BRAINS?
HOW DO HUMAN BEHAVIORS
CONTRAST WITH ANIMAL BEHAVIORS?
I GO TO LONDON, TO THE
INSTITUTE OF PHILOSOPHY AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF LONDON, TO
MEET THE DISTINGUISHED
NEUROSCIENTIST, COLIN BLAKEMORE.
COLIN, WHAT CAN WE BEGIN TO SAY
ABOUT THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
HUMAN BRAINS AND ANIMAL BRAINS?
UH, THE FIRST THING IS TO
EMPHASIZE THE CONTINUITY AND THE
SIMILARITIES ARE SO MUCH
MORE IMPRESSIVE ACTUALLY
THAN THE DIFFERENCES.
EVERY AREA, NAMEABLE AREA, MAJOR
DIVISION OF THE HUMAN BRAIN CAN
BE IDENTIFIED IN OTHER
SPECIES AND YOU CAN FOLLOW ITS
DEVELOPMENT THROUGH EVOLUTION.
THE REALLY DISTINCTIVE THING
ABOUT HUMAN BRAINS IS THE SIZE
OF THE FORE BRAIN, THE CEREBRAL
HEMISPHERES, THE WRINKLED BIT
ON THE TOP.
FOUR TIMES BIGGER AREA OF
CEREBRAL CORTEX IN A HUMAN BEING
THAN IN A CHIMPANZEE SO
THAT'S VERY SIGNIFICANT.
AND IT ISN'T JUST AS IF THE
GROWTH AND THE EXPANSION OF THE
CEREBRAL CORTEX HAS BEEN
LIKE BLOWING UP A BALLOON.
EXTRA BITS HAVE BEEN ADDED.
SO THE SENSORY AREAS OF THE
HUMAN BRAIN, THE VISUAL, THE
AUDITORY AND THE TOUCH AREAS
HERE, YOU CAN SEE THOSE IN A
VERY SIMPLE MAMMAL.
BUT THAT'S JUST ABOUT ALL
THERE IS IN THE CEREBRAL CORTEX.
IN THE HUMAN BRAIN THOSE AREAS
ARE A TINY FRACTION OF THE TOTAL
AND LOTS OF OTHER
STUFF'S BEEN ADDED IN BETWEEN.
BUT WHAT ABOUT ANIMALS THAT
HAVE LARGER BRAINS THAN HUMANS?
YOU HAVE ELEPHANTS.
ELEPHANTS, AND THERE'S WHALES.
WHALES CAN HAVE BRAINS THAT
ARE TWICE AS BIG OR MORE.
SURE, THERE'S CERTAIN DOLPHINS.
THEY HAVE SMALLER
NUMBERS OF NERVE CELLS.
THE HUMAN BRAIN HAS IN ABSOLUTE
TERMS MORE NERVE CELLS THAN
ANY OTHER BRAIN.
SO TOTAL NUMBERS OF
NEURONS IS IMPORTANT.
BECAUSE TOTAL NUMBERS OF NEURONS
MAPS ONTO THE TOTAL NUMBER OF
CONNECTIONS, THEREFORE
THE TOTAL NUMBER OF
COMPUTING AND ELEMENTS.
SO LET'S TAKE THE KEY
CHARACTERISTIC OF HUMAN BRAIN
WHICH IS THE LARGE FORE BRAIN.
THERE'S BEEN A MASSIVE EXTRA
EXPANSION OF THE FRONTAL LOBES.
YOU ASK WHAT DO THE
FRONTAL LOBES DO?
THEY SEEM TO BE
INVOLVED IN PLANNING, IN
REGULATING ATTENTION, IN
LONG-TERM PLANNING FOR THE
FUTURE, ORGANIZING BEHAVIOR BOTH
IN THE SHORT TIME PERIOD AND THE
VERY LONG TIME PERIOD.
THEY SEEM TO BE
RESPONSIBILITY FOR WHAT'S
LOOSELY CALLED VOLUNTARY ACTION.
DECIDING WHEN TO DO THINGS
AND ON WHAT GROUNDS, MAKING
DECISIONS ABOUT WHAT TO DO.
AND A GOOD DEAL OF THAT HAS
AN INHIBITORY FUNCTION.
MM-HMM, YEAH.
NOT UNIQUE TO HUMAN BEINGS.
I MEAN YOUR PET DOG PRESUMABLY
BEHAVES ITSELF PRETTY WELL IN
TOILET TRAINING SO YOU KNOW
HE'LL LEARN THESE THINGS.
BUT YOU'RE RIGHT, FRONTAL
FUNCTION, AT LEAST REVEALED BY
THE EFFECTS OF DAMAGE TO THE
FRONTAL LOBES, SEEMS TO BE AT
LEAST IN PART
INHIBITION OF IMPULSE.
SO THE WHOLE PROCESS OF
DEVELOPMENT IN HUMAN BEINGS,
WHERE AS IT MAY TRACK HOW
ANIMALS DEVELOP, BECAUSE THERE'S
A LARGER FORE BRAIN, THAT COULD
HAVE A DRAMATIC IMPACT ON THE
OUTPUT OF THE BRAIN.
YES.
WELL, YOU HAVE TO REMEMBER OF
COURSE THAT, YOU KNOW, HUMAN
BEINGS LIVE A LONG TIME COMPARED
WITH MOST ANIMALS, AND THEY
SPEND AN AWFULLY BIG PART
OF THEIR LIVES ESSENTIALLY
CONTINUING TO
MATURE AND DEVELOP.
MOST ANIMALS HAVE THEIR
DEVELOPMENT, COGNITIVE AND BRAIN
DEVELOPMENT COMPRESS INTO A
VERY SHORT PERIOD OF TIME.
SO THERE'S MUCH, MUCH MORE TIME
FOR HUMAN BEINGS TO LEARN, TO
FORM THE NEW CONNECTIONS THAT
ARE INVOLVED IN LEARNING TO
MODIFY THEIR OWN BRAINS.
BUT WHEN YOU GET TO
OUR AGE IT'S OVER?
WELL I DON'T KNOW, I HOPE
IT'S STILL GOING ON.
DON'T YOU?
I HOPE SO.
COMPARING HUMAN BRAINS
TO ANIMAL BRAINS,
COLIN STRESSES THE
CONTINUITIES.
THE SIMILARITIES, HE SAYS,
ARE MORE IMPRESSIVE
THAN THE DIFFERENCES.
THERE IS NOTHING IN THE HUMAN
BRAIN, NOT IN THE ANIMAL BRAIN.
BUT SIZES DIFFER, ABSOLUTE AND
RELATIVE, ESPECIALLY OUR LARGE
FRONT LOBES, AND THE
"EXTRA BITS" OF THE
HUMAN CEREBRAL CORTEX.
HOW THEN TO ACCOUNT FOR THE
SPECTACULAR SUPERIORITY
OF HUMAN MENTALITY?
HOW CAN A SHARP, STEP-FUNCTION
LEAP IN HUMAN THOUGHT ARISE FROM
A SIMPLE CONTINUUM
INCREASE IN THE HUMAN BRAIN?
FROM THOSE "EXTRA BITS"?
STILL AT THE INSTITUTE OF
PHILOSOPHY, I VISIT ITS
DIRECTOR, BARRY SMITH.
BARRY SPECIALIZES IN THE
PHILOSOPHY OF TASTE, SO HE
INVITES ME TO A WINE BAR.
FOR ME, IT'S ALIEN TERRITORY.
BARRY IT'S VERY CONTROVERSIAL,
THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN HUMAN
ANIMALS AND OTHER
ANIMALS, PARTICULARLY MAMMALS.
WHAT CAN WE SAY ABOUT THE NATURE
OF LANGUAGE WHICH MANY PEOPLE
TALK ABOUT AS A
KEY DIFFERENTIATOR?
LANGUAGE REALLY STANDS OUT.
HERE'S SOMETHING THAT ALL HUMAN
INFANTS IN NORMAL DEVELOPMENT
ACQUIRE BY THE AGE OF
20 MONTHS, TWO YEARS,
WITHOUT EXPLICIT TRAINING.
NONETHELESS SOMETHING HAPPENS
THAT ORGANIZES THESE WORDS INTO
MEANINGFUL STRUCTURED SENTENCES,
AND THEY SHARE A STRUCTURE
ACROSS ALL HUMAN COUNTRIES.
NOW THAT STRUCTURE IS ONLY
AVAILABLE TO HUMANS, AND
THEREFORE THERE SEEMS TO
BE SOMETHING DISTINCTIVELY
DIFFERENT ABOUT THE BRAINS
OF HUMANS THAT ENDOWS US
WITH THIS CAPACITY.
NOW WHAT DOES
LANGUAGE DO FOR US?
WELL I THINK IT ORGANIZES THE
CONTENTS OF THE MIND IN A WAY
THAT IS DIMENSION
SHIFTED FROM OTHER ANIMALS.
INSTEAD OF JUST BEING FOCUSED ON
IMMEDIATE PERCEPTUAL EXPERIENCE,
MY ENCOUNTERS WITH THINGS IN THE
ENVIRONMENT, THERE'S A WAY IN
WHICH I CAN REFER TO AND TALK
ABOUT THINGS THAT ARE NOT HERE
AND HAPPEN AT OTHER TIMES,
AND ALSO A WAY IN WHICH
LANGUAGE BECOMES AN
INTERFACE BETWEEN MINDS.
THAT WAY IN WHICH WE SEEM TO
HAVE AN IMMEDIATE ACCESS TO
OTHER PEOPLE'S THINKING, BECAUSE
WE PUT OUR MINDS INTO OUR WORDS,
WE LITERALLY VOICE OUR THOUGHTS.
AND THIS IS PROBABLY A WAY
IN WHICH LANGUAGE IS BEING
USED TO UNITE MINDS INTO
SOCIETIES AND INTO CULTURES.
WHAT ABOUT THE CONTROVERSIES
ABOUT WHETHER ANIMALS
DO HAVE LANGUAGE?
WELL I THINK THAT'S BECAUSE
WE'RE USING THE WORLD LANGUAGE
IN A COMMON SENSE IN
A RATHER LOOSE WAY.
NOW OTHER ANIMALS DEFINITELY
HAVE SIGNALING SYSTEMS.
BIRDSONG HAS SEQUENCE, IT
HAS REPETITIVE STRUCTURES.
REALLY RATHER COMPLEX ONES.
THEY CAN INVERT THEM, THEY
CAN CONTINUE THEM, THEY
CAN DEVELOP THEM.
BUT THEY DO NOT HAVE THIS
ABILITY WE HAVE TO HAVE BOTH
HIERARCHICAL ORGANIZATION WHERE
ONE PART OF THE SENTENCE DEPENDS
CRUCIALLY ON ANOTHER, AND ALLOWS
US TO SEE DEPENDENCES BETWEEN
ACTORS AND PEOPLE ACTED UPON.
AND THE OTHER THING WE
HAVE, IS RECURSION.
THAT IS WE CAN TAKE A SENTENCE
AND EMBED IT WITHIN ANOTHER
SENTENCE AND THEN WE
CAN DO THAT ITERATIVELY.
I CAN SAY ROBERT THINKS THAT
JANE IS IN TOWER BRIDGE, BUT I
CAN SAY I WONDER WHETHER ROBERT
THINKS JANE IS IN TOWER BRIDGE.
JANE KNOWS THAT I WONDER WHETHER
ROBERT THINKS - AND SO ON.
SO JUST BY USING THESE
SAME WORDS AND THE WONDERING,
THINKING, BELIEVING, EACH OF
THOSE SENTENCES EMBEDDING OTHERS
PRODUCES A NEW THOUGHT.
AND IN FACT THERE ARE
INDEFINITELY MANY OF THEM.
SO YOU AND I HAVE AN
INFINITE GENERATIVE CAPACITY.
WHEN I'M USING STRUCTURED PARTS
OF A GRAMMATICAL SENTENCE TO PUT
WORDS IN SPECIAL RELATIONS OF
DEPENDENCE WITH ONE ANOTHER,
THAT IS WHAT A CERTAIN PART OF
THE BRAIN, OFTEN LOCATED IN THE
LEFT HEMISPHERE, THAT'S WHAT
THAT PART OF THE BRAIN DOES.
THAT'S NOT AVAILABLE
TO OTHER ANIMAL'S.
NOW THAT MEANS THAT WE
CAN PRODUCE INDEFINITELY
MANY NEW THOUGHTS.
IN FACT, YOU'LL HEAR MANY
SENTENCES EACH DAY AND YOU'LL
READ MANY SENTENCES
YOU'VE NEVER HEARD BEFORE.
AND HERE'S THE INTERESTING
THING; THEY'RE JUST AS EASY TO
UNDERSTAND AS THOSE
THAT ARE UTTERLY FAMILIAR.
NO MATTER HOW WE HUMANS
DIFFER ONE FROM ANOTHER, WE ALL
DISPLAY THE COMMON
DENOMINATOR OF LANGUAGE.
ANIMALS COMMUNICATE.
ANIMALS HAVE PATTERNS OF
INFORMATION TRANSFER.
BUT NONE HAS THE INFINITELY
CREATIVE SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS
OF HUMAN LANGUAGE.
AND SINCE LANGUAGE BEGETS
CULTURE AND CULTURE ACCUMULATES,
EACH HUMAN GENERATION CAN
BUILD ON ITS PREDECESSOR.
BUT WHEN I INTROSPECT, LOOK
INSIDE, THE INNATE POWER OF MY
MENTALITY SEEMS TO EXCEED THAT
WHICH IS CREATED BY CULTURE.
BUT I CHALLENGE MYSELF.
DO I ASSUME TOO MUCH
HUMAN SUPERIORITY?
DO I UNDERVALUE
ANIMAL MENTALITY?
I GO TO THE UNIVERSITY
OF CAMBRIDGE TO MEET
PSYCHOLOGIST NICHOLAS HUMPHREY.
NICK CLAIMS THAT HIS WORK ON
ANIMAL BEHAVIOR INFORMS THE
EVOLUTION OF
HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS.
NICK, SOME WOULD CLAIM
THAT HUMAN BEINGS ARE A STEP
FUNCTION, DIFFERENT THAN
THE, THE TRAJECTORY OF
THE ANIMAL WORLD.
OTHERS WOULD SAY
THAT IT'S A FAIRLY
STRAIGHT FORWARD CONTINUUM.
HOW DO YOU COMPARE HUMAN BEINGS
WITH THE ANIMAL WORLD, MENTALLY?
WELL, I'VE LEARNT SO MUCH
FROM ANIMALS ABOUT HUMANS.
WHEN I WAS WORKING WITH MOUNTAIN
GORILLAS FOR EXAMPLE IN RWANDA.
I LOOKED AT THOSE EXTRAORDINARY
CREATURES WITH THEIR HUGE HEADS
AND HUGE BRAINS AND WONDERED
WHAT THEY WERE DOING WITH THEIR
BRAINS, BECAUSE THE LIFE
OF GORILLAS IN THE FOREST
IS INCREDIBLY SIMPLE.
UM, FOOD IS EASY TO GATHER
AND ABUNDANT, THERE ARE NO
PREDATORS, SO, WHY DO
THESE CREATURES HAVE
THIS EXTRAORDINARY INTELLIGENCE?
I REALIZED THAT WHILE THE
FOREST, AS SUCH, DIDN'T PRESENT
THEM WITH ANY GREAT PROBLEMS,
THEIR OWN COMMUNITY PRESENTED
THEM WITH AN AMAZING RANGE OF
DIFFICULT ISSUES TO DO WITH
HIERARCHY, DOMINANCE, SEX, CHILD
REARING, EVERYTHING ELSE, WHICH
MAKES UP THE SOCIAL
LIFE OF A GORILLA GROUP.
NOW, HUMANS OF COURSE,
ARE EVEN MORE COMPLEX IN
THEIR SOCIAL LIFE.
HUMANS BRAINS, WHICH ARE THREE
TIMES THE SIZE OF GORILLAS,
HAVE EVOLVED TO SOLVE THE
PROBLEMS OF LIVING IN HUMAN
SOCIETY, WHICH IS MORE THAN
THREE TIMES AS COMPLEX AS THAT
OF A GORILLA TROUPE.
SO, UM, CONTINUITY
CERTAINLY EXISTS.
BUT THEN, I THINK WE'RE
INCREASINGLY COMING TO REALIZE
THAT THERE ARE BIG
DISCONTINUITIES TO THE STEP
FUNCTION YOU REFERRED TO
THAT SUDDENLY MEANS THAT
HUMANS LEFT BEHIND THEIR
ANIMAL ANCESTORS, IS A REALITY.
IT WAS CREATED BY A SERIES OF
REMARKABLE INNOVATIONS IN THE
HUMAN LINE, PROBABLY IN
TERMS OF COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING,
LANGUAGE WAS THE
MOST IMPORTANT STEP.
LANGUAGE RELEASED NEW FORMS
OF THINKING, NEW FORMS OF, OF
SOCIAL INTERACTION, NEW WAYS OF
INTERACTING WITH THE WORLD IN
HUMANS, WHICH FED ON ITSELF AND
BASICALLY GAVE US A RUNAWAY
NEW FORM OF LIFE.
BUT EQUALLY, I, I THINK THAT
HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS IS IN ITS
OWN LEAGUE AS WELL.
I THINK HUMANS HAVE A MORE
REFINED FORM OF CONSCIOUSNESS,
DEEPER CONSCIOUSNESS, AND
THAT'S BECAUSE IN HUMANS,
CONSCIOUSNESS HAS BECOME
THE BASIS OF OUR SENSE OF
OURSELVES AS SPIRITUAL BEINGS.
AND THAT IS AN OUTCOME OF
NATURAL SELECTION, BUT IT'S ONE
WHICH HAS SUDDENLY MADE US
TAKE OFF IN A NEW DIRECTION.
I ACTUALLY THINK THAT WHAT'S
IT'S LIKE TO BE A HUMAN, IS
SOMETHING COMPLETELY UNIQUE.
I MEAN THAT, EVEN AT
THE SENSORY LEVEL.
I THINK OUR EXPERIENCE OF COLORS
AND SOUNDS AND, AND TASTES AND
SO ON, HAS DIMENSIONS TO IT,
WHICH MAY BE HINTED AT IN THE
CONSCIOUSNESS OF OUR ANIMAL
ANCESTORS, BUT WHICH PROBABLY
DON'T REACH THE
HEIGHTS WHICH WE EXPERIENCE.
THERE'S EVERY REASON TO
BELIEVE THAT ONE OF THE MAJOR
DEVELOPMENTS IN HUMANS BECOMING,
WHAT I'VE CALLED, NATURAL
PSYCHOLOGISTS, HAVING THIS
ASTONISHING CAPACITY TO READ THE
MINDS OF OTHER CREATURES,
THAT THAT INVOLVED A NEW FORM OF
REFLECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS, SO
FAR AS WE CAN TELL, CHIMPANZEES,
APES, IN GENERAL, ARE
REALLY NOT VERY GOOD AT THAT.
THEY DON'T ENGAGE IN WHAT'S
SOMETIMES CALLED BELIEF DESIRE
PSYCHOLOGY, IN WHICH WE
UNDERSTAND HOW HUMANS OPERATE,
BY ATTRIBUTING TO THEM STATES
OF BELIEF, DESIRES, INTENTIONS
AND SO ON.
WE DO THAT BECAUSE WE DISCOVER
IN OUR OWN CASE THAT THAT'S THE
KIND OF CREATURES WE ARE.
WE OBSERVE OUR OWN INNER, THE
INNER WORKINGS OF OUR MIND, AND
CAN THEN PROJECT IT ONTO
OTHER CREATURES, WE CAN
SIMULATE THEIR MINDS.
CONSCIOUSNESS - I CANNOT
ESCAPE ITS HAUNTING PRESENCE.
BUT IT'S THE SPECIAL NATURE OF
HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS THAT SETS US
APART FROM ANIMALS; A
REFLECTIVE, SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS.
A CAPACITY TO READ THE
MINDS OF OTHERS, A SENSE
OF THE SPIRITUAL.
HOW TO PROBE
HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS?
HOW ABOUT COMPARING INTENSE
EXPRESSIONS OF CONSCIOUSNESS IN
HUMANS AND ANIMALS,
AND SEE HOW THEY DIFFER?
GUESS WHAT I HAVE IN MIND?
SEX.
I GO TO LOS ANGELES,
TO UCLA, TO MEET AN
EXTRAORDINARILY DIVERSE
SCIENTIST, PHYSIOLOGIST,
ECOLOGIST, ANTHROPOLOGIST,
EVOLUTIONIST.
AN EXPLORER OF TRADITIONAL HUMAN
SOCIETIES, JARED DIAMOND.
JARED, WHAT ARE SOME OF THE
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HUMAN
SEXUALITY AND THE SEXUALITY
WE SEE IN THE REST OF
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM?
IF YOU ASKED A DOG "WHAT STRIKES
YOU ABOUT HUMAN SEXUALITY?"
THE DOG WILL SAY, "THERE ARE
THREE WEIRD THINGS ABOUT IT.
THERE'S MENOPAUSE, CAN YOU
BELIEVE THEY HAVE SEX WHEN THE
WOMAN IS NO LONGER FERTILE?
THERE'S CONCEALED OVULATION.
I DON'T HAVE ANY IDEA WHETHER
THE WOMAN OF THE HOUSE IS
FERTILE TODAY OR NOT.
AND THE WORST OF ALL,
THEY HAVE SEX IN PRIVATE.
THEY GO TO THE BEDROOM AND CLOSE
THE DOOR INSTEAD OF HAVING SEX
IN PUBLIC LIKE ANY
SELF-RESPECTING DOG."
OK, SO LET'S DETERMINE WHY THOSE
OCCUR AND HOW THEY HAVE EVOLVED
IN AN EVOLUTIONARY
SENSE, OR A CULTURAL SENSE.
MENOPAUSE, FEMALE MENOPAUSE.
THE VAST OF MAJORITY OF
MAMMAL SPECIES REMAIN FERTILE
UNTIL THEY DIE.
FROM AN EVOLUTIONARY POINT
OF VIEW, YOU WOULD THINK A WOMAN
LOSING HER FERTILITY, SHE
CAN'T PASS ON HER GENES.
WELL, PARADOXICALLY IT TURNS OUT
THAT MENOPAUSE IS THE BEST WAY
FOR AN OLDER WOMAN
TO PASS ON HER GENES.
WOMEN DIE IN CHILDBIRTH, THE
OLDER YOU ARE THE MORE LIKELY
YOU ARE TO DIE IN CHILDBIRTH.
SO AS YOU GET OLDER IT DOESN'T
PAY FOR YOU TO TRY TO GRIND OUT
ONE MORE PREGNANCY.
WHAT DOES PAY IS TO PROTECT
YOURSELF AGAINST A PREGNANCY
THAT MAY KILL YOU AND TO
REMAIN ALIVE AND INSTEAD DEVOTE
YOURSELF TO PROVISIONING AND
EDUCATING YOUR GRANDCHILDREN.
BUT MEN DON'T DIE IN
CHILDBIRTH AND THAT'S WHY I
DO NOT HAVE MALE MENOPAUSE.
OK, CONCEALED OVULATION.
HERE I AM ON THE UCLA CAMPUS
WITH THOUSANDS OF GORGEOUS WOMEN
AROUND HERE AND YET WHEN I WALK
ON THE CAMPUS I DON'T HAVE THE
FAINTEST IDEA WHICH OF THESE
GORGEOUS WOMEN ARE OVULATING
TODAY AND WHICH OF THEM
ARE IN THE 28 OTHER DAYS
OF THEIR PERIOD.
SO, FOR THE VAST MAJORITY
OF MAMMAL SPECIES, FEMALES
ADVERTISE OVULATION
AND HUMANS DON'T.
THE RESULT IS THAT WE
HUMANS - MOST OF OUR
SEX IS AT THE TIME WHEN THE
FEMALE CAN'T BE FERTILIZED.
OUR SEX, IN A CERTAIN SENSE, A
WASTE OF BIOLOGICAL EFFORT AND
SPERM PRODUCING EFFORT.
WHAT'S THE POINT OF IT?
THERE ARE ADVANTAGEOUS TO HUMANS
IF YOU'RE GOING TO HAVE A MAN
AND WOMAN STAY TOGETHER, REAR A
CHILD, REMAIN WITH EACH OTHER,
YES, IT TAKES SOME GLUE TO KEEP
THEM TOGETHER AND WASTED SEX IS
ONE OF THOSE IMPORTANT GLUES.
LET'S GO TO WHAT I THINK WOULD
BE OUR GENERAL FAVORITE,
SEX IN PRIVATE.
HOW ON EARTH HAS THAT EVOLVED?
WELL, THE ANSWER IS NOT
WRITTEN IN SOME BOOK THAT IS;
ONE HAS TO SPECULATE.
MY SPECULATION WOULD BE THAT
HUMANS ARE A SOCIAL SPECIES.
WE'RE LIVING IN CONSTANT
PROXIMITY TO ALL OF THESE
SEXUALLY ATTRACTIVE MEN AND
WOMEN WITH WHOM IT'S IMPRUDENT
TO HAVE SEX BECAUSE WE GOT
THE PAIR-BOND AND WE GOT TO
COOPERATE TO
RAISING THE CHILDREN.
IF, AS I WAS WONDERING AROUND
UCLA THROUGH THE DEPARTMENTS,
EVERY TIME I CAME INTO OFFICES
THERE WOULD BE SOME COUPLE ON
THE DESK TOP HAVING SEX; THAT
WOULD DISTRACT ME AND I WOULDN'T
BE CONCENTRATING ON
TEACHING GEOGRAPHY.
SO MY GUESS IS THAT HUMANS
EVOLVED TO HAVE SEX IN PRIVATE
SO THAT WE CAN FUNCTION IN
SOCIETY IN THE PRESENCE OF ALL
THESE SEXUALLY ATTRACTIVE PEOPLE
AND NOT GO OFF JUMPING INTO BED
WITH THEM AND THEREBY PROVOKING
THE BREAKUP OF MARRIAGE.
OK, BUT HOW WOULD THIS BE
GENETICALLY PROGRAMMED AS
OPPOSED TO
CULTURALLY INCULCATED?
IF IT WERE JUST CULTURALLY
INCULCATED, THEN THERE MIGHT BE
53 TRIBES THAT HAVE SEX IN
PUBLIC AND 47 TRIBES THAT HAVE
SEX IN PRIVATE.
BUT ALMOST ALL
HAVE SEX IN PRIVATE.
I TAKE THAT TO MEAN IT'S NOT
THAT THERE'S A SINGLE GENE
TELLING YOU TO HAVE SEX IN
PRIVATE, BUT THAT THERE'S A
STRONG GENETIC PREDISPOSITION
TO HAVE SEX IN PRIVATE, WHICH
OCCASIONALLY GETS OVERRUN IN THE
HIPPY GENERATION, ETC., BUT
IT'S THE EXCEPTION.
WHAT IS IT ABOUT THE HUMAN
PSYCHE THAT WE SEEK
SECLUSION FOR SEX?
ARE WE BACK TO
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS?
TWO KINDS, IN FACT.
THE SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS OF
PERSONAL EMBARRASSMENT -
EXPOSURE, NAKEDNESS, SHAME.
THE SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS
OF PERSONAL AWARENESS.
AWARE OF ONE'S SELF BEING
AWARE OF THE WORLD.
THINKING ABOUT THINKING.
I LIKE CATEGORIZING
HUMAN UNIQUENESS.
WHAT COMES AFTER SEX?
CULTURE, ARTS, RELIGION.
WHAT ENABLES THESE CAPACITIES?
IN LOS ANGELES, I HEAD
ACROSS TOWN TO PASADENA, TO
FULLER THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY TO
MEET AN AUTHORITY ON HUMAN
DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE,
JUSTIN BARRETT.
I DO THINK THAT IN, ON
MANY DIMENSIONS, WE ARE
A CONTINUUM WITH OTHER ANIMALS.
BUT, THERE'S ONE LITTLE PROPERTY
THAT I LIKE TO HANG MY HAT ON,
IT'S META REPRESENTATION.
SO BEING ABLE TO FORM
COGNITIVE REPRESENTATIONS ABOUT
REPRESENTATIONS ABOUT MENTAL
STATES, HAVING THOUGHTS ABOUT
THOUGHTS IF YOU WILL.
I NOT ONLY NEED TO BE AWARE OF
MYSELF, AND WHAT'S GOING ON IN
MY MIND, BUT I NEED TO BE ABLE
TO FORM THOUGHTS ABOUT OTHER
THOUGHTS, INCLUDING
MAYBE YOUR THOUGHTS.
AND THEN WHAT CAN
I DO WITH THAT?
WELL THAT CHANGES THE WAY I
COMMUNICATE WITH YOU BECAUSE
INSTEAD OF ME JUST TRYING TO
GET YOU TO BEHAVE IN A DIFFERENT
WAY, I CAN TRY TO CHANGE YOUR
IDEAS, AND I CAN BE DELIBERATE
ABOUT IT, WHICH
MEANS I CAN TEACH.
MEANS WE CAN COLLABORATE
TOGETHER ON PROJECTS, BECAUSE
YOU AND I CAN BE SURE THAT WE'RE
SHARING THE SAME VISION BECAUSE
WE ARE META REPRESENTING
THAT VISION FOR AN OUTCOME.
IT ALSO ENABLES US TO HAVE
RELIGION BECAUSE YOU AND I CAN
BE SURE THAT WE HAVE THE SAME
BELIEFS ABOUT A THIRD PARTY, IN
THIS CASE A GOD FOR INSTANCE.
SOME WOULD SAY THAT THE META
REPRESENTATIONAL CAPACITY THAT
WE HAVE IS NOT FUNDAMENTAL
BUT LANGUAGE IS FUNDAMENTAL
BECAUSE YOU CAN'T DO THE
META REPRESENTATIONAL
WITHOUT THE LANGUAGE.
I THINK IT ACTUALLY MIGHT
BE THE OTHER WAY AROUND.
SO WHEN WE TALK TO OUR DOGS,
WE SAY, "SIT" AND IT SITS.
IN FACT SOME VERY CLEVER
DOGS CAN BE TRAINED, HUNDREDS,
THOUSANDS OF DIFFERENT
COMPLEX COMMANDS.
BUT NOTICE THEY'RE ALWAYS
MODIFYING THEIR BEHAVIOR
TO OUR COMMANDS.
BUT HUMANS SEEM TO DO SOMETHING
SPECIAL WITH LANGUAGE AND THAT'S
THAT THEY TRY TO CHANGE
EACH OTHER'S MENTAL STATES.
WHEN I TALK TO MY CHILD, I DON'T
SAY, "SIT," OK SOMETIMES I SAY
"SIT", BUT I WILL SHOW
THEM THINGS AND EXPLAIN
THINGS TO THEM.
I TRY TO CHANGE
THEIR MENTAL STATES.
BUT TO DO THAT, AND FOR THEM TO
UNDERSTAND THAT'S WHAT I'M DOING
WITH LANGUAGE, THEY HAVE TO
UNDERSTAND THAT I, AND THEY, ARE
ATTENDING TO THE SAME THING
AND THAT I'M TRYING TO CHANGE
THEIR MENTAL STATES.
SO, THEY HAVE TO HAVE A THEORY
OF MIND ABOUT YOU AND BE ABLE TO
REPRESENT YOUR MENTAL STATE,
KNOWING WHAT YOU'RE DOING TO
THEM, SO IT BECOMES RECURSIVE.
IT SURE LOOKS THAT WAY TO ME.
AND SO, YEAH, I THINK THAT SOME
RUDIMENTARY LANGUAGE PROBABLY
DOESN'T NEED THAT KIND OF
ADVANCED THEORY OF MIND.
BUT THAT ADVANCED THEORY OF MIND
TAKES LANGUAGE TO A NEW PLACE.
IF THE MECHANISM FOR THE
GENERATION OF THIS COGNITIVE
CAPACITY OF META REPRESENTATION
IS NOT ONLY LANGUAGE,
WHAT GENERATES IT?
I THINK THIS IS ONE
WE'RE STILL EXPLORING.
IT SURE DOESN'T SEEM LIKE IT'S
NECESSARY THOUGH, FOR CHILDREN
TO FORM A LINGUISTIC
REPRESENTATION OF OTHER
PEOPLE'S MENTAL STATES.
IT MIGHT BE AN IMAGE, FOR
INSTANCE, FOR ME TO UNDERSTAND
WHAT YOU'RE LOOKING
AT, FOR INSTANCE.
BE ABLE TO SORT OF
INSPECT IT IN MY MIND.
IF THAT'S THE CASE, THEN THIS
META REPRESENTATION HAS
SOME FUNDAMENTAL VALUE OF
IT SELF IF IT BE REDUCED
TO ONLY LANGUAGE.
WELL, THAT WOULD BE THE LINE
THAT I'D PUSH, BUT I KNOW I'M ON
CONTROVERSIAL GROUND HERE.
BUT I DO TAKE HEART FROM
EXAMPLES LIKE HELEN KELLER, AND
SOME OF THE CLEAR HIGH-ORDERED
SORT OF THINKING SHE'S DOING
WITHOUT HAVING THE
BENEFITS OF A FULL-BLOWN
LINGUISTIC
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM.
SO IT'S A FASCINATING
POSSIBILITY, AT LEAST I THINK.
NOW, CERTAINLY ONE THAT
NEEDS A LOT MORE RESEARCH TO
BACK IT UP, BUT THIS IS THE
MILLION DOLLAR QUESTION, 
HOW ARE WE DIFFERENT
FROM OTHER SPECIES?
WELL IT'S BOUND TO BE A
HANDFUL OF THINGS BUT META
REPRESENTATIONAL ABILITY
SURE LOOKS LIKE A PROMISING
PLACE TO LOOK.
SO, WHY DO I WORRY
ABOUT HUMAN UNIQUENESS?
BECAUSE SIMILARITIES AND
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HUMANS AND
ANIMALS - THE CONTINUITIES AND
THE DISCONTINUITIES PROBE THE
ESSENCE OF HUMAN EXISTENCE.
THE SIMILARITIES AND
CONTINUITIES ARE APPARENT.
BIOLOGICAL PARTS, THEIR
STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS.
IT'S THE DIFFERENCES AND
DISCONTINUITIES THAT OFFER
INSIGHT - THE HIGHER ORDER
FEATURES OF MENTALITY.
SO, WHAT DO HUMANS
HAVE THAT ANIMALS DO NOT?
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS,
SELF-REFLECTION, THEORY OF OTHER
MINDS, META-REPRESENTATIONS,
METAPHOR, LANGUAGE IS KEY.
BUT WHAT FOLLOWS
FROM HUMAN UNIQUENESS?
DO MEANING OR PURPOSE EMERGE?
THE APPRECIATION OF
THE POSSIBILITY OF
MEANING AND PURPOSE?
YES, SURE.
BUT AN INDEPENDENT
REALITY OF MEANING AND PURPOSE?
NO, NOT REALLY.
BUT WHY THE APPRECIATION
IF THERE IS NO REALITY?
ANOTHER "WHY" QUESTION
STRUGGLING TO GET
CLOSER TO TRUTH.
