

© 2011 by Abhi Jain. All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of Abhi Jain.

### The Shaping of North America

225 million years ago-Pangaea "supercontinent"

10 million years ago-Rocky Mountains exist

Appalachians exist

Continents are separated

2 million years ago- an Ice Age envelopes the planet and the water level lowers

35 000 years ago-the Bering Land Bridge appears

animals cross, followed by nomadic Asian hunters

10 000 years ago-the Ice Age ends

nomadic people create civilization

10 000 years ago-1492 AD, the population grows to 72 million

*only 7-10 million live in North America (South America has better conditions for farming)

Powerful Civilizations

  * Aztecs

  * Incas

  * Mayans

  * Iroquois

  * Over 2000 languages created

  * Religion

  * Culture

  * Farming techniques

People who came to America before 1492:

-Scandinavians

led by Leif Erickson (Newfoundland)

-Nomadic Asian hunters

-Irish

-Africans

-Chinese

[1492] Columbus "discovered" the New World (arrived at Hispañola/ Haiti)

brought 20 people back-only two survive the ship ride

was sent to get more for slavery in mines (creates slavery)

Europeans bring smallpox into the Americas

[1492] Haiti's population totals 3 million

[1512] Haiti's population totals 12 000

Columbus's "discovery" affects the futures of three groups:

Europeans – migrate to the Americas

Native Americans – dealt with harshly

Africans – source of labor leads to mass enslaving

### Explorers

**Amerigo Vespucci** [sails for Spain in 1499] [sails for Portugal in 1501]

Writes vivid accounts of the East coast of North and South America

Mapmakers base their maps on his accounts – hence "America"

**Vasco Nunez de Balboa** [sails for Spain in 1513]

First European to set eyes on the Pacific Ocean

Says "All land that touches the Pacific is Spain's"

Basis for Spanish claims in America

**Ferdinand Magellan** [sails for Spain from 1519-1522]

First to circumnavigate the globe

**Hernando Cortez** [sails for Spain in 1519]

Crushes the Aztecs (attack and smallpox)

Claims Mexico for Spain

**Ponce de Léon** [sails for Spain in 1513]

Explores Florida – lays claim of Florida for Spain

Looking for gold

**Francisco Coronado** [sails for Spain in 1540]

Searches for the fabled "cities of gold"

First European to see the Grand Canyon

First European to see herds of buffalo

**John Cabot** [sails for England in 1497]

Italian – explores the East coast of New England

Basis for English claims in the Americas

**Giovanni de Verrazano** [sails for France in 1524]

Hudson River and areas of NYC

**Henry Hudson** [sails for the Dutch in 1608?]

Hudson Bay and Hudson River

Claims Manhattan for the Dutch

**Jacques Cartier** [sails for France in 1534]

Explores parts of Canada and claims area for France

**Hernando de Soto** [sails for Spain from 1539-1542]

First European to see the Mississippi River

### Settling the New World

Spain

Reasons for exploration:

Gold

Glory

God

Goods

Lay claim to:

New Mexico

West coast of South America

Florida

All of Central America

Texas

Arizona

California

[1565] settled the first permanently occupied settlement in the Americas

-St. Augustine, FL

[1588] Spanish Armada is defeated – marks the decline of the Spanish Empire

encomienda system and hacienda system – places Native Americans in state of slavery

France

Lay claim to:

Canada

Areas around the Mississippi

[1608] First French settlement – Quebec "New France"

[1750] <60 000 people live in New France

Why won't people live in New France?

  1. Poor farmland

  2. Isolated

  3. Subject to Native American attacks

  4. only French Catholics allowed

  5. keep the discontented in France

England

[1558] Elizabeth I comes to the throne of England

wants to expand the navy

  1. Spread Protestant

  2. Plunder and attack Spanish ships

Gets "seadogs" to do the work (pirates)

Sir Francis Drake is knighted for his success

Settling

Sir Walter Raleigh

[1585] attempts to settle at Roanoke – people didn't like it and came back

[1587] tries again – Virginia Dare is the first child from Britain born

[1590] supply ship is sent to Roanoke Island – no one is found

"the Lost Colony of Roanoke"

one word found – "Croatoan"

Joint stock company

Group of people invest money together

[1606] Virginia Company of London receives charter for a colony

[1607] Jamestown, VA is settled – 104 males looking for gold

[1608] 40 are left – John Smith takes control of Jamestown

"if you don't work, you don't eat"

[1609] a terrible winter hits – resorts to cannibalism

[1610] out of 400 settlers, 60 are left

[1612] John Rolfe perfects the growing of tobacco and begins the tobacco craze

one of the first cash crops grown

[1619] House of Burgesses created

-first legislative assembly in America

First slave ship shows up in America with 19 African slaves

### Types of Colonies

  1. Royal Colony

-king/queen has total control over the colony

  2. Proprietary Colony (most popular form)

-king/queen picks a representative (friend/trusted) to run the colony

-that representative picks a governor and sets up laws

  3. Self-governing Colony

-the colonists control the colony

-least popular form

### Southern Colonies

1. **Virginia** [1607] Jamestown – began as proprietary

[1624] (King James disgusted by tobacco) becomes a royal colony

tobacco-based economy

plantation system develops

-indentured servants

pay back debts

after 7-10 years of service, given own land

-African slaves

demand for land

-push westward

-angers the Native Americans

this all creates an aristocratic society (wealthy)

lack of cities in the South

2. **Maryland** [1634] founded by Lord Baltimore

tobacco-based economy

plantation system

aristocratic society

created because:

-make profit

-safe haven for Catholics

as times goes on – Protestants outnumber the Catholics

Act of Toleration [guarantees rights to all Christians]

But Death Penalty if Jewish/atheist do not recognize Jesus as the Lord

3. **South Carolina** [1670] proprietary

supposed to work in connection with the West Indies (sugar cane)

'supply station' for the West Indies

principal crop is rice

plantation system

4. **North Carolina** [1691, formally 1712]

population – outcasts from South Carolina and Virginia

pride themselves on being outlaws and outcasts (rich plantations owners pushing them off)

hospitable to pirates

resistant to authority

[1691] break away informally

[1712] officially becomes a colony

5. **Georgia** "the Buffer Colony" [1733] by James Olgethorpe (last colony founded)

protects South Carolina against Spanish Florida

population "the Charity Colony"

-drunks

-criminals

-outlaws

-very poor

produce silk and wine

prohibits alcohol

granted some religious toleration

try to get slavery outlawed – failed in 1750 – it was made legal

### New England Colonies

1. **Massachusetts** [1620] Plymouth

Separatist – Puritans

[1609] move to Holland-don't want children to be Dutchified

102 settlers on the Mayflower

supposed to land in Virginia

instead, land in Massachusetts

Miles Standish and William Bradford

Make the Mayflower Compact

  * Pledge allegiance to the king

  * Combine themselves into a "civil body politic"

  * Obey laws of the new government

44 survive the first winter

William Bradford becomes governor 30 times

**Massachusetts Bay Colony** [1629]

One of the most successful settlements in America

Founded by non-Separatist Puritans

John Winthrop is the governor

Industries:

  * Fishing

  * Ship-building

  * Fur-trading

Jon Winthrop

Wants the Massachusetts Bay Colony to be an example

"a city upon a hill"

MBC- "The Bible Commonwealth" is extremely religious

Dissenters in Massachusetts

Anne Hutchinson

Challenges the Puritan way

Put on trial – claims to have spoken with God

Kicked out of the Massachusetts Bay Colony

Goes to Rhode Island, then New York – killed by Natives

Roger Williams

Challenges to break away from the Church of England

Escapes to Rhode Island – founds his own colony

2. **Rhode Island** [1636] by Roger Williams

colony known for religious toleration

strongly independent

not well-liked by the other colonies

other colonies call Rhode Island "the Lord's Debris"

made up of people that no one wants

self-governing colony

3. **Connecticut** [1635] by Reverend Thomas Hooker

self-governing

created the Fundamental Orders

a document that creates a democratically controlled government

4. **New Hampshire** [1623]

good for fishing and trading

the overgrowth of the Massachusetts Bay Colony

becomes an official colony in 1679

### The Middle Colonies

1. **New York**

After Hudson's explorations in 1608 – Dutch start settlement along the Hudson

Called New Netherlands

Manhattan was called New Amsterdam

Problems for the Dutch

  * Poor leaders – only decent one was Peter Stuyvesant

  * More concerned with profit

  * No democracy

  * No freedom of religion

  * Poorly run

  * Constantly attacked by Native Americans

  * Surrounded by the English

[1664] Charles II gives the land of NY to the Duke of York (James)

after threatening the Dutch with an invasion, Dutch give up the land

Dutch legacy

  * Sleighing

  * Golf

  * Waffles

  * Easter eggs

  * Santa Claus

  * Skating

  * Bowling

  * Harlem

  * Brooklyn

Chief crop is wheat

2. **Pennsylvania** [1681]

The Religious Society of Friends (Quakers)

Persecuted by England

William Penn emerges as a leader

William Penn

Idea to create land for Quakers

[1681] founds Pennsylvania – one of the best-advertised colonies

Characteristics of Pennsylvania

  * Peaceful [Native Americans move in]

  * Liberal

  * Freedom of worship

  * Disliked slavery

  * Against military service

  * Chief crop is wheat

  * Well-planned cities

  * Very successful colony

3. **New Jersey** [1702]

[1664] Duke of York gives parts of NJ to Berkeley and Carteret (proprietors)

sold land to the Quakers

split land into East and West Jersey

gave land back to crown

becomes royal colony [1702]

4. **Delaware** [1638] by the Swedes

taken over by the Dutch

after the Dutch leave in 1664 – Delaware controlled by Pennsylvania

### Early Native American and Colonial Wars

colonial militia – a practice learned from Europe

each colony creates their own unit

able-bodied men ages 16-60

why?

English provide no money for colonial defense (exception of Georgia)

Militia meet every few weeks for training

"Militia Day" turns into a party and meets annually

  1. **Anglo-Powhattan War** [1610-1614]

Jamestown

New governor – Lord de la Warr

Declares war against the Native Americans

[1614] Pocahontas marries John Rolfe – better relations

  2. **The First Tidewater War** [1622]

Native Americans attack white settlers – kill ¼ of Jamestown's population

John Rolfe is also killed

  3. **The Second Tidewater War** [1644]

Opechanough takes over Powhattans – renews attack against white settlements

Opechanough is killed and Native American Confederacy dissolves

Native Americans are pushed further west

  4. **Pequot War** [1636-1637]

New England Colonies

Results in the killing of 500 Pequot Indians in Connecticut – end of the Pequots

  5. **King Philip's War** [1675]

New England Colonies

Metacom (King Philip)

After being forced to pledge allegiance to the English crown

Vows revenge – starts the Native American Confederacy

After killing many settlers – captured, quartered, and killed

Halts the western boundary at New England Colonies for 40 years

First large-scale military action by the colonial militia

  6. Bacon's Rebellion

Displays colonial anger and hatred to Native Americans

Displays colonial hatred toward the Southern Aristocracy

Nathaniel Bacon

Gathered 1 000 men

Vows to kill all Native Americans

Gets called an outlaw

Gets so angry

Burns down the settlement of Jamestown

Dies as Jamestown burns

Reveals the growing social gap between small farmers and plantation owners

Colonial unity

[1643] New England Colonies – the New England Confederation

first time to have colonies working together for a better cause

created by the Massachusetts Bay Colony

Rhode Island is not included

### The Southern Plantation Economy

Plantation owners constantly want land

Near the end of the 1600s, price of tobacco falls dramatically

So the plantation owners continue to grow more tobacco/cash crops

*more land needs more labor

Indentured servants

Contract usually ran for seven years

Voyage would be paid for

At the end of the contract, receive "freedom dues"

Small piece of land

Tools

Animals

Clothes

Eventually the plantation owners stopped giving freedom dues

Headright System [Virginia and Maryland]

Gives to each plantation owner 50 acres of land for every indentured servant brought into the colony

Hit the Appalachian Mountains – pause and indentured servitude dies

Need another source of labor – end of the 1600s, indentured servitude dies out

  * Market for jobs gets better in England

  * Royal African Company [1698] loses its monopoly on the sale of slaves

  * Bacon's Rebellion leads plantation owners to fear the small farmer

Slavery

[1670] 2 000 slaves in Virginia

[1750] slaves represent 50% of the population in Virginia

The Middle Passage

-the forced voyage of slaves from Africa to the Americas

-7.5 million from Africa to Americas, 400 000 to the 13 colonies

-slaves were sold into slavery by the kings and princes of tribes

Conditions

  * Dark

  * Dirty

  * Overcrowded – put 600 in a ship built for 300

  * Disease

  * Smelly

  * Death

  * Suicide

  * Humiliated – not seen as people but as property

  * 20%-50% would die during the voyage

upon arrival, slaves were unloaded and sold at slave auctions

-Charleston, SC

-Newport, RI

-New York City, NY

-Philadelphia, PA

Once sold, slaves were subject to slave codes

-slaves were not allowed to marry

-illegal to teach a slave to read or write

-slaves had no legal rights

-punished severely for any wrongdoing

-slave owners took ownership of the children

Worst place to be sold into slavery was SC-life expectancy the lowest

Lonely

Rice fields brought diseases

Virginia and Maryland

-expect a longer life span

-slave population grows much

"best" place to be sold as a slave were the Northern Colonies

-work in the cities

-learn a skill

-earn money

-possible to be able to buy their freedom

### Slavery in the Colonies

Resistance

Everyday resistance

Worked slowly

Break tools

Leave gates open

Try to run away (not easy)

Occasional revolts

[1712] NYC – Nine white deaths, 21 executed

[1739] the Stono Rebellion – 20 slaves uprising

deaths of 80 whites

GA militia captures the 20 slaves

Sets the heads of the executed on mileposts for warning

### Colonial Social Structure

  1. Aristocrats, Merchants, Planters, Lawyers, Officials, Clergymen, Professional men

  2. Small farmers (largest group)

  3. Manual workers – hired hands, lesser tradesmen

  4. Indentured servants, jailbirds

  5. Slaves

### Life in the Colonies

Family Life

Mother (Woman)

Most important person in the family

Has children - average of 10-11 children (about 3-4 die before adulthood)

Raises children

Cook

Clean

Sew, make clothes

Help on the farm

Father

Work on the farm

Work in shop

Children

Help out on the farm

Male

Learning trade from the father

Help on the farm

Female

Help around the house

Learn how to be a mother

[1700] population 250 000

[1775] population 2.5 million – average age of a colonist is 16

*if live in the North, live about 10 years longer than South (average lifespan is 70)

Education

Only males were given formal education

New England has a well set-up of formal education

For every town with 50+ families, a school is required

Southern Colonies – taught at home by a tutor

Education in the colonies was not reserved for only the elite

Goal of School

Learn to read (especially the Bible, be a better Christian)

Learn to write

Colonial Colleges (only taught religion and languages – eventually replaced with more modern classes)

  1. Harvard [1636]

  2. William and Mary [1693]

  3. Yale

  4. Princeton

  5. University of Pennsylvania

  6. Brown

  7. Columbia

  8. Rutgers [1766]

  9. Dartmouth

Journalism

[1704] first successful colonial newspaper

[1733] John Peter Zenger Case

-writes criticisms of governor of NY

-Governor of NY sues him for libel for writing about him in the news

-court agrees to have Zengor not guilty for writing the truth

-becomes the basis for freedom of press

Art

Colonies are very behind the rest of the world

John Goddard – designs desks

John Smibert – paints family portraits

Science

Benjamin Franklin

The colonies' greatest inventor, scientist, thinker, writer and 'good guy'

Some inventions

  * Lightning rod

  * Electrical battery

  * Bifocals

  * Odometer

  * Stove

  * Library

  * Volunteer fire department

Wrote Poor Richard's Almanac (second most popular in colonies, behind the Bible)

Comes up with arithmetic puzzles (ex. Magic Square)

### Immigration in the Colonies

Scots-Irish

From Scotland

Make up 7% of the colonies' population by 1775

Spoke English

Known as "frontier people"

Settle from Pennsylvania to the Carolinas

Germans

Make up 6% of the colonies' population by 1775

Tended to settle in Pennsylvania

Kept to themselves and kept their own culture and language

Inventions

Conestoga Wagon

-cloth tops

-big wheels

Replace the musket with the more accurate rifle

Improved the iron stove

French Huguenots

[1685] Edict of Nantes is repealed – persecution of the Huguenots

famous descendant is Paul Revere, the silversmith

Africans

Forced to immigrate to the colonies

400 000 by 1775 – 90% of 400 000 in the Southern Colonies

### Religion

As population rises, importance of religion goes down

Late 1600s, people begin to question accepted Christian ideas (ex. Calvinism)

Result:

Church creates the Half-Way Covenant

Allows people to join church even if they have not officially converted

Results in increased church membership

...but taints the purity of the church

  1. Salem Witch Trials – Salem, MA [1692]

  * A group of girls begin to experience fits of rages

  * The girls blame the rages on women who "bewitched" them

  * Start a massive witch hunt

  * 174 people are put on trial

  * 19 women are executed (hung)

  * 1 man is executed (pressed to death)

  * 2 dogs are executed

  * Governor Phips puts an end to the witch hunt after his wife is accused

  2. The Great Awakening – [1730s to the 1740s]

A religious revival that sweeps across the nation

Preach about:

The emptiness of material goods

Fury of divine wrath

The need for repentance

Preachers give very dramatic performances

George Whitefield "The Great Awakener"

Jonathan Edwards – writes Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God

Gatherings of 20 000+ people

By the mid-1740s the Great Awakening dies out

Effects:

-Stimulated the founding of more colonial colleges (Brown, Rutgers, Dartmouth)

-Revival that encompasses all of colonial society – becomes the first shared colonial experience

-Undermines the power of the older clergy

-Makes religion more accessible to people

Church Membership of the colonial period [by 1775]

  1. Congregationalists

575 000 people

out of Puritanism

  2. Anglicans

500 000 people

Church of England

  3. Presbyterians

410 000 people

similar to the Congregationalists

  4. German churches

200 000 people

Found in Pennsylvania

  5. Dutch-reformed

75 000 people

  6. Quakers

40 000 people

  7. Baptists

  8. Roman Catholics

25 000 people

Maryland

  9. Methodists

  10. Jewish

2 000 people

### Ruling over the Colonies

Indifferent to the colonies, allowing the colonies to grow independent from English rule

James I [1603-1625]

Does not like the colonies

Hates tobacco

C  harles I [1625-1649]

Beheaded in 1649

O liver Cromwell and the Protectorate [1649-1660]

Very strict

C harles II is restored [1660-1685]

Decides to take a more hands-on approach to the colonies

Tries to harness colonial trade

[1675] Lords of Trade

supposed to control colonial trade

[1685] Charles II dies

James II [1685-1688] (Charles II's brother and also the Duke of York)

Continues to place restrictions on colonial trade

-especially the North, who are growing very independent

creates the Dominion of New England

to combat the New England Confederation

to enforce the Navigation Acts

Navigation Acts [1650-1733]

Rooted in mercantilism – a nation's power depends on its wealth

  * Acquire gold and silver

  * Favorable balance of trade (exports up, imports low)

  * Acquire colonies

  * All ships trading in Europe must be built in England or the colonies

  * 75% of crew had to be English or colonial

  * All European nations wishing to trade with the colonies must first stop at England (taxed twice)

  * England creates a list of enumerated articles (what colonies supposed to trade with England)

Colonists, instead of heeding these laws – smuggling (esp. NYC), bribes

Dominion of England

Led by Sir Edmund Andros

Ends town meetings in MA, NJ, NY, RI, and CT

Restrictions on schools, newspapers, courts

Taxes without authority of colonial representative

William and Mary/Glorious Revolution [1688-1707]

Relaxes the rules of the colonies

Known as the period of "salutary neglect"

Results:

Control over the colonies is relaxed, but the English officials stay

Colonists begin to resent the English officials

### Wars of North America

England – east coast, parts of Canada

Spain – Florida, Central America, Southwest North America

France – Canada, along the Mississippi River (pop. 60 000 only)

(Russia)

Native Americans are everywhere

Thirteen Colonies – east coast

  1. **King William's War** [1689-1697]

French soldiers and Native American Allies attack frontier settlements in NY

Colonial militia invades Canada and fails

  2. **Queen Anne's War** [1702-1713]

Deerfield Massacre

French and Native American allies attack Deerfield, MA

Killed 50, captured 111 colonists

  3. **War of Jenkin's Ear/King George's** **War** [1744-1748]

Caribbean – French and Native Americans attack frontier settlements

Colonial militia captures a French fort at Louisbourg

At the mouth of St. Lawrence Bay

At the end of the war, England gives Louisbourg back to the French

Angers the colonies

  4. The French and Indian War

### The French and Indian War

Dispute between France, Virginians, Pennsylvania over the Ohio River Valley

France begins building a line of forts throughout Ohio Valley

[1752] VA sends 21-year-old surveyor, George Washington, to tell the French to leave

French refuses

[1754] 150 VA militiamen head to Fort Duquesne, led by George Washington

-marching to the fort, Washington encounters a small French fort and attacks it

-Washington and the militia build Fort Necessity

-French surround them – after ten hours, Washington surrender [July 4, 1754]

-returns to VA

The French and Indian War soon merges into the Seven Years' War

-Great Britain

-Colonies

-Iroquois

-some other Native American allies

[1755] 1 400 British soldiers, led by General Edward Braddock and 950 VA militiamen led by George Washington, march to Fort Duquesne

-Braddock plans on fighting European-style

-On the way to the fort, French powers attack the troops – taken by surprise

-23 French deaths, 900 English deaths (including Braddock)

-Washington rallies the British soldiers and the colonial militia and leads them to retreat – emerges as a hero – six times Washington was almost killed – two horses shot from under him four bullets through his jacket

"A Torch lighted in the forests of America set all of Europe in conflagration." –Voltaire

[1754] The British called together a meeting of all colonies in Albany, NY

Purpose: the renewed alliance with the Iroquois

Benjamin Franklin draws political cartoon in the PA Gazette "Join or Die" snake

Not advocating a revolution

Need to join the colonies to survive

The Albany Plan of Union

Each colonial leader refused to sign the agreement – failed

But an important first step towards colonial unity

[1755-1757] British are badly beaten by the French despite the fact that the British outnumber the French 20:1

[1758] William Pitt becomes prime minister of Great Britain and takes over the war effort

1. Replaces the older generals

2. Gives the colonies money for raising troops

3. Turns the fighting over to the colonial militia

Tide of the war changes to Britain

-capture Fort Louisbourg (control over St. Lawrence River)

-capture Fort Duquesne (renamed Fort Pitt)

\- [1759] General Wolfe and the British defeat General Montcolm and the French at the Battle of Quebec

on the plains of Abraham just outside of Quebec – Britain wins

\- [1760] Britain takes Montreal

\- [1761-1763] Limited fighting between British and Spain

-Spain loses Cuba and Florida

Peace of Paris [1763]

  1. France cedes all of Canada and land between the Mississippi and the Appalachians to Britain

  2. France cedes land west of Mississippi to Spain

  3. Britain keeps Florida

  4. France keeps two islands off Newfoundland exclusively for fishing

  5. Britain gives the sugar islands (West Indies) back to France

  6. Cuba is given back to Spain

Significance of the French and Indian War

  1. France is out of North America

  2. Colonies no longer view the British as invincible

  3. Colonial militia gains experience

  4. George Washington emerges as a leader for all colonies

  5. Colonies gain familiarity with each other

Problem in the colonies: Travel

Many places, roads are not existent or are not passable

Roads were so bad that people would write out wills before going on long trips (ex. PA to NY)

Stopped by taverns at night

Become the center of political discussion

### Road to the Revolution

Colonial Situation [1763]

Spanish and French menace is gone

Colonies can move west

More American than British subjects

British Situation [1763]

Have control over the largest empire of the world

Largest debt in the world (140 million pounds' worth)

Believed in mercantilism

George III [1760-1820] comes to power

As the French leave [1763]

Tell Native Americans – British are going to take over land and kill them

Native Americans decide to do something about this – led by Chief Pontiac

Pontiac's Rebellion

Native American Confederacy attacks, defeats 8 of 11 British forts in Ohio Valley

Kill over 2 000 colonists

British are eventually able to put down this rebellion

But this changes the development of the Ohio River Valley

  1. Proclamation Line of 1763

Restrict colonial settling to east of the Appalachian Mountains

Convinced the Ohio River Valley is not safe for settling

Colonists are outraged

They just fought the French and Indian War

Settle the area anyway

  2. Britain places 10 000 British soldiers inside the colonies for protection of the settlers

Sugar Act [1764] passed by George Grenville

-replaces the Molasses Act – 6 pence tax on sugar

-now places a 3 pence tax on sugar

-the colonists would bribe officials for one pence to smuggle the sugar into the colonies

-colonists get outraged – claim, "no taxation without representation"

Stamp Act [1765] passed by George Grenville

-tax on all paper products

-colonists outraged

boycott British products – so successful that trade drops 13% in Britain

Sons of Liberty are formed – led by Samuel Adams

Terrorize stamp tax agents

Call a Stamp Act Congress

9 of 13 colonies meet in NY to discuss the Stamp Act

[1766] Britain repeals the Stamp Act

passes the Declaratory Act

Britain can impose any taxes and laws that they desire

Quartering Act [1765]

Requires colonies to pay for provisions and build housing for British soldiers

Townshend Acts [1767]

Passed by Charles Townshend–head of the British treasury "Champagne Charlie"

  1. Taxes tea, lead, paint, glass

  2. Enforces Navigation Acts

Result:

John Dickinson writes Letters of a Farmer in Pennsylvania

Boycott British goods

Riot against customs officials (esp. Boston, MA)

MA sends a circular letter that urged colonies to stick together

[1768] British imports to America drop 40%

[1768] British soldiers are moved from the frontier to Boston 1 700 strong

guard customs officials' property and custom officials

-became a colonial pastime to taunt them

-British soldiers are often profane and drunk

-high unemployment

British took jobs on the waterfront

Work for less money than the colonists

British are taking away jobs from the colonists

The Boston Massacre [March 5, 1770]

5 colonists die – including Crispus Attucks, a runaway, one of the first to die

10 British soldiers arrested and put on trial, including Captain Preston

John Adams defends the soldiers

Say they are acting in self defense

Only two are accused guilty of manslaughter – branded on hand

Samuel Adams

Comes up with the term "Boston Massacre"

Revolutionary – stirs up the crowd by propaganda

Paul Revere

Creates an engraving on the Boston Massacre – eventually reproduced – picture

Uses propaganda that effectively arouses the colonists – leads to outrage

The image is reprinted throughout the colonies

### Road to the Revolution [1770-1775]

After the Boston Massacre

Tensions between the two sides die down

Townshend Act is repealed

[1772] Samuel Adams

forms the Committee of Correspondence – spreads propaganda – very successful

Tea Act [1773]

  * The British East India company is bankrupt

  * Parliament gives the company exclusive trading rights to tea in the colonies

  * Colonists pay less for tea

  * The company stays in business

  * Britain collects the taxes

  * Smugglers lose out on financial gains – calls this an outrage

Claim the East India company has a monopoly on tea

Colonies agree and refuse to accept any tea from the company

The tea sits in colonial harbors for days

Boston Tea Party [December 16, 1773]

Colonists of Boston dress up as Mohawk Indians and board the ships

Dumped 342 chests of tea in Boston Harbor – worth $90 000

Organized by the Sons of Liberty and Samuel Adams

Very orderly, very quiet

Tea party in Princeton – burn chests of tea and an effigy of the MA governor

Tea party in Annapolis, MD – ship is also destroyed

  * Britain is not pleased

Britain's Response

Coercive Acts/Intolerable Acts (by the colonists)

  1. Boston Port Act – closes the Boston port

  2. Administration of Justice Act – send British officials who have committed a crime are sent to Britain for the trial

  3. Massachusetts Governor act – ends the MA legislative

  4. Quartering Act – if do not provide shelter, British soldiers will reside in colonial homes

  5. Quebec Act – extends the Canadian border to the Ohio River – gives protection to Catholics

Outrage VA, NY, MA, and PA – wanted it for farmland

[September 5, 1774]

first meeting of the Continental Congress

meet at Philadelphia at Carpenter's Hall

12 of the 13 colonies send delegates (except GA)

56 delegates

Radicals

  * Samuel Adams

  * John Adams

  * Patrick Henry

Conservative

  * John Jay (NY)

  * John Dickinson

  * George Washington ( _very_ conservative)

Actions:

Create the Declaration of Rights and Grievances by John Adams

Outlines the colonies' problem with British rule

Create a Non-Importation Association

Calls for a boycott of British goods – more enforced

[October 6, 1774] if things do not work out – meet again May 1775

Lexington and Concord

Concord, MA (minutemen) MA militia begun preparing for war – store weapons

British decide to destroy the weapons – arrest Samuel Adams and John Hancock

[April 1775] British decide to march to Concord

Paul Revere's Ride

With William Dowes and Samuel Prescott

Went to warn Samuel Adams and John Hancock that the British are coming to arrest them

Paul Revere is arrested during the ride

The ride is silent – stop by while telling colonists about the British

[April 1775]

When the British get from Boston to Lexington

70 minutemen standing in the field at Lexington

When told to move by the 700 British soldiers, a shot was heard

"The Shot heard 'Round the World"

7 minutemen killed, 8 injured

When British get from Lexington to Concord

The larger force of minutemen push the British back at the North Bridge

British begin to march back to Boston

On their retreat – colonists hear of the Lexington skirmish

  * swarm the retreating British – guerilla warfare

  * 273 British soldiers are killed, wounded, or missing

[May 10, 1775]

meeting of the Second Continental Congress – in Philadelphia

all 13 colonies show up

Accomplishments

  1. name George Washington as head of the Continental Army

  2. Create "privateers" – American pirates

Fort Ticonderoga

Benedict Arnold and Ethan Allen capture the British fort of Ticonderoga

Acquire more weapons

Battle of Bunker Hill [June 1775]

British controls Boston

MA militia 1 500+ capture and fortify Breed's Hill

3 000 British soldiers led by General Howe

decide to attack the hill

on the 3rd try, capture the hill – Americans had too little ammunition

Significance – 1000 British soldiers killed

1/8 of all British soldiers who die in the war die in Bunker Hill

[June 1775]

Continental Congress sends King George III the Olive Branch Petition

-asks king to stop fighting

-asks king to work out differences

King doesn't even read it

-goes to Prussia and hires 30 000 Prussian soldiers "Hessians"

-Britain needs soldiers, Prussia needs money

Colonies decide to invade Canada – want to make it the 14th colony

Richard Montgomery and Benedict Arnold are sent to attack Quebec

By the time Arnold gets there, he is tired and weakened

The attack fails miserably

[October 17, 1775] the British burn the town of Falmouth in Maine

[January 1776] British burn Norfolk, VA

Thomas Paine writes a pamphlet "Common Sense"

-outlines why the colonies should break away from Britain

-uses simple, easy-to-understand arguments

-one out of every five colonists reads or has read to them

-"Common Sense" becomes the Declaration of Independence for the Common Man

-leads to discussion throughout the colonies

[March 1776] George Washington and MA troops defeat the British at Dorchester Heights and force the British to flee

[June 1776] Richard Henry Lee of VA

  * Proposes the 13 colonies break away from Britain and declare independence

  * Committed treason

  * The debate over independence will continue for about a month

  * The document Declaration of Independence is formally accepted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776

  * Written by Thomas Jefferson at 33 years of age

  * Declaration was written to rally support at home from the top social classes, to gain support from Europe and to appeal to other British colonies in the Americas

  * Borrows many ideas from John Locke

[early 1776]

Americans send a diplomat (Silas Drone) to France

Secretly arranges for France to send gunpowder to the colonies

King Louis XVI

Also sends Marquis de Lafayette – comes to the colonies and joins the Continental Army

### The American Revolution [1775-early 1777]

+? | Great Britain | Vs. | American Colonies | +?

---|---|---|---|---

+ | 7.5 million (11.5 million in all British Isles) | Population | 2.5 million (400 000 are slaves) |

+ | 50 000 British regulars

30 000 Hessians

50 000 Loyalists

Thousands of Indians

Professional Army | Army | Colonial militia (not well-trained or disciplined)

Continental army (7000-8000 at its largest, not well-trained at first) |

+ | Has an established system

Has money, has resources | Monetary Funds | No established system

Continental Congress prints money

Each colony prints own $

No gold to back up money – inflation & hyperinflation |

 | King George III

Lord North | Leadership | George Washington

John Adams

Thomas Jefferson

Benjamin Franklin (good at obtaining allies) | +

 | Some knowledge from French and Indian War

Native Americans

3 000 miles away from home | Knowledge of Land | Their homeland

Extremely knowledgeable about the land – militia and guerrilla warfare | +

+ | Well-supplied army (at times, difficult for British army to get provisions, unless Loyalists help out)

Colonial merchants get more money from the British | Supplies | Extremely ill-supplied

Not enough uniforms, shoes, guns

First 2 ½ years of war, colonies receive 90% of ammunition from France |

+ | Strongest Navy in the world | Navy | No Navy – privateers |

 | Fighting far from home

Not fighting for themselves – fighting is their job | Intangibles | Fighting on their home turf

Fighting for a cause-freedom

No one major city

Can fight a defensive war

1/3 Patriots (MA, CT, VA)

1/3 Loyalists/Tories (80 000 flee to Britain, property seized –NY, NJ, PA, SC,GA)

1/3 Neutral | +

[early July 1776]

35 000 British soldiers land on Staten Island without a shot being fired

Loyalist city is taken without a fight – led by General William Howe

Move on to Long Island – Battle of Long Island

The Continental Army fares terribly – forced to flee to Manhattan

The British chase the Continental Army out of Manhattan

[September 1776] retreat to NJ – Continental Army constantly being attacked

General Howe stops and passes up the chance to end the war

-leaves 3 000 Hessians at Trenton and goes up to NYC

Alexander Hamilton (19 years old)

Leads cannon fire against the British from across the Raritan River

With the British on their heels – Americans barely manage to escape to Pennsylvania in December 1776

Situation for the Continental Army [December 1776]

Nothing but defeat

Enlistments of Army almost up

Militia beginning to melt away

Continental Army has not been paid, low in supplies

Morale is at its lowest

Thomas Paine

"The Crisis"

all colonists can understand it

helps to inspire the continental soldiers

Washington has "The Crisis" read to them

He then takes a loan and pays his soldiers

Devises a plan to attack the British on December 26, 1776

*famous Washington Crossing Delaware painting by Emmanuel Levtze [1851]

[December 26, 1776] Battle of Trenton

Washington surprises 1 500 Hessian soldiers and easily defeats them in the middle of the night

[January 3, 1777] Battle of Princeton

Leave the campfires burning – trick the British into thinking he was still at camp

-silenced the cannons, silent orders

Washington surprises the British Army and scores another major victory

Boosts morale of the country

More people join the Continental Army – Re-enlisting

Both sides go into winter quarters

Americans go into Morristown

British go to NYC, NY

### The American Revolution [1777-1783]

British develop a plan to cut of the N.E. Colonies from the rest by capturing Albany

  1. led by General Johnny Burgoyne

  2. led by Colonel St. Leger

  3. led by General William Howe

converge to Albany

-good plan, if successful

Errors:

St. Leger was defeated before he even gets started

-Benedict Arnold and militia forces turn St. Leger back

Howe takes his army to Philadelphia first

-Continental Army tries to turn Howe back but was defeated in Brandywine Creek and Germantown

-British take Philadelphia

-Howe decides to stay in Philadelphia

Ben Franklin – "It's not that Howe has captured Philadelphia; Philadelphia has captured Howe."

As Burgoyne travels from Canada to Albany, the colonial militia attacks him

Eventually – Burgoyne and the Continental Army led by Benedict Arnold and Horatio Gates meet at the Battle of Saratoga

Battle of Saratoga [October 1777]

Turning point in the war

Burgoyne is surrounded and forced to surrender his entire army to Gates

Benjamin Franklin

In France negotiating with Louis XVI and French officials

After Saratoga [February 1778]

French decide to form an official alliance with the colonies

The French Alliance brings:

  * Navy

  * Supplies

  * Manpower – more soldiers

  * Money

  * Britain is now fighting against two countries

[1778]

Winter of 1777-1778

Continental Army spends the winter at Valley Forge

Baron van Steuben (Prussian drill master)

Trains the Continental Army – creates a well-disciplined army

Henry Clinton replaces General Howe

British move the army from Philadelphia to NYC

Battle of Monmouth (NJ)

George Washington and Continental Army cut off the British

96°F-100°F heat [June 1778]

100 American and British soldiers die of heat exhaustion

battle ends in a draw

Significance:

After this battle – 1/3 of Hessian soldiers desert the British

Last major battle in the North

British begin to concentrate on the South

[1779] Spanish joins alliance with U.S.A.

[1780] Catherine the Great (of Russia) forms the "Armed Neutrality" – the rest of Europe is passively against the British

Holland joins the U.S., French, Spanish alliance

  1. British capture Charleston, SC

  2. U.S. is defeated at Camden, SC

  3. Benedict Arnold becomes a traitor – caught trying to sell plans to the British at West Point – fights the rest of the war as a British general

Then, the U.S. is able to turn the war around to their side.

  4. Battle of King's Mountain

American militia defeat 1 500 Loyalists

  5. Battle of Cowpens

Americans get another victory

Nathaniel Greene (head of American forces in the South) uses the hit-and-run strategy against the British.

Francis "Swamp Fox" Marion leads American militia in attacks upon the British.

George Rogers Clark captures a number of British forts along the Ohio River.

[1781] Battle of Yorktown

  * Cornwallis leads the British army to Yorktown, VA

  * At Yorktown – U.S. is planning on waiting for the British supply ship

  * George Washington realizes that Cornwallis walked into a trap

Marches Continental Army 300 miles to Yorktown

Joined by Rochambeau and Lafayette – French Army

De Grasse – French Navy

They trap Cornwallis at Yorktown

[October 19, 1781] Cornwallis surrenders his entire force of 7 000 soldiers

  * During the surrender, the British band plays "The World Turned Upside Down"

  * Lafayette doesn't like the song – makes the band play "Yankee Doodle Dandy"

[1782-1783] last two years of the war are fought mainly between Loyalists and militia

Problems for the U.S. Throughout the War

  1. Lack of supplies

  2. High Inflation/hyperinflation

  3. Inept Congress

  4. Soldiers go unpaid for months at a time

  5. Low morale

  6. 1/3 of the country actually support the Revolution

African Americans and the Revolution

  * present at almost every major battle, fighting for both sides

  * 14 000-20 000 for the British because they granted the slaves freedom

  * 5 000 for the colonies – Washington grants freedom to slaves who fight

  * war leads to increase calls to abolish slavery – the Quakers are the first to free their slaves

Women in the Revolution

  1. Camp followers

Served as cooks, launders, nurses

  2. Some actually fight in the war

Ex. Molly Pitcher

  3. Stay home and run the household/businesses

Birth rate declines during and after the war

Marks the early beginning of the call for equal rights for women (ex. Abigail Adams)

Overall – women were still expected to be subordinate and follow traditional roles for women

Education improves for girls

Treaty of Paris

[1782] The Whigs come into power in Britain and begin negotiating with the colonies

American delegates – Benjamin Franklin,

John Adams

John Jay – begins negotiating directly with Britain

[1783] Terms

1. Britain recognizes American independence and set the boundaries at the Great Lakes, Mississippi River and the northern border of Florida

2. Spain takes Florida

3. Both Britain and U.S. can use the Mississippi River

4. Britain keeps Canada

5. U.S. can fish off of Newfoundland

6. The U.S. agrees to urge the individual states to give back Loyalist land

7. The U.S. government agrees to allow British merchants to collect debts from individual states

The treaty makes no mention of Native Americans

Officially signed on September 3, 1783

How did Britain lose?

  1. Poor Generals

Ex. General Howe, General Cornwallis

  2. The World is turned against Britain

France, Spain, Holland, Russia, Armed Neutrality

  3. Distance

Difficult to get supplies at times

  4. Not fighting for a cause

  5. Not successful at North American warfare

  6. Difficult to control and capture the Americans

A number of powerful cities (capturing one city will not bring the entire downfall of the Americans)

  7. Overconfident

### Post-War Situation (State Constitutions)

Articles of Confederation

Ratified in 1781 – only ratified after the states agreed to drop western land claims

State governor – has very limited power – fear of having too much power

Central Government

  * One branch – legislative (congress)

  * Designed to be weak

Powers

  * Wage war

  * Make peace

  * Postal service

  * Sign treaties

  * Coin money

  * Set standards for weights and measures

  * CANNOT tax – the biggest flaw of the Articles

States

  * Each state has one vote in Congress

  * In order to change the Articles – needed unanimous decision by the states

  * States made their own tariff laws – confused trade – difficult

  * States were "asked" to collect taxes – give to the central government

The Articles are a good first step towards creating a strong, stabilized government

First leader of the U.S. under the Articles is John Hanson

The one success under the Articles is setting up the Northwest Territory

Northwest Territory– North of the Ohio River, East of Mississippi, West of Appalachians

  1. Land Ordinance of 1785

-Splits the Northwest Territory into different sections – each 640 acres – set aside plots for certain things (homes, education, and businesses)

  2. Northwest Ordinance of 1787

Sets rules for becoming a state

-once the white male population reaches 5 000, set up a legislature

-once the white male population reaches 60 000, apply for statehood

No slavery!

Problems in the U.S. [1783-1787]

  1. Inflation – both government and the states print money

  2. Small farmers are in debt – banks seize crops and land

  3. Too much sovereignty between the states

  4. Government is heavily in debt

  5. World hates the U.S.

Great Britain

  * stop trade between West Indies and the U.S.

  * try to get Allen brothers to annex Vermont to Britain

  * keeps forts on U.S. soil

  * refuse to send a minister to the U.S.

Spain

-claim land north of Florida

-influence Native Americans against the U.S. – opportunity to own N. America

-close the Mississippi to trade with the U.S.

France

**-** restrict trade with the U.S.

**-** pirates in N. Africa seize U.S. ships and sailors

**-** demand repayment of war loans

  6. Shays's Rebellion

Daniel Shays (MA small farmer) gathers 1 200 small farmers

He tries to seize an arsenal of weapons in Springfield, MA

MA governor orders out the militia – kills four and ends the rebellion

-this incident highlights the need for change in the U.S.

[Summer 1786] five states attend a convention in Annapolis, MD to discuss changes to the Articles of Confederation

Alexander Hamilton makes a constitutional convention of all 13 states

[Summer 1787] Constitutional Convention

meet in Philadelphia

55 delegates from 12 states show up – Rhode Island does not attend

-decide to scrap the Articles and write a new constitution

Personalities

  * George Washington (VA) – chairman of convention and is in his 50s

  * Benjamin Franklin (PA) – elder statesman of convention – 81 years old

  * James Madison (VA)-"Father of the Constitution" – 36 years old – many ideas

  * Alexander Hamilton (NY) – favors a strong central government and is an economic genius – 31 years old

  * Gouverneur Morris (PA) – serves as principle draftsman of the Constitution

Who is NOT there?

  * T

All in Europe

homas Jefferson
  * J ohn Adams

  * T homas Paine

  * John Hancock (governor of MA)

  * Samuel Adams

  * Patrick Henry (against the new constitution-"I smell a rat!") in favor of states' rights

C  onstitution – "A Bundle of Compromises"

Virginia Plan "Large State Plan"– proposed by Virginia

-  propose a bicameral legislature with representation based on population

New Jersey Plan "Small State Plan" – proposed by New Jersey

- propose a unicameral legislature with equal representation

" The Great Compromise"

-proposed by Connecticut

-creates a bicameral legislature

  * One based on representation – Senate (two senators for each state)

  * One based on population – House of Representatives

3/5 Compromise

slaves counted as 3/5 of a person for purposes of representation in Congress

Electoral College

Responsible for electing the president

-delegates at Convention did not trust the American public with electing the president

Slave Trade

Georgia and South Carolina want to continue the slave trade

-agreed to continue the slave trade until 1807

### U.S. Constitution

Three branches – executive, judicial, and legislative

Executive-President

  * Commander in Chief

  * Appoint officials

  * Negotiate treaties

  * Veto laws

  * Term of four or eight years

Judicial-Supreme Court

  * Decide on cases that affect the people of the U.S.

  * Decide on the constitutionality of laws

  * Term for life or until retirement

Legislative-Congress

  * Senate (term of six years, indefinitely)

  * House of Representatives (term of two years, indefinitely)

  * Make laws

  * Regulate commerce

  * Approve Presidential appointments

  * Tax

  * Can declare war

Checks and Balances – branches have power over one another

Separation of Powers – each branch has individual powers

Elastic Clause – gives implied powers to the three branches of government (Article 1 Section 8)

### Ratification of the Constitution

[September 17, 1787] Constitution is written

39 members of the Convention sign the Constitution

9 of the 13 states must ratify the Constitution before it becomes a working document

  1. Delaware ratifies Constitution [December 1787]

  2. Pennsylvania

  3. New Jersey

  4. Georgia

  5. Connecticut

  6. Massachusetts

  7. Maryland

  8. South Carolina

  9. New Hampshire [June 21, 1788]

Not on list

  10. V

40% of population of U.S.

irginia
  11. N ew York

  12. North Carolina [November 1789]

  13. Rhode Island [May 1790]

"The Federalist"/ "The Federalist Papers"

written to convince New York to ratify the Constitution

by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton and John Jay

George Washington – "The President"

Won by a unanimous vote, not one vote against him, even with re-election

John Adams – Vice President

Thomas Jefferson – Secretary of State

Alexander Hamilton – Secretary of Treasury

Henry Knox – Secretary of War

Problems –

  1. States are in debt

  2. Government is in debt

  3. Worthless paper money

  4. World wants the U.S. to fail

  5. Division in the country between Federalists and Anti-federalists

  6. The country has been resisting authority

  7. Sectional differences

  8. Political differences

  9. Need to create stability

### Launching a New Government

[April 30, 1789] George Washington takes the Oath of Office in NYC, the first capital of the U.S., in Federal Hall

*Capitals – 1st New York City, NY

-2nd Philadelphia, PA

-3rd Washington, D.C.

**Washington's Biggest Challenge** : to create stability

-pass the Bill of Rights [1791]

drafted by James Madison

appease the Anti-federalists

first 10 Amendments of the Constitution

  1. Freedom of speech, press, religion

  2. Right to bear arms

  3. No quartering of soldiers

  4. Unreasonable search and seizure

  5. Right to protect from self-incrimination

  6. Fair and speedy trial and public trial by peers (jury)

  7. Suits of Common Law – Double Jeopardy (same crime cannot be tried twice)

  8. Protects from cruel and unusual punishment

  9. Rights enumerated to the people

  10. Rights given to the states

-Judiciary Act of 1789

organizes judicial branch – Supreme Court

One Chief Justice (John Jay was the first Chief Justice)

Five Associate Judges (now there are nine)

Organizes the court system in the U.S.

Creates office of the Attorney General (Edmund Randolf was the first)

Circuit Courts (3)

Federal district courts (13)

Supreme Court

-Stabilize economy

Alexander Hamilton develops a two-part plan

  1. Pay off national debt "at par"

-buy back government bonds at face value-issue new bonds and pay interest

-wants the confidence built in the U.S. government

  2. Assumption Plan

-wants federal government to assume the states' debt ($25 million)

Thomas Jefferson is a direct rival against this plan, along with James Madison

"The Dinner"

Jefferson and Madison agree to support Hamilton's plan if Hamilton agrees to support the plan to move the capital to an area closer to VA

-Raise money

after Hamilton's plan – the national debt is now $75 million

  1. [1789] Congress passes an 8% tariff on imported products

  2. Excise Tax – a tax placed on certain products sold in U.S. – esp. whiskey (7¢/gallon)

-National Bank

Alexander Hamilton wants to create a Bank that would:

  * Be a private institution

  * Be a safe deposit for government money

  * Print money

  * Loan money to government and businesses

Debate over National Bank

Hamilton vs. Jefferson

Hamilton – Loose Construction of the Constitution

Jefferson – Strict Construction of the Constitution – argues that it is the states' job to create banks

Hamilton wins

Congress passes the Bill

Washington signs the Bank Bill into law

In Philadelphia, PA

Charter for 20 years

Capital of the Bank is $10 million

1/5 of this money is owned by the government

### Challenges for the U.S. [1790-1796]

Whiskey Rebellion

Western Pennsylvania

Farmers get angry at the tax on whiskey and rebel against it

  * Refuse to pay the tax

  * Tar and feather the tax collectors

  * Place Liberty Poles in towns

Washington is appalled at the "revolutionaries" in western Pennsylvania

Calls 13 000 state militia to march to PA and put down the rebellion

Significance – displays power of the central government

Rise of Political Parties

Hamiltonians "Federalists" – represent the merchant class and businessmen

Jeffersonians "Democrat-Republicans" – represent the rural class

-George Washington runs for a second term as President because he feared an election in 1792 would tear the country apart

The French Revolution

[1789] Tennis Court Oath

[July 14, 1789] Fall of the Bastille

[1792] France becomes a republic

[1793] Louis XVI beheaded

[July 1793-1794] Reign of Terror

Federalists – appalled at the bloodshed of the French Revolution

Democrat-Republicans – see the Reign of Terror as a necessary evil towards democracy and freedom

[1793] France declares war on Austria

France declares war on Great Britain

-Franco-American Alliance of 1778 was an alliance "forever"

George Washington issues Neutrality Proclamation of 1793

  * U.S. would remain neutral in the affairs of Europe

  * Argues that the U.S. needs 20 years before they can fight another war

Trouble with Britain

Britain still occupied forts on the frontier on U.S. soil

Britain was seizing U.S. ships and U.S. sailors (impressment)

Britain was selling guns to the Native Americans

[1794] Battle of Fallen Timbers

  * General "Mad" Anthony Wayne defeats N. Americans in the Ohio Valley

  * Results in the signing of the Treaty of Greenville – cedes all Native American land in the Ohio Valley to the U.S.

George Washington sends John Jay to Great Britain to negotiate a treaty

Jay's Treaty

  1. Great Britain agrees to leave the forts on U.S. soil

  2. Great Britain agrees to repay U.S. merchants for seized ships

  3. U.S. agrees to repay debts owed to British merchants

The public hates the treaty, especially the South

One positive aspect – keeps the U.S. out of war

Problems with Spain

  * Closed Mississippi River to U.S. in 1784

  * Disputed land on the northern border of Florida

  * Spain is encouraging Native Americans to attack frontier settlements

-Results in Pinckney's Treaty [1795]

open the Mississippi River to the U.S.

settle Florida border at the 31st parallel

agree to stop influencing Native Americans

[1796] George Washington decides to NOT run for a third term

-sets a precedent – presidents can run for a maximum of two terms

-issues his Farewell Address – published in newspapers around the country

  1. Domestic issues – warns against political parties

  2. Foreign issues

[1797] Washington leaves Philadelphia and returns to Mount Vernon, VA

[1799] George Washington dies

### Election of 1796

Federalists | Democratic-Republicans

---|---

John Adams | Thomas Jefferson

Alexander Hamilton had too many opposers

71 electoral votes | 68 electoral votes

John Adams wins – second President of the U.S.

Thomas Jefferson becomes vice president

[1804] 12th Amendment – agreeing president and vice president

### Presidency of John Adams

Foreign Issues

The French are very angry at the U.S. for signing Jay's Treaty – thought that U.S. and Great Britain were going to sign an alliance – so the French begin to seize U.S. ships

XYZ Affair

  * U.S. sends three diplomats to France to negotiate a treaty with the French foreign minister, Talleyrand

  * Three French officials (XYZ) ask for a $250 000 bribe just to talk to Talleyrand

  * U.S. diplomats are outraged and return home

  * Many people in the U.S. begin calling for war against France; led by Federalists

The Half-War with France [1798-1800]

A naval war between U.S. and France in the Atlantic Ocean

U.S. creates the Marine Corps

U.S. increases the size of army and navy

Convention of 1800

Going against the wishes of his party, Adams sends diplomats to France to negotiate peace

Napoleon does not want to fight – signs a peace agreement with the U.S.

-The Franco-American Alliance of 1778 is officially ended

-this is the last alliance the U.S. signs for about 130 years

Domestic Issues

Federalists want to limit the power of the Jeffersonians

[1798] pass the Alien and Sedition Acts – four laws – end in 1801

  1. Naturalization Law

-extends the time it takes to become a citizen from five to fourteen years

  2. Alien Acts (two of them)

-gives the power to the President to arrest and deport foreigners

  3. Sedition Acts

-restricts freedom of speech and freedom of the press

The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions

VA – by James Madison

KT – by Thomas Jefferson

  * Argue that the states have the right to nullify a law passed by the federal government

  * Strengthen the idea of states' rights

### Election of 1800

Federalists nominate John Adams

Democrat-Republicans nominate Thomas Jefferson

Thomas Jefferson defeats John Adams in electoral votes but ties with Aaron Burr

-When there is a tie, the House of Representatives decides who wins

After 35 votes, Jefferson is agreed to be the 3rd president (57 years old at the time)

Aaron Burr – Vice President

James Madison – Secretary of State

Albert Gallatin – Secretary of Treasury

### Thomas Jefferson

Background –

  * Author of the Declaration of Independence

  * Expert violinist

  * From VA

  * Author of the Kentucky Resolution

  * Secretary of State under George Washington

  * Vice President under John Adams

  * Governor of Virginia

  * Served in the House of Burgesses

  * Minister of France

  * In favor of states' rights

  * Architect – designed University of Virginia – designed Monticello (on the back of the modern nickel), which he worked on from 25 years of age to his 80th year of age

  * Inventor

  * Philosopher

  * Slave owner – owned 150 to 200 slaves during his lifetime

Jefferson on...

  1. Slavery

    * Was a slave owner, but thought that slavery was morally wrong

    * Does not free his slaves upon his death except for the Hemmings's family (had an adulterous affair with one of his slaves – Sally Hemmings)

  2. Economics

  * Introduces a budget

  * Works to reduce the national debt

  * Gets rid of the excise tax

  * Leaves the rest of Hamilton's plan intact, surprisingly

  1. Freedom of Speech

  * Allows the Alien and Sedition Acts to expire in 1801

  * Passes a new naturalization act – five years in the U.S. until citizenship

  * In favor of freedom of speech

  4. Judicial Branch

[1803] Marbury vs. Madison

  * Supreme Court rules that they have the final say whether a law is constitutional or not – "judicial review" – increases Supreme Court's power

  * Jefferson disagrees with this – thought that the states should have this right to determine the constitutionality of laws

  1. Military

  * Does not like the large standing army

  * Reduces the Army to 2 500

War with the Barbary Pirates

The Barbary pirates from the Barbary States from North Africa (Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli)

Made their living through piracy

Many countries gave "protection money" to the Barbary States to keep their ships and men safe

[1801] the Pasha (rule) of Tripoli demands more money from the U.S.

Jefferson refuses to pay – Pasha chops down flagpole of U.S. = WAR

[1801-1805] U.S. engages in war against the Barbary Pirates

Stephen Decanter frees prisoners and explodes the ship

[1805] U.S. and Tripoli sign a peace agreement

[By 1830] all of the Barbary States sign a peace agreement

Significance:

  * Gives U.S. navy more experience – had success

  * Gives U.S. navy confidence and a reputation

  * Gives U.S. some respect from the rest of the world

  * The U.S. begins to enter world affairs

Louisiana Purchase

[1801] Napoleon convinces the king of Spain to sign the Treaty of San Ildefonso

-gives the area of Louisiana (west of Mississippi) back to France

[1830] Thomas Jefferson and James Madison send Robert Livingston and James Monroe to France to negotiate the sale of New Orleans

Supposed to offer no more than $10 million for New Orleans

At the same time...Napoleon has problems

  1. Santo Domingo (Saint Dominique) in Haiti

[1792] Toussaint L'Overture leads rebellion on island and takes control by 1801

[1802] Napoleon sends 20 000 soldiers on the island

-mosquitoes – yellow fever/malaria ravishes soldiers

  2. France about to go to war with Great Britain

-Napoleon needs money

So – Napoleon decides to sell Louisiana

[April 30, 1803] France agrees to sell all of Louisiana for $15 million

  * Jefferson decides the benefits of owning the land outweigh the constitutional technicalities (loose constructionalist idea)

  * Submits Louisiana Purchase Treaty to Congress – approves the sale on December of 1803

  * The only opposition to the Louisiana Purchase came from the Federalists – fear of decreasing power

  * U.S. just doubled its size – added about 800 000 square miles of land – comes to about 3¢-4¢ per acre – one of the greatest bargains in history

  * To explore the land – send Lewis and Clark

"The Corps of Discovery" (Lewis and Clark expedition)

  * Locate Native American tribes

  * Creates a very accurate map of Louisiana

  * Discovered various routes

  * Discovered species of plants and animals

  * Opens area to settlement

  * *Zebulon Pike (explorer) – explored southern Louisiana

The Duel

-By the early 1800s, the Federalist power was only found in the Northeast

-Some Federalists (upset by loss of power) want to split the union and have the northeast to leave the union to save the power

  * tell this plan to Alexander Hamilton (head of the Federalists)

  * Hamilton is disgusted

  * Aaron Burr goes along with the plan and decides to run for governor of NY

-wants to win NY

-have NY to be part in the north east secession

  * Hamilton turns against Burr and begins writing articles and essays against him

-Burr is so outraged; he challenges Hamilton to a duel

-Hamilton accepted

[July 11, 1804] Burr and Hamilton meet in Weehawken, NJ

Hamilton is quicker, but shoots over Burr's head – did he mean to miss?

The next shot is from Burr

[  July 12, 1804] Hamilton dies of a gunshot wound to his stomach

  * Burr destroys his political image/career

  * Burr flees out west

  * Hated by the public

  * Was arrested but was found not guilty for trying to sell the West

  * Returns to NY and continues to practice law until his death

F ederalist Party dies a slow death

Thomas Jefferson's accomplishments in his first term:

  1. Louisiana Purchase

  2. War with the Barbary Pirates – brings respect to the U.S.

  3. Doubles foreign trade

  4. Lowers national debt by $25 million

  5. Started paying British merchants for pre-revolutionary war debts

  6. People are quickly populating the western side of the Mississippi River

    * Adding more states

    * 17 states by 1803

    * adding more territories

    * Slave state? Free State? -becomes a growing problem

### Election of 1804

Thomas Jefferson is easily re-elected

There were only 14 votes against him

### Thomas Jefferson's Second Term

[October 1805] Lord Nelson defeats the French navy at Battle of Trafalgar

[Late 1805]

French armies led by Napoleon defeat Russian and Austrian forces at the Battle of Austerlitz

Britain controls the seas while France controls the land the Europe

Britain creates the Orders in Council [1806]

-forbids any neutral country from trading with a country under Napoleon unless they stop at Great Britain first

France creates the Imperial Decrees

-French navy will seize any ship that is heading for Great Britain

In addition, the British continue to impress U.S. soldiers

The Chesapeake Incident [1807]

  * The Chesapeake is a U.S. ship

  * Stopped by the H.M.S. (His/Her Majesty's Ship) Leopard looking for deserters

  * Captain of the Chesapeake refuses the search

  * The Leopard opens fire into the side of the Chesapeake (kills 3, injures 18)

  * Chesapeake makes it back into the U.S. – the people are outraged

Jefferson passes the Embargo Act

  * Halts trade with the rest of the world

  * Negatively affects the U.S. economy

-unemployment rises (Northeast is the most affected) – nicknamed "O' Grab Me" Act

-Affects farmers (prices for crops drop)

-Foreign trade drops from $135 million [1806] to $25 million [1808]

  * Very unsuccessful

  * But jumpstarts the building of industry (self-dependence) in the Northeast

[March 1, 1809] Jefferson repeals Embargo Act and replaces it

Non-Intercourse Act [1809]

Opens trade to the world but not with Great Britain or France

[March 4, 1809] James Madison becomes President

### James Madison

Background –

  * Fourth President

  * "Father of the Constitution"

  * Author of the Federalist Papers

  * Virginia Resolutions

  * Democratic-Republican

  * Secretary of State under Jefferson

  * From Virginia

  * 5'4" and 100 lbs

George Clinton – Vice President

James Monroe – Secretary of State

Albert Gallatin – Secretary of Treasury

Biggest Problem is TRADE

Non-Intercourse Act is set to expire after one year

Macan's Bill No. 2

  * opens up trade with everyone (including Great Britain and France)

  * if Great Britain or France repeals their trade restrictions, the U.S. will halt trade with the other

-Napoleon seizes the opportunity-says he will lift the Imperial Decrees [August 1810]

\- [November 1810] Madison agrees to halt trade with Great Britain

-Madison has indirectly aligned the U.S. with France

-Napoleon has no intention of lifting the Decrees – continues to seize U.S. ships

-Napoleon has set the U.S. and Great Britain on the path to war

[1810] Congressional Election

-brings new, inexperience leaders to Congress

"War Hawks"

  * eager to fight a war of their own

  * led by Henry Clay of Kentucky and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina

  * want more land

  * want to get rid of Native American menace in the west

  * want to secure U.S. maritime rights

  * mostly from the west and the south

Native Americans

Tecumseh and Prophet – Shawnee chiefs - create a N. American Confederation

-intend to rid the Ohio Valley of white settlers

William Henry Harrison – governor of IN territory – attack N.A. at Prophetstown

Battle of Tippecanoe

Indians strike first

Harrison defeats them – crushes the confederation

-discovers that the British supply N. Americans with guns through Canada

Madison declares war on Great Britain [July 1, 1812]

The northeast is opposed to war

-many New England states send gold to Great Britain

-many New England states send supplies to Canada

-governors of New England states refuse to allow militia to serve outside state borders

War Hawks want Canada and Florida

### W  ar of 1812

Problems for the U.S. at the start of the war:

  * small army of only 7 000 men

  * lack of money

  * small navy of 16 ships

  * lack of unity

  1. I  nvasions of Canada

  2. Lake Erie

  3. Battle of Thames

  4. B attle of Plattsburgh

  5. Washington D.C.

  6. Baltimore

  7. B attle of New Orleans

  1. Invasion(s) of Canada

-U.S. lands a three-pronged attack on Canada in 1812 – fails miserably and loses Detroit

-several more attempts in 1813, all fail

  2. **Lake Erie** [September 1813]

-Oliver Hazzard Perry builds a fleet of ships to fight against the British

-Defeats the British at Battle of Put-In Bay

"We have met the enemy, and they are ours" – first U.S. success in the war

  3. **Battle of Thames** [1813]

-because of British defeat on Lake Erie, the British are forced to retreat from Detroit back to Canada

-William Henry Harrison catches the British and defeats them – killed Tecumseh

  4. **Battle of Plattsburgh** [September 11, 1814]

-before the battle, 14 000 experience British soldiers are sent to North America

Plan – to take control over New York and get northeast to secede

-Thomas Macdonough

30 years old – leads U.S. naval forces on Lake Champlain against the British

Emerge victorious (with ships/slaughterhouses)

  5. Washington D.C.

-Britain lands forces on the Potomac River and begin marching to D.C.

-met at Bladensburg by U.S. militia forces but U.S. is easily defeated

-British march into Washington D.C.

  1.     * burn down the Capitol building, Library of Congress, President's House

    * Madison and members of government are chased into surrounding hills

    * Dolly Madison saves portrait of Washington

  2. **Baltimore** [September 1814]

-following D.C., the British move on to Baltimore, MD

-U.S. puts up a heavy resistance at Fort McHenry and halts the British offensive

-British are forced to retreat from Baltimore

Francis Scott Key writes the "Star-Spangled Banner"

  7. **Battle of New Orleans** [January 1815]

-Andrew Jackson

  * Defeated Creek Indians at Horseshoe Bend in 1814

  * Defeated British in Pensacola, FL

  * Promoted to Major – General

-Jackson guesses that the British are going to attack New Orleans

-begins to organize for the defense of the city

[December 23, 1814] British make an initial attack but quickly retreat

[January 8, 1815]

British return to New Orleans with 7 500 men – lead a full frontal attack

-a terrible decision by British officers

2 000 British die/injured

13 U.S. soldiers killed, 60 wounded

Great victory for the U.S. – even if fought two weeks after treaty was signed

Propels Andrew Jackson to the status of war hero

Treaty of Ghent [December 24, 1814]

Signed in Belgium

  * All land acquired in the war is returned to its original owner

  * Return to status quo

War ends in a draw

Treaty makes no mention of:

-impressments

-seizure of ships

-influencing of Native Americans

U.S. slogans

Before war – "On to Canada!"

After war – "Not one inch of territory ceded or lost."

What does the war accomplish?

  1. Ends Native American resistance in Ohio Valley

  2. End to Federalist party

-Hartford Convention

Federalists from five northeastern states meet in Hartford to discuss amendments to the Constitution

  1. end to the Virginian presidents

  2. Lessen the power of the South and West

  3. Protect U.S. commerce

Send proposals to Washington D.C. [January 1815]

Proposals are shunned-Federalist party withers away

  3. Respect for the U.S.

  4. Second war for American Independence?

  5. National unity emerges

-this period becomes known as the Era of Good Feelings

### Post-War Period

Nationalism – pride in one's country

  1. National Anthem

  2. Slogans

  3. a Rebuilt Capital – redesigned the entire capital city

  4. People begin to view themselves as Americans

  5. Respect grows for American literature

Washington Irving – "Rip Van Winkle" Sleepy Hollow

James Cooper – Last of the Mohicans

Noah Webster – the dictionary

  6. The American System–developed by Henry Clay, supposed to strengthen the U.S.

    * Strong banking system (helps the Northeast)

    * Protective tariff (helps the Northeast)

    * Internal improvements (helps South and West) – money to help build roads and improved transportation in the U.S.

Madison's Accomplishments after the War of 1812

  1. [1816] creates the second National Bank

  2. [1816] Tariff of 1816 is passed – 20% tax on value of imported goods

  3. increases army to 10 000

Madison's Failure after the War of 1812

  * vetoes the Bonus Bill – would have given $1.5 million to the states for internal improvements

### James Monroe

Monroe's presidency is called the "Era of Good Feelings"

His first two years will be successful – after 1819, Monroe is plagued with problems

Background:

  * Fifth president

  * Co purchaser of Louisiana

  * From Virginia

  * Minister to France

  * Served in the Revolutionary War

Judicial Nationalism – increasing power of the judicial and federal

-led by John Marshall and the Supreme Court

### Era of Good Feelings

  1. Pre-1819

-land agreements with Great Britain

  1. Rush-Bagot Agreement

Neither country will place warships on the Great Lakes

Mr. Allen- "No boom-boom on the Great Lakes"

  2. Treaty of 1818

    * Sets the 49th parallel as a border between U.S. and Canada

    * The U.S. and Great Britain agree to share Oregon for ten years

    * The U.S. can use fisheries in Newfoundland

-Florida

Spain was dealing with revolutions in Chile, Venezuela and Argentina

Spain was not able to deal with problems in Florida

U.S. sends Andrew Jackson to deal with these problems

  * Instruction to NOT touch Spanish cities

  * Despite this, he takes over two cities

  * Jackson hangs two Englishmen

  * By 1818 – had conquered all of Florida

Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams – suggests to an angry Monroe to get FL

-Adams-Onis Treaty

  * For $5 million, the Spanish decide to sell Florida to the U.S. after James Monroe gave them an ultimatum

  2. 1819-1824

-Panic of 1819

  * a depression takes hold in the U.S. in 1819 caused by an over-speculation of Western lands – affects the West the most

-Missouri Compromise [1820]

  * [1819] eleven free states, eleven slave states

  * Missouri applies for statehood as a slave state

  * Henry Clay "the Great Compromiser" develops a plan to appease

    1. Missouri enters as a slave state

    2. Maine enters as a free state

    3. 36°30' line is created for the Louisiana Purchase area – all lands north of it will be free, all lands south of it will be slave

This brings into public discussion the issue of slavery – settles the issue for 30 years

I

Russia

Prussia

Austria

France

n the early 1820s, European nations are working together to restore monarchies

Formed to restore colonies in Latin America to Spanish rule

Holy Alliance formed

Great Britain does not join-going to threaten its economy

-asks U.S. to join an alliance against European nations that would prevent European expansion into Latin America

Great Britain has economic interests in Latin America

John Quincy Adams does not want the U.S. to sign an alliance with Britain – U.S. would not be able to expand into Latin America in the future

-Monroe Doctrine (written by John Quincy Adams)

  1. Nonintervention of Latin America by any European nation

  2. Non-colonization of Latin America by any European nation

-delivered to Congress in December 1823

Problem – U.S. does not have a strong navy to support doctrine

Solution – Great Britain does – unwillingly backs up the doctrine

### Election of 1824 "The Corrupt Bargain"

One party – the Republicans – Candidates:

  1. Andrew Jackson "Old Hickory"

    * Hero of New Orleans

    * Conquered Florida

    * Defeated Native Americans at Horseshoe Bend

    * From Tennessee – support from the Southwest

    * Born in SC – orphaned at the age of ten

    * Slave owner

    * Senator and congressman

    * Viewed as a "common man"

  2. Henry Clay "the Great Compromiser"

  * Leader of the War Hawks

  * Missouri Compromise

  * Representative of Kentucky in Congress

  * Speaker of the House of Representatives

  * Support from the West

  3. John Quincy Adams

  * Secretary of State under Monroe

  * From Massachusetts

  * Son of the second president, John Adams

  * Support from the Northeast

  4. William Crawford

  * Secretary of Treasury under Monroe

  * From Georgia

  * Broad national support

Results:

Jackson – 99 Electoral votes

Adams – 84 Electoral votes

Crawford – 41 Electoral votes

Clay – 37 Electoral votes

Total of 261 votes

  * Jackson does not have the majority

  * House of Representatives decides from the top three contenders

  * *note – Henry Clay is the House's speaker*

  * Crawford is paralyzed from a heart attack

  * Clay hates Jackson – thinks he is a barbarian

[January 1825] The House votes and on the first ballot, John Q. Adams is named president

[3 days later] Adams names Clay the Secretary of State

Jackson and his supporters are outraged and call it "Corrupt Bargain"

Jackson is so angry that...

-he resigns from his seat in Senate

-spends the next four years working to get Adams and Clay out of office

### John Quincy Adams's Presidency

  * E  lected by less than 1/3 of the population

  * H

Unsuccessful presidency

as "Corrupt Bargain" surrounding his presidency
  * A wkward socially

  * Cold towards people

  * O dd person

-has nationalistic plans

Wants to build roads

Wants to increase army and navy

Wants to build a national university

Wants to build observatories

-but the country has fallen out of the nationalistic mood

Wants to be friendly to the Native Americans

-the states do not listen

Tariff of 1828 "Tariff of Abominations"

[1828] Jackson's supporters in Congress are willing to give one more black eye to Adams

  * Create a tariff with ridiculously high rates

  * The tariff actually passes

  * Angers the South

-SC argues that they have the right to nullify the tariff

-John C. Calhoun, the vice president, writes "The South Carolina Exposition"

Displays the growing sectionalism in the U.S.

### Election of 1828

Democratic-Republicans – Andrew Jackson

National-Republicans – John Quincy Adams

The election focuses less on issues and more on mudslinging

Results:

Jackson – 178 Electoral votes

Adams – 83 Electoral votes

After the election, Jackson's wife dies [December 24, 1828] from a broken heart

-when Jackson married Rachel, her previous marriage was thought to be over but was not

-the mudslinging during the election included this issue

John Q. Adams becomes a representative from MA and participates in the House of Representatives for 17 years

This election changes the type of person that will be president in the future

When Jackson is inaugurated, tens of thousands of "common" citizens show up at D.C.

Jackson opens the White House to the public – "Inaugural Brawl"

### The New Democracy

Expanded Suffrage

Suffrage – the right to vote

Before the 1820s, many states had property requirements to vote

By 1828, most states have dropped those requirements – allows more people to vote

"People" – white males

Twice as many vote in 1828 (1 155 000) than in 1824 (326 000)

Methods of Voting

Begin changing to paper ballots

Easier to vote during the 1820s

Political Parties

Party tickets form in the 1820s

Conventions begin

-First to do so was the Anti-Masonic Party [1831]

-hotels begin to be built

New Candidates

Appeal to the common man

Andrew Jackson

Davy Crockett – semi-literate Congressman for Tennessee

### Andrew Jackson-Jacksonian Democracy

The Spoils System

Giving government jobs to political supporters

"To the victor, goes the spoils"

Jackson believes - government jobs should be open to everyone (if you support Jackson)

Jackson wants to get Adams and Clay supporters out of the government

Replaces 20% of all government workers

The Peggy Eaton Affair

Secretary of War – John Eaton – marries Peggy O'Neale

Her father owned a hotel in D.C. – she reportedly slept with many of the men there

The women of D.C. refuse to accept Peggy

Jackson sides with the Eatons

  1. Jackson refuses to meet with his regular Cabinet after incident – instead, he meets with the "Kitchen Cabinet"

  2. Martin Van Buren uses the incident to get in the good graces of Jackson – allows Van Buren to become president in 1837

  3. Jackson and Calhoun (vice president) become bitter enemies

The Growth of Sectionalism

Sectionalism-pride/support for one section of the country

Webster-Hayne Debate [1830]

Debated for nine days in Senate over the right of a state to nullify a law

Webster (MA) is arguing for the union

Hayne (SC) is arguing for states' rights and for nullification

-displays the growing divide between the states

Jackson remained silent on the issue of nullification

The Southern Congressmen/Senators want to get Jackson to publicly support the idea of states' rights and nullification – Jefferson-Day Dinner

[April 13, 1830] Jefferson-Day Dinner

  * Jackson is tipped off beforehand of the plan for Jackson to publicly support nullification

  * When it is Jackson's turn to toast the dinner, "Our union, it must be preserved!"

  * Calhoun claims states' rights first, union second–resigns from the vice presidency [1832]

  * Secretary of State, Martin Van Buren, becomes the Vice President

The Nullification Crisis

[1832] Congress passes a new tariff – lowers the tariff rates from 1828

South Carolina is still NOT pleased

-the state legislature of SC calls a convention

  1. Nullify the Tariff of 1832

  2. Threaten to secede from the union if the federal government tries to use force to collect tariff dues

Jackson is very angry – sends a small military force to SC

Enter Henry Clay – Compromise Tariff of 1833

-lowers tariff rates over the next 10 years to 20%-25%

The federal government passes the Force Bill

-allows the President to use military force to collect custom dues

SC accepts the Compromise Tariff of 1833 but nullify Force Bill

-In the end – both sides felt that they won

Jackson and the Native Americans

[By 1830] U.S. population reaches 13 million

Settlers want the Native American land

Jackson wants to move all Native Americans to the west of the Mississippi

[1830] Congress passes the Indian Removal Act

-during the 1830s, 100 000 Native Americans moved off their ancestral lands and into Indian Territory (Oklahoma)

-Move of the Cherokee "Trail of Tears" – 4 000 Cherokee die

Resistance

  1. Seminole Indians

-many flee to the Everglades and spend seven years resisting

  2. Black Hawk Wars

-Native Americans from Indiana and Illinois, led by Chief Black Hawk

-fought against the removal

-One of the most notable resistance actions

Jackson and the Bank

[1832] Henry Clay convinces the Head of Bank of U.S. (Nicholas Biddle) – to apply to renew the charter for the Bank (due to expire in 1836)

Clay, who wants to run for president, wants to make Jackson look bad over the bank issue

Many Jackson supporters were openly hostile to the bank

If he signed it – alienate his supporters

If he vetoed it – appear to be a foe of sound banking

Jackson vetoes the bill to renew the charter

### Election of 1832

Appearance of a third party – the Anti-Masonic Party
Jackson easily defeats Clay

Jackson calls the victory a mandate and decides to destroy the Bank of U.S.

Jackson fires two Secretary of Treasury's

Then, Roger B. Taney becomes Secretary of Treasury, who agreed with the plan

Stop depositing federal money into the bank of U.S.

Instead, deposit the money into "pet banks"

By 1836, the Bank of U.S. is out of money and closes its doors

Jackson dislikes paper money for the sale of lands – issues the Specie Circular

-calls for the sale of lands to be conducted with gold and silver _only_

Result: halts the rapid sale of land in the West almost immediately

Legacy of Jackson

  1. Leads the common man into politics

  2. the President can make government policy

  3. Increases the power of the presidency – uses the power of veto 12 times

### Election of 1836

Democrats – Martin Van Buren

  * Secretary of State

  * Vice President

Whigs (used to be National Republicans) – nominate several candidates to halt a majority

Martin Van Buren wins

### Election of 1840

Democrats – Martin Van Buren – in spite of the failed presidency, still nominated

Whigs – William Henry Harrison (68 years old?)

  * Hero of Tippecanoe

  * Hero of Thames

  * Not very involved in politics – no enemies

  * Portrayed as: living in log cabin, poor farmer, drank hard cider – common man image

  * In reality: lives in a mansion (16 rooms), one of the wealthiest families of VA, drank whiskey

  * "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too" song – John Tyler of VA – not a Whig

Harrison wins – 2.3 million votes cast

On his inauguration day, shows up without a jacket or hat on a cold D.C. day

Gives a 1 hour 55 minute long speech

Catches pneumonia and dies 31 days later

John Tyler takes over as president

### Reform 1800-1860

Religion

Late 1700s, religion had become liberal in the U.S.

[1800] a religious revival sweeps across the nation – called the Second Great Awakening

Charles Finney leads this movement – 25 000 go to see him

-marks a split between the major religions over the issue of slavery

P

Split between north and south

   resbyterians

M ethodists

B aptists

Utopia-a perfect society

During 1800-1860 over 40 utopias are created in the U.S.

Robert Owen "Father of Socialism" – founds New Harmony, Indiana – fails

Shakers – founded by Mother Ann Lee in 1840

Oneida, NY [1830s]

  * believe in "complex marriage"

  * believe in selective breeding

  * produce silverware (1881-turn into a corporation)

Mormons

[1830] Joseph Smith claims to receive golden plates from an angel

  * the golden plates become the book of Mormon

  * Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints

  * Believe in polygamy

  * [1844] Smith and his brother are killed

  * Brigham Young takes over and takes the Mormons on a trek to the Great Salt Lake (Salt Lake City, UT)

  * Thrive through new farming techniques (irrigation) and good luck

Education

In the early days of U.S., education was reserved for the wealthy

Public education was almost nonexistent

Public education grows between 1825-1850

Small, one-room schools

Many different age/reading levels

Horace Mann

  * Begins to change public education in the 1800s

  * Increases length of school year (3 months to 6 months)

  * Increases teacher salaries

  * Increases state funding

  * Increases teaching schools

By 1860, there are over 300 high schools in the U.S.

Mental Illness

[Early 1800s] viewed as a crime

Dorothea Dix begins to travel around the country and visits mentally ill patients

-travels over 60 000 miles

-submits a report to the MA state legislature

-helps to bring about change

Women's Rights Movement

  1. End to slavery

  2. Temperance – moderation in the use of alcohol

  3. Right to be heard

Leaders:

-Lucretia Mott

-Elizabeth Cady Stanton

-Susan B. Anthony

-Elizabeth Blackwell (first woman to graduate from medical school)

-Lucy Stone

-Sojourner Truth

[1848] Seneca Falls, NY

A women's rights conference takes place

Write the Declaration of Rights of women

Stanton asks for the right to vote

Other movements:

Science – John Jay Audubon – leading ornithologist

Arts – leading architect – Thomas Jefferson (died 1826)

Painters begin to paint landscapes

[1839] early photographs called the daguerreotype is invented

Literature – the Transcendentalist Movement

Ralph Waldo Emerson

Henry David Thoreau - Walden

Walt Whitman "Leaves of Grass"

Other writers: Edgar Allan Poe, Louisa May Alcott, Herman Mellville

### Developments in Transportation

Railroads

  * Fast and reliable

  * Cheaper than canals

  * Not frozen in winter – defied terrain and weather

  * [1828] first railroad

  * [1860] 30 000 miles of railroad track

  * poor brakes

  * iron braces

  * standardized parts

  * 1840s craze

Canals

  * Erie Canal "Clinton's Big Ditch"

  * Control tides (level of the water)

  * Allows ships to get through

  * Industry and value of the land increases

  * Gives rise to cities because it sped up industrialization

  * Canal craze in the 1830s

Steamboats

  * Robert Fulton invents the steamboat

  * Clermont "Fulton's Folly"

  * Defy wind, wave, tide, currents

  * Doubled the carrying capacity

  * James Watt perfects the steam engine

Roads

  * Lancaster turnpike (first turnpike of the U.S.)

  * Attracted trade

  * Western = $$

  * 1790s and became successful

  * National Road (MD to IL)

Communication

  * Pony Express

  * Cable

  * Telegraph (invented by Samuel B. Morse)

  * Clipper ships (fast)

  * Iron steamers in Britain

### The Industrial Revolution

Great Britain is the first to industrialize in the mid-1700s

Samuel Slater

  * 21-year-old British mechanic

  * Remembers the plans for a textile mill and illegally brings them to the U.S.

  * Slater and Moses Brown build the first textile mill in Rhode Island [1791]

-Problem: cotton is expensive to grow

-Solution: Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin [1793]

-can remove the seeds 50 times faster than by hand

Significance of the Cotton Gin:

  1. Ties the South to cotton

  2. Renews slavery in the South

  3. Creates an industrial giant in the North

Factory System in the Northeast

  1. Long hours and low wages

  2. Unsanitary conditions

  3. Unsafe conditions

  4. Child labor

At first, workers are forbidden to join unions

[1842] Supreme Court rules in Commonwealth vs. Hunt that labor unions are not illegal

-this eventually brought improved conditions for workers

N  ational Economy

N

Work together

orth – Factory System (finished products)

S outh – Cotton (fuels the factory system)

West – Wheat, corn, other food products (food for all)

- The United States begins its path to becoming an industrial giant

Lowell System

By Francis C. Lowell – brought all processes of production under one roof

-industrial cities; built around the factory and work

-women are employed, along with children

Interchangeable parts

Idea of Eli Whitney

Mass producing parts for a product

Fuels the factory system

Farming equipment

Metal plough is invented by John Deere

Cyrus McCormick invents the mechanical reaper

Abolitionist – someone who is against slavery

Frederick Douglas – leading abolitionist

-Runaway slave – newspaper "North Star" – outspoken

William Lloyd Garrison

– Newspaper "the Liberator"

Theodore Dwight Weld

Maysville Road Veto

Andrew Jackson – vetoes a federally funded road, internal improvement

-did not think that internal improvements needed federal funding

### Population Growth in the United States

[1810] 7 239 881 people

[1810] one in seven Americans lived west of the Appalachians

[1840] 17 069 453 people

[1840] one in three Americans lived west of the Appalachians

[1860] 31 433 321 (immigrants and high birth rates)

Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Des Moines, St. Louis, Memphis, Louisville, Omaha

[1790] Philadelphia and NYC have populations over 20 000

[1860] 43 cities have populations over 20 000

Life in the West

  * L  onely – lack of communication and interactions

  * A tough life, a crude life

  * B

Difficult life

oring
  * P oorly fed, poorly dressed, poorly housed

  * Diseases

  * W restling was the dominant form of entertainment

Immigrants – the Irish and the Germans

Irish

  1. Potato famine [1845-1850]

Millions died of starvation – blight destroys many, many potatoes

  2. Escape political persecution

Irish tended to settle in port cities of the Northeast (NYC and Boston)

-Can get jobs – readily available

-lacked the money to move out of the cities

Irish are Roman Catholic – not well-liked

Political bosses would greet the Irish as they stepped off the bots

-gave coal, food, held with the law, jobs

-all in turn for votes/political support

Persecution? – NINA – No Irish Need Apply

Germans

Tended to settle in the West

Generally had more money than the Irish – could buy land

Amish

-the most enduring group of Germans

-close themselves off from the rest of the world (corrupted)

-no electricity

Contributions

-Conestoga Wagon

-Kentucky Rifle

-Christmas tree

-idea of kindergarten ("children's garden")

Supported public education

### Manifest Destiny

"Our manifest destiny is to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions" – John L. O'Sullivan (1845)

-the belief that the U.S. should extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific

Before U.S. acquires the land in the west, many settlers moved on on their own

Trails:Santa Fe Trail

California Trail

Gila Route

Mormon Trail

Old Spanish Trail

Oregon Trail

Wagon trains

Generally, settlers would gather in Independence, Missouri, and join 50-100 other wagons

Why?

  1. Support

  2. Protection

  3. Guidance

  4. Companionship

Wagon – 8 ½ feet high

10 feet wide

Conestoga Wagon

Drawn by oxen

2 mph/15 miles per day

The Trip – 5 to 6 months long

The wagon trains became moving communities

  * Set up laws

  * Appointed officials

  * Tried criminals

  * Had marriages

  * Had funerals

Texas

[1821] Mexico revolts against Spanish rule and declares independence

[1823] Mexican government gives a huge tract of land to Stephen Austin. Austin promised to settle the land along with 300 other Americans

  * The only promise the Americans had to make was to become Roman Catholic and to "Mexicanize"

  * Thousands of Americans begin to steadily populate the area in Texas

  * Examples: Davy Crockett, James Bowie – inventor of the Bowie knife, Sam Houston – soldier, lawyer, congressman, governor of TN

  * Some criminals move to Texas as well "G.T.T." – Gone to Texas

[1830] Mexico outlaws slavery – tell Americans to stop bringing more slaves

-Americans largely ignore this

-Many Americans are angry with Mexican soldiers stationed in Texas

[1833] Stephen Austin goes to Mexico City to settle disputes with Mexican government

-the Mexican government jails Austin for eight months

[1835] Santa Anna (leader of Mexico) creates an Army to send to Texas

[1835] 30 000 Americans are living in Texas

[1836] Texas declares its independence "Lone Star Republic"

Sam Houston takes control of the Texan Army

Texas Revolution

The Alamo – [March 6, 1836]

-6 000 Mexican troops surround 200 Texans at the Alamo

-After 13 days of battle – everyone inside the Alamo is killed, including Davy Crockett, James Bowie, and Colonel Travis (head of Alamo Forces)

Texans use this as a rallying cry, "Remember the Alamo!"

The Goliad – [March 27, 1836]

-400 Texans are killed after they surrender

"Remember the Goliad"

Battle of San Jacinto

-Houston and the Texan army lead Santa Anna and the Mexican army on a chase through Texas

-As the Mexicans stop for a "siesta", Houston turns the army around and attacks the Mexican forces and defeats them

-Santa Anna signs an agreement recognizing the independence of Texas, with the Rio Grande as the border

Texas has their independence, and they name Sam Houston as the President of Texas

John Tyler

From Virginia (also a senator from Virginia)

He was the Vice President under Harrison – first VP to ascend to the Presidency because of death

Whig (in actuality, a Democrat)

Henry Clay and Daniel Webster – leaders of the Whig Party – had hoped to control Harrison and the presidency

But Tyler will continue to go against Clay and the Whig Party

-vetoes two bills to create a National Bank

-opposes the Whig Platform

-all of his Cabinet members resign, except for Webster

-kicked him out of the Whig Party

Three Major Developments of Tyler's Presidency

"A Third War with England"

War with words between England and the U.S. [1840s]

[1837] Caroline Affair

-a small uprising in Canada

-some Northern states send supplies aboard the Caroline to the rebellion

[1841] New York apprehends a Canadian who was suspected of burning the Caroline

-was acquitted and issues cool down

The Webster-Ashburton Treaty [1842]

There was a small war that breaks out in Maine between Maine lumberjackers and some Canadians over the border – called the Aroostook War

Lord Ashburton of Great Britain and Daniel Webster (secretary of state) – negotiate a treaty

Split the land, sets a border in Canada

The U.S. receives a small portion of land in Minnesota

"Oregon Fever"

[By 1846] 5 000 people had moved to the area south of the Columbia River

Many Americans begin calling for the northern border to extend to the 54° 40' line

"54° 40' or fight!"

### Election of 1844

The major issue is that of expansion

Whigs – Henry Clay

-writes a series of letters in which he appears non-committal on the issue of Texas

-many anti-slavery groups turn against Clay

-small party in NY "Liberty Party" votes for a third-party election

Democrats – James K. Polk "a dark horse candidate"

-on a platform of expansion

-wants to annex Texas

-wants California

-wants the 54° 40' line

-was the governor of Tennessee

-Speaker of the House

Polk is elected President

Even though Polk is elected, Tyler is not done yet

-Tyler claims that the people have mandated that the U.S. annex Texas

[February 1845] Tyler gets a joint resolution pass in Congress

Texas is officially annexed

Rules: Texas can only be split into a possible four states

Move the 36° 30' line up north (get the Texas border)

James K. Polk (the 11th President)

  * Speaker of the House for four years

  * Governor of Tennessee

  * Firm believer in Manifest Destiny

  * Extremely hard-working, serious

  * Of moderate intelligence

Goals:

  1. wants a lowered tariff – succeeds

Walker Tariff [1846]

-lowers tariffs to 25%

  2. wants to restore the Independent Treasury – succeeds

[1841] Whigs ended the Independent Treasury system

[1846] a new Independent Treasury system is established

  3. the settlement of Oregon – succeeds

[1846] Great Britain and the U.S. agree to extend the 49th parallel to the Pacific Ocean

  4. wants to acquire California

Leads to the Mexican War

### The Mexican War

California in 1845

13 000 Spanish-Mexicans

75 000 Native Americans

Missions line the coast

Less than 1 000 Americans

Polk wants to buy California from Mexico

Problems:

  1. Mexico is angry that the U.S. annexed Texas

  2. Mexico owes the U.S. $3 million in damages

  3. the dispute over the southern border of Texas

-U.S. wanted the border at the Rio Grande

-Mexico wanted the border at the Nevees River

Polk sends John Slidell to Mexico to offer $25 million for California

-Mexico refuses to listen to the offer

-Polk tries to force Mexico into a war

Sends 4 000 U.S. troops under Zachary Taylor to the Rio Grande

[April 25, 1846] Mexican forces killed 16 American soldiers

Polk goes before congress, asks for a declaration of war, and gets it [May 1846]

Santa Anna (who was exiled to Cuba) tricks Americans, returns to Mexico and assumes control of the Mexican Army

People of the War

  1. Zachary Taylor "Old Rough and Ready"

-wins at Monterrey and at Buena Vista

-becomes an instant hero at home

  2. Winfield Scott "Old Fuss and Feathers"

-despite having inadequate supplies, he wins at Vera Cruz and moves to Mexico City

  3. Stephen Kearny

-takes forces among the Santa Fe trail and captures Santa Fe, then, California

  4. John C. Frémont "the Pathfinder"

-leads a revolt in California

-overthrows the Mexican government and sets up the Bear Flag Republic

After the U.S. captures Mexico City, the U.S. and Mexico enter negotiations

[February 2, 1848] U.S. and Mexico sign the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo

Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo

  1. Mexico drops claims to Texas

  2. U.S. buys Mexican Cession for $18 million

[1853] Gadsden Purchase

  * U.S. buys the area south of the Mexican Cession for $10 million

  * Originally, this region was thought to be the best place for a transcontinental railroad

### Sum up Manifest Destiny

Greatly expands the U.S. through the Mexican War

  * California

  * Nevada

  * New Mexico

  * Utah

  * Arizona

Settle the Oregon territory along the 49th parallel

Annexation of Texas

Gadsden Purchase

Webster-Ashburton Treaty –settles Maine

What does Manifest Destiny do?

  * Provides military experience for future Civil War leaders

  * Latin America begins to look at U.S. with some fear

  * Provides U.S. military with respect from the world

  * The U.S. must answer the slavery question for the new territory that is gained

### The South and Slavery

The system of slavery was dying out in the U.S. by the late 1700s

[1793] Cotton gin is invented

  * leads to an increase in cotton production in the south

  * ½ of the world's cotton production comes from the South

  * ½ of U.S. exports is cotton

  * 75% of Great Britain's cotton comes from the South

  * South nicknamed "King Cotton"

-leads to a renewal of slavery in the United States

[1850-1860] 1 733 families own 100 slaves or more in the South

90 000 families own 10-99 slaves each

255 268 families own 10≥ slaves

Total – 1.75 million people own slaves

8.5 million is the population of the South

¾ of Southern whites do not own slaves

-the hope of one day owning a slave that leads this group to believe in the institution of slavery

Slavery

4 million slaves in U.S. by 1860

Slave trade ended in 1808, but illegal trade continued through the Civil War

Conditions for slaves depended on the owner and where the slaves worked

Fugitive Slave Act

Angers Northerners

Why?

  1. Heavy fines and jail terms for anyone caught helping runaways

  2. In some cases, Northerners could be forced to assist in the capture of runaway slaves

  3. The presence of slave-catchers in the North

Reactions of the North

  1. step up the use of the Underground Railroad

-Harriet Tubman, despite having a large bounty on her head, helps 300+ slaves

Underground Railroad – a series of trails and safe-houses that led slaves to freedom

  2. Some northern states pass "personal liberty laws"

-makes it illegal for officials to enforce the Fugitive Slave Act

[1852] Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe is published

  * In its first year, it sells 300 000 copies

  * Millions are sold by 1861

  * A book that displays the cruelty and harshness of slavery

  * Makes millions of Northerners turn to anti-slavery

[1854] The Impending Crisis of the South by Hinton Helper

Argues that slavery is harmful for Southern non-slaveholding whites

-uses statistics to prove his point

Free African Americans

-250 000 in the North and South each

Abolitionism – to abolish slavery

  * Theodore Dwight Weld

  * William Lloyd Garrison – wrote "the Liberator"

  * The American Colonization Society [1817] buys piece of land in Africa – Liberia

  * Sojourner Truth – free slave who ran away

  * Frederick Douglas – founds the newspaper "the North Star" – a runaway slave

  * Harriet Tubman – Underground Railroad – frees 300 slaves

Slaves resisted slavery by:

Running away

Revolts:

-Denmark Vesey [1822]

-Nat Turner [1831]

California

[1848] Gold is discovered at Sutter's Mill in California

-starts the Gold Rush [1848-1849]

  * people from all over the U.S. and the world swarm into California

  * very few actually strike it rich

  * sang "O, Susanna" - "O, Susanna/don't you cry for me/I've gone to California/with a washbowl on my knee"

### Election of 1848

Democrats | Whigs | Free Soil Party

---|---|---

Lewis Cass | Zachary Taylor | Martin Van Buren

An expansionist

Sympathetic to the South

Believed in popular sovereignty

-let people of a territory vote for free or slave | No political experience

No political platform | Anti-slavery

Wilmot Proviso

-proposed by David Wilmot (PA) – no slavery be allowed in the areas acquired from Mexico

Zachary Taylor wins!

By 1849, California has a population of 80 000, and they apply for statehood as a free state

1  5 free states

1  5 slave states – worried about the free states getting the favor in the Senate

-reject California as a free state

D  aniel Webster argues for compromise

W  illiam Seward says that slavery is wrong by a higher law

J ohn C. Calhoun

Enter Henry Clay with a plan

Compromise of 1850

  1. California is admitted as a free state

  2. The territories of Utah and New Mexico will be decided by popular sovereignty

  3. The slave trade in D.C. is banned

  4. Slavery is still legal in D.C.

  5. a strong Fugitive Slave Act is passed – required Northerners to assist in the capture of runaway slaves

  6. Texas cedes land to New Mexico for $10 million

Zachary Taylor is against the compromise and has threatened to veto it

-Taylor dies in July of 1850

-Millard Fillmore takes over as President

In September 1850, Fillmore signs the compromise into law

Clay's compromise merely postponed the problem

Henry Clay's Legacy

  * Election of 1844

  * Election of 1824 "the Corrupt Bargain"

  * Missouri Compromise

  * War Hawk (before the War of 1812)

  * Compromise of 1833

  * Compromise of 1850

  * Election of 1832

  * Speaker of the House

  * Congressman

  * Senator

  * From Kentucky

  * Served as negotiator at Treaty of Ghent

  * American System

### Election of 1852

Democrats | Whigs

---|---

Franklin Pierce | Winfield Scott

Dark horse candidate

From New Hampshire

Lawyer

Served in Mexican War | Hero from Mexican War

Whigs split between the North and the South

254:42 – Franklin Pierce wins

Significance – marks the end of the Whig party

### Pierce's Presidency

There is still a feeling of Manifest Destiny in the U.S.

  1. in 1854 Commodore Matthew Perry sails into Japan and opens them up to trade

  2. William Walker attempts to take over Nicaragua

  3. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty – the U.S. and Great Britain agree NOT to have exclusive rights over a canal in Central America

  4. Pierce wants to acquire Cuba – offers Spain $100 million – Spain refuses

[1854] Pierce asks U.S. ministers in Great Britain, France and Spain to develop a plan to acquire Cuba

-the three ministers meet in Ostend, Belgium and develop the **Ostend Manifesto**

-it states that the U.S. should offer $120 million for Cuba and if Spain refuses, then the U.S. should take it by force

-The Ostend Manifesto leaks out – the Northerners are outraged

-forces Pierce to drop any idea of acquiring Cuba

Kansas-Nebraska Act

[1850s] many people want to build a transcontinental railroad

-the Prize is to be selected as the eastern terminus (starting point)

Stephen A. Douglas

-senator from Illinois

-"Little Giant"

-wants Chicago to be selected to be the eastern terminus

-stands to benefit politically and financially from this

Kansas-Nebraska Act

Douglas develops the act – passes in 1854

  1. the territories of Kansas and Nebraska are created and popular sovereignty will be used to decide the slavery issue

  2. Repeal the Missouri Compromise Line (36° 30' Line)

Results from the Kansas-Nebraska Act

  1. Angers the North

-they openly ignore the Fugitive Slave Act

  2. Destroys the Missouri Compromise

  3. Splits the Democratic Party

– Northern Democrats, Southern Democrats

  4. Destroys Compromise of 1850

  5. Gives rise to the new Republican Party – brings groups together (former Whigs, some Democrats, abolitionists)

-forms in 1854

-grows out of Wisconsin and Michigan

-anti-expansion/anti-extension of slavery

  6. The Know-Nothing Party

-anti-foreigner

-anti-Catholic

-Nativist party – believed that only people native to the country belong

  7. Bleeding Kansas

-pro-slavery men from the South and anti-slavery groups from the North begin moving into Kansas

-Two governments are set up in Kansas

Shawnee Mission – pro-slavery government

Topeka – anti-slavery government

-violence breaks out

-John Brown –ardent abolitionist

-leads followers to Pottowamie Creek and kills five pro-slavery men

[1856-1861] civil war breaks out in Kansas

  8. Bleeding Sumner

-growing debate in Congress over the violence in Kansas

[1856] Charles Sumner of MA gives a speech – "The Crimes against Kansas"

-insults pro-slavery groups

-insults senator Andrew Butler from SC

Congressman Preston Brooks of SC takes offense at the speech

[May 22, 1856] Brooks takes a cane and beats Sumner in his Senate office over the head until the cane breaks

-hurt him so much that he had to go to Europe for 3 ½ years for intensive surgery

-Brooks resigns, but was re-elected

### 1856-1858

Election of 1856

Democrats | Republicans | Know-Nothing Party

---|---|---

James Buchanan | John C. Frémont | Millard Fillmore

PA lawyer

No abolitionist view

Untainted by the Kansas-Nebraska Act

First homosexual president | Hero from the Mexican War

"the Pathfinder"

non-extension of slavery

"Free speech, free press, free soil, free man, Frémont" |

Buchanan wins – 15th President

Dred Scott Decision

[March 6, 1857] Supreme Court rules on the Dred Scott case

-Dred Scott was a slave who was suing for his freedom

The Decision

  1. Chief Justice is Roger B. Taney

-Dred Scott is a slave, and slaves are not citizens of the U.S.

-so, Dred Scott cannot sue

  2. Supreme Court rules that free territories violate the fifth Amendment

-the government cannot deny a U.S. citizen of his property (i.e. slaves)

-so, the Supreme Court says that the Missouri Compromise was never legal

Significance:

Slavery is legal in every territory.

Back to Kansas

[1857] Lecompton Constitution – a constitution written in Kansas that legalizes slavery

[1858] There is a vote on the constitution – it is rejected

  * Despite this, Buchanan submits this constitution to Congress with the idea of slavery being legal

  * Douglas fights against it and the Constitution is defeated in Congress – believes in popular sovereignty – costs his support in the South

  * Kansas does not become a state until 1861

Panic of 1857

-caused by over-speculation in western lands and railroads

-gold in California

-overgrowth of grains

The Panic mostly affects the North – it has little effect in the South

-there is still a high demand for cotton in Europe

Many in the North call for changes

  1. Free homesteads – 160 acres of free land invested

  2. Higher Tariff

Lincoln-Douglas Debates

Stephen Douglas | Abraham Lincoln

---|---

"Little Giant"

idea of popular sovereignty

Senator from Illinois | Not well-known at the time

Congressman from Illinois

Lawyer – "Honest Abe"

6' 4" – lanky, awkward-looking

Debate over the 1858 senate position from Illinois

Lincoln is of the Republican Party – for the non-extension of slavery

Douglas is arguing for popular sovereignty

Freeport Doctrine – Douglas states that slavery cannot exist in a territory if laws are not passed to protect it

-this angers the South

Douglas wins the election

Lincoln gains national fame from the debates

### John Brown's Raid on Harper's Ferry

[1859] wants to start a slave revolt in the South

  * Thinks that if he had enough support, he could go to the South and take over the U.S. arsenal

  * Dispense weapons to slaves to kill their masters

  * Harder than he thought – there was not enough communication

  * Others thought he was crazy – not enough support

[October 1859] Brown and 17 followers seize U.S. weapon arsenal at Harper's Ferry, VA

7 killed, 10 wounded

U.S. calls on Robert E. Lee to capture Brown

Brown is captured and later hanged

Significance

  1. North – some people regard Brown as a hero

  2. South – comes to believe all abolitionists are crazed lunatics willing to do whatever it takes to get what they want

  3. one final break between the North and the South

### Election of 1860

Northern Democrats | Southern Democrats | Constitutional Union | New Republicans

---|---|---|---

Stephen Douglas | John C. Breckinridge | John Bell | Abraham Lincoln

1.3 million popular votes

12 electoral votes | VP under Buchanan

850 000 popular votes

72 electoral votes | Wanted to keep the peace

600 000 popular votes

39 electoral votes | 1.8 million popular votes

180 electoral votes

Lincoln's Platform:

  1. Free Soil – non-extension of slavery

  2. Northern manufacturers – higher tariff

  3. Immigrants – keep immigration

  4. Northwest – Pacific railroad

  5. West – Internal improvements

  6. Farmers – free homesteads

Lincoln becomes president – the votes are split in the other three groups

The South does not like this.

The South's Response to the Election of 1860

[December 1860] South Carolina is the first state to cede from the Union

M  ississippi

Florida

[ January 1861]Alabama

Georgia

L ouisiana

[February 1861]Texas

They form the Confederate States of America, of which Jefferson Davis is the president

James Buchanan does nothing!

-Buchanan doesn't find anything against cession in the Constitution

James J. Crittenden tries to keep the union together

Crittenden Amendments (Lincoln is against the amendments)

  1. Reinstates the 36° 30' line to the Pacific Ocean

  2. Once a territory becomes a state, it can either be a slave state or a free state

-Fails to pass in Congress

[April 1861] only two forts in the South still fly the U.S. flag

**Fort Sumter** – Charleston, SC – needed supplies

  1. if Lincoln supplied the fort, the Confederacy could consider it an act of war

  2. if Lincoln doesn't supply the fort, the fort would have to be surrendered

-Lincoln sends a letter to Davis to warn him so that war is not implied

-but the South still considers it an act of war anyway

[April 12, 1861] the Confederacy opens fire on Fort Sumter

-34 hours pass, the fort falls – no one is killed

After Fort Sumter

V  irginia

A

All cede

rkansas

North Carolina

T ennessee

D

Slave-holding states that do not cede (border states)

elaware

Maryland

K entucky

M issouri

**Significance:** the Civil War has begun

### Background to the Civil War

Border States –

  * Missouri

  * Delaware

  * Maryland

  * Kentucky

  * West Virginia

What is so important about the Border States?

  1. The Border States would have doubled the manufacturing capacity of the South

  2. Would have added 2.5 million whites

  3. Control over the Ohio River and its tributaries

Lincoln's goal – Bring back the South/Reforge the Union

[In the beginning of the war] (Has to keep the Border States)

How does Lincoln keep the Border States?

  1. Martial Law – suspends haebeus corpus (have a right to a trial)

  2. "Supervised" Voting – helped keep the Republicans in power

  3. Cracks down on certain newspapers

**Foreign intervention** (Britain)

Why would they?

  1. 75% of Great Britain's Cotton comes from the South

  2. Britain is openly sympathetic to the South and against Northern Democracy

Why don't they?

  1. The public of Great Britain read Uncle Tom's Cabin and was against slavery

  2. The South was too productive in pre-war years – Great Britain had a 1 ½ year's worth of cotton on hand in 1861

  3. A poor wheat harvest in Great Britain forced them to rely on Northern U.S. wheat

  4. Union Blockade

Great Britain never enters the war.

Raising Money and Troops

Union and Raising Money

[1861] U.S. passed an Income Tax – 3% rate on anyone's paycheck of over $100

[1862] U.S. issues greenback money – paper money that is not backed by gold or silver

-prone to inflation depending on how the war was going at the time

Government sells bonds – a loan to the government – paid interest on the loan

The U.S. passes the National Banking System

-works until 1913

Government passes the Marill Tariff Act

-increases tariff rates

Confederacy and Raising Money

Issue bonds

Issue paper money –"blue backs"

Union and Raising Troops

  1. Beginning of war, Union Army filled with volunteers

-so many that people were turned down

  2. [1863]: volunteers running out

[March 1863] Union calls for a draft

20-45 years old and three years of service

Four day draft not in New York City

How does one avoid the draft?

-find a replacement

-pay $300

"Poor people fighting a rich man's war"

Confederacy and Raising Troops

  1. South calls for conscription – April 1862

  2. Avoid draft if you had ≥200 slaves

### Civil War

Battle of Antietam

Battle of Gettysburg

First Battle of Bull Run

Appomattox Courthouse

Outlines the South (doing well in the beginning, reach a plateau, and then they start to lose)

  1. First Battle of Bull Run

[July 21, 1861] Manassas Junction, VA

  * Union expected this to be a very short war – only expected this battle

  * influential people come and watch

  * Confederates start to retreat, but Stonewall Jackson tries to rally the Confederates

  * results in a Confederate victory

Significance: proves this will not be a short war

  2. **Battle of the Iron-sides** [Monitor vs. Merrimac (VA)]

  * iron-plated ships – [March 1862] five days

  * results in a draw

Significance: changes naval warfare – no more wooden ships

  3. **Capture of New Orleans** – by David Farrogut [April 1862]

  4. **Peninsula Campaign** – Confederate victory

  5. **Second Battle of Bull Run** – Confederate victory

  6. **Battle of Antietam** – First battle fought on the Union side

[September 17, 1862] Antietam Creek, MD

  * bloodiest day of the Civil War

  * battle ends in a draw – 23 000 casualties

  * political victory for the Union

  1. Great Britain decides not to interfere

  2. Lincoln issues the Emancipation Proclamation

-states that slaves in "areas of rebellion" (Confederacy) are free

-does not anger the Border States

-Confederacy does not listen

  7. **Fredericksburg, VA** [December 1862] – Confederate victory

  8. **Chancellorsville, VA** [May 1863]

  * Confederate victory, but Stonewall Jackson was killed

  * Jackson was killed by his own men, who mistook him to be a Union soldier

  9. **Battle of Gettysburg** [July 1-3, 1863] (PA)

    * goes back and forth for three days

    * on the third day, Confederate general George Pickett leads an unsuccessful charge at Union lines – "Pickett's Charge" – battle ends

Significance: marks beginning of the end for the Confederacy

  10. **Battle of Vicksburg** [July 4, 1863]

  * Gives Union control of the Mississippi River

  * Named Ulysses Simpson Grant head of the Union Army

-believed in "total war"

-did not believe in defeat

-actually fought in battles

  11. " **March to the Sea"** [1864 November – 1865 April]

  * William T. Sherman leads it

  * Total destruction through his path

  12. **Re-election for Lincoln** [November 1864]

  13. **Capture of Richmond** [April 13, 1865]

  14. **Appomattox Courthouse** [April 9, 1865] (not a battle)

  * Grant and the Union Army corner Lee at Appomattox, VA

  * Lee surrenders everything to Grant

Significance: marks the end of the Civil War

Election of 1864

North Democrats – split

War Democrats – supported Lincoln

Peace Democrats – did not support Lincoln

-Copperheads were the extreme faction of the Peace Democrats

-led by Clement L. Valandingham

-dropped in the Confederacy

Republicans – Lincoln

Union Party (War democrats + Republicans) | Peace Democrats

---|---

Lincoln | George McClellan

  0. million popular votes

217 electoral votes | General for the Union

1.8 million popular votes

22 electoral votes

African-Americans in the Civil War

  * following the Emancipation Proclamation, Africans were accepted into the Union army

  * 216 000 African Americans join the Union military

  * 54th Massachusetts

  * 22 win the Medal of Honor

  * paid less, treated as laborers, forced to fight in segregation

Women in the Civil War

  * Clara Barton – Union nurse – founded the Red Cross

  * Harriet Tubman – Underground Railroad and Union spy

  * Dorothea Dix – superintendent of Union nurses

Foreign Problems

  1. Trent Affair

-Union arrests two Confederate officials on board a British ship

-"Alabama" – British built ship panned by the British subjects offered by:

-sinking 64 Union ships

  2. Irish-Americans – on several occasions a small group of green aimed to attack the Union

  3. France in 1863

-France installs Maximillian on the throne of Mexico

-at end of war, Union threatens France

-France pulls support, and in 1867, Maximillian is killed

Civil War in Conclusion

600 000 Americans were killed during war

400 000 are wounded

-Union – 400 000 die

-Confederation – 200 000 killed

Nation loses an entire generation

Civil money cost approximately $15 billion

South is destroyed

The infrastructure will have to be rebuilt

There are two positives-

  1. Democracy survives

  2. Slavery is ended forever in the U.S.

### Reconstruction

-Rebuilding and reforming of the country after the Civil War

  1. Rebuild parts of the South

  2. What do we do with the former slaves?

  3. Jobs for soldiers

  4. Convert factories back to a peacetime economy

  5. How do we deal with the South?

Punish or forgive?

  6. Who decides the course of Reconstruction?

The President, Congress, the people?

*Antebellum – pre-Civil War*

Lincoln

-forgive the South

Radical Republicans

-punish the South

-led by Thaddeus Stevens and Charles Sumner

  1. Lincoln's Plan

  2. Johnson's Plan

  3. Congress' Plan

  4. Military Reconstruction

**Lincoln's Plan** [began in 1863]

10% Plan – after 10% of a state's population took an oath of allegiance, that state could be readmitted to the Union

Southern States had to abide by the 13th Amendment [1865-abolished slavery]

**Radical Republicans** – pass the Wade-Davis Bill (vetoed by Lincoln)

50% had to take an oath of allegiance

Stronger requirements for the registration of the 13th Amendment

[April 14, 1865] Lincoln attends the play Our American Cousin at Ford's Theater in D.C.

[April 15, 1865] 7:22 AM Lincoln dies

John Wilkes Booth was eventually captured and killed by federal troops

[March 1865] **Freedman's Bureau** (expires in 1872)

  * served as a type of welfare agency for former slaves

  * provide clothing, temporary shelter and try to locate jobs

  * have some success – but are plagued by some problems

  * What was most successful? – EDUCATION – taught over 200 000 former slaves to read and write

**Johnson's Plan** (by Andrew Johnson)

-wartime governor of Tennessee

-semi-literate

-racist

-forgiving to the South for the wrong reasons (from the South himself)

  1. 10% Plan

  2. pardons Confederate office holders

  3. Southern states are forced to nullify the acts of secession

  4. Have to ratify the 13th Amendment (abolish slavery)

  5. Repudiate Confederate debts

-the South take advantage of Johnson

What happens?

The Southern States pass "Black codes," intended to keep the African Americans under slavery

  1. Barred African-Americans from serving on a jury

  2. Barred African-Americans from renting land

  3. African-Americans could be punished for idleness

This forces African-Americans into certain jobs (like working on farms)

Result:

Sharecropping

  * Another form of slavery

  * African-Americans work on Southern farms and work for part of the profits

  * African-Americans are liable for debts

By December 1865, Johnson announces that all Southern states are back in the Union

-the Southern states send representatives to D.C.

-many of the representatives are former Confederate officers and generals

Congress closes the door on these men and takes over Reconstruction

**Congress's Plan** [1866]

  1. Civil Rights Bill – 14th Amendment

  1. Full civil rights for African-Americans

  2. Can reduce representatives in Congress if their state blocks African-Americans from voting

  3. Disqualifies Confederate office holders from taking office

  4. Repudiate Confederate debts

  2. the 10% Plan

What happens?

  * Johnson encourages the Southern states to vote against the 14th Amendment

  * The Freedman's Bureau is extended even though Johnson tried to veto the bill

  * We see a break between Republicans and Radical Republicans over the best way of Reconstruction

Congressional Elections [1866]

-Republicans made up 2/3 majorities in both houses

**Military Reconstruction** [1867]

-divides the South into five military districts

-in each, is led by a Union general and controlled by Union soldiers

-punishment to the South

-had to ratify the 14th Amendment

-had to grant and ratify the 15th Amendment (gives African Americans the right to vote)

What happens?

Reconstruction of the South is completed by the sword (force)

Realities of Reconstruction

  1. in many Southern states (AL, FL, MS, SC, LA), African-Americans make up the majority, but do not hold the majority in office

  2. Corruption

Carpetbagger – a term used to describe a Northerner who comes to the South after the Civil War, looking for political power

Scalawag – a term used to describe a Southerner who supported the Union during the Civil War

  3. Reform

    1. establishment of adequate schools

    2. improved tax system

    3. public works programs

    4. property rights are guaranteed to women

  4. 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments

-all are designed to protect African-Americans

  5. Formation of Southern "Radical" Groups

-oppose equal rights for African Americans

-Ku Klux Klan-forms in 1866

-terrorized African Americans in the South

-finally brought under control when Congress passes the Force Acts in 1870 and 1871, but they continue to meet and terrorize African Americans

-try to keep African Americans from voting

  6. many African-Americans are restricted from voting

-poll taxes

-literacy test

-Grandfather clause

Andrew Johnson is openly against Congress and their Reconstruction plans [1867] Congress passes the Tenure of Office Act

-makes it illegal for the president to replace an appointed official who was confirmed by Congress

[1868] Johnson fires his Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton (from Lincoln)

-House of Representatives brings impeachment charges against Johnson

-the Senate hears the case and votes on it

-Johnson misses being thrown out of office by one vote

Result:

-would have set a terrible precedent

-would have permanently weakened the office presidency

-makes Johnson a lame duck president [May 1868]

The one bright spot for Johnson's presidency was seen as a terrible move at the time

[1867] Russia is looking to sell Alaska

-believed that Alaska has been "furred out"

Secretary of State, William Seward, purchases Alaska for $7.2 million

-Met with horrible review – Americans are extremely upset

"Seward's Folly" "Seward's Icebox"

### Election of 1868

Republicans | Democrats

---|---

Ulysses S. Grant | Horatio Seymour

Civil War hero

Political Novice

Waves "the bloody shirt" during campaign | Governor of NY during the Civil War

Against the South

Political Moderate

Ulysses S. Grant wins

-only wins by 300 000 popular votes

-newly voting African-Americans gave him the win

-votes from Virginia, Mississippi and Texas are not counted, since they were not reconstructed yet

Reconstruction continues throughout Grant's presidency

-as troops pull out of the Southern states, state governments quickly pass back to the hands of the white Democrats

-"A return to home rule" – white redeemers

-once these home-ruled governments take over, they restrict the rights of African-Americans

Grant's Administration

-has one of the most corrupt presidencies

Grant's Scandals

  1. The Credit-Mobilier Scandal

Credit-Mobilier was a railroad company set up by the Union Pacific Railroad Company

-they would charge $50 000 for every mile of track built

-it only cost $30 000 for every mile of track at the time

-to keep Congressmen quiet, the Credit-Mobilier company gives them shares of stock

-The Vice President was also bribed – Schuyler Colfax

-Scandal is broken in 1872

-Grant's administration took the major blame for it

  2. Salary Grab

-Congress votes to double their pay, including a raise for Grant

-after the rage of the public, Congress repeals the decision

  3. Whiskey Ring

-whiskey distillers and members of the U.S. Treasury team up to avoid paying an excise tax on whiskey

-it cheats the federal government out of millions of dollars

  4. W.W. Belknap – Secretary of War

-sells $24 000 worth of government supplies to the Native Americans

-he then keeps the money for himself

-because of this scandal, he eventually resigns

Panic of 1873

Caused by the over-speculation of western lands and RAILROADS

[

Cost insurances $273 million

1871] Chicago fire

[ 1872] Boston fire

Jay Cooke Company Bank fails – sold bonds to the Union during the Civil War

Leads to a financial panic that lasts for about five years

### Election of 1876

Republicans | Democrats

---|---

Rutherford B. Hayes | Samuel Tilden

Governor of Ohio

Union General

Moderate in political issues | Lawyer from New York

Brings down Boss Tweed

On election night, the electoral count is 184-Hayes, 165-Tilden

You need 185 electoral votes to win (the majority)

South Carolina, Louisiana, Oregon, and Florida – each sent in two sets of electoral votes

One for Democrats, one for the Republicans

Set up a committee – 7 Democrats, 8 Republicans

Democrats threaten to "filibuster until hell freezes over"

Compromise of 1877

Democrats agree to let Hayes be elected if:

  1. The last federal troops are removed from South Carolina and Louisiana

  2. One southerner is on the Cabinet

  3. Grant political power/favor to the South

  4. Spend federal money on internal improvements

The Republicans, by agreeing to this, the Republicans sell out their commitment to equal rights for African-Americans

-this is going to lead to segregation

**After Hayes is sworn in** :

One month later, he removes federal troops from South Carolina and Louisiana

Marks the official end of Reconstruction

After Reconstruction Ends

-Southern states return to white Democrat control "white redeemers"

-new "redeemer" governments limit rights for African-Americans

-begin to see segregation

[1880s] the South begins separating the races in public facilities

[1880s] the South passes "Jim Crow laws"

-calls for formal segregation in the South

-enforced through fear and lynchings

[1896] Supreme Court hands down the **Plessy vs. Ferguson** decision

-Legalizes "separate but equal" facilities in the United States

-For the African-Americans – it meant inferior facilities (ex. Schools)

-Sharecropping becomes the dominant job for many Southern African-Americans

This continues until the mid-1950s

Recapping Reconstruction

Positives:

  * Internal improvements

  * Union is preserved

  * 13th, 14th, 15th Amendments are all passed

  * Reform

-education

-tax system

-rights for women

Negatives

  * Segregation develops

  * Corruption

  * Terror groups

  * Southern states limit the 13th, 14th, 15th Amendments

  * Republicans sell out their commitment to African-Americans

The Gilded Age (of Politics) – on the surface, the U.S. appears to be glittering, growing, and prosperous – in reality, there is economic depression, CORRUPTION, sin, crowds, big business, filth, and crime

*gilded – covered with gold*

Politics – industrialization, frontier, growth of cities

The Gilded Age Presidents "the Forgettable Presidents"

  1. **Ulysses S. Grant** (first president during this age)

-scandals

-depression (Panic of 1873)

  2. Rutherford B. Hayes

-ends the Reconstruction

-"His Fraudulency" – Compromise of 1877 gets him the presidency

Problems:

  * Great Railway Strike of 1877

-Hayes calls out federal troops to deal with strikes – Baltimore and Pittsburgh

  * Deals with the Panic of 1873

  * Hayes vetoes the Chinese Exclusion Act

-receives backlash and outrage because of this

-it is a law that would limit the number of Chinese immigrants

-cheap labor in California, gold rush in California

Congress passes it the year after Hayes leaves office

Election of 1880

The Republicans were split into the Stalwarts and the Half-Breeds

Stalwarts – led by Roscoe Conkling (does not get the NY Port Collectors job he wanted)

-wanted to return to the days of Grant

-VP candidate for the Republicans – Chester A. Arthur (a Stalwart)

Half-Breeds – led by James G. Blaine – secretary of state

Republicans | Democrats

---|---

James Garfield | Winfield Hancock

A Half-Breed

Civil war officer

Grew up very poor | Civil War general

James Garfield wins

  3. James Garfield

  * very honest

  * one major flaw – he cannot say "no"

[July 2, 1881] tragedy hits

  * a deranged office-seeker, Charles Guiteau, shoots James Garfield

  * Garfield does not die for 11 weeks

  * brought to New Jersey for some fresh shore air

[September 19, 1881] Garfield dies

  4. Chester A. Arthur

-when he becomes president, many Stalwarts (including Conkling) believe that they will receive political positions

Arthur surprises them – throws his influence into Civil Service Reform (government jobs)

Result: Pendleton Act of 1883 – establishes a merit system for civil service jobs

  * Sets up a Civil Service Commission

  * Requires that applicants pass an exam for certain jobs

[By 1884] Arthur had classified 10% of all government jobs

[By 1984] over 90% of government jobs are classified

Significance: starts Civil Service Reform

Election of 1884 \- mudslinging

Republicans | Democrats

---|---

James G. Blaine | Grover Cleveland

From Maine – leader of the Half-Breeds

Secretary of State

Linked to corruption on behalf of a Southern Railroad Company – "Burn, burn, burn this letter"

During a campaign speech, a Republican candidate calls the Democrat party "the Party of Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion"

-insults the Irish, who vote Democratic | Mayor of Buffalo

Governor of NY

Lawyer

Bachelor

Linked to an illegitimate child in Buffalo

"Maa, Maa, where's my Pa?"

Grover Cleveland wins

  5. Grover Cleveland

-First Democrat elected since Buchanan

-not an active president

-Congress is Republican

Pension Legislation is the one area he deals with

-tries to clean it up (pension problems)

-he vetoes several hundred individual pension bills

At the end of his first term, Cleveland wants to reduce the high tariff

-there is a huge surplus in the U.S. Treasury

Election of 1888 – major issue of the election is the tariff

Republicans | Democrats

---|---

Benjamin Harrison | Grover Cleveland

Grandson of William Henry Harrison

"Little Tippecanoe"

wants a high tariff

during election – the Republicans pay voters in some states $20 to vote Republican | Wants a lowered tariff

Grover Cleveland wins the popular vote

Benjamin Harrison wins the electoral vote

  6. Benjamin Harrison

His term lasts from 1889 – 1893

Under Harrison and the Republican-controlled Congress, many legislations are passed

Congress is ruled by (Speaker of the House) Thomas B. Reed, "The Czar"

  * The McKinley Tariff Bill – raises the tariff rate up to 48%

  * The Sherman Silver Purchase Act

-government agrees to buy 4 million ounces of silver per month and turn it into money

  * The Sherman Anti-Trust Act

-makes it illegal to put any restraint on trade

  * The Congress of 1888-1890 "The Billion-Dollar Congress"

-spend a lot of the treasury surplus

river and harbor improvements

Steamship subsidies

Pension Act of 1890 – allows more veterans to collect pension

Return federal taxes paid by Northern states

-deplete the surplus in the Treasury

Election of 1892

Republicans – Benjamin Harrison

Democrats – Grover Cleveland – wins

Populist – James B. Weaver

  7. Grover Cleveland

Cleveland believes in "hard" money – money that is backed up by gold/gold standard

During his 2nd term, gold reserves are lowered to about $41 million

-threatens to go off the gold standard with such low gold reserves

-use money not backed by gold

-inflation (acceptable minimum for gold reserves is $100 million)

Cleveland asks J.P. Morgan to help raise money for the U.S.

-Morgan sells U.S. bonds overseas and acquires $65 million in gold for the U.S.

Cleveland also gets the Sherman Silver Purchase Act repealed

  * Major depression takes hold in 1893

-Caused by the usual – over-speculation of western lands

-caused by LOW GOLD RESERVES

  * Labor problems

-labor disputes throughout the country

Gold vs. Silver – should silver be used in the money supply?

Election of 1896 – central issue is gold vs. silver

Democrats/Populists | Republicans

---|---

William Jennings Bryan | William McKinley

Calls for the free coinage of silver

He is a very strong orator

"Cross of Gold" speech – "Do not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold" | Congressman from Ohio

A Major from the Civil War

Runs a "front porch" campaign – lets Bryan talk himself out – angers

Campaign is run by Marcus Hanna

Gold standard, renewed/higher tariff

McKinley wins – last Gilded Age president

Where are the people of power? Why aren't they in politics?

-They are all in business – can make money, empires, and billions – tycoons

-i.e. the Carnegies, Rockefeller...

  8. William McKinley

The Farmer's Revolt

-during the Civil War, prices for crops were very high

-after the Civil War, farmers experience many problems

  1. Crop prices fall

Wheat – [1873] a bushel of wheat - $1.21

[1885] a bushel of wheat - $0.49

Cotton – [1873] a pound of cotton - $0.21

[1885] a pound of cotton - $0.05

  2. Railroad prices are extremely high

-farmers had to ship their goods

  3. New farm technology was expensive

  4. Many farmers only grow one crop

-In order to solve their problems, farmers begin taking action – form the Patrons of Husbandry

-at first, was a social group

-then, they form cooperatives in order to buy seeds and machinery in bulk

-"Granger Laws" are passed to protect farmers

-Greenback Labor Party is one of the first parties that farmers join

[1892] farmers from the west and the south meet in Nebraska and form the Populist Party

The Populist Party is exclusively the farmer's party

Populist Platform

  * Higher taxes placed on the wealthy

  * Government ownership of railroads, telegraphs, telephones

  * Direct election of senators

  * Want free coinage of silver

### Age of Industry

Railroads

[1865] 35 000 miles of railroad

[1900s] 192 565 miles of railroad – most of the growth takes place in the West

Transcontinental Railroad

-Two companies are chosen – Union Pacific Railroad – starts in Nebraska and heads west

Central Pacific Railroad – starts in California and heads east

Workers on the Railroad

-Chinese – 12 000 Chinese workers – esp. on the Central Pacific side

-Irish

Both provide cheap labor

Starts in 1865, ends in May 10, 1869

Meet at Promontory Point, Utah

Leland Stanford hammers in the golden spike to complete the railroad

Significance:

  1. Connects the East and the West

  2. Travel from the West Coast to the East Coast drops from one month to one week

-Four other transcontinental railroads are built:

The Great Northern Railroad

The Northern Pacific Railroad

The Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad

The Southern Pacific Railroad

Developments in Railroads

  1. Steel rails – replaced iron rails

-stronger, sturdier, safer

-promoted by Cornelius Vanderbilt

  2. Standard Track Gauge

-all rail lines are of the same width

  3. Air brakes – developed by George Westinghouse

Adopted in the 1870s by railroad companies

  4. Telegraph – help avoid accidents

  5. The Pullman Palace Cars – "first class"

  6. TIME ZONES

-Four time zones are created on November 18, 1883

-Eastern, Central, Mountain, Pacific

Significance of Railroads:

  1. Create a true national economy

  2. Spurs mining and agriculture in the West

  3. Increases immigration – railroad companies advertised the sale of land in Europe

  4. Makes millionaires – ex. Cornelius Vanderbilt

  5. Destroys the environment – hasten the killing of the buffalo

Major Problems with Railway Industries:

  1. Railroad owners have too much power

  2. Stock Prices were inflated for railroad companies

  3. Owners colluded (work together) to keep prices up

  4. Very corrupt – bribe officials, judges, and politicians

  5. A few individuals controlled the entire industry

Eventually, the government brings some control to the railroads

[1886] the Wabash Case

The Supreme Court rules that states cannot regulate interstate commerce

[1887] the Interstate Commerce Act

First Regulatory Agency in the United States

Congress creates the Interstate Commerce Commission, which oversees the railroads

### Inventions of the Industrial Age

[1860-1890] over 440 000 patents are issued in the United States

  * Cash register

  * Stock ticker

  * Typewriter

  * Refrigerated railcar – improved the transportation of meat and produce

  * Electric railway – invented by Frank Sprague

  * Sewing machine

Notables:

  1. Telephone

[1876] invented by Alexander Graham Bell

  2. Frederick W. Taylor

-Father of "scientific management"

-studied the movements of coal operators and designs the perfect motions for different jobs

  3. Thomas Alva Edison

-phonograph

-electric light bulb

-kinetoscope [pre-cursor of the motion picture]

-stock ticker?

-Electric chair – Edison wanted to use AC electricity to embarrass Westinghouse on a debate; Edison supported DC electricity and invented the electric chair that used AC electricity in the hopes of scaring people

Inventions and technology lead to **Mass Production** on a consumer scale

-leads to advertising

-Quaker Oats

-Heinz Ketchup

-Campbell Soup [from Camden, NJ]

-Kodak

### Big Business in the Industrial Age

Railroads

Leader in this industry are the Vanderbilt's

Steel

-Replaces iron, particularly in railroads

-The Bessemer process makes the production of steel cheaper and more popular

Leader in this industry is Andrew Carnegie

-Controlled ¼ of the entire steel industry in the United States

-Believed in _vertical integration_

-having control over all of the processes for the industry

\- (ex. Having control over the ore companies...)

\- [1900] Carnegie sells his steel company for $400 million to J.P. Morgan

-develops the **Gospel of Wealth**

-says that wealthy individuals should give money to charity

Oil

-oil is first used in sub-medicines [seen as a nuisance], then used as kerosene in lamps, then oil is used as gasoline for automobiles

Leader in this industry is John D. Rockefeller

[1882] Rockefeller organizes the Standard Oil Trust

Believes in _horizontal integration_

-having control over the entire industry

Controlled 95% of the oil industry

Banking

Leader in this industry is J.P. Morgan

-takes failing companies and re-organizes them

[1901] after he buys the steel companies from Carnegie, he creates the U.S. Street Corporation, which was worth $1.4 billion

Believes in _interlocking directories_

-places workers from his bank on the Board of Directors of different companies

### Effects of the Industrial Age

Monopolies are created in many industries (especially oil)

[1890] Sherman Antitrust Act

-forbids any combinations that place a restraint on trade

-that act is NOT used to break up monopolies

-instead, it is used to restrict the creation of labor unions

Effects of the Industrial Age **on the South** :

Relatively unaffected by industrialization – agriculture-based economy

One industry that does flourish in the South – tobacco monopoly

The American Tobacco Company is controlled by James Buchanan Duke

-Donates $1 million to a university – Duke University

Second major industry – textile mills

Effects of the Industrial Age **on women** :

Provides new job opportunities

Ex: switchboard operators, typists, some factory jobs

-smaller families

-wait longer for marriage

-independence

ex: "Gibson Girls": the image of the new, independent woman

Effects of the Industrial Age **on the worker** :

-shift in jobs from farming to factory work

[By 1900] 2 out of 3 Americans were "wage-earners" [paid by the hour]

Working life was controlled by the whistle

Workers faced tough conditions in the workplace

-12-16 hour workdays

-10 hours were typical

-wages were low

-conditions were dangerous

-Workers lacked power to bring about changes – lead to the rise of labor unions

Labor Unions:

  1. National Labor Union [1866-1872]

  2. Knights of Labor [1869-1890s]

Include both skilled and unskilled labor

Led by Terence Powderly

Their downfall begins after the Haymarket Riot in Chicago [1886]

  3. American Federation of Labor [1886- ]

Led by Samuel Gompers

Umbrella Organization

Dealt with the bread and butter issues

-wanted shorter hours and higher wages

Dealt primarily with skilled labor

### The Cities

[1860] no city had over 1 million people

[1890] three cities with over 1 million

-New York City, NY

-Philadelphia, PA

-Chicago, IL

[1915]NYC has over 3.5 million people

-Second largest city in the world (London was #1)

The New Look of the City

  1. The Skyscraper

-usage of steel

-Perfection of the elevator – perfected by Elisha Otis – invented an emergency braking system

  2. Mass Transit

-electric railcar (Frank Sprague)

  3. Department Stores

-JC Penny

-Macy's

-Woolworth's

Begin the age of consumerism

  4. Modern Life

Indoor plumbing

Telephones

Electricity – Night Life

  5. Industrialization - factories

  6. Bridges

Brooklyn Bridge – completed in 1883 – designed by John Roebling

Problems of the New City

  1. Housing – many lived in the slums, called tenement housing

[1878] the Dumbbell Housing is created

-get more air into the apartment, lighter

-bathroom in the middle of that floor

However, the plan is worse than tenement housing

-worse fire hazard

-garbage accumulates in the air shafts

  2. Sanitation

Sometimes, sewers were non-existent

Garbage pickup was sparse

Roads go un-repaired (potholes)

  3. Crime

  4. Corruption

-in many cities, political bosses controlled the cities and stole from the government

-in NYC, Boss Tweed stole over $100 million from 1866-1871

-worked out of Tammany Hall

Who are moving to the Cities?

  1. Farmers

-move to the cities for steady wages in the factories

  2. Immigrants

[1880-1920] approximately 25 million immigrants come to the U.S.

-Ethnic enclave – small communities of the same ethnic background

Ex: "Little Italy", Chinatown, "Little Poland"

Why are they coming?

  * Religious freedom

  * Political escape from political unrest

  * Jobs

  * Opportunity to make it rich

  * Escape overcrowded cities

  * Land!

  * Education – benefit the children

Beginning in 1892, an immigrant coming to the U.S. would most likely travel through Ellis Island – 70% of all immigrants after 1892 enter through Ellis Island

Only 2% are banned from entering – 98% of all immigrants get in

Beginning in 1886 – the Statue of Liberty was given to the U.S. as a gift from France

-becomes a welcome sign to the U.S.

Who are helping immigrants?

  1. Political Bosses

-ex. Boss Tweed from NYC

  2. Church

Esp. Walter Rauschenbush, Washington Gladden – two clergymen who help the poor

  3. Jane Addams

Founds the Hull House in Chicago

-English instruction

-Counseling

-Child care services

-Cultural activities

Reaction to Immigration

"Nativists" oppose the influx of immigrants at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century

Oppose: immigration, organized labor, American Protective Association, wage earners

Government Reaction

[1882] Chinese Exclusion Act is passed

[1882] Immigration Act of 1882

-shuts out the very poor, the insane and the criminals

[1885] Contract Labor Law

-no employer in the U.S. can pay for an immigrant's passage

**Charles Darwin** – wrote The Origin of Species

"Survival of the fittest" is an idea from Thomas Malthus

[1920s] Scopes Trial: the Church vs. Darwin

Booker T. Washington

  * Founds the Tuskegee Institute

  * Was a proponent for equality for African-Americans

  * Wants gradual equality – wants them to learn skills first in order to build equality

W.E.B. Dubois

  * Calls for immediate equality

  * First African-American to receive a PhD in Harvard

  * Wanted equal success opportunities immediately

The New Colleges

Morrill Act [1862]

  * Passed after the South was seceded

  * Granted land for colleges – Land Grant Colleges

  * In return – provides services (ex. Military training)

Hatch Act

  * Extended the Morrill Act

  * Provided federal funds for establishment of agricultural experimentations in connections with colleges

**Yellow Journalism** – sensationalist journalism (tabloids)

William Randolph Hearst – very powerful in the newspaper industry – built a chain

Joseph Pulitzer – first to use color in newspapers – big time sales

### The Frontier

Native Americans on the Great Plains

  * By the late 1860s, many Native American groups are fighting each other over the buffalo

  * After the Civil War ends, settlers begin moving out to the west – U.S. takes an active position on placing Native Americans in reservations

[1851] Fort Laramie Treaty

[1853] Fort Atkinson Treaty

The previous two treatises:

  * set boundaries for Native Americans

  * paid tribute to Native American tribes

  * set hunting grounds for the Native Americans

  * allows U.S. to build forts and railroads on Native American territory

[1864] Sand Creek Massacre (in Colorado)

400 Native Americans (the Sioux) are massacred after surrendering

[1866] Sioux War Party kills 81 U.S. soldiers on a Montana trail

[1874] Gold is discovered in the Black Hills of South Dakota in Native American territory

[1876] Battle of Little Bighorn "Custer's Last Stand"

-General George A. Custer and 264 U.S. soldiers are wiped out by the Sioux

Significance:

-the height of Native American resistance to forced relocation after the war

-Last major victory for the Native Americans

[1877] Chief Joseph and the Nez Pērce Indians surrender

[1880s] Geronimo and Apaches eventually surrender to the U.S. Army

[1890] the Massacre at Wounded Knee

-200 Native American men, women, and children are massacred by the U.S. Army

-Native Americans were doing the Ghost Dance (illegal)

Significance:

-Ends Native American Resistance on the Great Plains

The Buffalo

-the most important aspect of Native American life on the Great Plains

-tribes use the buffalo for everything, everything of the buffalo is used

[1865] 15 million buffalo on the Great Plains

[1890] less than one thousand buffalo on the Great Plains

[1900] less than 50 buffalo on the Great Plains

What happened?

  1. For Sport – tourists would come to the Great Plains and kill buffalo for fun

  2. Railroads – Railroad workers kill the buffalo for food

-shoot the buffalo to keep them off the tracks (might derail the train)

  3. White Hunters – killed the buffalo for the tongue and hides

-Left the carcass to rot – shocking to the Native Americans

[1881] Helen Hunt Jackson writes A Century of Dishonor

-highlights the broken treaties by the U.S. Government

[1887] Dawes Act

-the U.S. government breaks up the tribal system and gives Native American families plots of land

-tries to "Americanize" Native Americans

-places Native American children into white schools

Insults the Native Americans, who valued the tribe system

Why are people moving west?

  1. Land

[1862] U.S. Government passes the Homestead Act

-gives anyone 160 acres of land who promises to work and improve on the land

-Life was not easy on the Great Plains

-2 out of 3 Homestead-ers give up and return to the East

Problems for farming

-No water, rain is scarce

-Fencing

-Housing

Solutions

-Housing – sod houses

-Fencing – barbed wire [invented in the 1870s]

-Water – Dry Farming (deep wells) – Irrigation projects

  2. Mining

People are searching for gold, silver, and other metals

Boom Towns – towns spring to life with the discovery of metals

-after everything is mined out...

Ghost Town – abandoned, left for dead

Businesses made money in mining – could afford more tools and machinery

  3. Cattle Ranching

[By 1865] over 5 million cattle wandering through Texas

-cowboys would herd the cattle to railroads in Kansas and Nebraska

-the cattle would then be shipped to Chicago

-Chicago becomes the center of the meat industry

Oklahoma

-last part of the U.S. to be opened to settlement

-opened on April 22, 1889

– "sooners" sneak in before the official opening

[1890] U.S. census officially declares the closing of the American Frontier

[1893] Frederick Jackson Turner writes "the Significance of the Frontier in American History" – romanticizes the West

### Early Conflicts and Expansion

  1. China

Treaty of Whangia – gives U.S. "most favored nation" status and opens four ports

-exclusively for the U.S.

  2. Japan

[1852] Commodore Matthew Perry sails into Japan and opens them into trade

Significance: the U.S. is beginning to play a larger role in world affairs

  3. Alaska

[1867] Secretary of State William Seward buys Alaska from Russia

  4. Treaty of Washington [1871]

-settles disputes between Great Britain and U.S. from the Civil War

  5. Samoa

[1889] Germany, Great Britain, and the U.S. form a joint protectorate over the islands of Samoa – first time the U.S. is expanding to other parts of the world

  6. Chile

[1891] two U.S. sailors are killed by a Chilean mob

-the two sides come very close to war over this incident

-Ultimately, the Chilean government backs down and apologizes

Significance: U.S. displays a willingness to go to war over minor issues

  7. Venezuela

[1895] Great Britain and Venezuela are arguing over land

U.S. Secretary of State – Richard Olney

-claims that Great Britain is trying to violate the Monroe Doctrine

There is talk of war between Great Britain and the U.S., but eventually, Great Britain backs down and agrees to arbitration

Significance: Great Britain recognizes the growing power of the U.S. and decides to make them an ally

  8. Hawaii

Americans had gained considerable control on the islands of Hawaii

[1875] a trade agreement is set up

[1887] a naval agreement is reached

-allows U.S. to use Pearl Harbor

Queen Liluokalani (of Hawaii) wants to restore Hawaii to native Hawaiians

[1893] Americans (with help of U.S. Marines) overthrow Queen Lil

-Cleveland does not want to annex it

-Hawaii remains independent until 1898

What's Motivating the U.S. towards Expansion?

  1. The U.S. is overflowing with goods

-expansion leads to more markets

  2. The rest of the world is expanding

[1880s] Africa is divided amongst the world's powers

[1890s] China is divided into spheres of influence

  3. The Yellow Press

-Pulitzer and Hearst create news to try to get the U.S. to expand

  4. [1890] Alfred Thayer Mahan writes "The Influence of Sea Power upon History"

-Outlines how a country can become a world power – TR is influenced

### Spanish-American War

[1895] Cuban rebels begin to rebel against Spanish rule and declare their independence

[1896] Spain sends General Valeriano "Butcher" Weylar to Cuba to restore control

-places many Cuban rebels in camps

[1897] McKinley begins negotiating a peace between Cuba and Spain

[1898] Feb. 11 – A New York journal prints a letter by Spanish ambassador Dupey De Lome that calls McKinley: 1) a wanna-be politician 2) a weak bidder for public administration

Feb. 15 – the U.S. ship The Maine, which was anchored in Havana, Cuba, explodes

-the U.S. navy blames the explosion on Spanish mine

-it was actually an internal explosion

-the public is outraged and begins calling for war

Apr. 11 – McKinley asks Congress for a declaration of war against Spain

-the U.S. goes to war against Spain

May 1 – Commodore George Dewey crushes the Spanish fleet in Manila, Philippines

-immediately makes Dewey a hero

June – 17 000 U.S. soldiers are sent to Cuba from Tampa, Florida

-this staging ground is an absolute mess; eventually the troops are sent to Cuba

-Included is a group called the Rough Riders – created by Theodore Roosevelt

July 1 – Rough Riders are involved in battles on San Juan Hill and El Caney

-victorious in both

July 3 – U.S. fleet in Cuba destroys the Spanish fleet

July – U.S. invades and liberates Puerto Rico – Spanish are kicked out

Aug. 12 – Spain and the U.S. sign armistice

Biggest Problem for the U.S. during the war is DISEASE

-400 U.S. soldiers die in battle

-5 000 U.S. soldiers die from disease

-at one point, 80% of the U.S. army had some form of a tropical disease

Results of the War

  1. Cuba is granted independence by Spain

-When Congress passed the declaration of war, they also passed the Teller Amendment, which declared that Cuba would receive their independence from the U.S.

  2. U.S. receives Guam

  3. U.S. receives Puerto Rico

  4. U.S. receives the Philippines for $20 million

### U.S. Acquisitions 1850-1917

  * Alaska [1867] – purchase from Russia

  * Philippines [1898] from the Spanish-American War (7 000 islands)

  * Guam [1898] from the Spanish-American War

  * Samoa [1899] joint protectorate with just Germany

  * Wake Island [1899] U.S. navy stops there and takes control of the island during the Spanish American War

  * Midway Island [1867] – given by Captain Brooks

  * Hawaii [1898] annexed

  * Puerto Rico [1898] during the Spanish-American War

What do these acquisitions mean for the U.S.?

  1. The U.S. has commitments in locations around the world

  2. With more land, there is a louder call in the U.S. for a larger navy

  3. Restructuring of the War Department

-Elihu Root takes over the War Department and creates a General Staff

  4. The rift between the North and the South seems to close after the Spanish-American War

  5. The Spanish-American War signals the arrival of the U.S. as a world power

### Dealing with an Empire

  1. Philippines – the people of the Philippines had hoped to achieve their independence

-The Philippines is directly controlled by the U.S.

-they begin to revolt against the U.S. rule [1899-1901]

-the Filipino Insurrection

-Was much longer and costlier than the Spanish-American War was

-the revolt was led by Emilio Aguinaldo

William H. Taft

-Civil Governor of the Philippines

-calls the Philippine people "his little brown brothers"

  2. Cuba

-The Teller Amendment gave Cuba their independence, but the U.S. wants some control

-made Cuba include the Platt Amendment into their Constitution

Platt Amendment:

  * Cuba could not make treaties

  * Cuba could not go into debt

  * U.S. could step in when necessary

  * No foreign powers in Cuba

  * Cuba agrees to lease land to the U.S. for a naval base (only term of the amendment that still survives today) – Guantanamo Bay

-Colonel William Gorgas and Dr. Walter Reed seek to wipe out yellow fever in Cuba

  3. Puerto Rico

Foraker Act of 1900

-gives Puerto Ricans a limited degree of popular government

[1917] Puerto Ricans are granted U.S. citizenship

-millions of dollars are spent on improving the infrastructure of Puerto Rico

  4. Opposition at home

Anti-Imperialists:

  * Andrew Carnegie

  * Samuel Gompers

  * William J. Bryan

  * Mark Twain

### U.S. on the World Stage

[1895] China is defeated by Japan and subsequently is split into spheres of influence

-Great Britain, Russia, Germany, Japan, France

-U.S. and Secretary of State John Hay create the Open Door Policy

-give every country the opportunity to trade in China and respect China's independence

-Russia rejects it

[1900] The Boxer Rebellion (the Righteous Fists of Harmony)

-an extreme Chinese nationalist group – they want to end foreign influence in China

-begin attacking foreigners – 200 are killed

-it is eventually put down by soldiers from: Germany, U.S., Great Britain, France, Japan, and Russia

-The Chinese are forced to pay $334 million in damages

After the Boxer Rebellion, Hay and the U.S. once again issue the Open-Door Policy

-it becomes accepted by the major powers

### Election of 1900

Republicans | Democrats

---|---

William McKinley | William Jennings Bryan

Imperialist

Spanish-American War

Gold Standard

VP candidate – Theodore (Teddy) Roosevelt | Anti-Imperialist

Free Silver

McKinley wins again

[Sept 1901] McKinley attends an expo in Buffalo, NY

-Leon Czolgosz assassinates McKinley

Teddy Roosevelt becomes President

### Teddy Roosevelt

  * New York

  * Graduate from Harvard

  * Police Commissioner of New York

  * Assistant Secretary of the Navy

  * Founder of the Rough Riders

  * Governor of New York

  * Vice President

  * Blessed with boundless energy

  * Big game hunter in Africa

  * Outdoors man

  * Adventurer (the first president to fly an airplane, submarine, practice jujitsu, boxing)

"Speak softly and carry a big stick" (TR's foreign policy)

  1. Wants to increase the size of the Navy

Increases from five to 25 battle ships (steel ships)

  2. Keep the balance of power in the far East

Russo-Japanese War

-Teddy Roosevelt acts as a negotiator – helps bring peace

-called the Portsmouth Treaty

-Teddy Roosevelt wins the Nobel Peace Prize for this

  3. Connect the Pacific and the Atlantic Ocean

Roosevelt wants to build a canal in Central America

France tried first, but failed miserably (yellow fever)

[1901] the U.S. signs a treaty with Great Britain

Hay Pauncefote Treaty

-replaces and gets rid of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty

next problem – Columbia owns Panama and does not want to lease the land to the U.S.

with U.S. help, Panama revolts against Columbia

-Panama declares its independence and signs the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty

-allows the U.S. to build a canal

[1904] Construction on the canal starts

[1906] Yellow fever problem is solved and construction resumes

[1914] Canal is finished, costing $400 million

  4. Keep Europe out of North America

Roosevelt adds the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine

-in the case of wrongdoing against a Latin-American country, the U.S. would intervene to exercise its international "police power"

Significance:

-Roosevelt adds teeth to the Monroe Doctrine

  5. Stop unwanted immigration

(particularly in California)

Many people in California are angry at Japanese immigration

Roosevelt negotiates with Japan – The Gentleman's Agreement

-Japan agrees to halt the immigration of unskilled workers to the United States

  6. Demonstrate U.S. power

Roosevelt sends out the Great White Fleet – 16 battleships

-go in an around-the-world-expedition [1907]

the Great White Fleet is well-received around the world

Result: Root-Takahira Agreement

-U.S. and Japan pledge to abide by the Open Door Policy in China and to respect territorial possessions around the world

### The Age of Flight

Orville and Wilber Wright

-two bicycle mechanics from Ohio

-become interested in flight

-their experiments bring them to Kitty Hawk, NC (sand dunes and wind)

[December 17, 1903]

The Wright brothers make the first successful flight of a human being

### The Progressive Era

-at the turn of the century, there is a huge movement to right the wrongs and ills of society

Goal – use the government as an agency of "human welfare"

The Progressives attack:

  * Social injustices

  * Corruption

  * Inefficiency in government services

  * Monopolies

An early attack against the trust was led by Henry Lloyd in his book Wealth Against Commonwealth, which attacked the Standard Oil Trust

**Muckrakers** – (Roosevelt gives them this nickname in 1906)

-journalists of the Progressive Era who attempted to expose crime, corruption, and social injustice

  1. Jacob Riis – "How the Other Half Lives" [1890]

Showed the filth and squalor of living in the slums

  2. Lincoln Steffens – "The Shame of the Cities"

Magazine series exposing the link between big business and city governments

  3. Ida Tarbell

Attacked the Standard Oil Company

  4. Upton Sinclair – "The Jungle"

Highlights the miseries of workers in stockyards and canning facilities

-but actually shows the terrible conditions of meat-packing plants

As a whole, the Progressive Era was led by middle-class men and women who felt that the government and society was not operating properly for the people.

Reforms of the Progressives in Politics

  1. Recall – allowed the voters of a state to remove elected officials before their term expired – it was created to remove officials that were taking bribes

  2. Initiative – voters could directly propose laws and legislation when the state legislation has not done so

  3. Referendum – placed laws on the ballots for the voter to give final approval

  4. Corrupt-Practices Acts – limits the amount of money a candidate could spend on the election

  5. Secret Ballots – eliminate the different color ballot for different political parties

  6. 17th Amendment – direct election of U.S. senators is given to the voters and taken away from state legislatures

  7. Women's Suffrage – many of the liberal western states granted women the right to vote, but universal suffrage does not come about until 1920

Progressivism in the Cities and States

Reform in the Cities

-some cities appointed commissions on the city manager system

Reform in the States

-3/4 of all states pass child labor laws

-workman's compensation laws were passed

-disability insurance is set up in many states

-tax laws were changed to place the burden upon the rich

-utility commissions are formed to keep rates low

-many states pass restrictions on the sale of liquor

led by the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU)

finally achieve their goal in 1919 with the 18th Amendment

Reform of the states was led by Robert Lafollette and his **Wisconsin Idea**

  1. Creation of a primary to choose candidates

  2. Commission to control railroad rates

  3. Competitive Civil Service Exam

  4. State supervision of banks

  5. Higher taxes for corporations

### Teddy Roosevelt – The Square Deal (domestic policy)

  1. Control of Corporations

  2. Consumer Protection

  3. Conservation of Natural Resources

  1. Control of Corporations

TR becomes known as a "trustbuster" – breaks up many large companies

  * [1902] 140 000 coal workers go on strike

-TR threatens to send federal troops to work in the mines if the two sides do not negotiate

-eventually, the two sides come to an agreement

Significance: leads to the creation of Department of Commerce and Labor

  * Hepburn Act

-strengthens the power of the Interstate Commerce Commission

-brings control over railroad rates

  * Northern Securities Case

-Northern Securities – a railroad company set up by J.P. Morgan and James Hill

-TR uses the Sherman Anti-Trust Act to break up the company

[1904] Supreme Court agrees with TR

Theodore Roosevelt will go on to break up 40 of these trusts in the U.S.

  2. Consumer Protection

-Many people were horrified by the meat industry after reading Sinclair's "The Jungle"

Results:

  * The Meat Inspection Act [1906]

-any meat product that passes over state lines is subject to federal inspection

  * Pure Food and Drug Act [1906]

-requires labels of ingredients for certain products

-cleans up pharmaceutical industry

  3. Conservation of Natural Resources

-Americans are quickly destroying many of the natural resources in the U.S.

-TR was an avid outdoorsman and environmentalist

-realizes the need to save natural resources in the U.S.

Results:

  * Newlands Act [1902]

-used money from the sale of western lands for irrigation projects in the west

-creates canals and dams in the west

  * Forest Reserve Act [1890]

-TR uses this act to save 125 million acres of forestland in the U.S.

-National parks are created (ex. Yosemite)

-Gifford Pinchot is head of the U.S. Forestry Department along with TR help corporations and nature co-exist

[1907] "Roosevelt Panic" – displays the need for a new national banking system

[1908] Roosevelt hand-picks his successor

William Howard Taft wins the election of 1908

### William H. Taft

-Secretary of War

-Civil Governor of the Philippines

-lawyer

-judge

-352 pounds

Taft's Foreign Policy – **"Dollar Diplomacy"**

-encouraged U.S. businesses to invest money into foreign nations that the U.S. had an interest in. The U.S. would then promise military protection of those investments

-this leads to increased involvement in Latin America

The U.S. uses military intervention in:

  * Nicaragua

  * Panama

  * Cuba

  * Haiti

  * Dominican Republic

  * Mexico

  * Honduras

Taft's Domestic Policies

  1. Taft was a trustbuster

-breaks up 90 trusts during his presidency

  2. The Payne-Aldrich Tariff

-Taft approved of this tariff despite the fact that it does not lower tariff rates-angers many Republicans, including Theodore Roosevelt

-leads to a split in the Republican Party

  3. Conservation

-saves millions of acres of U.S. land

-BUT he angers TR when he dismisses the Head of Forestry, Gifford Pinchot

-the Pinchot-Ballinger Argument

Theodore Roosevelt's new Domestic Policy – **"New Nationalism"**

  * Calls for strict regulation on corporations

  * Tariff revision

  * Federal income tax

  * National workman's compensation laws

  * Recall and initiative program

[1912] Theodore Roosevelt decides to run for President again

### Election of 1912

Republican | Progressives | Democrats | Socialists

---|---|---|---

William H. Taft | Teddy Roosevelt | Woodrow Wilson | Eugene V. Debs

3.5 million popular votes

becomes Chief Justice of South Carolina | "Bull Moose Party"

4.1 million popular votes | 6.2 million popular votes | 900 000 popular votes

Theodore Roosevelt was campaigning for the win but was shot during a speech – slowed down

Woodrow Wilson wins

### Woodrow Wilson

-Democrat

-Professor

-President of Princeton University

-Governor of New Jersey, but is from Virginia

-was a sickly child, racist

Domestic Policy – **"New Freedom"**

  1. Called for an end to monopolies

Clayton Anti-Trust Act

-made interlocking directories illegal

-exempted labor unions from anti-trust leg

-added more teeth to the Sherman Anti-Trust Act

Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914

-President could appoint a commission who could investigate industries engaged in Interstate Commerce

-supposed to rule out unfair trading practices, unfair competition, false advertising, mislabeling and bribery

  2. Banking Reform

[1907] reconcentration of money in a few banks become a big problem

Idea of Senator Aldrich

Result: Federal Reserve Act [1913]

-created a Federal Reserve Board appointed by the President

-creates twelve Regional Banks

-could issue paper money

-Federal Reserve Board oversees the twelve Regional Banks

-Member Banks belong to the Regional Banks

  3. Tariff Reductions

[1913] Underwood-Simmons Tariff Bill

-reduces tariff rates by about 11%

-also created a tax on income over $3 000

  4. Other

Adamson Act – 8-hour workday for employees on trains in interstate commerce

Federal Farm Loan Act and Warehouse Act [1916]

-provides long term loans at low rates to farmers

Lafollette's Seamen Act of 1915

-required decent living and a living wage on merchant ships

Workman's Compensation Act [1916]

Foreign Policy – **"Moral Diplomacy"**

-Wilson did not like the aggressivism of The Big Stick Policy and was suspicious of Wall Street and Dollar Diplomacy

-Wilson would use the power of the U.S. to influence and spread "democracy" and use "moral" sense in deciding whether to get involved in a country or not

  1. at first, Wilson is Anti-Imperialist

-repeals Panama Canal Tolls Act which allowed the U.S. to move through the canal without paying tolls

[1916] Jones Act – granted the Philippines partial independence

-caused U.S. investors to pull out of China

  2. Wilson begins to change his tune

[1915] sends the Marines to Haiti

[1916] U.S. creates a treaty with Haiti – gives U.S. supervision of finances and policy

[1916] sends the Marines to the Dominican Republic

[1917] U.S. purchases the Virgin Islands from Denmark

  3. Moral Diplomacy in Mexico

[1913] Civil War breaks out in Mexico – General Huerta becomes President

[1914] Huerta collapses and Carranza takes over

-then, Pancho Villa leads a bandit group and attacks Americans in Mexico

-Pancho Villa then attacks New Mexico

-Wilson sends General John J. Pershing "Black Jack" into Mexico in 1916 to capture Villa

  4. Wilson enters World War I

[summer of 1914] war breaks out in Europe

U.S. remains neutral until 1917

-Wilson declares war on Germany

-U.S. enters "The Great War"

### U.S. Expansionary Policy [1850-1914]

[1853] Commodore Matthew Perry sails into Japan and opens them up to trade

[1859] U.S. acquires Midway Island

[1867] Secretary of State William Seward buys Alaska for $7.2 million from Russia

-"Seward's Folly" "Seward's Icebox"

[1889] U.S., Great Britain, Germany form a joint protectorate on Samoa

[1890] Alfred Thayer Mahan's "The Influence of Sea Power upon History"

[1895] Venezuelan boundary dispute

-Britain claim the right to more land in Venezuela

-U.S. enforces the Monroe Doctrine

-almost wars with Britain

[1898] **Spanish-American War**

Causes:

  1. De Lome letter – insults McKinley

  2. Yellow press – Pulitzer and Hearst – sensationalist papers

  3. Sinking of the Maine

Acquisitions:

  1. Puerto Rico

  2. Guam

  3. Philippines

  4. Annex Hawaii

  5. Gained control over Cuba (Teller Amendment)

Emilio Aguinaldo leads Filipino Insurrection

[1900] Boxer Rebellion (Righteous Fists of Harmony)

[1903] Panamanian Revolution begun by Teddy Roosevelt

[1904] Roosevelt Corollary adds teeth to Monroe Doctrine

[1914] World War I begins

### Teddy Roosevelt

  * Energetic and athletic

  * Vice President under McKinley

  * Police commissioner in NYC

  * Governor of NY

  * Harvard graduate

  * Outdoorsman

  * Rough Rider

  * Assistant secretary of the Navy

  * Youngest person to become President – 42 years old

**Big Stick Policy** – Roosevelt's Foreign Policy

  1. Increase the size of the navy – 5 to 25 battleships

  2. Keep the balance of power in the Far East

-Ends the Russo-Japanese War with the Portsmouth Treaty

-wins the Nobel Peace Prize for this

  3. Built a canal to connect Atlantic and Pacific Oceans

-TR incites a revolution in Panama against Columbia

-becomes first president to leave country during the presidency

Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty

-gives permission to the U.S. to build a canal

[1904] work begins

[1906] work re-starts (after an outbreak of yellow fever)

  4. Roosevelt Corollary

-strengthens the Monroe Doctrine

– gives U.S. police powers in the Americas

  5. Gentlemen's Agreement

-U.S. and Japan agree to keep unskilled workers out of California

  6. Show off power

Great White Fleet

-16 battleships sent around the world

-especially to scare the Japanese

Root-Takahira Agreement

-an agreement to respect each other's territorial possessions

Successor to Roosevelt? Roosevelt picks his successor – Taft

### William Howard Taft [1908]

  * Secretary of War

  * Civil Governor of Philippines (calls them "my little brown brothers")

  * Lawyer

  * Judge (goes on to become Chief Justice)

**Dollar Diplomacy** – Taft's Foreign Policy

  * Encouraged U.S. businesses to invest in foreign nations that were of strategic concern for the U.S.

  * The U.S. would then back those investments by using the military

  * "Where the money's going, the U.S. Marines are to follow"

China – U.S. attempted to open a railway in Manchuria but doesn't back it up with the military – failed

Examples of "Dollar Diplomacy" nations:

  * Honduras

  * Nicaragua

  * Dominican Republic

  * Cuba

  * Haiti

### Election of 1912

Republicans – Taft~3.4 million votes

Progressives (Bull Moose Party) – Teddy Roosevelt~4.1 million votes

Democrats – Woodrow Wilson~6.2 million votes

Socialists – Eugene V. Debs~900 000 votes

Woodrow Wilson wins!

Woodrow Wilson (28th president)

  * Sickly child, learned alphabet at 9 years, learned to read at 11 years

  * From Virginia – extremely racist

  * Graduates from Princeton, becomes a professor, then President

  * Governor of NJ

His secretary of state is William Jennings Bryan

Wilson rejects Big Stick and Dollar Diplomacy – anti-Imperialist
Part I: **Wilson: The Anti-Imperialist**

  1. Repeals the Panama Canal Tolls Act

-U.S. would have had free shippage through the canal

  2. Jones Act [1916]

-grants partial independence to the Philippines

  3. After one week in office, Wilson claims that the U.S. military will no longer be used to back investments in foreign nations – investors pull out of six nations loans to China

Part II: **Wilson: The Imperialist/Semi-Imperialist**

  1. Haiti [1915]

-Wilson sends U.S. Marines to protect investments and lives when a civil war breaks out

Sounds like Dollar Diplomacy...

  2. Haiti [1916]

-U.S. creates a treaty, giving U.S. supervision over finances and police

Sounds like the Roosevelt Corollary...

  3. Dominican Republic [1916]

-U.S. sends Marines to put down riots and protect U.S. investments

-the Marines stay there for eight years

Sounds like both Dollar Diplomacy and Big Stick

  4. Buys Virgin Islands from Denmark [1917]

Sounds like Big Stick

Part III: **Wilson: Moral Diplomacy in Mexico**

[1913] Civil War in Mexico – General Huerta takes over

-leads to the migration of thousands of Mexicans to the U.S.

[1914] Huerta collapses under pressure from the U.S.

Tampico Incident

-Mexico refuses the 21-gun apology to jailing U.S. citizens

-almost had war

[1914] Carranza takes over – supported by the U.S.

[1915] Pancho Villa begins attacking Carranza supporters and U.S. workers

-kills U.S. workers in Mexico

-kills U.S. workers on American soil in New Mexico

[1916] Wilson sends John J. Pershing "Blackjack"

-led U.S. troops on a chase of Villa throughout Mexico

[1917] Pershing is recalled (needed for WWI)

[1923] Villa is assassinated by his own people in Mexico

### European Entrance in WWI

  1. Imperialism – European nations competing for the same land around the world

  2. Rabid Nationalism –extreme pride in one's own country

  3. Militarism [1890-1914]

-every European country increases per capita expenditure on the military

-mandatory conscription in every country (except Great Britain)

  4. Alliances

Triple Alliance [1882]

  * Germany

  * Austria-Hungary

  * Italy

Triple Entènte [1907]

  * Great Britain

  * France

  * Russia

The Spark

[June 28, 1914] Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife are assassinated

(From Austria-Hungary) in Bosnia by Gaurilo Princip

[July 28, 1914] Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia

  * Russia comes to Serbia's aid – war on Austria-Hungary

  * Germany enters the war – declares war on Russia and France

(Germany gets into a problem – a two-front war)

  * After Germany invades neutral Belgium, Great Britain jumps into the war

The Great War has begun

Allies | Central Powers

---|---

Great Britain

Russia

France

[1915] Italy | Germany

Austria-Hungary

Turkey (Ottoman Empire)

Bulgaria

Germany has a plan to win the war in 39 days: Schlieffen Plan [1905]

-calls for Germany to invade neutral Belgium

-Germany pushes through Belgium easily and into France

-get to within eight miles of Paris before they are halted

Problems:

-ammunition is not readily available

-uniforms are decaying

-shoes start wearing out

[1914] **Battle of the Marne**

Successful in pushing the Germans back about 50 miles

[By the end of 1914] the war is at a stalemate

[Beginning of 1915] War turned into trench warfare

*World War I terminology*

SIW – Self-Inflicted Wound (to get out of fighting, soldiers shot themselves in the foot)

"Over-the-top" – a charge at an opposing trench

New Technology

  * Poison gas

  * Machine guns

  * Submarines (U-Boats)

  * Airplanes (invented in 1903 by the Wright brothers)

  * Tanks

[February 1916] **Battle of Verdun**

-German offensive-fails miserably

[July 1916] **Battle of Somme** "Great F***-Up"

-Britain offensive – within the first hour, there are 60 000 British casualties

-Total one million casualties in the battle

[1915] Italy enters the war

[by 1916] 600 000 Italian soldiers throw down their weapons and return home

[1916] Russia is being badly defeated on the Eastern Front

-at least they are occupying Germany

-but within one year, they are out of the war (Bolshevik Revolution)

### U.S. Entrance into WWI

[1914] Wilson declares the U.S. to be neutral "in both thought and deed"

Reasons Why the U.S. enters the War for the Allies:

  1. Economic reasons

-as the war continues, the U.S. increases trade with the Allies

-meanwhile, the U.S. decreases trade with the Central Powers

-Great Britain blockade German ports

-U.S. bankers lend money to the Allies

-$2.3 billion to the Allies

-$10 billion altogether

  2. Culture

-historical ties with Great Britain (also a shared language-English)

  3. Political ties – much of U.S. laws tie to English common laws

  4. Propaganda

-Great Britain controls almost all the transatlantic cables

-they keep bad information away from the U.S.

  5. Freedom of the Seas

-both Great Britain and Germany violate U.S. shipping rights

Britain is forcing U.S. ships into their ports

Germany is sinking U.S. ships and killing civilians with U-boats

-the lesser of the two evils is Great Britain

Steps toward War

[February 1915] Germany announces a sub-war zone around the British Isles

[May 1915] German U-boat sinks the Lusitania (a British passenger ship)

-kills 1198 people, including 128 Americans

Wilson issues the Lusitania Notes

-William Jennings Bryan, Secretary of State, resigns (threat to neutrality)

[August 1915] the Arabic is sunk (another British passenger ship)

-kills two Americans

-Germany apologizes – agrees to stop sinking unarmed ships without warning

[March 1916] the Sussex (a French ship) is sunk

-this time, Wilson is infuriated – The Sussex Pledge

-Germany pledges to stop sinking ships...if Britain stops their blockade

-Wilson only heeds the first part

### Election of 1916

**Democrats** – Woodrow Wilson – "He kept us out of war" ~277 electoral votes

**Republicans** – Charles Evans Hughes – flip-flops on issues~254 electoral votes

Woodrow Wilson is re-elected

-Secretary of Treasury William McAdoo warns Wilson that the Allies were running out of money

-advises Wilson that the U.S. should start loaning money to the Allies

[Jan. 22, 1917] Wilson attempts to end the war with his "Peace without Victory" speech

-both sides reject the speech; subsequently, it fails.

[Jan. 31, 1917] Germany announces that they will resume unrestricted submarine warfare

[Feb. 3, 1917] Wilson cuts off diplomatic ties with Germany

[Feb. 24, 1917] Great Britain intercepts a telegram

The Zimmermann Note

  * The German foreign minister, Arthur Zimmermann, proposes an alliance between Mexico and Germany

  * Arizona, New Mexico, Texas territories will be returned to Mexico after the Central Powers win

  * Would keep U.S. occupied with Mexico

The U.S. is outraged

[March 1917] Czar Nicholas II of Russia is forced to abdicate the throne

-Russia is out of the war

[March 1917] Five U.S. merchant ships are sunk

[April 2, 1917] Wilson asks Congress for a declaration of war

"the World must be made safe for democracy"

[April 6, 1917] Congress declares war on Germany

When the U.S. declares war in April of 1917, the U.S. is woefully unprepared for war

  1. only 120 000 U.S. soldiers in the Army

  2. the officer corps was old and antiquated

  3. Bureaucracy of Government – Money going to the wrong places

  4. Industry is competing against each other instead of working together

### Mobilization

  1. Raising an army

Selective Service Act [November 1917]

  * Ages 18-45

  * No substitutes (cannot pay for one)

  * Few exemptions (i.e. working in a key industry)

  * 24 million register

  * 3 million are drafted

  * women are included – 11 000 in the Navy, 269 in the Marines

  * African-Americans

-served in segregated units

-served in construction jobs and unloading ammunition (dangerous)

4.3 million people serve in the U.S. Army in WWI

Training was supposed to last for six months

-but many are rushed through training

-I.Q. Test is used (culturally and racially biased)

  2. Economy

War Industries Board (WIB) [1917]

[1918] taken over by Bernard Baruch

  * Allocates raw materials

  * Introduces efficiencies

  * Establishes production priorities

  * Coordinate and consolidate businesses

Lever Food and Fuel Control Act [1917]

Food Administration (headed by Herbert Hoover)

  * Organizes food

  * Gets people to conserve (uses propaganda)

  * Play on nationalism – "Meatless Mondays" "Wheatless Wednesdays" "Victory Gardens"

Fuel Administration (headed by Henry Garfield)

  * Regulate fuel prices

  * Control coal output

  * Promote conservation

  * Daylight Savings Time (idea by Benjamin Franklin, but actually instituted in WWI)

[1918] Overman Act

-gives government control over railroads

War cost of U.S. - $35.5 billion

  * $21 billion in Liberty Bonds

  * $14.5 billion comes from taxes (federal income taxes)

  3. Workers

[1918] "Work of Fight" Rule

National War Labor Board (NWLB)

  * Headed by Taft

  * 8-hour workday in industry

  * encourages union membership

-AF of L (American Federation of Labor) remains loyal to the war cause

-However, IWW (Industrial Workers of the World) is not

Women – one million work in industrial jobs during the war

African-Americans

-due to the job opportunities in the North, "The Great Migration"

-500 000 move to the North – leads to race problems (esp. St. Louis, Missouri)

  4. Spirit of the Nation

George Creel is the head of propaganda – Committee of Public Information

-Movies ("To Hell with the Kaiser," "Beast of Berlin")

-Songs ("Over There" by George C. Cohan)

-Posters ("Hang the Hun" portrayed Germans as brutal barbarians)

-German words are changed (ex. Sauerkraut – Liberty Cabbage, Dachshund – Liberty Pup)

Creel, however, oversells the war – this will hurt Wilson after WWI

**The American Expeditionary Force** (AEF) in Europe

-led by John J. Pershing

2 million Americans will serve in Europe during the war

-the soldiers are very excited, thought traveling was a "grand adventure"

Biggest Problem for U.S. soldiers when they arrive at Europe?

-Sexually transmitted diseases (French custom to offer allies prostitutes)

Fighting

-the first U.S. soldiers were used as replacements for French and British armies

[Spring 1918] German offensive

-the American army helps to halt the German offensive at Chatteau-Thierrey

[July 1918] **Second Battle of the Marne**

-push Germans back to Germany

[August 1918] Pershing finally gets his own army

[September 1918] **Meuse-Argonne Offensive**

-last offense of the War

[November 1918] Germany gives up

-on the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month

WWI Death Toll

Russia -1.7 million

France-1.35 million

Britain-908 000

U.S. -50 000 in battle (an additional 120 000 from the flu)

### World War I and the Progressive Era

Progressives – want reform and to kill the ills of society

  * Clayton Antitrust Act – adds to Sherman Antitrust Act - NWLB

  * Federal Reserve Act – reforms banking

  * Federal Farm Loan Act

  * Adamson Act – 8 hour work day for federal workers

  * Hepburn Act – railroads

  * Federal Trade Commission – oversees trade

  * Meat Inspection Act

  * Pure Food and Drug Act

  * 16th (income tax), 17th (direct election of senators), 18th (prohibition – also $4 million is spent on prostitution prevention), 19th (women's suffrage) Amendments

Negatives to Progressivism

  * War Industries Board

-not a positive for progressivism

-encourages monopolies

-regulate prices (instead of allowing markets to do so)

-regulates businesses

  * 16th Amendment (federal income tax)

-the government increases taxes during the war (as much as 70%)

  * 18th Amendment (prohibition)

-mob activity grows, leads to more illegal activity

  * 19th Amendment

-after the war, women are forced back into the homes

  * Hepburn Act – replaced with the Overman Act

-direct control of railroads

Civil Liberties are severely restricted during the war (especially freedom of speech)

[1917] **Espionage Act**

$10 000 fine or 20 years in jail for various anti-war activities

[1918] **Sedition Act**

creates strict penalties for criticizing the American war effort (or U.S. in general)

1500 pacifists, socialists and others are convicted

E  ugene V. Debs also arrested

Supreme Court upholds these convictions in _Shenck vs. U.S._ due to the presence of "clear and present danger"

### Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points

[Jan. 8, 1918] in a speech to Congress

Three Purposes:

  * Aimed at Russia (keeping Russia in the war)

  * Outline the moral purposes for U.S. involvement

  * Aimed at demoralizing the enemy

  1. A

Underlying causes of the war

bolish secret treaties and alliances
  2. Freedom of the seas

  3. R emoval of economic barriers

  4. Reduce arms

  5. A djustment of colonial claims

  6. E  vacuation of Russian territory

  7. Restore Belgium

  8. Evacuate France and give Alsace-Lorraine back

  9. A  djustment of Italian borders

  10. Self-determination of the people of Austria-Hungary

  11. Restore the Balkan states and give Serbia access to the sea

  12. Self-determination for the people of former Ottoman Empire

  13. I ndependent Poland

  14. League of Nations – deals with collective security – avoid future wars

Self-determination

The Treaty of Versailles

[Jan. 18, 1919] in Palace of Versailles in France

The Big Four

U.S. | Woodrow Wilson | Wants a peaceful world

---|---|---

Great Britain | David Lloyd George | Want the revenge, punishment, humiliation, and the destroying of Germany

France | Georges Clemenceau

Italy | Vittorio Orlando

Wilson's Mistakes before the Treaty

  1. He does not bring a Republican in his Peace Delegation

  2. He does not include a Senator in his Peace Delegation

  3. Republicans take control over Congress in the 1918 elections

The Treaty

  * Czechoslovakia is created

  * Yugoslavia is created

  * Poland is created

  * France gets Alsace-Lorraine back

  * Disarm the Rhineland

  * Allies take over the Saar region (has coal)

  * Germany is split into one large piece and East Prussia

  * The Middle East is divided to France and Great Britain

  * Independence for Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania

  * Germany is forced to pay $66 billion in reparations

Germany loses 12% of its pre-war land

-loses 75% of its iron ore deposits

-loses 15% of farmland

  * League of Nations is created

Mistakes of the Treaty

  1. Germany is surrounded by new, unstable countries

  2. Making Germany pay reparations (economic turmoil ensues)

  3. Taking land away from Russia

-Allies are more interested in embarrassing Germany

Wilson takes the blame for all the failures.

Henry Cabot Lodge, Hiram Johnson, William Borah

-lead the Republican Senate against ratification of the treaty

-worried that the U.S. might be pulled into a war with the League of Nations

[October 1919] Woodrow Wilson has a stroke

-stuck in bed for the next 7 ½ months

-Edith Gault (Wilson's second wife) has complete control over Wilson

Henry Cabot Lodge adds 14 reservations to the treaty – the treaty fails to pass in the Senate and also fails the second vote

-the U.S. never ratifies the Treaty of Versailles and never joins the League of Nations

### Post-WWI in the U.S.

  * 130 174 total deaths

  * 2 million serve in the war

[1921] Congress officially declares an end to the war

U.S. returns to the isolationist policy – begins to demobilize

[1920]

  * War Industries Board ended

  * Railroads return to private management

  * 3 600+ strikes occur

  * 18th Amendment (Prohibition)

  * 19th Amendment (Women's Suffrage)

[1921] Veteran's Bureau – pensions, veterans' benefits

[1919] American Legion in Paris – group of veterans, drinking

Race riots in the north (esp. St. Louis, the east side) – due to the Great Migration

Women are forced out of jobs and return home

Fueling of Xenophobia

Xenophobia – fear of strangers/foreigners

### Five Major Xenophobic Reactions in the Post-WWI period

  1. The Red Scare

-many people become hysterically upset that communists are trying to bring down the country

-leads to an influx of strikes

[1919-1920] 3630 strikes occur over the U.S.

-including the Seattle General Strikes and the Boston Police Strike

The Palmer Raids

-led by U.S. attorney general A. Mitchell Palmer

-arrests 6000+ communists

U.S.S. Buford [Dec. 1919]

-249 suspected communists are deported

-including Emma Goldman, pioneer in birth control

  2. Sacco & Venzetti

-two Italians arrested and convicted of killing a paymaster and a guard during a bank robbery in MA [1920]

Liberals (supported) vs. Conservatives (wanted to put them to death)

[1927] Sacco & Venzetti are sent to the electric chair.

  3. Immigration Restriction

  Emergency Quota Act of 1921

-  limits immigration to 3% per year of a country's already-existing population in the U.S. as of 1910

 Immigration Act of 1924

Changes the percentage to 2% and uses 1890 as the base year

A imed at Southern and Eastern Europeans (non-Allies during the war)

Japan is completely shut out of the United States

[1931] more people are leaving the U.S. than entering it (first year this happens)

  4. Revitalization of the KKK

[mid-1920s] 5 million KKK members

anti-foreigners, anti-adultery, anti-bootleggers, anti-birth control, anti-black...essentially anti-everything, except "native" Americans and Protestants

[end of 1920s] KKK begins to decline

  5. Scopes Trial "Scopes Monkey Trial"

Creationism vs. Darwin's Theory of Evolution

(Religious fundamentalists vs. Progressives)

Sparked by John T. Scopes, a biology teacher in Tennessee who read Darwin's Theory to his class

Creationism | Darwin

---|---

W  illiam Jennings Bryan

-gets humiliated | Clarence Darrow

In the end, Scopes was found guilty

But! The evolutionists win – Darwin becomes more accepted in the religious community

 Dies five days after the trial due to a stroke

### Election of 1920

Republicans | Democrats

---|---

W  arren G. Harding

  * Senator of Ohio

  * VP candidate Calvin Coolidge

  * "return to normalcy"
 | James M. Cox

  * Governor of Ohio

  * VP candidate Franklin D. Roosevelt

  President! 404 electoral votes versus the combined 127 other electoral votes

### Economics

Three Economic Systems – (What? How? For Whom?)

  1. Capitalism

-means of production are owned by private businesses and individuals

-fair, competitive market

-unequal distribution of wealth

Father of Modern Capitalism – Adam Smith

– writes The Wealth of Nations [1776]

  2. Socialism

-means of production are controlled either directly or indirectly by the government

-equal distribution of wealth (no social class distinctions)

Father of Socialism – Robert Owen

-tried to create utopias

  3. Communism

-means of production are controlled by the people

-no government

-equal distribution of wealth (no social class distinctions)

Fathers of Modern-Day Communism – Karl Marx and Frederick Engels

-write Communist Manifesto

Four Factors of Production

  1. Natural Resources

  2. Labor

  3. Capital

  4. Entrepreneurship

T

Peak

Height of expansion

he Business Cycle

Trough

Contraction

Expansion

"recession"

if extreme,

"depression"

When market grows again

*Duration of each stage varies

Products Created

T

Firms

Households

               he Circular Flow Model

Product

Product

Product

Product

$

$

$

$

Where the four factors of production are sold

Bought materials from factor market

Sold product to market

Selling one of the four factors of production (esp. labor)

Supply and Demand

Law of Supply:

_at higher prices_ , a company is willing to sell more of a product (more profit)

_at lower prices_ , a company will sell less (less profit)

Law of Demand:

_at higher prices_ , consumers will buy less

_at lower prices_ , consumers will buy more

Supply

Quantity of Product

Price sold

Demand

Point of equilibrium

The fair market value

Determinants of Demand – alter the demand curve

Price inelastic product – no matter how much the price goes up, people will still pay for it (ex. Gasoline, water, milk, bread, etc.)

Price elastic product – if the price goes up, people will find an alternative or do without it

### Mass Consumption

The 1920s sees unprecedented growth and prosperity in American society

-expansion stage of the business cycle

  1. Automobile

Gasoline engine invented in the 1890s in Europe

[1910] 181 000 automobiles in the U.S. – a plaything for the rich

-was not reliable for transportation

  Frederick W. Taylor – revolutionizes industry

-  Father of scientific management – standardize work

 use of the assembly line

c ombined to the automobile industry = Boom

Henry Ford perfects the use of the assembly line for the automobile industry

[by 1930] Ford sold over 20 million cars, most being the Model T

[by 1929] 26 million automobiles are registered in the U.S.

[by 1925] cost of an automobile is $260

-everyone can afford a car (or, if poor, at least a used car)

One in every 4.9 Americans has an automobile in 1929

-The automobile leads to booms in other industries

-rubber, glass, fabrics, gas stations, oil barracks in TX, CA, OK, garages

-But, significant decrease in railroads

-the automobile changes American lives

-can go on vacation

-drive to work, commute (can live further from the workplace) – rise to suburbs

-freedom for teenagers

-more traffic accidents

  2. New Products and Ideas

  * V

Change the lives of women

acuum cleaners
  * Washing machines

  * R efrigerators

  * Mixers

  * F ans

Ideas:

-The Supermarket – changes the diets of Americans

-Electricity – by the mid-1920s, 60% of new homes are wired for electricity

  3. Radio

Marconi invented wireless telegraphy in the 1890s

-was first widely used during the WWI

[by 1920s] Radio becomes the center of family life

[by 1927] Sales of radios reach $7 million

First major radio station – NBC

Second major radio station – CBS

  4. Mass-Produced Entertainment

Movies – [by 1920s] Center of the movie industry is Hollywood, CA

-cheap storage space in Hollywood

-first movie with a plot? Great Train Robbery [1903]

[Early 1920s] Silent films

-Charlie Chaplin

-Rudolph Valentino

-Mary Pickford

[1927] the first "talkie" – The Jazz Singer

[by 1930] 80 million people attend the movies weekly

-was cheap - 5¢, hence the phrase "nickelodeon"

Magazines – Reader's Digest

Books – esp. in department stores – more accessible than before

  5. Mass-Produced Work

During the 1920s, work in industries becomes standardized

-work is tedious

-wages increase (ex. Ford pays $5 a day to his workers)

-standard 8-hour workday

Agriculture

-agricultural prices decline in the 1920s

Encouraging Mass Consumption

  1. Advertisements

[1929] companies spent $1.8 billion on advertisements

-use celebrities, sex, social embarrassment, social success, slogans...

  2. Installment Buying

"buy now, pay later"

  3. Chain Stores

Strawbridge's, Ford dealership, A&P grocery

  4. New Management Techniques

**Prohibition** – 18th Amendment

- repealed with the 21st Amendment

g o to "speakeasy" for alcohol (a bar)

Bathtub gin –homemade alcohol

Bootlegging –increase in mob activity (the mob brought alcohol to speakeasies)

"Hooch" – alcohol

Elliot Ness

Celebrities

Charles Lindbergh

-First solo nonstop flight across the Atlantic [1927], lands in Paris

-a 33 ½ hour flight

Babe Ruth

-player for the Yankees after the Red Sox sol him

[1927] 60 homeruns in one season

Sexual Revolution

Birth control – led by Margaret Sanger, Emma Goldman (deported)

"Flapper" – new woman of the 1920s

Teenagers take a more relaxed stance on sex

-casual dating

Sigmund Freud

-relates all people's problems to sexual repression

Literature

  * Sinclair Lewis

  * F. Scott Fitzgerald – The Great Gatsby

  * Ernest Hemingway – Farewell to Arms

  * T. S. Eliot – poet

  * William Faulkner

  * Robert Frost

Racial Pride

Harlem Renaissance – Harlem is the center of African-American culture

-Langston Hughes (poet and author)

-Marcus Garvey – UNIA (United Negro Improvement Association)

advocated a return to Africa

Architecture

Frank Lloyd Wright

"Form follows function"

Build a building that fits its surroundings

Empire State building [1931] officially opens

Chrysler Building

The Jazz Age

Jazz originates in New Orleans

Chicago! – Jazz moves with the Great Migration

Musicians

  * Jelly Roll Morton

  * Joseph King Oriel

  * Louis Armstrong

### Politics of the 1920s

Warren G. Harding

-senator from Ohio

-his friends were called the "Ohio Gang"

-Biggest Problem? Can't say "no"

Secretary of Treasury – Andrew Mellon

Secretary of State – Charles Evan Hughes

Secretary of Commerce – Herbert Hoover

Going to appoint 4 of the 9 Supreme Court Justices

Chief Justice – William H. Taft

Kill progressive legislation

Esch-Commons Transportation Act of 1920

  * Encourages consolidation of railroads

  * To help save the railroads

Washington Naval Conference [1921-1922] (no Russia)

Five-Power Naval Treaty

  * Creates quotas (in tonnage) to limit the number of ships a country can have

  * U.S. (525 000), Great Britain (525 000), Japan (315 000), France (175 000), Italy (175 000)

  * U.S. and Great Britain agree not to fortify East Asian possessions

Four-Power Treaty

  * U.S., Great Britain, Japan, France

  * Agree to keep the status quo in the Pacific

Nine-Power Treaty

  * Nine nations agree to observe the Open-Door Policy in China

*One of the biggest failures of the Washing Naval Conference is that the treaties do not include small ships (ex: submarines, destroyers, cruisers)*

Fortney-McCumber Tariff

Raises tariffs to 38.5%

-hurts Europe because they cannot sell as many goods to the U.S.

-also hurts U.S. because Europe creates higher tariffs in response

Scandals

  * Charles Forbes – steals millions of dollars from Veteran's Bureau

  * **Teapot Dome Scandal** – Albert Fall, Secretary of Interior, leases U.S. oil reserves to private businesses

  * Attorney General Dougherty sells illegal liquor permits and pardons Prohibition offenders

[1923] Harding dies of pneumonia

VP **Calvin Coolidge** "Silent Cal" takes over

Both Harding and Coolidge

---

  * Pro-Business

  * Favor a Bull Market (rising stock market)

  * Isolationists

McNary-Haugen Bill [1924 & 1928]

-intended to help farmers

-but Coolidge vetoes it twice

Kellog-Briand Pact

-outlaws war, except for defensive purposes

**Dawes Act** [1924]

-scaled back U.S. war debts and reparations demands (not very effective)

$

$

$

$

$

loan

Pay for war debts

Reparations to the war debt

-however, U.S. is essentially paying itself – makes situation worse later on

### Election of 1928

Republican – Herbert Hoover (well-liked)

Democrats – Al Smith "Happy Warrior" (Catholic)

Herbert Hoover wins easily; however, a year later, the world crashes down on Hoover

### Herbert Hoover

-Head of Food Administration

-Secretary of Commerce

-Saves Belgium from starvation

-Quaker (first one to become president)

Secretary of State – Henry Stinton

Secretary of Treasury – Andrew Mellon

[Oct. 1929] Stock Market Crash – the spark that leads to the Great Depression

[Oct. 24, 1929] **"Black Thursday"**

  * Responding to the rise in interest rates by Great Britain, many speculators begin to panic and sell their stocks

  * Stock prices begin falling very rapidly

  * Investors begin rapidly selling their stocks

  * J.P. Morgan Jr. and other Wall Street investors spend $20 million to try to help save the market

  * Losses accumulate to about $3 billion

[Oct. 29, 1929] **"Black Tuesday"**

  * Tension and panic grips Wall Street

  * People begin to rapidly sell their stocks

  * By end of the day, **16 410 030** shares of stock are traded in one day (sold at depressed prices)

  * Total losses equal about $32 billion

By the end of 1929, stock markets lose about $40 billion.

Underlying Causes of the Great Depression

  1. Buying on Margin

    * Speculators buy stock in the 1920s on margin – they put down as little as 10% for the stock and the bank pays the rest

    * But when the market goes down, people become unable to pay back the banks

  2. Buying on Credit

  * Consumers buy using installment methods

[by 1929] credit purchases reach $7 billion

  3. Income Gap

-during the 1920s, the rich got richer, everyone else got poorer

[1923-1929]

-the upper 1% had an increase in disposable income of 63%

-but 93% of Americans saw their disposable income decrease by 4%

  4. U.S. Tariff Policy

[1922] Fortney-McCumber Tariff raises the tariff to 38.5%

[1930] Hawley-Smoot Tariff raises tariff rates 60% on some products

-closes the U.S. off to the world market

-European nations put in place their own tariffs

Result – Global Depression

-nations turn inward

-25% world unemployment

  5. Bank Failures

  * Loans cannot be paid back from businesses, people, etc.

  * Banks begin to fail and close

  * "Bank runs" – people rush to get their money out before the bank closes

  * if a bank closes, your money is gone

[1930-1932] Five thousand banks close in the U.S., taking people's money with them

  6. Agricultural Failure

  * Farm prices decrease throughout the 1920s

  * Farmers respond by overproducing – makes the situation worse

  * Farmers fail to pay mortgages – banks take the property

  7. Business Failure

[1920] 26 000 businesses go bankrupt

[1931] 28 000 businesses go bankrupt

add to unemployment

  8. Business Cycle

Hoover and the Great Depression

Hoover believes in "Rugged Individualism"

-the belief that people can solve their own problems and crises without the need for government intervention

[1929-1931]

  1. Encourages private charities and local governments to help people in need

-However, they are ill-equipped to deal with a crisis of this magnitude – fails

  2. Hoover encourages business leaders to keep pre-crash levels of production and employment – fails

  3. Emergency Committee for Employment

-merely coordinates the efforts of local governments and charities – fails

  4. National Credit Cooperation

-Hoover encourages the large banks to create a private agency that small banks can borrow from

-fails to help

[1930-1931]

-Democrats take control of the House of Representatives

-Democrats take 8 additional Senate seats

-formation of bread lines

-"Hoovervilles" – makeshift towns of homeless people

-unemployment is rising [1931] 15% of U.S. is unemployed – [1933-1934] becomes 25%

Hoover continues to say that the end of the depression is near

-by this time, Hoover is extremely unpopular

[by 1931] Hoover realizes his hands-off approach to the situation is not working

[1932] Hoover begins to use the federal government

-many people call this "creeping socialism"

  1. Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC)

-Congress gives $2 billion for loans to banks, insurance companies, and the railroads

  2. Public Works Programs

-Hoover allocates $2 billion for public works projects (ex: Hoover Dam)

too little, too late.

Public Reaction

  1. Farmers withhold grain and livestock from market in an attempt to raise prices and get the federal government to help – does not work

  2. Bonus Army

[1932] WWI veterans march to Washing D.C. to show support for a bill that would give them their pensions early and in cash

-Congress votes against the bill

  * many Bonus marchers go home

  * a few thousand set up a Hooverville

Violence breaks out when the Army (including MacArthur, Eisenhower, and Patton) attempts to remove the remaining Bonus marchers

  3. Election of 1932

### Election of 1932

Republicans – Herbert Hoover (easily re-nominated)

Platform: anti-depression measures

Democrats – Franklin D. Roosevelt

Platform: NOT Hoover

Roosevelt wins! – electoral votes 472 to 59

### Franklin Delano Roosevelt

  * Born in Hyde Park, NY in 1882

  * Born into a wealthy family – dates back to 1648

  * Teddy Roosevelt's 5th cousin

  * An only child

  * Harvard graduate

  * State senator in NY [1911-1913]

  * Resigns the senate position – Assistant Secretary of the Navy [1913-1920]

  * [1920] runs for vice president with James Cox – defeated

  * [1921] contracts polio and loses the use of his legs – humbles FDR

  * his wife, Eleanor Roosevelt (TR's niece), convinces him to stay in politics

  * goes on to become Governor of NY [1929-1932]

  * [1932] Democratic Convention – "I pledge you, I pledge myself, a New Deal for the American people"

The Brains Trust

Harold Ickes – Secretary of Interior [1933-1946]

  * Doubles the acreage of national parks

  * Works hard to save farmland from overuse

  * Public works projects

  * Fair and honest

Harry Hopkins – one of the most trusted advisors

  * Involved in FERA (Federal Emergency Relief Association)

  * Head of CWA

  * Puts 2 million people to work

  * Dishes out ~$10 billion in aid

Henry Wallace – Secretary of Agriculture [1933-1940]

  * Helps cut farm production

  * Conserve soil

  * Sets up warehouses and silos for surplus crops

  * Invented the food stamp

Rexford Tugwell

Raymond Moley

Adolf Berle

Francis Perkins – Secretary of Labor

  * First female Cabinet member

  * Sets the minimum wage

  * Helps end child labor and corruption in the labor department

  * Helps to establish social security

Eleanor Roosevelt

  * Serves as the "eyes, ears, and legs" for FDR – proves to be very influential

### The Hundred Days [March 9, 1933 – June 16, 1933]

All New Deal programs deal with the three R's:

  * Relief

  * Recovery

  * Reform

    1. Banking

[March 6, 1933] FDR announces a bank holiday

-closes every bank in the U.S.

-reopens the structurally sound ones

[March 9, 1931] Emergency Banking Relief Act

-gives FDR power over all banks in the U.S.

Glass Steagull Act – Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)

-money is insured – government is guaranteeing your money

  2. Unemployment

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) – national parks – offers jobs for the jobless

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) – bring cheap electricity to a poor region

  3. Direct relief

Federal Emergency Relief Association (FERA) – direct relief for people

  4. Agriculture

Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) – millions of money given to farmers to help pay mortgages

  5. Industry

National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA)

-National Recovery Administration (NRA)

– the blue eagle

– help unemployment, increase union membership

-Public Works Administration (PWA) – public works projects

  6. Inflation

    * FDR orders that all gold be given to the federal government in exchange for paper money

    * Try to take U.S. off the gold standard

* "flat money" – government says this money is worth this much

  7. Mortgages

Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC)

-give money to help pay off mortgages

### The New Deal and FDR in 1934

  * Unemployment drops to 22% (from 25% in 1933)

  * The New Deal is extremely popular with the people

  * Some opposition to the New Deal, some anger towards FDR's foreign policy

-the slaughter of 6 million pigs does not go over very well (to cut production)

  * The NRA is experiencing problems – eventually termed unconstitutional

  * Still, FDR's popularity is soaring

-"fireside chats" on radio – a paternal figure to the people

-warmly received by the press

-ends Prohibition

Midterm elections of 1934 – Democrats gain more seats in the House and the Senate

-Inspires FDR and the Brain Trust to create the Second New Deal

### The Second New Deal

  1. Expanded relief for the unemployed

Emergency Relief Appropriations Bill [1935]

Gives FDR $5 billion to give away as he pleases

-Works Progress Administration (WPA)

  1. Employs 8 million people

  2. $11 million back to economy

  3. 650 miles of road are built

  4. 124 000 bridges are built

  5. 125 000 buildings, public buildings

WPA also employs writers, actors, and artists

-Federal Theater Project – tours the country

  2. Help the rural poor

Resettlement Administration

-gives money to farmers to buy land

-or allows them to resettle

Rural Electrification Administration

-gives loans to electrical companies to help bring electricity to rural areas

  3. Help organize labor

National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act) of 1935

  * Guarantees collective bargaining

-between unions and companies

  * Permits closed shops

-have to be in the union to work

-no spying or blacklisting labor unions

  4. Social Welfare benefits

Social Security Act of 1935

  * Creates pensions for older workers

  * Survivor's benefits

  * Unemployment insurance

  * Aid for dependent mothers of children with a handicap or some kind of disability

  * Paid for by taxing workers' incomes

-this restricts future Congresses and Presidents from getting rid of the program

  5. Stricter business regulations

Banking Act of 1935

-gives the Federal Reserve more control over the banking industry

Public Utilities Holding Company Act

-regulates electricity

-limits electric and gas companies to certain regions of the country

  6. Tax the wealthy

Revenue Act of 1935

-increases taxes on upper incomes

-increases corporate taxes

### Election of 1936

Republicans – Alf Landon (Governor of Kansas) – 16 million popular votes

Democrats – FDR – 27 million popular votes

FDR wins easily, with 523 to 8 (Maine and Vermont) electoral votes

Second New Deal is paid for by creating a federal budget deficit

Keyne's economic theory

Federal government borrow money – sell bonds

### Opponents of the New Deal

  1. American Liberty League

    * Made up of disgruntled Democrats

    * Led by Al Smith

    * Argued that the New Deal restricted individual freedoms and was leading the U.S. to socialism

  2. Father Charles Caughlin

  * Catholic priest from Canada

  * Audience of 40 million (on radio)

  * His ideas were called "social justice"

  * Extremely anti-New Deal, but he is also anti-Semetic (this brings him down)

  3. Dr. Francis Townsend

  * He wanted to give all retired Americans $200 a month with the stimulation they spend it in 30 days

  * This would have bankrupted the U.S. in less than half a year

  * Still, has support, especially from the older Americans

  4. Huey "the Kingfish" Long

  * Governor of Louisiana [1928-1932]

  * Senator from Louisiana in 1932

  * Very charismatic and a great orator

  * "Share our Wealth" program

-would give every American family $5000

-paid for by taxing the wealthy

  * has about 7.4 million supporters

[September 1935] Long is assassinated on the steps of the Louisiana statehouse

-dies at the age of 42

-clears the path for FDR's re-election

  5. Supreme Court

  * Declared NRA (National Recovery Administration) and AAA (Agricultural Adjustment Administration) unconstitutional

  * FDR is angry at the Supreme Court for a few reasons

-Ultra-conservative

-Not reform-minded

-Very old – 6 of the 9 justices are over 70 years old

  * Court Packing Plan

-FDR asks Congress to allow a new Supreme Court be placed on the bench for every justice over the age of 70, up to 15 justices

  * To his surprise, Congress votes against the plan, and people are outraged at the Court Packing Plan (violates checks and balances) – this is FDR's biggest political blunder

  * Despite this, FDR gets his way (eventually) for a more liberal court – he appoints 4 new justices (after 4 retire/die) – the Supreme Court begins to change on is own and becomes more liberal

  * Charles Evans Hughes is Chief Justice

### Culture in the Great Depression

Industrial Workers Unionize

[1936] Steel Workers Organizing Committee – strike for recognition

[March 1937] U.S. Steel recognizes the union – grants a wage increase and a 40-hour workweek

[Dec. 1936] thousands of GM workers stops work – stops production in Flint (peaceful)

GM fought unionization – threatened with police

-Roosevelt refused to mobilize federal troops

[Feb. 11, 1937] GM recognizes United Automobile Workers (UAW)

But, domestics and agricultural laborers are untouched/unaffected by unions

Labor success – federal government no longer helps companies in labor disputes

Henry Ford fought unions

Entertainment [1930s]

-serves as a form of escapism for the people

-the people do not want to hear about harsh realities

Radio – soap operas, comedy shows

Movies – very popular

Gangster films – "Public Enemy"

Screwball comedies, slapstick comedies – Marx Brothers (satirized authority)

Mae West (top female star)

"Wizard of Oz" – political commentary on the 1930s

Music

-Jazz is the dominant music form

-Big Bands – Glen Miller, Benny Goodman

-Swings

Literature

-American fiction – disillusionment, cynicism, despair

-portrayed real life pretty accurately

Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck

Cultural Nationalism

-Photography

-Theaters

-Jazz

-Regional Patriotism

-Streamlining – sleek, smooth edges, neat, fast-looking

-"utmost simplification in terms of function and form"

New York World's Fair of 1939 "The World of Tomorrow"

-Trylon and Perisphere (700 ft needle "lofty purpose", smooth globe 200 ft in diameter)

-a benign, smoothly functioning technological utopia

Dust Bowl – Great Plains, the worst in KA, OK, and northern TX

-depression

-dust storms

-erosion

-drought

People leave for the West – California

"Okies", "Arkies"

FSA (Farm Security Administration) sets up camp for "Oakies" – leads to jobs in CA

Family Life

-divorce increases, marriages decrease, birth rate decreases (can't afford children)

-high school enrollment increases – better chance for jobs later on

Quality time – radio with FDR, strengthened mutual help – sharing

Psychological effects – after the Depression, people become pack rats – save $ constantly

Art

Folk artists paint landscapes – Georgia O' Keefe, Grandma Moses

Patriotic themes – Red, white, blue

-WPA gave the artists these jobs

-murals – public areas – post offices, train stations

Dorothea Lange – Great Depression photographer – took pictures to document harsh life

Women

-low pay, low status jobs

-as jobs decrease, they are the first pushed out, along with minority groups

-still, the crisis may have accelerated the women-into-the-workplace movement

-made less money than men (up to 18% - 20% less)

African-Americans

Deep-seated racism, discriminatory union policies – due to fierce job competition

Urbanization drops in the 1930s

-the North offers fewer jobs than before

Scottsboro Boys – five black men were convicted for rape by an all-white jury in AL

-jailed with no fair trial – due to discrimination

Depression was a distraction from the racial norms

Hispanic-Americans

-Two million – many were citizens, others were immigrants

-Manual laborers

-Many return to home countries – wanted to or had to

-Strikes for higher wages [1933-1936]

-Difficult labor conditions

"Zoot suits" – pinstripe suits, broad-brimmed hats, big, flowy pants, boxy shoulders

Native Americans

-world of poverty, scant education, poor health care

Dawes Act of 1887 had dissolved tribes

[1923] John Collier founded American Indian Defense Association

[1933] funds to construct schools, hospitals, irrigation systems

-renewed tribal life? -sparked angry opposition in western states

Indian Reorganization Act of 1934

-halted the sale of tribal lands

-enabled tribes to regain title to their unallocated lands

### The End of the New Deal

[1937] FDR becomes concerned with deficit spending (spending more than what the government actually had) and begins to cut New Deal programs

Result: The Roosevelt Recession

-unemployment rises [1937] 15% [1938] 20%

-industrial production decreases

[1938] Harry Hopkins and other New Dealers convince FDR to restore New Deal spending

-FDR resumes deficit spending

-revives WPA and PWA

-Farm Security Administration – low interest loans, sets up camps

National Housing Act of1937

-public housing projects created

Fair Labor Standards Act

-creates minimum wage

-bans child labor

Agricultural Adjustment Act [1938]

-takes money from the treasury instead of taxes (this time, is constitutional)

After 1935, more opposition to FDR

Midterm elections of 1938 – the Republicans gain seats in the House and Senate

[Sept. 1, 1939] Germany invades Poland

World War II begins

### The Rise of European Dictators

**Benito Mussolini** – leader of Italy

  * Served in WWI

  * An ardent nationalist

  * Rises to the rank of Corporal

  * Feels betrayed by the Versailles Treaty and Wilson

[1919] forms the fascist Party

Blackshirts – WWI veterans

-opposes the communists and socialists

[Oct. 1922] March on Rome

-40 000 Fascists march on Rome to King Victor Emmanuel III

-does nothing

Mussolini is named Premier of Italy and given dictatorial powers

-called "Il Duce"

[1930s] Italy goes to depression

-Mussolini starts public works programs and begins imperialistic ventures

[1935] Italy invades Ethiopia

[1936] Mussolini signs Tripartite Agreement with Germany and Japan

[1936] Mussolini aids Francisco Franco and the Fascists in the Spanish Civil War

**Adolf Hitler** – leader of Germany

  * Born 1889 in Austria – no real friends, no real love

  * Parents died when he was 14 and 15

  * Drops out of school to be an artists – moves to Vienna, where he applies for art school but is rejected (but stays in Vienna from age 18-25) – this is where he develops anti-Semetic ideas

[1913] moves to Munich, Germany

[1914] When war breaks out, he joins the military

-rises to Corporal

-earns the Iron Cross from the war

[1918] injured in a gas attack and nearly loses his sight

[1919] after recovering, he joins the National Socialist Germany Worker's Party – i.e. the Nazi Party

[1923] the German economy is failing

\- high unemployment, high inflation

\- the Weimar Republic is losing control

[Nov. 8-11, 1923] Beer Hall Putsch

-Hitler and followers attempt to overthrow the Bouvarian Government in Munich

-this is put down, and Hitler is arrested

-Hitler writes Mein Kampf "My Struggle" in jail, which highlights his plans for Germany

[1924] Dawes Plan in U.S. saves Germany from collapse

[1929] Great Depression – [1930] Global Depression

[1930] Nazis gain 107 seats in Reichstag (German Congress)

[1932] Nazis gain 232 seats in Reichstag (not the majority, but is the largest minority)

[Jan. 1933] Hitler is named Chancellor of Germany

-renames the Weimar Republic the Third Reich

[1934] President von Hindenburg dies

-Hitler merges the Chancellor and the Presidency – dictator

-the "Führer" of Germany – Hitler crushes all opposition

[1935] in violation of the Versailles Treaty, Hitler re-arms the country

Nuremburg Laws

-deprives Jews of citizenship

[1936] re-arms the Rhineland

[March 1938] Austria is annexed

[Sept. 1938] British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain gives the Sudetenland to Germany

-Munich Conference – to appease Hitler

[Nov. 9, 1938] Kristallnacht (Night of broken Glass)

[March 1939] Germany takes Czechoslovakia

[August 1939] Hitler and Stalin sign the Non-Aggression Pact

-Stalin was one of the greatest opponents to Hitler

Throughout this, the League of Nations does NOTHING!

**Francisco Franco** – leader of Spain

[1931] New constitution

[1936] Spanish Civil War – Fascists (led by Franco) vs. the Loyalists (supported by Popular Front) – Hemingway writes For Whom the Bell Tolls

Franco is cruel in his treatment of Spanish civilians

Pablo Picasso pains "Guernica"

[by 1939] Franco is firmly in control of Spain

The Military – Japan

[1920s] the military leaders in Japan gain power – Tojo

[1926] New emperor Hirohito at the age of 25 – susceptible to military will

[1931] Japan invades Manchuria – Hoover sends the Hoover-Stimpson Doctrine

[1935-1936] begins a massive naval buildup – violates the Washington Naval Conference

[1937] Japan invades northern China – the Rape of Nanking

**Josef Stalin** – leader of the Soviet Union

[1922] Soviet Union is established with Lenin in control

[1924] Lenin dies and there is a power struggle between Stalin and Leon Trotsky

-Trotsky gets sick and does not attend Lenin's funeral

Stalin uses the fact that Trotsky did not attend Lenin's funeral to push Trotsky out of power

[1929] Stalin creates the Five-Year Plan

\- creates large state-run farms

[1930s] Stalin begins "the Purges"

  * he kills an estimated 20-30 million people

### FDR and Isolationism

Authors in the 1920s begin speaking out and writing about the role of businesses and bankers in the U.S. entrance to WWI

Ex) Merchants of Death, One Hell of a Business

Gerald Nye (senator from North Dakota)

-calls for a committee to examine the role that businesses play in the U.S. entrance to WWI

Nye Committee – conclude that it was for business benefits

-Leads to a greater isolationist feeling in the U.S.

Ludlow Amendment

  * called for a national referendum before the U.S. could declare war

  * this marked the high point of isolationism

FDR's Policies

[1933] recognized the Soviet Union

[1930s] Filipino independence is agreed upon (1946)

Good Neighbor Policy – FDR's policy towards Latin America

  * contrary to TR's Big Stick Policy

  * pulls Marines out of Dominican Republic and Haiti

  * gives Panama greater control over the canal

  * U.S. supports Batista's overthrow of the Cuban government but does not sent troops

### The U.S. and Neutrality

  1. Neutrality Act of 1935

-once the president acknowledges that countries are at war, the U.S. is prohibited from:

-selling war supplies to belligerent nations

-selling on belligerent nations' ships

  2. Neutrality Act of 1937

-prohibits extension of loans to belligerents

-prohibits the transportation of any commodity to belligerents

-Belligerents cannot use American ports

The U.S. is aiding aggressor nations with the Neutrality Acts.

After 1937, these policies start to change.

[1938] FDR asks Congress for $300 million military appropriation

-he also increases army air corps production

[1939] FDR asks for a $1.3 billion defense budget

[Nov. 1939] Neutrality Act of 1939

"Cash and Carry"

-European democracies could trade with the U.S. if they pay cash and take the goods themselves – supposed to aid Great Britain and France

[1940] Peacetime draft in the U.S.

-calls for 1.2 million soldiers and 800 000 volunteers

-in case war breaks out, FDR wanted the U.S. to be ready

[1940] "Destroyers for Bases"

-Deal between Great Britain and the U.S.

-gave Great Britain 50 destroyers in exchange for rights to build military bases on Great Britain's possessions

[March 1941] Lend-Lease Act

-allowed U.S. to lend/lease war supplies to any nation that helps in the defense of the U.S.

[June 1941] extended to the Soviet Union

Germany violated the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

[Aug. 1941] Atlantic Charter

-meeting between FDR and Churchill in a warship off the coast of Newfoundland

-agree on eight goals for the war

### European Entrance to WWII

[1935] Italy invades Ethiopia

[1935] Germany re-arms

[1936] Germany re-arms the Rhineland (buffer zone between France and Germany)

[1936-1939] Spanish Civil War

-Franco is aided by Hitler and Mussolini

-Hitler wants to test his new military

[March 1938] Germany annexed Austria

[Sept 1938] Munich Conference – British Prime Minister Chamberlain gives Sudetenland to Hitler

[March 1939] Hitler invades Czechoslovakia

[Aug 1939] Hitler and Stalin sign the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

[Sept 1, 1939] Hitler invades Poland with Soviet Union

[Sept 3, 1939] Great Britain and France declare war on Germany

-couldn't do anything to help Poland – falls in three weeks

[Oct 1939-March 1940] The Phony War

-after invasion of Poland, nothing much else happens

-Why? Hitler is positioning

[April 1940] Germany takes Denmark and Norway

[May 1940] Germany invades the Netherlands and Belgium

[May 26-June 4, 1940] evacuation of Allied forces at Dunkirk

-coastal French town

-300 000 Allied soldiers are evacuated to Great Britain

-Hitler's first mistake

-he should have crushed the Allies before they evacuate, but he does not

-he wanted to show off his Air Force

*Hitler uses blitzkrieg "lightning war" – very quick

[June 5, 1940] Germany invades France

-by the 15th, Paris falls

-by the 22nd, France falls to Germany

Hitler sets up a puppet government – the Vichy Government

[July 1940] Battle of Britain begins – lasts for four months

-Hitler attempts to bomb Great Britain into surrender

-ultimately, is unsuccessful- convinces Hitler to NOT invade Great Britain

[May 1941] Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, Japan) take Greece and Yugoslavia

[June 22nd, 1941] Hitler violates the Non-Aggression Pact – invades Soviet Union

-Push the Soviet Union back to Moscow at end of 1941 – but slows down

Because of this, U.S. extends the Lend-Lease Act to Soviet Union

[July 1941] FDR begins to convoy

-take ships with supplies and send them to Great Britain

[Oct 1941] Germany sinks two U.S. ships

[by end of 1941]

Axis Powers have almost total control over Europe

Great Britain is the lone Allied power in Europe

### Countdown to Pearl Harbor

[July 1941] Japan invades French Indochina

-FDR freezes Japanese assets in the U.S. and cuts off all trade to Japan

-Japan was receiving scrap metal and oil

[Nov. 7, 1941] U.S. intercepts a message from Japan which discusses a secret attack on the U.S.

[Nov 17-Dec. 7 1941] Japanese diplomats meet in Washington D.C. with U.S. officials in an attempt to end the trade embargo

December 6, 1941

2:30 AM

U.S. intercepts a message to the Japanese negotiators instructing them to break off negotiations

The Japanese consulate in D.C. begin burning their papers – this is a ritual signaling war

11:00 AM

Japanese carriers are 490 miles North of Oahu

2:00 PM

U.S. FBI picks up a suspicious call from a dentist's wife and a newspaper reporter

-the call is about the number of sellers and ships at Pearl Harbor

-the FBI does nothing

10:30 PM

Two Japanese midget subs are sent to Pearl Harbor

December 7, 1941

1:50 AM

U.S. minesweeper spots a periscope in the waters near Pearl Harbor but does not report it

6:10 AM

the first Japanese planes take off

6:25 AM

There are 183 planes in the air

6:45 AM

A U.S. destroyer sinks one of the Japanese midget subs

7:00 AM

A radio operator locates 50 planes on his radar – reports this to his commanding officer, who assumes they were U.S. B-17s – he is wrong – they are Japanese planes

7:15 AM

A second wave of Japanese planes takes off

There are now 350 planes on their way to Pearl Harbor

7:33 AM

Admiral Kimmel receives the report of the sinking of the midget submarine

7:49 AM

Japanese pilots call "Tora, tora, tora" (code – complete secrecy achieved) and the attack begins

The battle lasts for 1 hour and 50 minutes

  * The Japanese wipe out the Pacific battleship fleet

  * 200 U.S. planes destroyed

  * 2400 Americans killed, including 1103 on the U.S.S. Arizona

Yamamoto – architect of Pearl Harbor – "What I have achieved is less than a grand slam"

Japanese mistakes

  * the three aircraft carriers were not in port at the time

  * missed the repair docks

  * missed the fuel storage tanks

  * missed the report docks

a Failure – they have "wakened the sleeping Giant"

[Dec. 8, 1941] FDR asks for a declaration of war

Passes 388:1

[Dec. 11, 1941] Germany and Italy declare war on the U.S.

-Hitler's Third Mistake – U.S. might not have declared war on Germany

(his second mistake was invading the Soviet Union)

### World War II Mobilization

Pearl Harbor galvanizes the country – not like WWI – outcry against Japan

Decision? Hitler first.

Early situation of war is bad for the Allies

  1. Losing Battle of Atlantic

  2. Hitler advancing in USSR and North Africa

  3. Japan advancing in the Pacific

Is the U.S. ready? Not really, but is better than WWI

Mobilization – need to mobilize industry, finances, workers, and soldiers

**War Powers Act** – gives powers to president to create hundreds of regulatory agencies

OWM (Office of War Mobilization) – headed by James Byrnes

-oversees War Board and committees

OPA (Office of Price Administration) – freeze wages and prices

WPB (War Production Board) – regulates industry and allocates resources

-halts consumer productions (ex. Instead of cars – build tanks, planes, etc.)

-create cooperation, not competition

NWLB (National War Labor Board) – regulates management and worker relations

OSS (Office of Strategy Services) – forerunner of the CIA

OWI (Office of War Information) – censorship

OSRD (Office of Scientific Research and Development) – technological progresses

-synthetic rubber, penicillin

Army, Navy, Army Air Corps, Marines

-10 million drafted, 5 million volunteer – total 15 million serve in WWII

Mobilization ends the Great Depression

  * Over 40 billion bullets produced

  * 76 000 ships, 86 000 tanks, 300 000 planes, 2.6 million machine guns

  * heightened food production, almost zero unemployment – 1.4% unemployment

  * food rationing

Smith-Connally Act

-gives government control over striking industry – can order them back to work

Per Capita income increases from $573 to $1074

-buying war bonds = contributing to the war effort

### The War in Europe

Situation in 1942

Russia – German forces are attacking Leningrad, Moscow, and Stalingrad

-starting to collapse

Stalin is pressuring the Allies to open a second front

Africa

[1940] Italy invades Northern Africa – soon taken over by the Germans

-by General Romwell "Desert Fox" and German Africa Corps

-going toward the Suez Canal

-if the Middle East is accessed, means OIL to the Axis

Europe

Hitler controls almost all of mainland Europe

Hitler also controls the Atlantic Ocean and is decimating Allied shipping

### Turning Points in the War in Europe

[Oct. 1942] **North Africa**

British general Bernard Montgomery defeats German general Romwell and forces at El Alamein

  * halts the German advance

  * saves the Suez Canal

  * turns the Germans back

[Nov. 1942] **Operation Torch**

-First Allied invasion

-Invasion of North Africa

U.S. forces are led by General "Ike" Eisenhower

-gains experience for U.S. troops

-helps push Germans back into Tunisia

[May 1943] 2066 Germans surrender

[Jan 1943] **Casablanca Conference**

  * FDR and Churchill decide Sicily and Italy will be the next invasion points

  * Decide on unconditional surrender of the Axis Powers

[July 1943] Allied invasion of **Sicily**

  * Mussolini is disposed of by the Italians

  * German forces are sent into Italy

  * General Patton becomes famous

[Sept 1943] **Operation Avalanche**

  * Allied invasion of Italy

  * Allies slowly take Italy

[by June 4, 1944] Allies take Rome; two days later, Normandy

Russian Turning Point

Battle of Stalingrad

[winter 1942-Feb 1943]

  * Germans surrender 100 000 (alive) to the Russians

  * Begins a counteroffensive that will never be stopped

The Atlantic Turning Point

-technology and tactics

  1. Sonar – underwater detection

  2. Convoy system – safety in numbers of ships

  3. Air bombardment of U-boat yards/storage areas

  4. Strategy and tactics – turn off the lights on the East Coast to evade enemy attacks

-also begin building more ships than they lose

[1943] the Allies retake control of the Atlantic

[Dec 1943] **Tehran Conference**

  * First meeting of the Big Three – Stalin, Roosevelt, Churchill

  * They arrange the invasion of Europe

  * Plans for the postwar Germany occupation

  * Agree the soviet Union will enter the war against Japan 6 months after the Germans are defeated

[June 1944] **Operation Overlord**

  * Calls for Allied invasion of Normandy and France

  * Invasion led by Eisenhower and soldiers from the U.S., Great Britain, and the Canadians

  * 3.5 million soldiers are waiting in Great Britain for an attack upon Europe

[June 6, 1944] **D-Day**

  * soldiers must face German fortifications (the Atlantic Wall) on the beaches of Normandy

  * 150 000 soldiers take part in the attack – it is a slow attack, but ultimately, it is successful

  * One week after, there are 326 000 Allied troops in Europe

[by July 24, 1944] One million Allied troops are in Europe

[by Sept 24, 1944] Two million Allied troops are in Europe

[Aug. 25, 1944] Allies liberate Paris

[Oct 1944] Allies liberate Belgium and the Netherlands

Soviets pushed Germans back into Poland and Germany

[Dec. 16, 1944] last German offensive – **Battle of the Bulge**

  * 200 000 German soldiers take part – surround U.S. forces at Bastogne

  * U.S. forces are eventually able to defeat German forces by the end of January 1945

  * About 120 000 Germans are killed

  * Beginning of the end for Germany

[Feb. 1945] **Yalta Conference** – last meeting of the Big Three

  1. Stalin agrees to declare war on Japan after Germany is officially defeated

  2. Outline the plans for a meeting of the United Nations to take place in 1945 in San Francisco

  3. The Soviet Union is given land in Manchuria – appeases Stalin, and Stalin drops calls for reparations from Germany

  4. Agree upon free elections in Eastern Europe (does not happen)

  5. Agree to occupy and divide Germany after the war

  6. Agree to move Poland's borders inwards

### The War in the Pacific

[Dec 7 1941] Pearl Harbor

The Japanese miss aircraft carriers, submarine bases, oil reserves – not successful

Japan also captures Guam, Wake Island, Hong Kong, Malaya, Burma, Dutch East Indies, and the Philippines.

[Spring 1942] Doolittle raids

-U.S. attack upon mainland Japan – a moral victory

-it is a tactical failure

### Turning Points in the Pacific

  1. **Battle of Coral Sea** [May 1942]

Ends in a draw (U.S. lost an aircraft carrier)

Halts the Japanese advance on Australia

  2. **Battle of Midway** [June 1942]

Exclusive naval battle – Japan is attacking Midway Island

-if they take the base, they can attack the U.S.

-Midway Island is 1000 miles from Hawaii

U.S. Navy, led by Admiral Nimitz

-sink 4 Japanese aircraft carriers (essentially floating bases)

-Halts the Japanese offensive and puts them on the defense

  3. **Battle of Guadalcanal** [August 1942]

-first Allied offensive in the Pacific – lasts six months

[Feb 1943] Japan evacuated forces from the island

  * 1700 U.S. soldiers killed

  * 20 000 Japanese killed

    * believed in the Bashido Code

      * rather suicide than be captured by the enemy

[May 1943] Philippines fall to Japan

MacArthur flees, promising "I shall return"

-the remaining captured U.S. soldiers are placed on a death march to Batan

U.S. develops a policy – "Island-Hopping" in the Pacific

  * only attack the most strategic islands

  * bypass other islands

  * idea was that the islands that were not attacked would be cut off from supplies and be forced to surrender

  1. Douglas MacArthur

Starts with New Guinea [1943-1944]

Returns to Philippines [Oct 1944] – by March 1945, recaptures Manila

  2. Admiral Nimitz

[Aug 1943] Attu and Kiska

[Nov 1943] Tarawa

[Feb 1944] Marshall Islands

[Aug 1944] Marianas – at Battle of Saipan

-allows for around-the-clock bombing of mainland Japan

[Feb-Mar 1945] **Battle of Iwo Jima**

-flag-raising on Mount Sarabachi (six Marines)

~20 000 Japanese soldiers are killed – only 216 captured

~4000 U.S. soldiers killed

[Apr-June 1945] **Battle of Okinawa** – bloodiest battle in Pacific

~110 000 Japanese are killed

~13 000 U.S. soldiers killed – 30 000 injured

Of the Japanese civilian population – 80 000 killed

-U.S. is at the doorstep to mainland Japan

Mainland Japan is the next step for the Allies

-but if casualties in island-hopping were so high, how about the mainland?

-predicted U.S. casualties – one million

Is there an alternative? – the Atomic Bomb

### End of the War in Europe

Germany defeated at the Battle of the Bulge

-a race to Berlin between the Allies and the Soviet Union

Eisenhower halts U.S. troops at the Elbe River and lets the Soviets take it

(even though Great Britain wants Eisenhower to take Berlin first)

[April 1945] Soviet Union enters the outskirts of Berlin

[April 30, 1945] Hitler commits suicide

[May 2, 1945] the Soviets capture Berlin

[May 8, 1945] Germany surrenders

-Victory in Europe Day – V-E Day

The full extent of the Holocaust begins to be known

  * Eisenhower gets reporters to document the camps

  * About 6 million European Jew are killed

  * Millions more die in concentration camps

[April 12, 1945] Franklin D. Roosevelt dies

Harry Truman – clueless about the war effort – FDR kept everything quiet

-does not trust Stalin and the Soviet Union

  * Cuts aid until they fulfill the Yalta Conference

  * Becomes the seeds of the Cold War

[July 16, 1945 – Aug. 2, 1945] **Potsdam Conference**

New Big Three

-Stalin

-Truman

-Atlee (Churchill)

  * Complete postwar agreements

  * Demilitarize

  * Germany

  * Punish Nazi war criminals – Nuremberg Trials

  * Truman tells Stalin about the atomic bomb

The Big Three issue an ultimatum to Japan

"to surrender, or face prompt and utter destruction"

-Japan does not surrender

### End of WWII in the Pacific

The Atomic Bomb

[1939] Einstein writes to FDR discussing the possibility of an atomic bomb and Germany's plans to construct one

-Einstein later regrets this because of its destructivity

[1942] First atomic chain reaction accomplished

Robert Oppenheimer is the director of the Manhattan Project (code name given to the U.S. project to construct an atomic bomb) - spends $2 billion

[July 16, 1945] Alamo Gordo, NM

-first successful test of an atomic bomb

-at the time, there was no idea about radiation poisoning

[July 25, 1945] Truman okays the use of the atomic bomb

[July 26, 1945] The ultimatum is issued

[July 28, 1945] Japan replies – "no" – doesn't believe that the U.S. has such a weapon

[Aug 6, 1945] an American B-29 bomber "Enola Gay" drops a single A-bomb on **Hiroshima, Japan** (a military base)

  * 70 000 instantly killed

  * 60 000 more die shortly after

  * despite this, Japan does not surrender (didn't know that U.S. had another)

[Aug 8, 1945] Soviet Union enters the war against Japan

-attack Manchuria and Korea

[Aug 9, 1945] U.S. drops a second A-bomb on **Nagasaki, Japan** (industrial area)

  * 80 000 instantly killed

[Aug 14, 1945] Japan agrees to surrender under on condition – the emperor (Hirohito) stays in power

[Sept 2, 1945] the formal Japanese surrender takes place on the U.S. S. Missouri and Japanese officials surrender to Douglas MacArthur

  * V-J Day – Marks the end of WWII

Back to Truman's decision to use the atomic bomb:

It would:

  * Save U.S. lives – an estimated one million U.S. lives would be lost in an invasion of mainland Japan occurred

  * Brings an end to the war quickly

  * Saves Japanese lives (Bashido Code – surrender was unacceptable)

  * Show the Soviet Union U.S. power?

  * If we have the bomb, we'll use the bomb

Would Japan have surrendered without using it?

  * Could you display the power of the bomb on a remotely populated island?

Was it a racist decision? No – the bomb was originally intended for Germany

Leads to the Atomic Age

### Costs of the War

16 million killed in WWII (many were civilians)

300 000 killed in the U.S.

2 million killed in the Soviet Union

Holocaust

Europe and Japan lay in ruins

-many have no food, water, nor shelter in the postwar period

U.S. and the Soviet Union emerge as enemies – the Cold War

### WWII Impact on Society

**Japanese-Americans** – Yellow Peril!

112,000 Japanese-Americans interned in camps \- 2/3 were native-born Americans

Anti-Japanese sentiment causes:

  * Racial prejudice

  * Economic rivalry as well as fear

  * From the West Coast

[Feb 1942] FDR authorizes evacuation of all Japanese-Americans from the West Coast – Executive Order 9066

-no evidence of espionage

-Hawaii was an exception

Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the evacuation in the Korematsu Case [1944]

-still, the 442 regiment of Japanese-Americans become the most decorated unit in all military service in WWII

[by 1988] Government pays reparations to survivors of the evacuation

African-Americans

WWII – opportunities, racism, and Double V – one million serve

-but are given dangerous jobs

W.E.B. DuBois – rallied the African Americans

NAACP – membership multiplied by 10 – ½ million join

  * Voting rights for blacks were consolidated in the Supreme Court trial _Smith vs. Alwrights_

  * CORE – advocated nonviolence

  * Executive Order 8802 – Employment Practices Commission – employment segregation

Economy

  * $250 million spent each day

  * $330 billion spent on WWII – 10 times more than WWI

  * wage increases 50% - keep inflation down

  * industrial productivity and agriculture increases

  * unions increase – 9 million to 14.5 million

  * Smith-Connolly Act – prevent strikes (John Lewis – strikes)

  * Increase in per capita income – people buy war bonds

Women

6 million women go to work during WWII – take over men's work "Rose the Riveter"

Government opens day care center – eventually leads to women's rights movement

75% of women that go to the workplace are married

Science

OSRD – Office of science and Research Development

  * Penicillin

  * Medicine

  * Destroy the environment

  * Blood transfusions

  * Develops the Atomic bomb

Education and Entertainment

  * Teachers leave for better-paying jobs

  * School enrollment decreases

  * Women in college increases

  * More $ spent on books and theaters – non-fictions become popular for war information

  * Radio usage increases – to get war information

Minorities

~25 000 Native Americans serve in the war

-primarily as code-talkers (esp. Navajo – no written language)

-move off of reservations for high-paying jobs

300 000 Mexican-Americans serve in the war – also work on farms

Zoot-suit riots – American sailors go around committing violence toward Mexicans

### Containment & Truman

Eastern Europe in Post-WWII

Soviet Europe

  * Soviet Union has 10 million troops from the Red (Soviet) Army in Eastern Europe

  * There are no free elections in eastern Europe – violates the Yalta Conference

  * Pro-communist governments in Bulgaria, Romania, Hungaria, Yugoslavia, Albania

-Stalin wants a buffer zone between the Soviet Union and Germany

United States

  * Truman believes in self-determination – also believes that allowing the Soviet Union to take Eastern Europe is very similar to appeasement

  * Truman argues that Soviet control of Eastern Europe threatens U.S. markets and access to raw materials

  * Also thinks it would threaten him politically

  * Truman has the atomic bomb to back himself up

  * U.S. policy of containment will dominate U.S. actions toward the Soviet Union for the next 45 years

-Containment – created by George F. Kennan (a U.S. diplomat in Soviet Union)

"Soviet Union must be contained anywhere and everywhere in the world, despite the time or cost"

[March 1946] Churchill visits the U.S. – speech at Westminster College (MO)

"an iron curtain has descended upon eastern Europe"

Early examples of containment under Truman

[early 1946] U.S. sends the Sixth Fleet to Iran to protect oil interests

[June 1946] U.S. creates the atomic energy plan – proposes if Soviet Union ceases its atomic program, U.S. will destroy its own arsenal (rejected)

Flaw made by the U.N. – fails to take a tough stance on the issue – could have forced the U.S. and the Soviet Union to sign a treaty

  1. The Truman Doctrine

[Feb. 1947] Great Britain tells U.S. that they can no longer provide assistance to Greece and Turkey

Truman announces the **Truman Doctrine**

  * the U.S. will assist democracies all around the world

  * U.S. gives $400 million to Greece and Turkey

  2. The European Recovery Plan

[by 1947] Western Europe is on the verge of collapse

-famine, homelessness, lack of economy, inflation

Communism is beginning to infiltrate western Europe

Marshall Plan

-named after George C. Marshall

-$17 billion dollars to western Europe to revive the continent

-saves Europe from collapse – ensures democracy in the region

  3. The Berlin Airlift

Post WWII – Germany and Berlin are split into four occupational zones

-France, Great Britain, Soviet Union, U.S.

[June 1948] Soviet Union blockades all roads and airlines into West Berlin (controlled by France, Great Britain, and U.S.)

-the S.U. doesn't want democracy to spread into their territory

-the U.S. airlifts supplies to Berlin – extremely successful

[May 1949] Soviet Union ends the blockade

-France, Great Britain, U.S. create West Germany

-Later on, the Soviets create East Germany

[July 1949] U.S. creates **NATO**

-North Atlantic Treaty Organization

-comprised of ten countries and the U.S. and Canada

-"an attack on one is equal to an attack on all"

NATO forces are led by Eisenhower

Soviet Response

[1955] **Warsaw Pact**

-eastern Europeans and the Soviets

-also forms East Germany

### The Cold War in Asia

Japan

  * In post WWII, U.S. has exclusive control over reconstruction

  * MacArthur is in charge of U.S. forces in Japan

    * War criminals are tried at Tokyo

    * Democracy is introduced to Japan

    * Demilitarized the country

    * Economic recovery

[by 1952] U.S. forces leave Japan

China – post WWII – power struggle

Nationalists | Vs | Communists

---|---|---

(Chiang Kai-Shek)

-supported by U.S.

-inept, corrupt

-democratic |   
 | (Mao Zedong)

-supported by the Soviet Union

-help the starving

[by 1949] the Nationalists are forced to flee to Formosa (present-day Taiwan)

-the Communists take control over China

John Foster Dulles calls this "the worst defeat in U.S. history"

-lost five million people to communism, closed markets to the U.S.

Soviet Union

[1949] successfully tests an atomic bomb

[1952] U.S. tests the first H-bomb

[1953] Soviet Union tests _their_ first H-bomb

-Nuclear arms race

[1950] **NSC-68**

  * Changes U.S. Cold War policy

  * Says the Soviet Union is determined to spread communism around the globe and will do so by military force if necessary

  * Recommends the U.S. to have a massive military buildup

  * Recommends to increase buildup of nuclear weapons

  * Recommends higher taxes to do so.

Korea

After WWII – Korea is split along the 38th parallel

Soviet Union controls North Korea

United States controls South Korea

[1949] U.S. and the Soviets pull out troops but leave the nation divided

[June 25, 1950] North Korea invades South Korea

-the U.N. calls North Korea an aggressor nation and authorizes "police action" against North Korea

U.S. makes up the bulk of U.N. troops

U.S. general MacArthur leads forces

**Korean War** [1950-1953]
Part 1

[June 25, 1950] N. Korean pushes S. Korea back to Pusan (Southern tip of Korea)

Part 2 – enter U.S.

[Sept 15, 1950] MacArthur leads an amphibious assault at Inchan (slightly north of Seoul)
Part 3

[Nov 1950] U.S. forces push N. Korea back to Yalu River (close to border between Korea and China)

Chinese forces (about 33 divisions) enter the war

– begin pushing U.S. and S. Koreans back to the 38th parallel

Part 4

[April 11, 1951] Truman replaces MacArthur with another general

-MacArthur wanted to use nuclear weapons – could have been WWIII

[1951-1953] War enters a stalemate

DMZ line – the demilitarize zone that is roughly around the 38th parallel

[1953] Eisenhower ends the war once he is president

Cost of the Korean War

  * 54,246 U.S. soldiers are killed

  * 103,000 U.S. soldiers are wounded

  * Koreans are still divided

  * 3.5 million men in the military

  * Defense budget increases during the war - $50 billion a year is spent

Vietnam

[in early 1950s] Truman provides money and aid to the French, who were fighting communist forces in Vietnam

### Domestic Policies of Truman

Background of Harry S. Truman

  * Born in 1884 in Independence, Missouri

  * Farmer

  * No college education

  * Artillery officer in WWI

  * A failed businessman – rises in politics as a U.S. senator

  * "the average man's average man"

  * very loyal to the Missouri Gang

  * New Dealer

  * Quotes– "the buck stops here," "if you can't stand the heat, get out of the kitchen"

[April 1945] President after FDR's death

  * Had to attend the Potsdam Conference

  * Had to handle the atomic bomb decision

  * Had to handle the end of WWII and post-WWII

Biggest domestic issue – Demobilization

  1. Bring troops home

-want to be home by Christmas

15 million troops in military to 1.5 million in the military by end of 1945

  2. Social readjustment

Possible psychological damage done to troops – blood lust for killing?

  3. Economic readjustment

Wartime to peacetime

  4. Recession [1946-1947]

Inflation – price controls were lifted

Increase in strikes

  5. Housing shortage

Due to returning troops

  6. Job shortage

Due to returning troops

### Solutions

  1. **Serviceman's Readjustment Act of 1944** "GI Bill of Rights"

    * Sends 8 million veterans to votech schools and colleges (2 million to college)

    * Spend $14.5 billion by the government on education

    * Spend $16.5 billion on loans to veterans for farms, houses, businesses

  2. Industries convert to peacetime economies

-corporate tax cuts

-the government sells war factories at low prices

-converted to make consumer products

  3. **Bretton-Woods Agreement** [1944]

    * Ties U.S. currency to foreign currency

    * Helps regulate foreign currency

    * Limits inflation

    * Encourages global trade

  4. Marshall Plan

  5. Employment Act of 1946

    * Creates a council of economic advisors

    * Goal: full employment

    * Leads to the Fair Deal

Elections of 1946 (congressional election year)

Republicans gain control in Congress

-want to reverse New Deal Programs

-want to limit the labor movement

[1947] Taft Hartley Act

-outlaws closed shops

-slows the labor movement

### Election of 1948

Republicans | Democrats | Dixiecrats | Progressives

---|---|---|---

Thomas Dewey

Expected to win

Gov. of NY | Harry S. Truman

Platform – civil rights, pro-labor

\- Farmers, labor unions, African-Americans | Strom Thurman

The states' rights party

Broke away from the Democrats | Henry Wallace

Former VP

Truman pulls off the upset and wins with 303 electoral votes!

-develops the Fair Deal

Truman wants to:

  * Improve housing – succeeds – Housing Act of 1949

  * Increase minimum wage – succeeds – up to $0.75 per hour

  * Better price support for farmers – fails

  * More TVAs/electrification programs – fails

  * Increase social security benefits – succeeds – Social Security Act of 1950

  * Repeal Taft-Hartley Act – fails

  * Ease immigration restrictions – succeeds – War Brides Act [1945]

\- Displaced Persons Act

### Truman and Civil Rights

[1946] forms President's Committee on Civil Rights

[1948] sends a civil rights message to Congress

-urges them to pass laws

-Desegregates the military and the federal government

### Second Red Scare

  1. Truman's Loyalty Programs

Require 3 million people in the federal government to take loyalty oaths

-3000 are dismissed or resign

States force their employees to take the oaths as well

NY prosecutes 11 people for violating the Smith Act [1943]

-upheld by the Supreme Court in _Dennis vs. U.S._

McCarren Internal Security Act

-subjects all workers in industry to investigations and loyalty oaths

-Truman vetoes it (violation of first amendment)

-but is overruled by Congress

  2. **House of Un-American Activities Committee** (HUAC)

-created to investigate subversion in American society

Richard Nixon – makes a name for himself

  * brings down Alger Hiss (gov't worker in the State Dept. – New Dealer)

-very educated, accused of being a communist

  * convicted of perjury

HUAC also goes after Hollywood – "blacklisted"

  3. McCarthyism

Led by Joseph McCarthy (Republican senator from Wisconsin)

  1.     * Accuses that here are hundreds of communists working for the federal government

    * Creates a communist "witch hunt"

    * [1950-1953] people are terrified

    * But, after embarrassing himself on the televised Army-McCarthy hearings, he is censored

  2. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg

  * Become the scapegoats for the Soviet Union getting the atomic bomb

  * Put on trial, convicted, and then executed

### Election of 1952

Eisenhower easily defeats Adlai Stevenson

VP Richard Nixon – almost brought down with the discovery of a slush fund

-but goes an TV with the Checkers Speech and manages to stay VP

Eisenhower is more a manager of the Presidency than a leader – loves to play golf

-takes a less aggressive approach towards the Soviet Union

### Eisenhower and the Cold War

Ike

  * Born in 1890 in Abilene, KA

  * Attends West Point – more athletic than academic

  * WWII – Operation Torch, Invasion of Normandy

  * Supreme commander of the allied forces in Europe

  * After WWII – President of Columbia [1948-1950]

  * Head of NATO [1950-1952]

Ike and Korea

[Dec. 1952] visits Korea to attempt to end the war

-is unsuccessful – fighting continues for a few months

[March 1953] Stalin dies

Ike begins to threaten use of nuclear weapons on North Korea

[July 1953] cease-fire is announced – DMZ zone

**Ike and John Dulles** (Secretary of State)

Dulles – has a more aggressive approach towards the Soviet Union

-calls for a policy of "brinkmanship"

-getting as close to war as possible without actually getting to war

-a very dangerous plan

Ike prefers a more conciliatory policy

[

Soviets crush the revolts

 1953] East German workers revolt

[1956] Poles and the Hungarians revolt

Meanwhile, the U.S. does nothing

-The conciliatory policy leads to a thaw in the Cold War

Cold War Thaw

Ike makes an "atoms for peace" speech at the U.N.

-use for beneficial ideas instead of nuclear weapons

[1955] Ike and Soviet Union leaders meet at Geneva

-first time U.S. and the Soviet Union leaders meet at Geneva

[1958] S.U. halts all atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons – U.S. follows suit

Dulles creates pacts with any nation wishing to side with the U.S. against communism

-also cuts back spending on the army and the navy

New Cold War strategy – rely on their nuclear stockpile and planes

Ike creates the CIA

-by the National Security Act of 1947

-grows out of SSS – Strategic Services

-Allen Dulles is the head of the CIA

CIA leads covert operations around the globe – concentrates on Third-World Nations

[1953] Iran

  * The CIA overthrows the elected government and reinstalls the pro-U.S. Shah

  * Why? Oil reserves in this region

  * However, they create seeds of discontent towards the U.S.

[1953] CIA halts elections in the Philippines

[1954] Overthrow forces in Guatemala

Ike and Vietnam

Truman sent money to help the French in Vietnam

-Communists are fighting the French, led by Ho Chi Minh

[1954] French defeat at Diem Bien Phu

-a cease-fire is announced

Geneva convention for the armistice – Vietnam is split at the 17th parallel

[1956] U.S. refuses to allow the elections to take place

-the CIA funds and supports the S. Vietnam gov't of Ngo Dinh Diem

-Catholic (a negative – most Vietnamese are Buddhist)

-schooled in U.S.

-Pro-West

Opposition grows against Diem

[1960] National Liberation Front forms in S. Vietnam

Viet Cong – oppose the Pro-West government

Ike sends only money and some advisors to Vietnam – no troops

Ike & Egypt

[1954] Gaural Abdel Nasser takes control over Egypt

  * U.S. offers a loan to build a dam in Egypt

  * Nasser declares his neutrality in Cold War – then buys arms from Czechoslovakia – behind the iron curtain

  * Dulles cancels the loan

  * Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal – angers Britain

[1956] Great Britain, France, and Israel invade Egypt

Ike is extremely angry about this and condemns the invasion

  * Goes before the U.N. and names the three as aggressor nations

  * Why? Because the Soviets threaten to get involved, and also because Ike was not informed of it

[March 1957] All three countries pull out of Egypt

Significance

-the U.S. is forced to act as the protector of Western interests in the Middle East

Ike passes the Eisenhower Doctrine

-U.S. will give money, military aid and troops to any Middle-Eastern country fighting communists

-Hatred of the West and the U.S. increases at the time

[1958] 14,000 U.S. soldiers sent to Lebanon

Ike and South America

[1958] Nixon is sent to Peru and Venezuela

-is promptly spit upon and had stones thrown at him

[1959] Fidel Castro overthrows Batista in Cuba and brings communism to the country

Ike & the Soviet Union

[1958] Nixon visits the Soviet Union – the Kitchen Debate with Khrushchev

[1959] Khrushchev visits the U.S.

  * visits Camp David (a presidential retreat in Maryland) – "spirit of Camp David"

  * agrees to meet again in Paris in 1960 – never happens

The U-2 Incident

  * on the eve of the conference...

  * the Soviets shoot down a U.S. U-2 spy plane in Soviet airspace

  * reveals that the U.S. has been spying on the Soviets since 1956

Ike claims it was a weather plane that flew off course

Khrushchev has the pilot (does not commit suicide as he's supposed to)

-puts him, Gary Powers, on TV, who admits to spying on the Soviet Union

Ike admits that the U.S. is spying, but he refuses to apologize

-They cancel the 1960 Paris conference

The Cold War returns at full force

Ike's Farewell

Warns against a number of things

  * warns the U.S. economy is too dependent on military spending

  * the military-industrial complex is too powerful

  * warns that he cannot guarantee that peace will continue with the Soviet Union

Ike's Failures & Accomplishments in the Cold War

Accomplishments

  * ends the Korean War

  * kept U.S. out of war

  * claims there are no troops in Vietnam

  * halts atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons

  * promotes better relations with the Soviet Union

Failures

  * accelerates the arms race

  * allows the CIA to run amok around the globe

  * continues to keep the U.S. involved in Vietnam

### Ike and Domestic Policies

Ike is elected in 1952 – first Republican in office since Hoover

-more of a manager than a true leader

-there are 8 corporate executives on his cabinet

-wanted at first to remain "in the middle" regarding politics – reflective in his first term

  * reduces farm price subsidies

  * cut government power

  * wants to balance the budget – cut federal spending – successful in three out of eight times

  * development of nuclear and hydroelectric companies – private ownership

  * does not like public energy

  * gives oil reserves back to the coastal states

[1954] Democrats take control over both houses of Congress

Ike becomes more liberal – modern Republicanism

  * works to appease labor

    * vetoes a bill to get rid of the Council of Economic Advisors

  * increases unemployment benefits

  * increases the minimum wage from $0.75 to $1.00 per hour

  * increases social security benefits

  * increases federally-funded public housing projects for low-income families

  * increases public works projects

    * St. Lawrence Seaway

      * connects Great Lakes to the Atlantic

    * Interstate Highway Act of 1956

      * The largest and most expensive

      * Creates 41,000 miles of highways in U.S.

Significance:

  * Increases growth of suburbia

  * Increases the dependency on the automobile

  * Increases dependency on oil

  * Decrease in use of RR

  * Decay of the inner cities

  * Increase in pollution

Election of 1956

Eisenhower easily defeats Adlai Stevenson again.

### The Supreme Court

[1953] Earl Warren becomes Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (supposedly conservative, but becomes very liberal)

-changes the Supreme Court into a liberal court

[1954] _Brown vs. Board of Education (of Topeka, KA)_

-the Supreme Court rules that "separate but equal" in public schools is illegal

[1955] Supreme Court orders the desegregation of all public schools

Eisenhower enforces desegregation in D.C. but does not enforce it in the South

-does not want to lose Southern support

[1956] the deep South has not desegregated

[1957] 9 African-American students attempt to enter Little Rock Central High School in Arkansas

  * Governor Orval Faubus refuses to allow the students to enter – calls the National Guard to prevent this from happening

  * Ike calls in the 101st Airborne and forces the desegregation of Little Rock Central High School

  * [1958-1959] Faubus closes all public schools in Little Rock

-brings the issue of civil rights to the forefront of American attention

[1957] Civil Rights Act of 1957

-first civil rights act since Reconstruction

-not very powerful, but it is a start

[1955] Rosa Parks refuses to give up her seat in a bus in Montgomery, AL

  * she is arrested – begins the Montgomery Bus boycott

  * lasts for a year, and it is extremely successful

  * Montgomery agrees to desegregate their buses

    * Companies are losing a lot of money

Martin Luther King Jr.

-direct action (everyone can get involved)

-nonviolence (from Gandhi)

-Christian ideals

[1957] forms the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)

[1957] Soviet Union launches the first man-made satellite – "Sputnik"

-U.S. fears that it has fallen behind in technology – this is true

Consequences:

  1. the National Defense Education Act is passed

Emphasizes _science_ , math, foreign languages

  2. National Aeronautic Space Administration (NASA) [1958]

-both are created to catch up in the Cold War

-begins a space race

Eisenhower

  * Expands New Deal ideology

  * Partial segregation

  * Keeps U.S. in the middle of the road

  * But could have done more about civil rights

  * Linked the Cold War with education

The Affluent Society [1950s] (white middle-class men)

U.S. Families

  * 60% own a home

  * 75% own a car

  * 87% own at least one TV

GNP increase 50% (Gross National Product)

  * increased consumerism

  * increased productivity

  * government is spending

Average American worker enjoys the highest standard of living ever

-increased wages 35% from 1945-1960 (real wages)

New Industry

  * first nuclear power plant [1957]

  * more chemicals are produced

  * plastics are produced

  * increased use of electronic products

  * automation – machines doing the work (i.e. car industry)

  1. Increases productivity

  2. Makes products cheaper

  * increased use of oil

  * increase in airplane manufacturing

  * computers – computers were huge and filled rooms

    * people did not have computers (too expensive, too large)

    * only used by the government or businesses

    * first computer, the Mark I (designed by IBM and Harvard professors)

      * used to crack codes in WWII

  * oligopolies – a few companies control the entire industry

    * ex. Automobile companies

    * ex. Television stations (CBS, NBC, ABC)

Labor

  * white-collar workers/vice presidents

    * in charge, but do not have a direct hold

  * conformity was encouraged at businesses

  * organized labor decreases from 36% to 31% [from 1953-1960]

  * AF of L and CIO combine in 1955 to form one large union

    * Less people were taking blue-collar jobs

    * Less of a need for unions as conditions get better

Agriculture

  * More use of science, technology, chemicals and mechanization

Rachel Carson's Silent Spring [1962]

-highlights the dangers of chemical use

  * Numbers of farmers decrease – leaving the farms

  * With new technology, don't need as much farmers

  * Farms consolidate acreage

Family Life

Baby Boom – 1945-1960 babies are the Baby Boom Generation

  1. After WWII – soldiers come back after years at war

  2. Soldiers had put lives on hold – want to start families

Fertility Rates

[1940] 80 children to every 1000 women

[1950] 106 children to every 1000 women

[1957] 123 children to every 1000 women

  * Less children are dying in infancy – vaccinations, penicillin

  * Increased life expectancy

  * Expansion of the educational system in the U.S.

  * More studies are done on child-raising

Dr. Benjamin Spock [1940s] Baby and Child Care

-advocates the comforting and holding of children when they cry

-less punishments, more conversation

Full-time motherhood is expected

Suburbia

Levitt-towns – developed by William Levitt, who brought the assembly line to housing

  1. Build houses quickly

  2. Build more houses

"Cookie-cutter homes" - all look the same - conformity – "Keeping up with the Jones's"

First Levitt-town is built in Long Island, the second in Pennsylvania

Entertainment

The Art World

-the capital of the art world moves from Paris to NYC

-Jackson Pollock

Movies – decrease in viewership due to television

TV Guide, TV dinners, TV trays – ABC, CBS, NBC

-family shows were the dominant genre – advocated stereotypes and conformity

Music

-Rock & Roll is the most popular music genre (Elvis Presley)

-backlash of conformity – teenagers, Beatniks, Jet Caraway

### John Fitzgerald Kennedy

  * Born in 1917 in MA to a wealthy family

  * Father – Joseph D. Kennedy – Pre-WWII Isolationist

-shipping magnate

-liquor industry

-real estate

  * Athletic

  * Harvard graduate – wrote a thesis in his senior year Why England Slept [1940]

  * Real WWII hero – PT109 – saved many lives

-Profiles and Courage – wins a Pulitzer

  * [1947] elected to the House from MA

  * [1952] elected as U.S. senator

  * married to Jackie Bouvier

  * Roman Catholic

  * Handsome and charismatic

  * 42 years old when nominated for the presidency

### Election of 1960

Democrats | Republicans

---|---

John F. Kennedy | Richard Nixon

VP LBJ from Texas

-inexperienced

-young, good-looking, charismatic

-appeals to youth, minorities, NE, South | -HUAC, House of Representatives

-senator from CA

VP for 8 years under Ike

-well-known, well-respected, experienced

-appeals to middle-class conservatives, the west, and CA

Nixon has the overwhelming edge

...until he agrees to four televised debates

  * pales in comparison to JFK's good looks

  * leads to Nixon's defeat

  * shows the importance of television and the influence of TV

JFK wins by a narrow margin of 303 to 219 electoral votes

### JFK's Domestic Policy "The New Frontier"

Inaugural address – "ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country" – speaking to the U.S. youth

This new generation is reflected in:

  1. his family – "Camelot"

  2. his Cabinet – "the Best and the Brainiest"

    * McGeorge Bundy

    * Robert McManora – Secretary of Defense

    * Walter Weller – Council of Economic Advisors

    * Robert Kennedy – Attorney General

Domestic Policies

  1. Cut taxes to businesses

-promotes spending and investments

-despite this, businesses were skeptical with JFK, especially after he gets involved with U.S. Steel

  2. Increase defense spending

    * 20% increase in the defense budget

    * increase in the number of Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBM)

    * increase in medium-range missiles

    * increase in nuclear stockpile

    * increase in submarines with nuclear attack capabilities

    * increase in special forces (i.e. Green Beret)

  3. Increase in spending on the Space Program

-challenges the U.S. to place a man on the moon and return him safely by the end of the decade

Successes

  * Doubles economic growth

  * Unemployment decreases

  * Inflation kept at 1.3% per year

  * No interruption in economy

Failures

  * No redistribution of wealth

  * Corporate profits increase more than personal income

  * No increase in social welfare

  * He neglects the environment

### JFK and Civil Rights

-first year and a half, JFK does little to promote civil rights

[1961] Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)

  * Lead freedom rides to the South to highlight violations of desegregation in public transportation

  * CORE is met with violence

JFK sends federal troops to protect the freedom riders

-also to forcibly desegregate the University of Mississippi

-James Meredith is allowed to enroll

[June 1963] Governor of AL, George Wallace

-tries to keep the University of Alabama segregated

[June 11, 1963] JFK goes on TV – calls for desegregation in the U.S.

[June 18, 1963] JFK proposes civil rights legislation to Congress

[Aug. 28, 1963] March on Washington

  * 275,000 show support for civil rights legislation

  * Martin Luther King Jr. - "I Have a Dream" speech

Congress is still holding back – until JFK is assassinated in Nov. 1963

### JFK & Flexible Response

Flexible Response – having multiple ideas and strategies to deal with foreign crises

  1. Triples nuclear capabilities

  2. Increase conventional military forces

  3. Increase the use of special forces

  4. Economic assistance to Third World Countries

-keep communism out of these countries

  * Food for Peace program – gives surplus food

  * Alliance for Progress - $ to Third World countries

  * Peace Corps – young volunteers go and work in Third World Countries

Flexible Response in Action

  1. The Bay of Pigs Invasion

[Apr. 17, 1961] 1200 Cuban exiles who were trained by the CIA invade Cuba

-absolute failure

-drives Castro closer to the Soviet Union

the CIA will attempt several times to assassinate Castro, but all attempts fail

  2. Berlin

[June 1961] JFK and Khrushchev meet for the first time

Khrushchev demands that Americans troops leave West Berlin

-or else, the Soviet Union will go to war

JFK refuses and begins to prepare for war

[Aug. 1961] Khrushchev backs down from his threat

  * Builds the Berlin Wall to separate East and West Berlin

  * Becomes the symbol of the Cold War for the next 30 years

  3. The Cuban Missile Crisis

[Oct 1962] U.S. U-2 spy plane takes photographs over Cuba of the Soviet Union building missile sites and nuclear missiles in Cuba

JFK goes on TV and demands that the Soviet Union remove the missiles and missile bases – also orders a quarantine around Cuba, a naval blockade

  * However, the Soviet Union ships are heading for Cuba

  * U.S. is preparing for an invasion of Cuba

  * B-52's are in use

  * 180 U.S. war ships are in the Caribbean

[Oct. 25, 1962] Soviet Union halts their ships

  * JFK receives an emotional, rambling letter from Khrushchev proposing the Soviet Union will remove missiles from Cuba if the U.S. pledges not to invade Cuba

  * A U.S. U-2 spy plane is shot down over Cuba

  * JFK receives a second letter from Khrushchev that is more demanding and orders the U.S. to remove missiles from Turkey

  * RFK (Robert F. Kennedy) convinces JFK to accept the first letter and ignore the second letter

[Oct. 27, 1962] Khrushchev accepts the offer and begins to remove missiles from Cuba

-Relations between the Soviet Union and the U.S. improve

  * A hot line is established between Washington D.C. and Kremlin

  * Limited Test Ban Treaty – ban underwater and atmospheric nuclear tests

  4. Vietnam

JFK continues to carry on the policies of Ike

-increases military aid in S. Vietnam

-increases military personnel (1700 to 16000) in S. Vietnam

Ngo Din Diem fails to win the support of the S. Vietnamese people

JFK and U.S. decide not to stop a S. Vietnamese coup from overthrowing Diem

[Nov. 1, 1963] Diem is assassinated

### JFK Assassination

[Nov. 1963] JFK is looking ahead to the 1964 Election – wants to rebuild his image

[Nov. 22, 1963] JFK, Jackie, LBJ, Lady Bird go to Dallas TX for a motorcade

**12:00 pm** – JFK, Jackie, Gov. Conally ride in an open-air car through Dallas

-LBJ follows in a car behind

**12:30 pm** – Three shots ring out from book depository

"magic bullet" – more than one shooter?

1st shot – misses, hits overpass

2nd shot – hits JFK in the back – passes out through neck and into Gov. Conally's back and out into the right wrist (after, turn from ribs? Out of chest)

3rd shot – hits JFK in left skull – blows out right skull (explodes into millions of pieces)

  * JFK taken to hospital (through dead at the scene of the third shot)

  * Pronounced dead one hour later

  * LBJ brought to Air Force One to be sworn in

**Later that day** –

  * Dallas police arrest Lee Harvey Oswald as suspect for killing JFK

  * JFK's body is placed on Air Force One and LBJ takes oath of office with Jackie standing next to him (in a pink dress with bloodstains)

[Nov. 24, 1963] Sunday – Funeral Procession

11:30 am – Lee Harvey Oswald is shot and killed by Jack Ruby while being transferred to another prison, one bullet in the chest, caught on national TV

[Nov. 25, 1963] Monday – JFK's Funeral

  * Laid to rest at Arlington National Cemetery and the eternal flame is lit

  * Famous: JFK Jr. saluting his father's casket (later killed in a place crash)

Warren Commission

  * LBJ sets up the commission to investigate JFK's assassination

  * People believe that Lee Harvey Oswald did not act alone

  * Concludes that Oswald acted alone and that Ruby also acted alone

    * There is still disbelief

    * Many groups (ex. CIA, FBI) dislike JFK

  * Does not put conspiracy theories to rest

  * Head : Chief Justice Carl Warren

  * Many months of investigation (not well) – Zeproder Film

### Lyndon Baines Johnson

  * Born in 1908 in Texas, a troubled child

  * [1927] goes to a teacher's college – gets interested in politics

  * [1937-1939] enters the House of Representatives

  * [1949-1961] U.S. Senator from Texas

  * [1961-1963] Vice President

  * has a great deal of political experience – well-connected in D.C.

  * Protestant

  * Considered a moderate

  * Very convincing

When LBJ takes over, he faces a very difficult task of taking JFK's position

-decides to finish JFK's unfulfilled visions

  1. [Feb. 1964] Tax Cut

$10 billion income tax cut – promotes spending - decrease in unemployment

  2. Civil Rights Legislation – [1964] Civil Rights Act

  * Outlaws segregation in public accommodations

  * Gives government more power to help African-Americans to register to vote

  * Gives government power to end segregation in schools

  * Creates Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) – makes sure companies are not discriminating

  3. War on Poverty

The Other America by Michael Harrington – influences JFK, LBJ

-1/5 to 1/4 of U.S. is living in poverty

  * VISTA – domestic version of the Peace Corps

  * Project Headstart – pre-kindergarten for disadvantaged families

  * Job Corps – everyday skills to young adults

  * Community Action programs – designed to get people involved in politics

### Election of 1964

LBJ promises even more reforms – if he is elected

Democrats | Republicans

---|---

Lyndon B. Johnson | Barry Goldwater

486 electoral votes

61% of the popular vote | 52 electoral votes

LBJ is easily re-elected

Democrats take the majority in the House (295:140)

Democrats also take the majority in the Senate (68:32)

LBJ announces his plans for "The Great Society"

### The Great Society [1965 – 1966]

The Eighty-Ninth Congress "the Congress of Fulfillment"

  1. [1965] Elementary and Secondary Education Act

-$1 Billion to schools

  2. [1965] Voting Rights Act

-takes away literacy tests

-federal examiners – ensure that African-Americans can vote in the South

  3. [1965] Medical Care Act

Medicare – health insurance to the elderly

Medicaid – health care for welfare recipients

  4. The Omnibus Housing Act

$8 billion to help improve housing

  5. [1964] Immigration Act

-ends the quota system of 1924

  6. Appalachia Redevelopment Act

$1 billion to the Appalachia region

  7. Higher Education Act of 1965

$650 million in scholarships and loans

  8. National Endowment for Arts and Humanities

Promotes cultural and artistic growth

  9. Corporations for Public Broadcasting (PBS)

  10. Water Quality Act of 1965

1966

  11. Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Development Act

-urban renewal in various cities

  12. Motor Vehicle Safety Act

-standardizes safety procedures in auto industry

  13. Truth in Packaging Act

-requires labels on food

-health content, ingredients

From 1965 to 1966, 181 out of 200 LBJ-backed pieces of legislations are passed by Congress

The Vietnam War, by end of 1966, begins to overshadow the Great Society

-the war destroys many of the Great Society programs

-took money and attention away from it

Was the Great Society successful? Somewhat.

### Civil Rights in the U.S. – the Civil Rights Movement

[1948]

Truman desegregates the military

Jackie Robinson is the first African-American to play pro-baseball in the Major Leagues

[1954] _Brown v. Board of Education in Topeka_

-segregated schools are unconstitutional

-Warren Court

[1955] Montgomery Bus Boycott

-begun by Rosa Parks

-led by Martin Luther King Jr.

[1957] the Crisis in Little Rock Central High School

-"Little Rock Nine" try to enter the school

-Faubus, the Gov. of Arkansas, refuses to allow them to enter

-Eisenhower calls out troops and forces the desegregation of the school

-Civil Rights Act of 1957 – first since Reconstruction of the 1860s

[1960] Sit-ins

  * At segregated lunch counters in the South

  * Led by a group called Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

    * Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) – college students

    * Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) – led by Martin Luther King, Jr.

[1961] Freedom Rides – met with violence

[1963] March on Birmingham, AL

  * Also met with violence, led by police chief "Bull" Connor

    * Water hoses

    * Attack dogs

    * Arrests

All aired on live TV

JFK is forced to act

  * Governor Wallace of AL "Segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever" – from the U. of Alabama

[Aug] March on Washington – "I Have a Dream" speech by Martin Luther King, Jr.

[1964] Civil Rights Act is passed

-aided by JFK's assassination

-much more powerful than the Act in 1957

Freedom Summer

-SNCC and CORE lead drives into South to register African-Americans to vote

[1965] March from Selma to Montgomery

  * Led by Martin Luther King Jr. and SCLC

  * Met with violence by the police – leads to Voting Rights Act of 1965

*So far, these strategies follow King's ideas – nonviolence, direct action, Christian ideals

[Aug. 11] Watts, Los Angeles, CA

-riots break out – last for six days

-40,000 people, $30 million in property damages

34 killed, over 4,000 arrested

-sparks riots throughout the country (Chicago, IL; Springfield, MA)

[1966] over 150 racial upheavals

40 full-out riots (two of which are the Newark Riots, Detroit)

[April 4, 1968] Martin Luther King, Jr. is assassinated

-sparks even more race riots – in Memphis, TN

LBJ calls together the **Kerner Commission** to investigate the riots

  * Concludes the U.S. is heading toward two societies – one Black, one White

  * Recommend:

    * 2 million new jobs

    * 6 million new housing projects

    * end to de facto segregation in Northern schools

    * income supplementation

LBJ largely ignores all of these recommendations due to the Vietnam War

### Civil Rights Movement

-Begins to faction off in mid-1960s – 3 groups

  1. Malcolm X

  * Born Malcolm Little

  * Serves ten years in prison

  * Teachings of Islam

  * Promotes violence for civil rights movement

  * Assassinated in 1965

  2. Black Power

  * Led by Stokely Carmichael

  * Black separatism

  * Racial pride

  * Also calls for violence, to "get even"

  3. Black Panthers [1966]

  * Huey Newton and Bobby Seale

  * Promote the use of violence

Inspires other movements

Native American Movement – seize Alcatraz Island – AIM American Indian Movement

Mexican American Movement – led by Caesar Chavez (grape boycott)

-follows the teachings of Martin Luther King Jr.

Women's Rights Movement – The Feminine Mystique by Betty Fredan

[1966] National Organization of Women (NOW) is founded

### The Vietnam War

Vietnam – SW Asia

-dense forests, low-lying area

-grow rice

200 B.C. the Chinese take control over Vietnam

949 A.D. Vietnam becomes independent

[1400]the Chinese are unsuccessful in winning it back

[1883] the French take over Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos – French Indochina

[WWII] Japan takes over Vietnam

[Aug. 1945] Japan surrenders

-Vietnam declares independence – led by Ho Chih Minh

[1946] French try to take it back – Ho Chih Minh and Viet Minh fight back

[1950] due to Domino Theory, U.S. sends aid to the French

[1954] French are defeated at Dim Bien Phu

-Geneva Convention split Vietnam at 19th parallel to North and South

-North – Ho Chih Minh; South – Ngo Dim Diem (U.S. support)

[1956] U.S. refuses to allow the elections to take place since Ho Chih Minh is more popular and also communist

[1960] Viet Cong form in South Vietnam – begin attacking Diem's government

-about 900 U.S. military advisors in South Vietnam

[1961] JFK sends the Green Berets to Vietnam (more military personnel)

-16,000 U.S. personnel in South Vietnam

[1963] U.S. government allows Diem to be assassinated

[Nov. 22, 1963] JFK is assassinated – how was he going to handle Vietnam?

LBJ – wants to escalate the war in Vietnam and keep communism at bay

[Feb 1964] leads air strikes

[Aug. 1964] Turning point

Gulf of Tonkin Incident

  * 2 U.S. patrol boats claim they were attacked by North Vietnamese naval forces

  * LBJ uses this to go before Congress and ask to expand military efforts in Vietnam

    * Gulf of Tonkin Resolution [Aug 7, 1964]

    * Gives LBJ a blank check for the war

    * Passes 416:0 in Congress, 88:2 in Senate

  * Escalation of the war

    * Increased troop levels

    * Increase in the draft – 23,300 troops

[1965] U.S. – Operation Rolling Thunder

  * U.S. Air Force bombs strategic locations at North Vietnam and Ho Chih Minh Trail (supplied the Viet Cong)

  * Completely unsuccessful

LBJ sends more troops to Vietnam

[end of 1965] 184,000 troops in Vietnam

65% U.S. supports the war at the time

[1966] 385,000 troops in Vietnam

[1967] Anti-war movement growing larger

485,000 troops in Vietnam

[1968] Turning Point #2 – January 20 Siege at Qe Sanh

Tet Offensive

Tet – Vietnamese New Year

Jan. 30 – Viet Cong lead a massive, coordinated attack on cities throughout South Vietnam, including Saigon (believed to be the safest place in Vietnam)

Militarily, U.S. defeats Viet Cong – but is a huge political defeat

-all support disappears at home

-changes how people see the war

536,000 troops in Vietnam – height will come at end of 1968 with 549,000 troops

Protests

[1963] start small

[1965] Students for Democratic Society (SDS)

-organize protests on college campuses

-a man sets himself on fire outside McMamera's (Sec. of Defense) office at the Pentagon

[1967] Anti-war movement grows

[1968] Support for the war falls under 30%

[1969] 500,000 people show up in D.C. for anti-war rally

Television

Vietnam – first televised war

-images of the war (the ones that make it past censors) are broadcast nightly

-leads to more protests

Soldiers

Most were drafted

One in four draftees receive a deferment (get out of service)

The average soldier is poor, young (19 is the average age), and less educated

Fighting – brutal and tough, and mentally draining

**Khe Sanb** (marine base)

[Jan. 20, 1968] Largest set peace battle of Vietnam War

-U.S. marines are surrounded and attacked for 78 days by N. Vietnamese forces

[July 6, 1968] U.S. marines leave the area

[Jan. 31, 1968] **Tet Offense**

Escalation?

William W. Morland (head of military force in Vietnam) asks LBJ for 206,000 more soldiers – 536,000 in Vietnam

-but LBJ refuses in March 1968

LBJ

[by early 1968] LBJ is a broken man

-years of war, anti-war protests

-pro-war Hawks vs. anti-war Doves

  * Goes on TV and announces the halting of bombing of North Vietnam – marks beginning of de-escalation)

  * Also announces that he will not run for president in 1968

    * Eugene McCarthy (anti-war senator)

      * Wins the NH primary vs. LBJ

    * Hawks are angry, Doves are angry

    * RFK enters the nomination race March 1968

    * Dem. Nominees: Hubert Humphrey, Eugene McCarthy, RFK (NY senator)

Martin Luther King Jr.

[April 4, 1968] while standing on balcony of his Memphis hotel, MLK Jr. was shot and killed by an escaped convict, James Earl Ray

-leads to violence and riots in the U.S. in 125 cities

-46 people killed

-over 3,000 injured, over 27,000 arrested

Robert Fitzgerald Kennedy

[March 1968] enters Democratic nomination

  * Supported by:

    * Young

    * Poor

    * African-Americans

    * Hispanics

  * "rightful owner of the presidency"

  * gaining support throughout early 1968 – wins the CA primary

  * RFK is shot and killed while walking through a kitchen after the primary win

    * Killed by Sirhan Sirhan

Democratic National Convention

  * At Chicago in Aug. 28, 1968

  * Hubert Humphrey receives the Democratic nomination

  * Outside the convention, 10,000 protestors gather in a park across the street

  * Richard J. Daly – is angered by their presence and orders for the forced removal of the protestors – violence breaks out

Significance – displays the chaotic mess of the Democratic Party

### Election of 1968

Republicans | Democrats | Independents

---|---|---

Richard Nixon | Hubert Humphrey | George Wallace

Wins by 500 000 pop. votes

301 electoral votes | 191 electoral votes | The segregation speech

46 electoral votes

-Nixon becomes president

### Major Changes brought about by 1968

  1. The Conservatives take over the government

  2. Civil Rights Movement

-from nonviolence/direct action/Christian ideals – to violence

-by Black Panthers

  3. Vietnam War

[before 1968] goal: to win

[after 1968] goal: to get out

### Richard M. Nixon

  * Raised a Quaker, born in CA

  * Works for OPA during WWII

  * Served in Navy [1942-1945] – gains respect

  * Exceptional serviceman

[1946-1951] House of Representatives – served in HUAC (brought down A. Hiss)

[1951-1953] Senator

[1953-1961] VP under Eisenhower

[1952] almost dropped from Ike–slush fund–saved himself with Checkers speech

[1960] loses presidency to JFK

[1962] loses governor position in CA to Pat Brown

[1968] manages to win the president position

  * VP Spiro Agnew

  * Secretary of State Henry Kissinger

Nixon wants to get the U.S. out of Vietnam – kept his plans very secret

[Aug 1969] **Nixon Doctrine**

U.S. will give money and moral aid to any country fighting communism, but the U.S. will NOT send troops

### Situation in the Vietnam War in 1969

[1968] LBJ announces a halt to escalation

  * Kills morale in Vietnam – goal for the soldiers in Vietnam is SURVIVAL

  * Increased desertion [1970] – 70,000 desertions

  * Lack of discipline

  * Racial problems

  * Increased drug use (opium)

  * Increased killing of officers by enlisted men

  * Increased atrocities – MiLai Massacre – killings of innocent people by U.S. soldiers

Nixon wants to achieve "peace with honor"

  1. Vietnamization

-replace U.S. soldiers with South Vietnamese soldiers

[1969] 475,000 U.S. soldiers in Vietnam

[1970] 334,000 U.S. soldiers in Vietnam

[1972] 24,000 U.S. soldiers in Vietnam

[1973] less than 275 U.S. personnel in Vietnam

  2. Secret Negotiations between Kissinger and N. Vietnamese Le Duc Tho

  3. Escalate Bombing

    * Increases in Cambodia, Laos, and the trade trail

    * "mad bomber" theory – Nixon would continue to bomb North Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos until a deal was settled

### End of the Vietnam War

[1970] U.S. and S. Vietnamese troops invade Cambodia - destroy Viet Cong supply bases

-leads to more protests at home

Kent State and Jackson State protest deaths

[1971] South Vietnamese troops invade Laos with U.S. air support

[1972] North Vietnam leads the Easter Offensive

[Oct 1972] Kissinger announces that "peace is at hand," gives up peace terms

-S. Vietnam will not accept the cease-fire

-N. Vietnam begins demanding more concessions from the U.S.

Christmas Bombing

-ordered by Nixon to get N. Vietnamese back to bargaining table

-of Hanoi, Haifang

[Jan 23, 1973] Nixon announces that a peace agreement is reached

[Jan 27, 1973] U.S., S. Vietnam, N. Vietnam sign **Paris Peace Accords**

  1. U.S. troops leave

  2. U.S. prisoners of war return

  3. N. Vietnam retains land in S. Vietnam

-the end of the Vietnam War

### Costs of War

  * $150 Billion, economically speaking

  * 58,000 U.S. deaths – 300,000 return wounded

  * countless psychological effects of the war

Vietnam – 2 million are killed (an estimate)

Cambodia – Khmer Rouge government takes over after U.S. leaves

-anti-democratic

-kills 40% of Cambodian population [1973-1979]

Domino Theory is proven wrong – the world does NOT fall to communism after Vietnam

### Détente – cooling off of the Cold War

  1. China

[1949] When China goes communist, U.S. refuses to recognize it

Nixon wants to improve relations with China

[April 1971] U.S. sends in U.S. Ping Pong Team to China

[June 1971] Kissinger visits China

[Feb 1972] Nixon visits China–one of the most important things in his presidency

  2. Soviet Union

[May 1972] Nixon visits Moscow

-sign the SALT I Treaty

Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty

-supposedly reduces the arms buildup in U.S. and S.U.

-more symbolic

  3. Middle East

[1973-1974] Arab oil embargo

### Nixon & Modern Republicanism

The Positives

  1. [July 21, 1969] Man walks on the Moon

Lunar Module _Eagle_ from Apollo II lands on the Moon

Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong walk on the moon

  2. Expansion of the Great Society programs (in his first two years)

    * Increase in social security

    * Increase in subsidization of housing for low-income families

    * Increase in job corps

    * Voting age extended to 18-year-olds

  3. Increased protection of the environment (more Congress than Nixon)

  * Limit pesticide use

  * Protect endangered species

  * Protect coastal regions

  * Limit emissions of pollutants

[1969] National Environmental Policy Act

[1970] Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

-enforce environmental laws

Occupational Safety & Health Agency (OSHA) – protect workers' health

[April 1970] first Earth Day celebrated

The Negatives

  1. Revenue sharing

-Government gives money to the states to use – but Great Society funding is stopped

Result – the states and cities get less money

  2. Economy

$25 Billion deficit – due to the Vietnam war and the Great Society

5% inflation rate (normal: 2%-3%)

[1969] Tax Cut - $2.5 billion in taxes – deficit increases

[1970] Nixon raises interest rates

lower money supply

-higher inflation, higher unemployment, and lower economic growth

"Stagflation"

[1971] Nixon tries deficit spending – fails

Nixon tries devaluing the dollar – fails

Nixon tries wage freezes, price freezes, rent freezes for 90 days

-all fail

  3. Nixon declares war on "domestic radicals"

-Civil rights, protesters, student groups, etc.

-who "threaten" society

  4. Nixon turns his back on African-Americans

    * Trying to court the Southern vote – scared of Wallace

    * He is against an extension of the Voting Rights Act

    * He is also against the desegregation of Mississippi schools

    * Condemns bussing – was made legal in 1971 by Congress

Also: Nixon works to make the Supreme Court conservative

-replaces Earl Warren with Warren Burger

Harry Blacken, Powell, Rehnquist placed in court

The Odd

  1. Nixon creates an "enemies list"

-to create a list of enemies so Nixon can destroy them

Who's on this list?

  1.     * Edward Kennedy (other brother of RFK and JFK)

    * Walter Mondell

    * Jane Fonda (an actress – goes to N. Vietnam and supports them)

    * The presidents of Yale, Harvard Law, and MIT

    * Barbara Streisand (singer)

    * Paul Newman (actor)

    * Bill Cosby

    * Joe Naimuth (football player – quarterback)

    * Nixon's heart doctor... etc.

  2. Nixon & the White House

-create a group called "the plumbers" – to stop leaks in the government

Ellsberg is the first attacked – he released the Pentagon papers

-showed how U.S. lied in the past

  3. Nixon creates CREEP

-Committee to RE-Elect the President

-all unnecessary

### Election of 1972

Rep – Nixon | Dem. – George McGovern | 3rd Party - Wallace

---|---|---

520 electoral votes | 17 electoral votes | Shot and paralyzed - repents

Nixon has over 60% of the popular vote, while McGovern only had 37%

-wins by an overwhelming majority

-but in the end, it is CREEP and his efforts to get re-elected that brings his downfall

### The Watergate Scandal

[1970] CREEP is created, headed by George Mitchell

[1971] the "enemies list" is created

[June 1971] the "Plumbers" are created – led by G. Gordon Liddy and E. Howard Hunt

[Jan. 1972] Liddy develops a plan to bring down Democratic candidates for the 1972 election

-Mitchell tells Liddy to develop a lesser-involved plan

[June 17, 1972]

5 men, led by James McCord (former CIA agent), break into Democratic HQ at the Watergate Hotel in D.C. – plan on wiretapping the phones

-during the break-in, a security guard sees them and calls the police

-the five men are caught red-handed

At the time, Nixon and the White House disavow any knowledge of the incident

-Nixon knows it is CREEP

-he could have been clean, but instead he makes his BIGGEST mistake – he orders a cover-up

[Oct 1972] Bob Woodward & Carl Burnstein from the Washington Post write an article charging that top White house officials are involved in Watergate

-being given information from "Deep Throat"

-from the White House – Mark Felt (deputy director in the FBI)

-continue to write articles about Watergate throughout the scandal

[Nov 1972] Nixon easily wins re-election

[Spring 1973] Judge Serica sentences the five burglars to extremely long sentences, hoping to break them (ex. 20 years in prison)

-James McCord breaks

-admits that White House officials were involved

[Feb-Apr. 1973] Special Committee is formed to investigate Nixon's campaign activities

-people begin to resign

John Dean – special council to Nixon

Archibald Cox is named special prosecutor

[May 1973] Hearings begin

[June 1973] John Dean admits that Nixon was involved in the Watergate cover-up (but no evidence of the deed)

[July 1973] Alexander Butterfield (White House Chief of Staff)

-tells the hearings that Nixon has a tape recording system in the Oval Office that records all conversations – due to Nixon's paranoia

-this is the "smoking gun"

[Aug-Oct 1973] Cox demands the tapes form Nixon, but Nixon refuses, citing executive privilege and national security concerns

[Oct 20, 1973] Saturday Night Massacre

  * Nixon orders the Attorney General Richardson to fire Cox – Richardson refuses and resigns

  * Nixon goes to Deputy Attorney General to fire Cox – the deputy also refuses and resigns

  * Nixon goes to Solicitor General Bork who finally fires Cox

[Oct. 1973] VP Spiro Agnew is convicted of income tax evasion

-resigns form office – Gerald Ford replaces him

-Gerald Ford was the house minority leader – well-liked

[April 1974] Nixon releases an edited version of the tapes

-despite the editing, Nixon still seems to be nuts

[July 27, 1974] House Judiciary Committee adopted the first Articles of Impeachment against Nixon

[Aug 5, 1974] Nixon releases an unedited version of the tapes (except for an 18-min gap – what was in that gap is still a mystery)

-on tape, Nixon is ordering the Watergate cover-up

[Aug 8, 1974] Nixon announces his resignation

[Aug 9, 1974] Nixon leaves the White House

-Gerald Ford is sworn in as President

-Nelson Rockefeller is named VP

First time the two highest-ranked government officials are not elected by the people

Significance of Watergate

  1. Free press helps bring the scandal to national attention

  2. Another "black eye" for the U.S. nation and it turns people off from their government

  3. Shows that the system works?

Yes? – Nixon was made to pay for his crime

No? – if he didn't have the taped conversations, wouldn't have happened

Gerald Ford – more conservative than Nixon

  * Born in 1913

  * Played football in University of Michigan – very athletic

  * Graduates from Yale Law

  * Serves in the Navy in WWII

  * Serves 1949-1973 in the House of Representatives – House Minority Leader

  * [1973] takes over as VP when Agnew resigns

  * takes over presidency when Nixon resigns – seen as the caretaker of the presidency

  * his wife founds the Betty Ford clinic

Major Events

  1. Ford pardons Nixon one month after his presidency

-the public is outraged – wanted to see Nixon punished

  2. Economy

[1974] high inflation, high unemployment, high energy costs (Arab oil embargo)

-stagflation

Ford – WIN – Whip Inflation Now

-cut federal spending

-voluntary restraint as long on energy – conservation

-increase in discount rate

Result: Recession [1974-1975]

Auto industry begins to fail – Japan, West Germany

-efficient

-cost-affordable

-smaller, sporty, faster

  3. SALT II

Ford and Soviet premier Brezhnev

-limit each country to 2400 nuclear missiles

  4. Helsinki Accords

Ford & Brezhnev meet in Helsinki, Finland

-sign for human rights in Europe

-ease control over Europe – allows for democratic ideas

  5. South Vietnam falls April 1975

S. Vietnam and Saigon fall to North Vietnamese

  6. Myaguez Incident

Cambodian rebels seize U.S. ship and 39 hostages aboard

-special forces save the 39 hostages

-but 41 special forces are killed in the process

### Jimmy Carter

  * Born in 1924 in Georgia

  * Graduate of Naval Academy in Annapolis

  * Becomes a peanut farmer

  * [1971-1975] Governor of Georgia

  * wins 1976 election for presidency

  * defeats Ford 297:240 electoral votes

  * a born-again Christian

  * he is the ultimate outsider – not part of the political mix-up

Major Events

  1. Carter is a D.C. outsider

-it is difficult for Carter to get any legislation passed

  2. Economy

-has to deal with Ford's recession

– to try to promote spending:

-public works projects

-tax cuts

-works for a while [1978] unemployment is down to 5%

[1979-1980] Recession

  * Prices increase 30%

  * Energy costs increase [1979] Oil crisis

  * Still have stagflation

  * Bank interest rates go up to 20%

Carter's Response

  * Conservatism, voluntary restraint

  * Tells U.S. people that they should not expect unlimited growth

  * Department of Energy [1977]

  * Carter is unable to deal with the recession

  1. Foreign Affairs

  * Carter draws attention to human rights

  * Seeks better relations with Africa, Panama (Panama Canal treaties)

    * [1999] give control to Panamanians

    * full diplomatic recognition to China

  4. Soviet Union

  * Carter and Brezhnev meet in June 1979 – sign SALT II

[Jan 1980] Soviet Union invades Afghanistan

-Carter pulls treaty from the Senate

-U.S. boycott the Summer Olympics in Moscow

  5. Camp David Accords

-Peace agreement signed at Camp David, MD

-between Sadat of Egypt and Bagin of Israel

  6. Iran

[1979] the Shah of Iran (pro-U.S.) is forced out of power by Ayatollah

-the Shah is allowed into the U.S. for cancer treatment by Carter

-biggest mistake of Carter

-Iranian students storm the U.S. embassy in Tehran

-take over 50 hostages for 444 days

-until Reagan's inauguration day

### Ronald Reagan

  * Born in 1911 in Illinois

  * Tough childhood – moved about 10 times, father was an alcoholic

  * Becomes an actor, acts in 54 films – then becomes a GE spokesman

  * [1967-1975] governor of California

  * Republican

  * [1981-1989] President of the U.S.

    * oldest president at inauguration at 70 years old

### Election of 1980

Democrats | Republicans

---|---

Carter | Reagan

 | -wants to revive patriotism

-appeals to middle class, blue-collar worker

-the "New Right"

wins 489 electoral votes

[March 30, 1981] Reagan is shot by John Hinckley Jr.

-almost dies

-the "Teflon" president – nothing bad ever stuck to Reagan

  1. Reaganomics

    * Trickle-down economics (give $ to top, starts spreading down)

    * Massive tax cuts – income taxes are cut 25% over 3 years

    * Massive reduction in government spending to social programs

    * Cuts back government regulations - "get rid of government"

    * Increases the discount rate

Immediate results – Reagan Recession [1981-1983]

But, things turn around in 1983

Lasting Effects:

  * An improved economy

  * Decreased unemployment

  * Increase in consumer spending

  * Increase in building houses, complexes...etc.

  * Bull Market [1983-1987]

  * A richer middle class

YUPPIES – young, rich, spouse, no kids...

Bonfire of the Vanities by Tom Woolfe

Bad things:

  * Trade gap widens (increase imports, decrease exports)

  * Farmers are going bankrupt

  * Plight of the inner cities – due to the reduction in government spending to social programs

    * Get poorer

    * Drug use

1987 Stock Market Crash

-1/5 of the market is lost in one day

-larger than 1929 crash – but does not lead to a depression

Military spending increased – huge budget deficits – national debt triples

  2. The Cold War

[1981] Reagan calls the Soviet Union "the Evil Empire" – wants to crush communism

-starts a massive military buildup - more nuclear weapons

[1981] $171 Billion

[1985] $300 Billion per year

SDI – the Star Wars program – missile defense system

Leads Reagan & the U.S. to El Salvador, Nicaragua and Granada

Result – end of the Cold War

*Election 1984 – first female to run for VP – Geraldine – loses*

Reagan and Gorbechau – begun to end the war

-institute Parastraika, Glasnos – wants better relations with the U.S.

[1985] first of meetings – Geneva

[1986] meet in Reykjavik, Iceland

[1987] INF peace treaty – Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty

-both agree to remove nuclear missiles in Europe

-both agree to inspections afterward

[1988] Reagan visits Moscow

-Soviet Union pulls forces from Afghanistan

  3. The Middle East

[1982-1983] Reagan sends Marines to Lebanon to help keep peace

[Oct 1983] Suicide bomber drives a truck into barracks and kills 200+ Marines

Iran Contra Affair

-U.S. had been secretly selling weapons to Iran in exchange for money

-take that money to contras in Nicaragua

