 
### THE UNBEARABLE EASE OF SINGING

Raija Roivainen

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Original Finnish edition: "Laulamisen sietämätön helppous", Raija Roivainen  
PILOT-kustannus Oy, Tampere 2004

The Unbearable Ease of Singing,  
© Raija Roivainen 2014

ISBN-978-952-93-4493-2

Contents

1. Foreword

2. The Ingeniousness of Breathing

3. Support of Breath, Support of Voice

4. Hyperventilation, a Threat to Singers

5. Alexander-Technique as a Useful Tool

6. The Interaction between Voice and Mind

7. The Role of Tongue in Singing

8. Muscles of the Tongue

9. Muscles around the Hyoid Bone

10. The Jaw

11. Muscles of Mastication

12. Disorder Related to the Joint of Jaw

13. Voice Changes

14. The Pharynx

15. Muscles of the Pharynx

16. The Larynx

17. Facial Muscles

18. Spine and Torso in Singing

19. Vocal Registers, Open and Covered Voice

20. Musical Memory, Absolute Pitch

21. What We Hear, What We Comprehend

22. The Singer´s Formant

23. Vibrato, Trill, Tremolo

24. Singer's Affinity with Lyrics

25. Misleading Fictitious Expressions

26. The Performer´s Memory

27. "Tracheal Pull" Effect during Singing

28. Preparing for a Performance

29. Vocal Timbre

30. Teaching Singing is Interesting and Rewarding

31. To a Novice Teacher of Singing

References

### List of Figures

FIG. 1. Breathing

FIG. 2. Suprahyoid muscles

FIG. 3. Infrahyoid muscles

FIG. 4. Muscles of the pharynx

FIG. 5. Muscles of the soft palate

FIG. 6. Cartilages of the larynx

FIG. 7a. Muscles of the larynx

FIG. 7b. Muscles of the larynx

FIG. 8. Position of vocal folds in the larynx

FIG. 9. Natural expressions of mouth and lips

FIG. 10. Excessive facial expressions

FIG. 11. Facial muscles

FIG. 12. Confident positions

FIG. 13. Spectrogram

FIG. 14. The singer´s formant

##  1. FOREWORD

The world of the human voice is fascinating and mysterious, a world which we think we know rather well. Yet there is so much more to know if we only begin to examine closer what is happening, in both our body and mind, the interaction between them, while speaking and singing.

All voice trainers use their acquired knowledge for teaching, and certainly would not in any way prevent the students from benefitting from this information. Nevertheless, the question is often asked as to why good singers do not spring up in greater numbers nowadays when recognized facts about voice are readily available. The simple answer to this question is that in general this information has not been taken into consideration.

One reason for this could be that it is painstaking and time consuming to acquire a deeper understanding of the anatomy, physiology and psychology involved in the production of the singing of a singing. Part of the problem is that these areas of study are not as a rule adequately included in the singing curricula. This problem is compounded by the fact that it is not easy to find fully comprehensive text books which are accessible and which aid the teachers in producing good voice projection. The aim of this book, therefore, is to introduce and clarify the basic principles of how to achieve what I call 'the unbearable ease of singing'. Hence, the title of this book.

A highly esteemed singing pedagogue once told me that knowledge of physiology is not necessary in training the voice. In this I agree, provided the student already has an exceptional ear for music and good motor skills and that the teacher possesses an exemplary singing voice as a model. Teaching is based on imitation where the student is able to pick up a natural way singing in the same way a child picks up its mother tongue. This, however, is rare and few can expect or rely on such good fortune.

If there is a day when voice performance does not run as smoothly as usual, then it is of paramount importance to have relevant knowledge of the physiology of the vocal organ. This kind of information acts like a crutch for support whenever vocal problems occur. In my view, every student should have the right to receive this undisputed, well founded knowledge of singing. To this end, the student should be able to ask the teacher for this kind of information, or even question points in teaching, rather than blindly taking advice based more on pure authority as opposed to receiving thoroughly researched information. The way of teaching may vary, sometimes due to the different personalities of the teachers, but as to the basic facts of anatomy and physiology, different schools do not exist.

My own singing, as well as my teaching, has not followed the usual beaten track. Acquainting myself with the ideas of Wilhelm Reich ( _Character Analysis_ , 3rd Edition, London, Vision Press 1948) on reflections of the mind in the muscular action of the body, gave me the impetus to pay attention to the important interaction between voice and mind. Psychological points have all too often been neglected in the area of pedagogy whereby teaching methods consist mainly of physical training. However, the voice is a psycho-physiological entity, and both parts should be present to ensure a balanced result which could be called 'The Unbearable Ease of Singing'.

##  2. THE INGENIOUSNESS OF BREATHING

In order to be a good singer, the physiology of breathing and its vital significance for the body to function at its best should be thoroughly learned and internalized. Singers and teachers, very often use misleading, ambiguous terms and images, and in the process forget or even create confusion about the actual primary function and working principles of the organs involved in breathing.

The primary function of breathing is to inhale oxygen to run the production of energy for the body and to exhale carbon dioxide resulting from this process. Breathing is regulated by the respiratory centre located in the brainstem. This centre automatically sends messages via the nerves to regulate the rate and depth of breathing in order to maintain optimal levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood. The required amount of oxygen varies immensely, depending on the activity.

Use of the larger muscles in heavy manual labour - but not for singing - increases the need for more oxygen in the muscles in direct relation to the consumption of energy, and demands deeper breathing for more effective exchange of gases. When sitting down after returning from jogging, for example, the rate and depth of breathing begin to decrease, without any conscious control, to meet the decreased need of energy. If the control mechanism does not work automatically, heavy breathing would go on after energetic exercise, with the result that it might cause a higher risk of hyperventilation. It is this unconscious control of breathing that makes it so ingenious. Conscious attention to respiration during singing or vocal training can therefore be forgotten, as indeed it is forgotten during sleep.

The main purpose is not to get the maximum amount of oxygen into the blood, neither in the relaxed state, nor under pressure. Hyperventilation can cause a wide range of symptoms from headaches and nausea to dizziness. If singing needed great volumes of air in the lungs, respiration would quickly exceed metabolic needs and produce hyperventilation symptoms. To take an example to its limits, we could imagine a singer between songs putting a paper bag over the nose to re-breathe the exhaled air in order to return to normal oxygen/carbon dioxide levels to avoid falling unconscious. If one loses consciousness, caused by hyperventilation or by holding one´s breath too long, the body will soon resume normal breathing due to this reflex action. Besides the blood gas levels, the centre for breathing receives information from other sources, for instance from receptors which sense the over expanded state of the lungs. The act of breathing can, of course, be voluntarily suspended for some minutes, and indeed this reflex action is essential to prevent drowning in the event of accidentally falling into water.

A singer must learn to trust the automatic operation of the breathing system. The centre for the control of breathing in the brain will signal the appropriate muscles when the body needs oxygen or when it needs to eliminate carbon dioxide. The diaphragm is the most important muscle for this action. In the relaxed position, it has the shape of an inverted bowl arched between the chest and stomach cavities. While inhaling the diaphragm is activated, the muscle is contracted and the arch of the diaphragm flattens, enlarging the chest cavity downwards. At the same time, the outer rib muscles lift the ribcage expanding the chest; when the chest expands the cavity creates a vacuum in the lungs and causes the air to flow into the lungs.

Exhalation is normally a passive process, when the breathing muscles relax. Muscles always seek a state of rest. The lung resembles an elastic balloon that deflates automatically when its mouth is open. When the breathing muscles return to their relaxed position, the ribcage and the lungs contract. The lungs are folded in a bag called the pleura. Thanks to the vacuum in between, the pleura acts as a lining to the thorax, which prevents the lungs from collapsing.

While inhaling, the muscles for breathing become active; while exhaling these muscles become passive. It is a fact that many other muscles around the thorax and abdomen are also involved in the expansion and compression of this process, and that this can be consciously regulated to a certain degree. However, for singing, more reliance has to be placed on the unconscious control system. One of the questions frequently asked by students of song is: "What shall I do if I get short of breath?" My answer is: "Either you will take in more air or you will die!" It has been my endeavour from the very first singing lessons, to lead the students away from paying attention to the act of breathing.

FIG. 1. BREATHING

During the first lessons it is beneficial to discuss the basics of the breathing organ with the students. Breathing draws oxygen into the body by inhalation and then removes carbon dioxide by exhalation. From the lungs the oxygen is absorbed into the blood and conveyed to all parts of the body by circulation. This is an essential process since oxygen is required to create energy in the muscles and other aerobic organs.

It will take some time before the complex muscular mechanism used for singing is developed enough to create a voice that can carry and that can hold long phrases, without the feeling of shortness of breath. If there is extra tension or extra activity in the respiratory muscles, it will prevent the optimum intake of air into the lungs. If the muscles are under continuous, actively maintained expansion, the chest will gradually take on a barrel shape, as can sometimes happen in serious cases of asthma. The pulmonary alveoli lose their elasticity from which it will take a long time to recover. I have occasionally worked with students who have lost a healthy way of breathing, at least partially, because of some incorrect instruction in how to breathe. Having made progress in training, some of them have been fortunate enough to be able perform without their asthma-inhaler. These cases have brought to mind the possibility that the asthma had worsened due to the adoption of the poor habit of using auxiliary breathing muscles spontaneously and of tensing them voluntarily.

All muscular tensions, an unnecessary "suit of armour", can be relaxed. One effective way to do it is to ask the student to give a deep sigh and simultaneously let the body collapse. After exhalation the lungs will fill up spontaneously. Timid students tend to retain air with their muscles: they are afraid to let the lungs deflate freely, thus preventing healthy inhalation. They might even obstruct natural inhalation by tightening muscles. Asthmatics make this mistake because they are afraid of allergens in the air, while the timid are afraid of, or are "allergic" to other people. Out of fear, they may even suffer shortness of breath when being reprimanded by a teacher.

The more air in the lungs, the more effort the lungs make to try to deflate because the expanded muscles seek to return to a relaxed state. It is extremely difficult to sing with extra volume of air in the lungs while trying to store part of it. Smooth, fluid bodily movements during singing will help to relieve the situation: when extra tensions are removed, breathing becomes natural and both body and mind are experienced as working in harmony.

The strength of a voice is not in direct proportion to the volume of air. This can be understood from common sense, but it can also be technically measured. A female soprano´s voice just as well fills the far reaches of a large concert hall as that of a male bass voice. If smaller lungs were not sufficient to produce enough volume and long enough phrases, small singers would require small-scale opera houses, where special miniature operas were shown. A two metre tall athletic singing student can only wonder how it is that his tiny, elderly, singing teacher´s phrases are longer and the voice has much more volume than his own, even though his lungs are much larger and his general muscular fitness seems much better. Except in certain lung diseases which limit the capacity of the lungs, the physical performance like singing depends primarily on the ability of the vascular system to carry oxygen-rich blood to the muscles. The capacity of the lungs is not a decisive factor, but on the other hand, singing does not require much air to flow through the vocal cords.

Some singers jog in order to increase their lung capacity. Good physical condition is always beneficial for helping to maintain a relaxed upright bearing without extra muscular tension. However, it does not help to achieve a bigger voice or longer phrases. We have witnessed brilliant performances by famous singers like Luciano Pavarotti and Jessye Norman, even though their overweight is a strain on their lungs, and apparently jogging or step aerobics was not a part of their daily routine. The Contralto, Marietta Alboni, actually put on too much weight to sing opera; she could not move and sing at the same time. Yet her voice was not affected and she continued with a concert career, singing while seated in a large armchair. Rossini called her "the elephant who swallowed a nightingale." (D.W. Barber: _When The Fat Lady Sings_ , 1990).

The air flow during speech and singing is mainly regulated by the muscles of the larynx. This particular network of muscles in the young, athletic singing student is not much used and not well trained: that is why the small singing teacher sitting on the piano stool is superior to him as regards the volume and other voice qualities. The fact is that vocal muscles require as much training as those used in sports and gymnastics. It is not a question of the size of the muscle but rather of muscular elasticity and agility achieved by many years of balanced precision training.

If a certain muscle is incapable of performing well, other muscles try to compensate. This strategy may succeed, but it is far from producing the best result. Beginners push more air against the vocal cords to substitute for the untrained muscles of the larynx. However, the vocal cords have a great deal of work to do. They close the glottis, they regulate the air flow and the pitch of the voice; they assist in forming vowels and in changing tone colours. Excessive pressure of air against the vocal cords adds to their burden of work and should be avoided in every way.

Some voice trainers emphasize diaphragmatic or deep breathing, but whatever the means of breathing, it is always from the diaphragm. Healthy, deep breathing takes place at rest, as it does in sleep. No instructors are required to adjust breathing while you sleep.

Certain consonants like /p/, /t/, /k/ and /s/ are called unvoiced consonants, which cannot be sung. During the phonation of these consonants the vocal stream stops, and the exhalation is affected by a contraction of the abdominal muscles when they create more air pressure to produce the unvoiced consonants. In this respect one should consider whether the commonly used ss -hissing exercise is more harmful than useful for singers. One should also consider that if breathing is not immediately returned to the level required by the vocal stream, it would certainly be difficult to keep the pitch. The body functions spontaneously without any conscious interference: once again nature outsmarts our thinking processes.

Unusual methods of teaching on how to breathe or training to strengthen the diaphragm are nothing new. In the book _Caruso´s_ _Method of Voice Production_ , the author, P. Maria Marafioti, writes that one interviewed pupil had been taught by using "the umbrella method", which consists in opening an umbrella for the expansion of the chest and closing it during the inspiration. Caruso himself told about a teacher who had pupils lie flat on the floor and breathe while he was piling bricks on their chest. By increasing their number gradually, thus putting a severe test on the resistance of the pupil´s chest, the teacher would measure the progress made each time. Marafioti crystallizes Caruso´s principle: "Breath is an indispensable factor in voice production, but it is not the essential power which develops the voice. On the contrary, the function of singing develops the breathing apparatus and its power, just as any physiological function develops the organ from which it takes its origin." Another strange method is to use a strangling belt around the abdomen, thus letting only the upper chest expand. It is also a kind of "support of singing", although it should rather be called the "suppression of singing ".

Not long ago, a well known singing teacher advised the students to keep a coin or a ruler between the tensed buttocks to get proper singing support. Anyone with any common sense would rule out this kind of method straightaway.

Breathing for singers is described in the book _Singing, the Physical Nature of the Vocal Organ,_ by Frederick Husler & Yvonne Rodd-Marling, Faber and Faber Ltd. London 1965. The authors have listed nine points on breathing that the singer should remember. I have found the list "exhaustive" and extremely useful, and I take the liberty of quoting them word by word:

### BREATHING: WHAT THE SINGER SHOULD REMEMBER

1. Avoid, at first, any "systems of breathing" (in practise and in print) that require mechanical or methodical practising; most of them run contrary to nature.

2. Do not pump yourself full of air when about to sing. It will not give you a longer breath, nor will the tone be stronger or carry better.

3. If you make a habit of taking in a lot of air, of holding it and hoarding it, you will eventually weaken your breathing organ and, in consequence, your throat as well.

4. Learn to discriminate: the work done by the _organ_ of breathing must be extremely thorough and intensive – the _consumption_ of breath extremely small. ("I take in no more breath for singing than I do when smelling a flower." – Mattia Battistini, one of the last great exponents of _bel canto_.)

5. Learn, therefore, to distinguish clearly between the breathing _organ_ and _breath_. Remember that the old concept, of the pressure of breath as the motive power in giving voice, has been disproved by modern science. The singing mechanism is not a wind instrument. Remember instead that "the vocal folds are capable of vibrating independently of the current breath". _Therefore, notes or phrases that end unevenly or explosively have been wrongly produced._

6. Above all: do not breathe in _deliberately._ Aim first at breathing _out_ properly and, because of the law, "the tonic regulation of breath", you will find that breathing _in_ follows automatically and correctly.

7. Remember that a properly functioning larynx to a great extent trains and regulates your breathing; therefore, the tone must be well "placed".*)

8. Breathing exercises without the voice have limited value; do not waste too much time on them.

9. A system of breathing that in time distorts the figure, instead of improving it, is always wrong (e.g., chronically protruding stomach, hollow back, curved spine).

I do agree with all the above points except no. 7, where I would rather replace the word "placed" with a physiologically more accurate term. The sound cannot be placed. The term "placing" used by singers means that the singer only imagines or feels that the voice is really coming from the head, the forehead, the "mask", the chest etc.

##  3. SUPPORT OF BREATH, SUPPORT OF VOICE

The question of breath support in singing continues to occupy the minds of singing pedagogues, their students and even amateur singers. In his book, _The Voice of the Mind,_ R. Hale, 1951, the author, Edgar F. Herbert-Caesari, writes about his interest in finding out the origins of the term "support of singing." He writes that the term spread secretly among Italian singers in the 19th century and continued to conquer the world. Many singers and researchers, F. Husler included, have come to the conclusion that singing needs no special "support of breath". However, very few, if any at all, have clearly demonstrated, why support is not necessary.

An investigation carried out in Finland in 1996 revealed that the majority of teachers and students of singing believed in breath support. The investigation with the conclusion"Supported singing is good singing" was introduced at a Scandinavian Voice Research Symposium in Helsinki in 1996. When asked, what the test subjects did when singing with support, or what they did not when singing without support, the authors admitted that it could not be specified. This deficiency essentially weakens the reliability of the study. The nature of support has been much researched, but tests rely mostly on the singer´s imagination or sensation: "Now I support; now I don´t."

The list of researchers having studied the support of singing is long, but to mention a few: Griffin B; Colton R; Casper J; Brewer D, Sundberg J. ; Bjerkens-Haugen G; Sataloff RT; Caroll LM; Heuer RJ; Spiegel JR; Radionoff SL; Chon JR, are the most well known.

A frequently quoted investigation was carried out in 1964 by the otolaryngologist, Dr. Wilbur J. Gould. He collected data from 226 test subjects, professional singers, who were to describe what they were teaching their students to do when singing. The result was 226 different breathing methods. A closer reading revealed that the singers had described what they felt or imagined themselves to be doing when singing. However, the image of what the singer thinks is happening rarely corresponds with the actual physiological functions involved in singing.

The above mentioned study in Finland in 1996 only revealed that support teaching was the prevailing method. Proceeding from the supposition that singing is a muscular action, I wanted to conduct a survey of mine own of the Finnish singing teachers´ views on the muscular functions involved in support. Out of the 204 questionnaires sent, 40 were duly returned.

### Questionnaire 22.11.1996

1. I teach my students to use support.

yes or no.

2. What is most important when teaching support?

3. How does singing without support differ from that of supported singing?

4. How does the teaching of singing without singing differ from that of supported singing?

5. What is your stand on the following arguments?

6. Support is a prerequisite of good singing.

yes or no?

7. Support is nothing but imagination.

yes or no?

8. Support cannot be described in words/

yes or no?

9. Main groups of muscles involved in support are:

a. Abdomen

b. Back

c. Chest

d. Larynx

10. With support the volume of air in the lungs can be expanded.

yes or no?

11. With support the pressure of air at the level of vocal cords can be increased.

yes or no?

12. With support the voice can be made stronger.

yes or no?

13. Support is more important for male singers than for female singers.

yes or no?

14. It is easier to teach support to male singers than to female singers.

yes or no?

15. Singers are generally speaking smarter than instrumentalists!

yes or no?

The answers to the questionnaire represented the whole spectrum of possibilities. My sometime students and two well-known pedagogues, Kim Borg and Liisa Linko, answered under their own names that they did not teach support but the majority were in favour of the importance of support in teaching. In a sense it is not surprising, since generations of singing teachers have graduated from the one and only university-level music school in Finland, where a certain amount of orthodoxy seems to prevail. Intolerance towards dissidents was no doubt one reason to send the questionnaire and to find out opinions of the concept of support of voice, and how it is taught.

To the question "What is most important when teaching support?", there were many variations, and I quote one rather detailed description:

"Readiness, tension of upper body is required. In support, the lowest muscles of abdomen move sideways with connection to long intercostal muscles. Support means that the voice rests near the eye-sockets, on the vocal axis. Also the use of muscles of the lower back and buttocks widens the resonated register and makes the voice stronger. The support should be felt in the eye-sockets and in the lower abdomen before starting the phrase. Mastering the support and the breath control is the only means to find the resonance and the head register, i.e. big voice." It can only be speculated on as to how many singers would share the above opinion.

Answers to the question "which are the main groups of muscles involved in support?" were are follows: Muscles of the abdomen, "yes" 25 votes, "don´t know" 3 votes; muscles of the back, "yes" 27 votes, "don´t know" 3 votes; muscles of the chest, "yes" 18 votes , "don´t know" 3 votes; muscles of the thorax, "yes" 7 votes, "don´t know" 3 votes. One respondent answered all points: "Depends on the individual".

As can be seen, some respondents have answered, "yes" to more than one alternative. However, all respondents taught support by conscious manipulation of the respiratory muscles in order to get enough air.

Answers to the argument "With support the volume of air in the lungs can be enlarged: "yes" 11 votes, "don´t know" 1 vote; some respondents use support to retain air in the lungs. At this point I recommend the readers take a closer look at chapter 4. "Hyperventilation, a Threat to Singers".

Question: With support the pressure of air at the level of vocal cords can be increased? "Yes" 12 votes, "don´t know" 1 vote, "with support the pressure of air is controlled" 1 vote, "also counter pressure is required" 1 vote.

Question: With support the voice can be made bigger? "Yes" 32 votes. It seems that support is very much thought to produce a stronger voice. Supporting the breath with conscious control of the respiratory muscles, thus increasing the volume of air in the lungs, will increase the pressure of air at the vocal cords. This course of action is against the proper training of a healthy voice. The muscles of the larynx including the vocal cords regulate the air consumption during singing. They allow the appropriate outflow of air. The vocal cords are active enough to adjust themselves for different sounds and tones of the voice, and, therefore, the pressure of air against the vocal cords should be kept at the lowest possible required level. This also concerns singing in forte in order to maintain a healthy voice for as long as possible.

I cannot help quoting the answer given by a professor of phonetics to the question Do you teach support, if yes, how? "He or she who consciously or, as generally is the case, because of ignorance or incompetence, teaches singing without support, should be prosecuted for committing a slow murder. It is namely a fact that if a person in his or her work uses a voice that lacks the "support", i.e. the inherent reflex cannot come to the rescue when the voice is intensively used or otherwise strained, the sound energy may cause serious damage in the human body and its functions. The blood pressure will rise, the circulation of blood will be disturbed, some tissues will be exhausted under the strain, others will dry up without function. Breathing will work only partially, the organs of the abdomen are left without the vitally important internal massage by the diaphragm." It could be that the professor in question had a bad day or he did not like my questionnaire!

During forty years´ practice as a singing pedagogue, I have come to different conclusions. My view on the question of support of voice is based on the idea that singing is a muscular function, a continuous muscular movement. If a muscle is under tension, such as when it is actively doing support, the extra effort will inevitably impede what is most essential, that is, singing. A muscle will work best when it is free from all extra movements, such as striking a pose or being tightened to support.

After some justified criticism, some colleagues dropped the idea of "Supported Singing is Good Singing". The above mentioned Finnish investigation (1996) has since been revised by A. Sonninen, A-M. Laukkanen, K. Karma, P. Hurme in Evaluation of Support in Singing _, Journal of Voice, Vol.19 No.2_ (2005). The revised study takes no stand on what exactly takes place during support of singing. However, one of the conclusions reads: "From the point of view of perception, ´supported voice´ was the same as ´good voice´." Why not be straightforward and say: "Good voice is good voice"?! As far as the test subjects do not have a common, unambiguous definition of support to follow, such a conclusion in a study has no reliable basis. Instead, when looking at the answers to my questionnaire, one can see potential voice problems caused by the variety of imaginary support-instructions.

If a singer´s voice lacks volume or the breath is inadequate for long phrases, the fault should be traced from the tensed musculature around the throat or other regions of the body. Excessive gasping for air is one very common fault. A singer who has been taught to "deep breathe" by considerably enlarging the chest, runs a risk to suffer from the Valsalva Effect. As a consequence the singer tends to constrict the muscles of the larynx, close the glottis, and tense the muscles of the chest. Psychological Aspects of Voice Disorders, p 376. _Performing Arts Medicine._ (Second Edition, 1998).

The correct beginning of inhalation will show itself in the soft rising of the abdomen that can easily be observed by putting a hand on the abdomen. Palpating the lower chest will reveal the possible tensions of the musculature. Even when singing a powerful forte, the muscles of the abdomen must not shorten and become tight. If the singer cannot get rid of the tense "support", ask him or her to try to reach a state of maximum muscular relaxation, avoiding all extra strain, and at the same time to widen the pharyngeal cavity by a stretch like yawning, and concentrating on the sensations around the region of the pharynx only.

The singer´s rich tonal imagination and the ability to distinguish tonal nuances uses and trains the muscles of singing in the best possible way. Several years´ daily training and careful monitoring the efficient but unconstrained body movements involved in singing, is the only way to discipline the complex musculature into a well-balanced vocal organ.

The name of this book is _The Unbearable Ease of Singing._ Unfortunately, singing with ease does not seem to attract much interest. Singers themselves do not appreciate their own performance unless it looks and feels difficult and complicated. Even the audience may disapprove if it looks too easy, and in order to get value for money, they may expect a performance that seems visibly to require a great deal of effort.

I have tried to underline the harmful effects of the support of voice, but "it seems to take more than a lifetime to eradicate this deep-rooted concept", as Professor Aatto Sonninen once put it to me.

In the course of time, I would like to fall back on my grandfather´s wise advice: "Put a straight stick beside a twisted one, and everybody will see, which is straight." Singing is not an active, conscious carrying out of the body's movements. Most outlines for conscious vocal support have been proved to have worsened the performance of singing. Singing should be movement in a state of extreme sensitivity. Muscular functions of the body will follow the movements of the mind.

##  4. HYPERVENTILATION, A THREAT TO SINGERS

For the body, and particularly the breathing organ, the most important instrument for a singer, it is necessary to recognize which are the correct breathing habits to adopt and be aware of the potential consequences of breathing dysfunctions. This chapter is mostly based on and quoted from the article by Suzanna Widmer: Hyperventilation, An Unrecognized Risk Factor in Stage Fright _, ISSTIP Journal 9/_ 1998.

"Anxiety and panic disorders are often associated with chronic breathing dysfunction or acute hyperventilation (HV) (Bass, Kartsounis et al. 1987; Lum 1987; Klein 1993; Ley 1994; Gardner 1996). Are these findings from panic disorders applicable to stage fright and does HV play a similarly important role in music performance anxiety (MPA)? Recent evidence suggests (Widmer et al. 1997) that MPA may be related to acute HV. In a study with 141 classically trained musicians about 70% of those reporting severe stage fright (total n=36) were affected by acute symptomatic HV when performing in public. Due to the widespread unawareness of HV related MPA performance-anxious musicians are not screened for breathing dysfunction. Subsequently, these musicians are not being introduced to breathing oriented approaches to the management and prevention of hyperventilatory MPA."

Feelings of anxiety may trigger HV, and vice versa, HV may increase the anxiety. Habitual over-breathing appears to be a particularly potent co-factor to cause anxiety and HV problems (Lum 1987).

Anxiety and HV as well can be caused by a physical injury or by a psychic trauma. An acute situation that causes stress, for example a stage performance, may often trigger HV. The physiological reactions are the same as when coming under a sudden attack. The body is prepared either to fight or to flee. The autonomic nervous system becomes activated, the stress hormones surge into the circulation, the heart rate and blood pressure increase. When this arises, the need to breathe increases, and the singer has to use intense physical activity to relieve this condition. This would result in spoiling the effect of the performance, since the singer is not expected to use exaggerated movements for classical musical. When respiration exceeds the metabolic needs of the body, an acute HV will strike causing a number of sensations, such as, tingling in the fingers and lips, and disturbances of motor co-ordination and even dizziness.

The HV irritates the nerves, thus causing them to be pinched, leading to muscular cramps. The worst HV attacks may lead to fainting or even an epileptic seizure. In that state, the over-breathing causes a decrease of carbon-dioxide in the blood, the blood becomes too alkaline, which will then constrict the arteries and cause a lack of oxygen in the muscles. "Acute HV can reduce the blood flow to the brain by up to 50% (Lum1994), depriving it of its primary fuels, oxygen and glucose. This produces quite dramatic disturbances of consciousness (e.g. light-headedness, dizziness, fear of or actual loss of consciousness) similar to those experienced in anxiety and panic attacks. It should be noted, however, that anxiety without HV causes no narrowing of the arteries (Mountz 1989), thus anxiety or panic without acute HV cannot account for these centrally mediated disturbances."

Those who breathe in a normal healthy way are not in danger of HV or panic disorders. Whereas, those who continue to over-breathe causing a lowered carbon dioxide level of the blood, are in danger of encountering HV or a panic attack. When breathing returns to normal, the excessive alkalosis disappears and with it the unpleasant symptoms will also disappear. The habitual over-breather´s self-regulatory mechanism considers over-breathing, i.e. low carbon dioxide levels, as "normal", therefore, only a few deep breaths may be enough to cause HV symptoms. A healthy breather would require quite a while of voluntary deep-breathing to cause any HV symptoms.

There are many "deep-breathing" or "breath support" schools that are apt to put a singer´s voice in danger . Before a performance one should calm down to listen and feel the involuntary steady breathing, instead of trying to deep-breathe or reserve extra air that will certainly cause smaller or greater difficulties. In recent years, more and more fitness schools have sprung up with strong emphasis on breathing. Many teachers enjoy a reputation as excellent breathing trainers. You can hear their repeated command: "Remember to breathe!", during the exercise. Commands are hardly necessary, since every normal person remembers to breathe without being told. When performing a more strenuous gym workout, the body requires heavier breathing and ventilation. An over-breather who happens to join a gym lesson will be very glad to see the symptoms caused by over-breathing disappear. During heavy exercise the excessive air reserve is released automatically, and thus the gym teacher becomes an indispensable "guru" for advice. However, this guru cannot help singers who are inclined to over-breathe, because singers using their voice can hardly increase physical distress by movement: they have to concentrate on the voice only.

I have heard a sports trainer´s advice to divers:"You should focus on exhalation." After a thorough exhalation the inhalation will take place spontaneously and in the healthiest possible way. Widmer´s study indicates that 35% of classical musicians are chronic hyperventilators. Every singer can understand the risk of treading on a mine, unless they have not learned to take into consideration the tensions in the body that have caused the habit of over-breathing. Such cases have appeared every now and then during my teaching career, especially students performing their first singing exams, have sometimes started to feel dizzy. Bending the head down will prevent excessive inhaling, which will overcome the unpleasant situation. The ability to overcome this problem will be very important for future performances. "I know, I can make it", is imprinted on the memory.

The following is Suzanna Widmer´s self-screening programme for breathing dysfunction:

Take a comfortable chair in quiet and undisturbed surroundings. Relax for a few minutes and then go through the following awareness exercises:

1. How fast is my breathing?

Place one hand on the abdomen and the other on the upper chest and count your breathing cycles for one minute (in and out count as one).

In a relaxed resting state 8-12 breaths per minute are considered to be normal. 16 breathing cycles or more are suggestive of habitual over-breathing.

2. Am I an abdominal or upper chest breather?

Same position as above. Watch the movements of your hands as you breathe in and out and observe, which hand is moving first and/or foremost.

In a relaxed resting state the breathing wave should start from the abdomen upwards towards the chest. In dysfunctional breathers the upper chest moves first, and there is usually very little abdominal movement.

3. How regular is my breathing?

Become aware of the rhythm of your breathing. Are you aware of any nervous coughing, sighs, unnecessary throat cleaning in everyday life?

In a relaxed resting state breathing should be quite imperceptible and regular and each exhalation should be followed by a brief pause.

4. For how long can I hold my breath?

Breathe out and measure how long you can hold your breath without starting to feel uncomfortable,

A bad breather would start feeling extremely uncomfortable after a short period (usually after less than 10 seconds) of holding his/her breath.

5. Do you often experience "disproportionate breathlessness" in everyday life?

How often do you get a feeling of being unable to get a satisfactory breath in your daily life? Do you quickly run out of breath when exercising?

"Air hunger", the inability to get a satisfactory breath and "disproportionate breathlessness" is commonly reported by habitual over-breathers and is a sign of a disturbed respiratory regulation.

A disordered breather would find his or her breathing to be fast, predominantly in the upper chest, accompanied by sighing and the breath holding time would be less than 20 seconds. In addition, bad breathers frequently experience "air hunger" in daily life. If similar evidence of disordered breathing is found in at least four of the five categories it would probably be quite useful to consider a thorough check-up to see whether the reason is organic, metabolic or psychological or caused by muscular tensions."

Based on the findings, a self-help programme will be devised. Before a performance, take care that HV will not take the situation in hand. By putting your hands on your abdomen and upper chest, you can observe and free the proper function of the respiratory muscles in the abdominal and chest region. Exercise, such as a brisk walk can be an ideal release from extra tensions even a day or two before the performance.

It is advisable to wear comfortable clothing. Tight clothes and high heels do not facilitate your breathing. All stimulants, like alcohol, tobacco and coffee should be avoided. However, high blood sugar levels should be maintained particularly before and during the performance because low sugar levels add to the risk of losing consciousness during an HV attack. Although an acute HV attack can be very frightening, it is good to know that it does not lead to a more serious illness. It is neither fatal nor leads to madness or paralyses. The easiest way to cure someone of a hyperventilatory panic attack is to put a paper bag over the nose and mouth and re-breathe the exhaled air. The carbon dioxide level of the blood will soon return to normal and the HV symptoms disappear.

Hyperventilation, let alone panic disorders, is painful to anybody, but for a singer it may mean a change of career. The harmful influence of HV should be avoided as early as possible. There are many "breathing schools", sometimes aggressively promoted, that can hardly be recommended to singers. This reminds me of a TV interview on healthy breathing, where the interviewed expert, with a diploma, claimed that people generally do not know how to breathe, and that nearly the majority of people would need a qualified therapist´s help. The "therapist" herself looked red in the face, had bulging eyes and with her chest locked in a barrel-like position, showed all the symptoms typical of a chronic over-breather.

Fortunately, we have all inherited the brilliant mechanism of breathing. It is far better to believe in it, and resist falling for tricks and extra activities concerning breathing techniques.

##  5. ALEXANDER TECHNIQUE AS A USEFUL TOOL

When I first started my singing studies, I became interested in what was taking place in my body, especially the throat, while I was singing. I wanted to know what text books on anatomy and physiology had to say about the instrument that is the human voice. It was a surprise to learn that most people, even singing teachers, were not particularly concerned with either the structure of the parts of the body involved with voice production or what was known about the human voice based on research.

With this in mind I began to take note of my body during singing and made a simple observation: if any part tensed up, it was a hindrance to singing. I also noticed that large quantities of air only caused problems and that all manner of over exertion only led to more unsatisfactory results the more I tried.

In the 1970s, I became acquainted with the Alexander technique in London. I discovered that F.M. Alexander's ideas were commonly used in music and drama schools in London and New York. In Finland, this technique was not yet in use at that time. Since the ideas of Alexander technique did not conflict with the facts of voice physiology, I started to cultivate them both in my singing and teaching. Today, the use of Alexander technique has spread to music schools all over the western world, including Finland.

F.M. Alexander was born in Tasmania in 1869 and died in England at the age of 86. From childhood, he had been interested in poetry and already in his teens he performed at poetry recitals until he finally became a professional actor. He made his first contract with the theatre in Melbourne when he was only 19 years old but then began to suffer from certain vocal problems which lasted for almost a decade, undermining his will to live. He could not even sustain his voice through an evening of poetry recital. He saw a number of doctors but they found nothing wrong with him and the medication he received only gave temporary relief. Finally, he did not dare to take on a whole evening of reciting poetry any longer. After some time, he began to notice that his way of using his voice was, to his surprise, unnecessarily tense.

He observed tension also in his body as he was performing. The way he moved his entire body seemed to operate on the wrong track. He noticed that, not only he himself, but also other actors suffering from similar difficulties, were using their head, neck and back regions stiffly. The cooperation between these parts of the body seemed to be in charge of the unobstructed functioning of the whole frame of an individual. He called this team-work "Primary Control". Simple activity such as walking, sitting down, standing up, not to mention dancing or playing an instrument, seemed to operate more naturally, more easily if the connection from the head to the neck and on to the back, in other words Primary Control, was functioning without tension. Alexander noted that detrimental habits were imprinted on the body at an early age and that the goal of his "technique" was merely to relieve the body of excess effort.

My own observations about voice control were by no means limited to those of the Alexander technique. "The manifesto" of Alexander technique teachers is the comprehensive freeing of a person from tension. However, these teachers are not all singers or otherwise adept at using their voice. The inner structure and function of the human vocal organs do not become automatically apparent during the three-year training by an Alexander technique teacher. It certainly takes more than three years to learn to command one's own vocal muscle structure well enough to be able to direct others in relaxing theirs. Especially the functioning of the external and internal framework of the larynx , the tongue and the pharynx muscles takes longer than to unfold and, as a matter of fact, there is no special attention paid to these areas when training future Alexander technique teachers. I remember a conversation I had with an Alexander technique teacher, in which I criticized their assuming the role of a singing teacher. The teacher himself clearly had problems with his voice and I offered my help to remedy the situation. At first he denied any irregularities but when I asked him to see a phoniatrist to be on the safe side, and even offered to pay the bill if there was nothing wrong with his throat, he admitted that he had a problem. The tongue, pharynx and larynx are the most central and important muscular systems for singing. However, it is important for singers to learn to observe any tension taking a foothold in their bodies and this is where the Alexander philosophy is of great help. If there is tightness in the largest muscles in the body, it cannot help but reflect on the internal, small and vital muscles. The road to self-observation is found with the help of a guiding teacher.

I remember using the Alexander technique especially when starting to release the carriage of my head. If you nod your head or let it fall freely to your chest, you notice the extra work you might be doing with your neck or back regions. If you execute a movement or "let happen" a movement, you will see the difference. Equally, try to keep your neck from doing anything when standing up and you will notice how easily the neck tries to direct the movement even though there is no real need in the process. This is a good place to start observing your own body while singing. Singing is a muscular action which should strain the vocal muscles as little as possible.

Singing teachers have to learn to detect tension with their eyes and ears, since their hands are tied to the piano. A mirror is an excellent tool for students when they practise alone, since it shows all the wrong movements and tension of the tongue, pharynx, the floor of the mouth, lips, jaw and face muscles. Singers must concentrate on learning to monitor the sensations in their muscles; after all, singing is basically physical exercise, even if not gymnastics.

My own basic findings from the early days of my singing studies, in which I have always put my trust, can be expressed in the following few sentences:

1. Movement protects the muscle from injury.

2. A calculated position always causes tension in the muscles.  
(except in a resting position or when the arms are hanging down)

3. Optimal performance is not possible with a strained muscle.

4. Extreme positions, contracting (straining, heaving) or stretching the muscle to the utmost, easily lead to injury.

One of the most important things to which singers should pay attention, is the standing position when the entire sole of the foot must be firmly pressed against the floor. Often one sees singers straining to stand on tiptoe. From time to time one also encounters standing with legs apart like a policeman controlling the traffic. In this position the knees will lock. The correct position is for the legs to be free to move slightly during a performance. If the performance is relaxed, there is minimal movement throughout, even though the audience may not be aware of it, and neither really does the singer in time.

Many people use their hands, some even a great deal, while speaking. Inhibited people trying to avoid close personal contact draw their arms up in front of them as if for protection. Similarly, performers might try to shield themselves from the audience. It is good to remember that muscles do not get tense when they are hanging down freely, thus giving a sense of relief to a singer. In this way artistic expression can be more focused on the voice. Every movement, or even immobility, is significant for the voice, performer and listener alike.

##  6. THE INTERACTION BETWEEN VOICE AND MIND

The founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, came to be known particularly for his observations on the relationship between the words used by patients and their mental condition. His student, Wilhelm Reich, found a similar connection between the way people use their voice and the way they use the muscles of their body ( _Character Analysis_ , 3rd edition, London: Vision Press 1948, p 342).

Reich noticed how bitterness, cynicism and anger were reflected in a speaker's face. Furthermore, he saw that all the speaker's muscles reinforced the emotions. Freud thought that this chronic prolonged tension was a form of repression so that the stronger the emotion, the stronger the reflection of repression in the body. This armour made of muscle tension protects the person from outsiders but also prevents the expression of true feelings. We form an idea of the speaker's character based on this impression conveyed to us and the physical armour of muscle seems to completely define the personality of the speaker. It reflects the armour of his or her psychological personality. To simplify the matter with an example: if you cannot reveal your negative opinion openly to your friend, you "hide" your feelings behind armour. Such a ruse prevents the friend from turning into an enemy but also keeps your deepest emotions from surfacing.

To Reich the "body armour" and armour of personality were identical phenomena. They were revealed in the way a person spoke, walked, in facial expressions, or typical attitudes such as smiling, sneering, pride or hypercorrectness. Reich began to heal his patients by releasing them from their body armour whereby the most important point was relaxing their breathing. If the patients had the kind of tension in their bodies that kept them from breathing freely or made them hyperventilate, he tried to make them utter sounds while holding on to the idea of "letting it go". He approached the deepest, hidden feelings of his patients through laughing, crying, sighing, sobbing, etc. when he particularly noticed how important relaxed breathing was to the psychological well-being of the patient. He associated tidal air with the air we use to produce sounds. He did not think a deliberate production of breathing with muscles was a prerequisite for voice, and I noticed that, in this respect, I had assumed similar ideas in my own teaching. I have never made my students do breathing exercises but instead, have kept constant watch against the kind of muscle tension that is a hindrance to breathing. I have underlined the difference between tidal air and the respiratory muscles and their different roles in voice control.

Reich's studies were later taken up by Alexander Lowen who was his student in 1940-1952. Lowen was deeply impressed by Reich's idea of the expression of psychological problems as muscle tension. Lowen started to liberate the bodies of his patients from their armour and called the energy thus released "bioenergy". Similarly to Reich, Lowen considered muscle tension in the respiratory organs to be the biggest obstacle to self-expression.

When more close studies were made of people who had already caused injury to their voice by misusing it, the researchers came to the conclusion that taking care of psychological problems was important in the process of repairing the damage done to the voice. In 1958, Lynwood Heaver, claimed that vocal nodules and polyps caused by the misuse of voice are common in people whose performance showed hostility and aggression, _(Psychiatric Observations on the Personality Structure of Patients with Habitual Dysphonia,_ logos 1958, pp 1-21). Similar results are presented in (P.Bloch, New Limits of Vocal Analysis _, Folia Phoniatrica 12_. 1960, pp. 291-7).

Later on, other throat specialists reached the same conclusion _(Journal of Speech Disorders,_ pp 27, 205), (R. Lusingher and D. Arnold, _Voice, Speech and language_ ), (M.D. Morrison, H. Nicol and L.A. Rammage, Diagnostic Criteria in Dysphonia _, Laryngoscope,_ p 94, 1986). Groups of patients with voice nodules and polyps included a high numbers of perfectionists and ambitious, highly motivated workaholics.

Naturally, people can also have several other vocal disorders, such as hoarseness and infections that throat specialists and researchers claim are due to mental condition. Pedro Bloch, who is interested in comprehensive, holistic study of speakers, asserts: "Taking into account the psychosomatic nature of phoniatrics, it is quite clear that recovery is not achieved by simply examining the throat. Rather than that, we must study the personality, the human being, organism, biotype, physique, temperament, character, live individual with voice or throat problems. Fairly often the problem is not in the throat but in emotional well-being. The real reason turns out to be troubles brought on by a particular situation in life which have transformed into physical symptoms. We go to too much trouble examining the vocal cords when the real problem can be found in the emotional life."

In my career of over 40 years as a voice trainer, I have had to help teachers with voice nodules. Seeing that they demand from themselves constant exemplary behaviour both in front of the class as in society, it is no wonder that they suffer from such afflictions. To begin with, I have told them to think about pulling down their "body armour". During the day, they had to take note of the sensations around their body, face, jaw and throat. For instance, a teacher who tries to smile all day long, "to be nice to the children", exhausts his or her voice by a prolonged tension of, among other things, jaw, lip and face muscles that are continuously forced to maintain the same expression. It is good to remember, that expressions, especially forced ones, cannot replace the tone of the voice. Children, if anybody, are very sensitive to different tones of voice.

On the other hand, there are teachers who keep raising their voices, talking too loud. Nobody yells without a reason and in this case it could be that the teacher is trying to keep the class well disciplined. It is necessary to raise your voice from time to time to settle a situation in the classroom, but continuous yelling only exhausts the voice, even to the extent of causing damage, so that teachers who keep talking in a high voice, become susceptible to developing vocal nodules. Whatever the reason for the tenseness, it causes the larynx to move up so it follows that a teacher who is not in control of the class is most definitely in danger of causing vocal disorders. It would be best, therefore, for teachers to use their voices in a more versatile manner. Movement protects the muscles and their circulation. Therefore, it is much easier to keep the larynx moving during the day than to take care not to raise it. If one keeps worrying about the position of the larynx being too high, it is possible to be faced with another, equally voice exhausting mannerism of forcing it down. It is possible and, indeed, preferable to use your voice both in its high and low registers. Either register, if used alone and continuously, will cause damage. Being wary and cautious with your voice should be forgotten. Action, movement, is more positive and in the end, easier. Caution easily leads to tension.

An article that caught my eye claimed that 30% of students in a certain Finnish teacher training college had vocal problems. Since being a teacher is particularly tiring to the voice, the person who had carried out this survey thought that these students should have been eliminated during the entrance examination. Apparently, the researcher had no confidence in the ability of voice trainers, therapists or phoniatrists to cure vocal disorders. The fact that mental care specialists can help here, probably did not even cross his mind.

Students of singing, if anybody, are prone to throat pains, actual or psychological. The most ambitious beginners who were not yet in the least satisfied with their own performance, became sick to the extent that they even started running a temperature before the recitals that were a compulsory part of their studies. I decided to ask them to sing in spite of their sore throats. At first, they were suspicious but when I promised to pay their medical bills if there were any adverse consequences to their voices, they agreed to sing and the recurrent soreness and fever preceding performances disappeared. Although singing teachers must not overly trust their psychological instincts, they must still remain alert. This kind of desensitization has proven itself to be an efficient therapy form in relieving performance anxiety.

Any worries the student might have should be openly discussed during a singing lesson. If the student has just been unlucky in love or suffered an injustice, the singing will probably not go very smoothly. However, the content of some songs is about sorrows and sorrow can take you to the profound depths of vocal expression if you just let it happen. You can ask the student what pieces he or she would like to start working on in the near future or what song would he or she be especially interested in. A short glance through the lyrics of vocal music (Schubert, Schumann, Brahms) or a hymnal shows that a great majority of them are serious.

Some of my students analysed their voices continuously. A few even confessed to waking up in the middle of the night to scrutinize the state of their throats. This kind of vicious circle cannot be broken by consulting a phoniatrist. One must adopt a more daring attitude towards one's voice. Neither excessive bellowing nor whispering is healthy, but the voice should and must be used boldly, without constantly monitoring and worrying whether it is the right or wrong way and sounding out one's sensations after every bit of practice. All worries are audible in the voice and worrying will be of no help. It is helpful for a singing teacher to know that physical and mental conditions are interdependent. It does not matter which one you start repairing first. It is easier for a singing teacher to start with the "body armour". Singing is a very good way of breaking it apart.

I would like to name my method, "The Singing School of the Moving Muscle". Any practice method which promotes muscle mobility is beneficial. However, singing does not require great physical strength. Weightlifting is probably of no particular use. Moving without uttering any sounds does not produce results, either. Movement and singing must be united. It is easy for the teacher to see all the muscle tension when the student moves while singing. The tightness of the muscles in the front and back of the neck, the tension reflecting into the sternum from the thyroid cartilage, constricting or raising shoulders, lifting up the lower jaw, the tension in the jaw and tongue are both visible and audible.

In the summer of 2002, a German student of mine gave me a book called _Atmung und Stimme_ , which she had found in a second-hand bookstore and noticed that it included ideas similar to the ones I had offered him. The authors were Clara Schlaffhorst and Hedwig Andersen. These 19th century thinkers and teachers had breathing as a starting point for their ideas. To them, it seemed to be the centre of people's mental and physical activity. Our thoughts and feelings, as well as the movements and health of the body are all reflected in breathing. These pioneers especially emphasized the importance of eliminating the breathing problems caused by incorrect postures already seen in small children. My method is not about correcting body positions but about movement as a way of relieving tension. If the muscles of the body are capable of moving any which way and if the muscles are neither locked nor suffer from prolonged tension, there will be no problems with breathing.

A singer who is relieved of physical tension is also mostly free of mental reservations. It is easy to imagine the voice of a shy person, walking around with hunched shoulders, the whole body bent with the restraining tension of self-consciousness. How singing could help these people! On the other hand, life does not seem to be any easier for highly sophisticated academics either. A lecturing professor might exhibit extreme tightness in the throat muscles that one is tempted to offer immediate help. People are eager to train their other muscles with exercise but yet allow their vocal muscles to atrophy.

Training with weights is no help to the voice, however. The exertions of ambitious training programs dam the tidal air in the thorax under the closed vocal chords and strains the larynx muscles. People whose profession requires a lot of speaking should rather exercise the looseness and elasticity of the larynx as well as their entire body. Getting rid of trying too hard while speaking, will ease the problems. While listening to a long lecture given by a speaker with an incorrect and strained speaking technique, a sensitive listener will experience similar discomfort in throat. The audience's attention concentrates on the way of speaking and might miss the message of the speech. Early in my career, I remember often getting a sore throat while listening to beginners giving their course recitals. Later I learned to listen to their singing techniques a little less intensely and the problem disappeared.

Health care workers should pay attention to small children's voices and the monitoring should continue in school. Your way of using your voice is ingrained in you as a child and very difficult to change later in life. Children love to sing and there is no better way of taking care of their voices than letting them sing. The face of a small child shows immediate pleasure at the learning of the simplest ditty. It is sad, that many old, wonderful children's songs are no longer part of the curriculum in many schools. Especially the beginning of school life could be made easier for children by making them sing every once in a while during the lessons. The responsibility for somebody's voice is responsibility for the whole personality. When school is over, and we move on to working life, a healthy voice is an important merit in addition to our formal training. A well resonating, healthy voice is a source of courage and confidence.

##  7. THE ROLE OF THE TONGUE IN SINGING

There is a Finnish saying for situations demanding intense concentration: "Keep your tongue in the middle of your mouth". The saying suggests that the tension of the tongue is in direct correlation with the tension of the mind. For a beginner singer, taming the tongue is often one of the most difficult tasks. At the very beginning, the student should sing in front of a mirror and look at the tongue in action. Usually they discover that the tongue tends to curl up into a sausage shape retracting towards the pharynx or in the middle of the oral cavity, or alternatively the tip of the tongue reaches for the palate. If the tongue blade rises to touch the palate and the sides of the tongue touch the inside of the cheek, a vault is formed under the tongue with certain resemblance to the unusually shaped hollow hyoid bone of a howler monkey. It can produce a loud carrying sound but the tone colour is terrible. Listeners with acute hearing will not accept it, although an average audience might possibly give the artist with a powerful voice a standing ovation. This mistaken rendition can even be discerned from some of the latest recordings of the Maria Callas, though this does by no means detract from her greatness. By chance I heard a concert where a powerful bass of international renown strived for more volume by shaping extra resonant vaults under his tongue. This mistaken form in not necessarily harmful for all singers´ throats, but the howling tone is definitely not suitable for interpreting Lieder or other delicate songs. In an opera scene where there is a great deal of drama and movement, this tonal effect may be acceptable.

The tongue root, the soft palate and the back wall of the pharynx form a real stumbling block for many singers. This region is particularly active when eating and swallowing and therefore the swallowing muscles get mixed up with the production of the singing voice. The singers who misuse the swallowing muscles have a recognizably similar tone of voice. The variety of nuances is narrow and the throat runs the risk of serious injury. In swallowing, these muscles around the pharynx contract and shorten whereas in singing these muscles should be able to lengthen freely. It would be good if teachers could demonstrate this complex action by singing first in the wrong way when the pharynx is constricted and then in the right way.

This way of singing is not always perceived even by music reviewers. The well resonant and healthy contralto or mezzo soprano voice is sometimes confused with this unhealthy way of constricted muscles. It is a matter of concern to see singers with this style granted a contract with an opera house or a singing teacher´s post at a music academy. Some singers, however, seem to possess such a strongly built throat that even this mistaken way of singing does not damage it completely. Neither do lower voice categories suffer so much as the higher ones, but it is more easily audible and recognizable in the medium and low voice categories.

I have met with this kind of case now and then, and found that it has been almost impossible to get rid of, especially when dysfunction of the tongue muscles has become habitual. It was surprising to note that most of these singers could not roll their tongue into a tube. This quality is said to be genetic (Sturtevant 1940, and others) in that the majority of people can roll or can learn to roll their tongue, others cannot. It made me wonder whether there could be other hereditary restrictive factors involved in the functioning of tongue muscles, because the wrong way of constricting the muscles in the tongue root /pharynx region seemed to be an insurmountable handicap for some singers.

The shot put Olympic champion, Sydney 2000, Arsi Harju, said in an interview: "If you have repeated a wrong movement one thousand times, it will take a long time to root it out, and after that you will be no further than in square one ". In my view, the shot put dynamics is nowhere near as complicated as that of singing. This means that the first voice teacher is the most important, and I also regard the first teacher´s task as the most difficult. Searching for and choosing the first vocal coach is of crucial importance. Good singers or good musicians are not automatically good vocal coaches. If the teacher´s own brilliant career has ended prematurely or star pupils become shooting stars, such teachers cannot be recommended, simply on the grounds of their popularity.

Returning to the role of the tongue, it should be kept separate from voice production, since its essential task is to form the sounds, the vowels and consonants. It would be advisable to start voice exercises using vowels only. At the same time, take care to observe tongue positions that may be caused by tensions. The tip of the tongue should remain right behind the lower front teeth and the blade should not touch the palate in order to leave the vocal tract wide-open. The higher the note, the more liable it is that the tongue becomes narrower and retracts backwards. When consonants are added, the problem will be even more common. If the tongue cannot handle consonants, the root of the tongue tends to narrow the vocal tract. This kind of "consonant terror" should be stopped once and for all, otherwise the singer tries to compensate the false action by pushing more air. The tip of the tongue should normally just pick up the required consonants by the way. Only the consonants /k/ and /g/ close the vocal tract so that the tongue blade reaches the soft palate. During the phonation of other consonants, the tongue and the palate do not touch each other.

I am not in favour of voice training based on use of the /ng/ sound. It is true that the/ng/ sound helps to get the feel of pharyngeal functions, but on the other hand it easily involves certain constriction by pharyngeal muscles, a movement a singer should definitely avoid. The root of the tongue and the pharynx should be free of constrictions. If singing does not run smoothly, you can mostly suspect tensions in the tongue root region. Try first singing with vowels only. You will see how the tip of the tongue is active during the phonation of front vowels, the blade becomes active especially with the /a/ vowel (Schlafe, father) and finally the to root takes care of the back vowels. When your tongue is practised at handling vowels without extra tension, then you can include the consonants in the game.

One very common mistake related to the tongue is to try to substitute the root muscles for the extrinsic muscles that draw the larynx downwards. Consequently the muscles of the bottom of the mouth become tense and the space between the hyoid bone and the thyroid cartilage disappears. Some singers open their jaw to the utmost with the result a longitudinal furrow can be seen in the tongue, it will narrow and stiffen, and the juiciest timbre will disappear especially in the higher range. This mode is easy to observe with a mirror.

I have heard the argument that teaching to understand the functions of the tongue should not be done at all. The movement of the tongue should rather be allowed to proceed spontaneously. No doubt, it is a common aim, but if the student is not aware of the reflex-like extra tensions of the tongue, they will not disappear by themselves. The next chapter will present a number of muscles that form and move the tongue in different ways. It is no wonder that a novice tends to stumble in this jungle of muscles.

##  8. MUSCLES OF THE TONGUE

External muscles of the tongue:

1. _Musculus genioglossus_ , from the mandible to the aponeurosis of the tongue. Protrudes and depressses the tongue, moves the tip of the tongue

2. _M. hyoglossus_ , from the greater horns of the hyoid bone to the aponeurosis of the tongue.

3. _M. chondroglossus_ , from the lesser horns of the hyoid bone to the aponeurosis of the tongue. 2. and 3. both depress and retract the tongue and the root of the tongue

4. _M.styloglossus_ , from the temporal styloid process to the sides and under the tongue Retracts and elevates the tongue, especially during swallowing

5. _M. palatoglossus_ , from the aponeurosis of the palate to tongue muscles, especially transverse muscle. Elevates the root of the tongue, narrows the mouth cavity.

Internal muscles of the tongue:

6. _M. longitudinalis inferior_ , from the tip of the tongue to the root of the tongue. Retracts and broadens the inferior part of the tongue.

7. M. longitudinalis superior, from the tip of the tongue to the root of the tongue. Retracts and broadens the superior part of the tongue.

8. _M. tranversus linque_ , from the septum of the tongue to the lateral margins and the aponeurosis of the tongue. Narrows and elongates the tongue.

9. _M. verticalis linque_ , consists of fibres extending vertically from the upper to the lower parts of the tongue. Co-operates with the related muscles, affects the form and position of the tongue.

##  9. MUSCLES AROUND THE HYOID BONE

Suprahyoid muscles form the bottom of the mouth and are antagonists of the infrahyoid muscles.

1 _. M. digastricus_ , from the temporal bone with an intertendon to hyoid bone to the chin. Depresses the mandible, elevates and fixes the hyoid bone.

2. _M. stylohyoideus,_ from the temporal styloid process to the hyoid bone; often surrounds the intertendon of M. digastricus. Fixes the hyoid bone, pulls it backward and upward during swallowing.

3. _M. mylohyoideus_ , from both sides of the mandibular arch to the central seam of mouth bottom and to the hyoid bone. Raises the floor of the mouth and the tongue (in swallowing), depresses the mandible, elevates the hyoid bone.

4. _M. geniohyoideus_ , from the mental spine of the mandible to the anterior part of the hyoid bone. Touches muscles of the tongue (M. genioglossus) Assists M. mylohyoideus (elevating the tongue) depresses the mandible, fixes and elevates the hyoid bone.

FIG. 2. SUPRAHYOID MUSCLES

Infrahyoid muscles:

5 _. M. sternohyoideus_ , from the inner upper part of the sternum at the clavicular joint to the hyoid bone.

6. _M. sternothyroideus_ , from the inner upper part of the sternum, at the first rib joint, caudal to M. sternohyoideus, to the outer surface of thyroid cartilage (opposite the origin of M. thyrohyoideus)

7. _M. thyrohyoideus_ , from the outer surface of thyroid cartilage to the root of the greater horn of the hyoid bone.

8. _M. omohyoideus_ , from the upper part of the scapula to the lateral outer surface of the hyoid bone. Consists of two bellies united by a central tendon.

These four pairs of muscles (5-8) together with the suprahyoid muscles (1-4) fix the hyoid bone. They assist in the movement of the tongue, they move the hyoid bone and the larynx when swallowing or phonating. They assist in swallowing and producing high notes by elevating the larynx. The antagonist is M. sternohyoideus which depresses the larynx and the hyoid bone and plays an important role in producing low notes. These muscles also assist in respiration.

FIG. 3. INFRAHYOID MUSCLES (frontal-view)

##  10. THE JAW

You may have seen how animals raise their upper jaw when they make a sound. When a cow moos, a horse neighs or a dog barks, they raise their upper jaw. To be precise, "the upper jaw" is not moving alone because it is a fixed part of the skull. Paying attention to the upper jaw helps the student to realize how the free mobility of the head affects the performance. The movement of the upper jaw is linked to the movement of the head. It is in close relation to the movements of the neck and spine and further on to the muscles of the back. When the animals make a sound, they lift the head up and backward. This movement is very useful for a singer to produce a voice that carries. Just think of the way how you would call out to a friend lost in the woods. It would seem odd to call while bending your head forward and down, wouldn´t it? Concert halls are designed in a similar way for good far reaching acoustics, their shape often resembling a wide open mouth with the ceiling like the upper jaw.

There is no tension in a freely hanging relaxed muscle. When opening the mouth, let the lower jaw drop and swing freely which will eliminate tensions that often appear in the jaw. The jaw as such has nothing to do with voice production but the freer the jaws part from each other, the better for the relaxation of the pharyngeal and other closely related muscles. Bending the head down and forward forces the jaw to press against the thyroid cartilage and prevents the elevator muscles of the larynx attached to the hyoid bone from performing their normal function.

Some singers tend to deliberately draw their lower jaw down and forward and simultaneously keep the neck rounded by using the nodding muscles and having the head tilting down. As a consequence of this incorrect move, they have to compensate by drawing the back part of the pharynx upwards all the time, thus preventing them from the elasticity necessary to achieve rich tone in the higher vocal range.

If you use a megaphone you would hardly direct it downwards, but rather slightly up and forward. Do the same pretending your head is a megaphone. Sing first with the head bent down and lowering the jaw, and then raising the upper jaw and letting the lower jaw hang freely. You will hear the difference and be surprised at how loud the carrying voice is. If your voice becomes weaker, you are probably tensing the muscles at the bottom of the mouth. If you keep your head bent forward using the anterior neck muscles, the elasticity of muscles around the pharynx region will disappear, and your voice loses the upper register and the rich tone.

When the upper jaw opens upwards, it will automatically broaden the pharynx and the soft palate up and to the sides, as when yawning. The pharynx, the most important cavity for resonance, should be wide open for perfect timbre. When you sing, it is not essential to open the mouth, but you should let the lower jaw drop down itself while the jaw joint opens freely for excellent resonance. Singing should preferably be executed with the least muscular effort for the best possible performance.

If you actively open the lower jaw, you can feel the protrusion of the mandible through the skin at the joint. If you just raise the upper jaw and let the lower jaw drop in the same way, as when falling asleep, the mandible will not protrude. Your head is free to move in any direction. Do not actively open the lower jaw, just let it happen. All extra movement reduces the tonal quality. Active lowering of the jaw also causes the longitudinal furrow in the tongue blade, narrowing and disturbing the function of the tongue. The larynx cannot move freely enough to allow coloratura singing. This tension can be felt by keeping the back of the hand under the jaw during singing. Suprahyoid muscles located under the tongue must not feel tense. They should not be confused with the depressor muscles of the larynx.

Getting ready to voice, you feel the pharynx widen up and to the sides as when you start yawning. Surprisingly, it is not easy for all students to yawn at will. Some of them begin to incorrectly pull the lower jaw down. It is part of a teacher´s job to show how to give a good yawn: an invigorating yawn elevates the upper jaw, widens the pharynx and also slightly lowers the larynx.

If a singer´s head bends strongly forward, the upper jaw does not rise and the lower jaw presses the larynx towards the neck and at the same time, the chest is often pulled upwards. Such an incorrect position may imprison the singer completely as if it becomes habitual it will take years to unlearn. It is strange how difficult it is to make singing easy. According to some authors, the "stiff neck position" is common among those who are not quite sure about their status in life. One should not think of becoming a singer at all if this personal standing is so important. As we know, a singer´s work can literally disappear into thin air.

The upper jaw is the singer´s jaw. If you fall asleep in an easy chair, your head drops back, the lower jaw drops down and the mouth remains wide open. This kind of state of rest should be utilized when singing vowels. Some consonants call for closing the jaws, but the impressive jaw movement with the consonants which can be seen sometimes, is not necessary. Go carefully through all consonants to check which do not require the jaws to close. The lower jaw should move softly, touch the upper jaw gently, without great effort or without extra movement.

If the jaws do not open freely at the joint, the pharynx will not open freely either ( _Performing Arts Medicine_ , Second Edition, p.377). The situation can be screened by palpitating through the skin near the ears. Letting the upper jaw rise gently helps the relaxed opening of the jaw joint. All unnecessary "facial gymnastics" can be left out, as Kim Borg once put it.

As early as in 1922, Dr. E. L. Kenyon wrote that, regarding voice production, the larynx, the hyoid bone and the root of the tongue should be examined as a whole. The function of the larynx is dependent on the hyoid bone and the root of the tongue and further on the lower jaw and the skull. All three organs are closely connected to one another by a complex network of muscles which changes their interrelation and their relation to the surrounding skeletal structure such as the sternum, spine and skull. These organs together determine the functions of the larynx and the vocal cords and they should be examined as a whole.

It cannot be taken for granted that the complex relations between larynx, hyoid bone, tongue root, lower jaw and skull would always work to perfection. Many individual muscles may have been adapted through adverse habits. Muscular functions can be observed by palpation or using a mirror, and experience will develop the sensitivity to distinguishing tonal differences connected to certain muscular activity. The jaws do not produce the voice. The louder the forte you want to sing, the more you have to watch your head leaning gently back and up and letting the pharynx widen freely, seeking the yawning position or the call position when trying to find your lost friend in the wood.

Yet another important point to watch is that the lower jaw must not push forward. Under bite, i.e. the lower teeth push past the upper teeth, should be avoided. If that is the case, the pharyngeal cavity, the largest resonant cavity definitely becomes smaller. (R.Sataloff, _Professional Voice: The Science and Art of Clinical Care_. Singular Publishing Group Inc; 1996, chapts 21, 56.)

Some shy singers are inclined to pull their entire head between the shoulders. From this position the upper jaw cannot bend up and backward and the neck and pharynx will not remain relaxed.

It is good to start unlocking the jaws by singing with vowels only so that at the same time you can feel how the tongue moves responding to the formation of vowels. The tongue tries to put up resistance accompanied by the neck and shoulder regions. Let the tongue move freely and leave the jaws to do "nothing". Some vowels need certain movement of the lips but not too much. Looking at high quality theatre performances or films, you can notice how little the best actors or actresses move their jaws and lips and how sonorous and clear are their voices. Their lip motions do not cause tensions to the facial or jaw muscles as the jaw moves in a distinctively easy and relaxed way. Capable colleagues on the theatre stage or on the screen can set a good example to singers on how to avoid the tension advancing from lips to facial muscles and even further.

##  11. MUSCLES OF MASTICATION

1. _Musculus masseter_ , has two parts:

a. _pars superficialis_ , anterior two thirds (tendinous) and

b. _pars profunda_ , posterior third, from the arch of the cheekbone to the external side of the angle of the mandible.

These muscles form the outer mastication muscle. They close the jaw.

2. _M. temporalis_ , from the temporal bone below the inferior temporal line to the apex

and the medial surface of the coronoid process of the mandible.

Closes the jaw, posterior fibres retract the mandible.

3. _M. pterygoideus lateralis_ , upper head from the lateral surface of the plate of the

pterygoid process, lower head from the greater wing of the sphenoid bone to the condyloid process of the mandible, and the articular disc and capsule of the mandibular joint.

Closes the jaw, protrudes the mandible. The lower head opens the jaw.

4. _M. pterygoideus medialis_ , from the depression and the lateral plate of the pterygoid process, partly from the pyramidal process of palatine bone to the medial surface of the angle of the mandible.

Closes the jaw.

M. masseter can easily be felt through the skin. When closing the jaws one can also feel the belly of M. temporalis in the temporal fossa. Muscles 2-4 open the jaws and move the mandible down and forward. They move the mandible from side to side when food is chewed, they assist in closing the jaws.

The jaw is closely connected to a number of muscles. Besides the suprahyoid muscles and the muscles of mastication, the strong lateral muscle of the neck M. sternocleidomastoideus assists in the movement of the jaws. It runs from the mastoid process of the temporal bone to the upper part of the sternum and the medial part of the clavicle. It fixes, elevates and rotates the head. It bends the head forward and moves the jaws at the same time.

##  12. DISORDER RELATED TO THE JOINT OF THE JAW

The mobility of the temporomandibular joint (the joint of the jaw), often referred to as TMJ, plays an important role in relaxed and well-balanced singing. Movement of the jaws is closely connected to the expression of emotions. Our mouth remains agape with surprise, we clench our teeth in a tight corner or we may shout with the mouth wide-open like a roaring lion when we lose our temper and give vent to our feelings.

Changes of vocal timbre and resonance depend largely on the shape and size of the mouth and the pharyngeal cavity (see also Chapter 19, the registers). The manner of how we use the jaws is not a trivial matter. A false chewing habit is a common reason for pain in the region of the TMJ. Continual chewing and asymmetric or any other kind of abnormal bite may cause a severe pain to spread from the neck to the top of the head, to the forehead and to the nose and cheek region. It may temporarily deteriorate eyesight and cause vertigo and headache. The TMJ disorders may be of concern to several healthcare disciplines but a dentist can often provide a relief for the pain. The grinding of teeth or bruxism is easily corrected by a night-time dental guard, a soft plastic cushion between the upper and lower teeth that prevents grinding the teeth. The uneven bite causing bruxism may also be corrected by extra fillings in certain teeth.

Bruxism may appear during different stages of sleep, often during the rather light stage 2 sleep. Stress, anxiety or any other sleep disturbance are common causes of bruxism but also asymmetrical alignment of teeth, lowered bite or teeth worn by age may trigger the nocturnal teeth grinding. Voice-massage has been successful in relieving the symptoms caused by this friction and during the day one can pay attention to the manner in which the upper and lower teeth come together when the mouth is closed. Keep telling yourself: lips together, teeth apart and blow lightly between the lips. It will help your chewing muscles to relax. If stress or anxiety is the primary cause, antidepressants or temporary use of sleeping pills might be worth a try. There are also several self-help healing methods to try. The chronic habit of clenching and grinding may cause severe tension to the chewing muscles. Relief can be found by stretching the pharynx vertically as much as possible and at the same time opening the jaws and dropping the mandible as low as possible at the joint. Stretch you head sideways towards one shoulder, hold for a while and then do same towards the other shoulder. The tension and the pain should ease directly. The tongue may also feel stiff: draw it backwards as far as possible, keep it there for a while and then make it protrude out as far as possible and keep it there. Bending the head forward and holding the hands on the back of the head should ease the stiffness and pain at the neck. If the pain is persistent, these measures can be repeated at intervals of a couple of hours.

It is good to concentrate on the idea that the upper jaw is solid and in a way carries the movable lower jaw: it prevents clenching the teeth and from potential damage to the TMJ.

A dry mouth, dry cough and irritation in the tongue and throat may be caused by the excessive strain of the chewing muscles. More commonly the symptoms are due to heartburn, where acid reflux causes a burning sensation in the chest and a sour taste fills the mouth after burping. Immediate medical treatment is recommended because the acid reflux irritates and inflames the singer´s sensitive vocal cords and the pharyngeal muscles. Besides medication, a reflux diet is necessary. Smaller and more frequent meals, porridge and other food that do not irritate the stomach is beneficial. Spicy food, processed meat, coffee, alcohol and being overweight are detrimental. However, every stomach is different and no single food has the same effect on everyone's digestive system. If medication and a reflux diet does not relieve the pain, a surgeon should be consulted. Successful surgery can relieve the reflux problem but there are potential complications such as vomiting and more painful.

I have also got to know another treatment, the so-called "Rahko-manoeuvre" , a treatment based on positional manoeuvres and used to relieve benign positional vertigo. This method been shown to relieve pain and tension in the region of the neck, chewing muscles and the TMJ. Since athletes have found the Rahko-manoeuvre very useful, I should think that it could also be advantageous to singers. It is based on tests and treatment of the vestibular canals of the inner ear. The vestibular canals that contribute to balance are partially blocked by loose particles which cause the disorder and the successive changing of body positions removes the loose particles and restores the healthy vestibular system.

##  13. VOICE CHANGES

Children will in the course of time face pubescent voice changes which will affect their singing. The hormonal changes cause the lengthening of a teenage boy´s vocal cords by 15-17 mm, which subsequently lower the voice by as much as an octave. The larynx also grows, its position lowers a little, and the "Adam´s apple" of some boys becomes noticeably prominent. If the boy is a born bass, the vocal cords may lengthen as much as 23 mm and resonance cavities will also expand. All this happens during a few months and causes enormous changes to the voice. As a boy´s body adjusts to these changes, the voice may easily crack which means that during this phase, singing will not succeed. In the meantime, it would be beneficial for boys studying singing to focus on music theory and piano practice.

If certain mechanisms due to hormone action are prevented by castration before the age of 10, the pubescent voice changes will not take place. In Italy from about 1600 to 1850, it was not unusual to perform a castration to preserve a boy´s high voice with the intention of making him a castrato singer. Unfortunately, many a boy had to go through the bitter experience of becoming a castrato, but not a singer. If the boy was not a top musical talent, he had literally lost his chance for a normal life and could only share the subsequent inhuman consequences with his parents. Very few castrato singers would become famous like Carlo Maria Broschi (1705-1782), better known as Farinelli, who, after enormous success in Europe and London finally settled in Spain. The Queen of Spain nominated him chamber musician to the king, believing that Farinelli´s voice would cure the severe depression from which King Philip V suffered. His position lasted 25 years and Farinelli became very popular and influential at the Spanish court. The repertoire sung to the king is said to have been rather select and monotonous, but nevertheless proved to be a good example of the therapeutic powers of music.

Music composed for castrato singers is today sung by countertenors. Occasionally, the voices of countertenors are considered to be some kind of marvel. In fact, they are mostly baritones who practise singing with the narrow part of the vocal folds, often with the glottis slightly open. Any baritone singer can train and learn this "tenor" voice. Personally, I am not in favour of countertenor vocalism because it definitely narrows the richness of the timbre. It also restricts the proper dynamic changes of voice. With the aid of microphone techniques the countertenor voice can be made acceptable, but without a microphone it sounds less credible. To my ears, it sounds more like a circus act or playing the fool. Male voices can never substitute for alto and mezzo voices. It is difficult to image an oratorio with female voices singing the roles of Jesus or Evangelists!

Changes in the girls´ vocal organ during puberty are insignificant and, therefore, are hardly a reason to suspend vocal training. However, the training of young girls should not be too strenuous because the bone and muscle tissues are still undeveloped. The powerful voice can preferably wait a couple of years more to avoid vocal injury. A young age is besides the perfect time to practice coloratura and other repertoire that calls for muscular speed and flexibility. Sports training as well as instrumental music training have long realized the importance of developing motor skills and muscular speed during childhood and youth. Muscular speed will irretrievably slow with age. Regular coloratura exercise will prevent the muscular reactions from slowing prematurely.

One common characteristic for ageing singers is excessive vibrato. Caused by a cerebral disorder, it normally appears at a very high age when anyway tremours often become a part of daily life. If a remarkably wide or fast vibrato appears in middle age or even earlier, it may be the result of muscular tension or over-work. Generally the vocal wobble is the result of too much air pressure - "One should sing on interest rather than on capital". Older people often suffer from the wearing down of the vertebral discs, which in the neck region may cause additional discomfort for singers. Slow stretching exercises around the neck and pharynx will help considerably to relieve the trouble.

Pregnancy brings vocal changes to female singers. The tissues of the body, inclusive of vocal folds retain extra fluid and keeping the pitch will not proceed as before. The general medical rule is to avoid singing from the fourth month of pregnancy until a couple of weeks after delivery. Every maternal body is one of a kind and does not always have equally radical changes, but "better safe than sorry".

During the very first singing lessons the student´s voice may become temporarily hoarse. The voice will normally recover soon after the lesson. Some singing teachers say that the voice should under no circumstances become hoarse during lessons. I remember the singer Kim Borg answering that "the upper vocal range won´t turn on idling on a sofa." A singer, looking for a perfect voice for an optimal muscular performance, will certainly make mistakes in the beginning. The resulting short lived hoarseness will not return when the skills accrue. During the first lessons the mucous membranes tend to become dry with sheer excitement. A sip of water every now and then during a lesson is a good habit to keep the mucous membranes moist and thereby to avoid hoarseness. During a stage performance the mouth and pharynx may also feel dry. Sweeping the outer side of the top and bottom row of teeth with tongue or pretending to bite a piece of lemon with the back teeth will activate the production of saliva. The source of the advice is forgotten but I have tested this remedy in real situations with good results.

If the voice is constantly hoarse the reason may be vocal fold nodules, which appear as swellings on both sides of the vocal cords. Treatment of vocal nodules involves daily vocal therapy in the beginning. Especially exercises with the voiced stops /b/, /d/ and /g/, which lower the larynx and close the glottal opening completely, help to relieve the situation. The tension of the palatine arch can be relieved by phonating the consonant cluster /pm/.../pm/.../pm/... so that with the /p/consonant the velic passage is tightly closed and then with the /m/ consonant the pressure against the velic passage is allowed to explode wide-open.

Exercises with the uvular trill (the French R) are also apt to relax the pharyngeal muscles. Yet the most important aspect is to guide the use of voice towards a healthy direction. If after two weeks of careful vocal therapy there are no clear signs of improvement, the singer should see a phoniatrist. Total recovery time from vocal nodules depends on the length of time the voice has been abused or overused. But also the mental condition should not be ignored as worry can be a partial reason for developing nodules. Singing as such is good vocal therapy but resting the voice completely does not cure anything as a rule. Less vocal activity is good to some extent against overuse, but not against abuse or anxiety. Surgery cannot be recommended to professional singers due to the risk of complications.

The curriculum of singing teachers should definitely include a course in psychology. Mental maturity and knowledge of human nature and behaviour are great assets in this work. Effective vocal training requires from the teacher complete concentration on the student´s every sound and movement. It can be tiring and one can hardly work effectively for more than, say, three hours. However, work with a talented student can be so compelling and rewarding that I have to confess to having occasionally worked overtime.

Another common vocal injury is the vocal cord hemorrhage, a blood-filled swelling on the surface of the vocal cord. It may appear after an extremely heavy operatic role, but it is more common among popular music or hard rock singers caused by intense yelling and screaming or other overuse of the vocal cords. Complete vocal rest for several days is recommended treatment, but if used continuously, it may cause permanent deformations and require surgery. Singing with damaged vocal cords sounds hoarse and coarse, and the throat feels sore and exhausted. Continual vocal abuse may lead to permanent loss of voice. A healthy singing voice can never be recovered after severe damage. As a preacher on healthy singing voice myself, I can only wonder at the enthusiasm and persistence of some hard rock singers who continue singing with an evidently sore and injured throat. On the other hand, I also wonder how anyone can listen to such a vocal abuse without getting a sore throat, if not vocal cord nodules, oneself.

"Belting", the style widely used by popular music and music theatre singers, differs greatly from operatic or classical singing. According to studies by (Sundberg, Gramming and Lovetri) "belting is frequently associated with disturbances of voice function". The measurement results reveal that this style was characterized by very high subglottal pressures and sound levels and often by marked lowering of the larynx. In my experience, one of the worst problems of belting is that the larynx is locked in one position such as takes place in screaming. As a result the natural vibrato disappears and vocal cords become more exposed to damage. Some uncritical music reviewers will then describe the damaged hoarse voice as having a "dramatic, fateful timbre".

The vocal nodules and hoarseness can be relieved by the use of a simple resonator tube. The size of the glass tube varies according to the user´s voice category: diameter 8-9 mm and length 24-28 cm. One end of the tube is put between the front teeth and the other end in a bowl of water. Phonating through the tube a repeated sound "yibbii" and "yubboo" for one minute twice daily will have a healing effect on the vocal cords. The exercise is a good first remedy, but permanent relief can only be achieved by learning a healthy vocal technique.

One singing student complained of having suffered an inflammation of the tonsils as often as eight times in a year. Her tonsils were rather large and she had considered having them removed. She had a promising alto voice but she sang in an unhealthy manner. I asked her to put off the operation and try to adopt a healthier way of training. As a result of proper training, the number of inflammations dropped to two during one year, and ceased completely soon afterwards. Her vocal range had also extended from one and a half octaves to two and a half octaves. Supposedly, the tonsils strained earlier by wrong training had been exposed to bacteria. Surgery does not necessarily lead to catastrophe, but the resulting scar-formation is unpredictable, and, therefore, a healthy vocal technique is preferable as there is no risk.

##  14. THE PHARYNX

The pharynx is the most important resonance cavity of the human body: the primary fact a phoniatrist or a voice therapist should emphasize to a patient who suffers from voice problems. A spacious church vault resonates with the sounds of music or speech. In the same way the pharyngeal cavity resonates with the voice originating from the vocal cords and amplifies it for projection. The muscular walls of the pharynx comprise circular constrictors and longitudinal muscles. Besides the swallowing function, the pharyngeal muscles regulate the shape and size of the pharyngeal cavity to optimize its role in the production of tonal sound. The movement of the pharyngeal muscles can be monitored with a mirror during training so that the student can follow how singing feels in the throat, and how this sensation correlates with the actual changes in the shape of the pharynx. Imagining a yawn or a high note makes the posterior walls of the upper pharynx (nasopharynx and oropharynx) withdraw upwards and sideways. The same movement takes place when initiating the phonation. If the pharyngeal muscles are constricted, the voice does not sound or feel good: the pitch is not stable, and tends to move lower. The functioning of the pharyngeal muscles cannot be substituted by other muscular activity, therefore it is essential to become familiar with one´s pharynx by palpating, listening and observing with a mirror.

Starting to sing along with the yawn position, the soft palate generally rises and the larynx lowers. The depressor muscles can be palpated and the movement of the soft palate followed with a mirror. If the direction of movement is right, the throat feels good and singing is easy. The relaxed feeling and good singing go hand in hand. If singing is forced, one has to return and search for the relaxed feeling when singing was good. Sometimes the constriction of the pharynx may be so habitual, that the student does not feel the tension. Conscious, exaggerated stretching exercises for the pharyngeal muscles will normally restore the ability to realize the unwanted tension.

Probably every student has been told to "Sing forward!". However, the voice has no power to come forward or anywhere if the pharynx stays constricted or is idle. Some speakers have a habit of excessive nasal twang that is caused by pharyngeal tension or by the flabbiness of the soft palate. This can be tested as follows: First sing the vowels as usual, then squeeze the nostrils shut and sing the same vowels. A clear change of sound during some particular vowel reveals that the soft palate hangs flabby. Go on practicing to consciously widen the soft palate during phonation, and the nasal twang will disappear. Some people believe that a nasal twang contributes to vocal quality. This is a false belief, and in fact quite the contrary, the vocal timbre becomes monotonous and even ugly.

The oral cavity continues the pharyngeal cavity as an important part of the vocal tract. The hard palate finalizes the resonance before the perfect voice is presented to the audience. The constriction of the pharyngeal muscles prevents the optimal air flow and resonance in the vocal tract. The voice remains weak and vocal timbre is poor.

Male singers sometimes find difficulties with the soft palate. A common mistake is to curve the neck and tilt the head forward, forcing the larynx to lower. The upper vocal range will not be achieved by lowering the thyroid cartilage and pressing the lower jaw against it. A solid, dark-timbre voice is often regarded as a sign of masculinity, so it is not without reason that some male singers pretend to be deeper than a deep bass. For their information, a flexible, movable larynx neither removes the dark timbre nor manliness. Kim Borg once warned a female student not to "play alto". He meant well, but the warning made some mezzo sopranos and altos too cautious in using the full palette of vocal timbre including the dark colours.

There are a few singers who try to darken their voice by lowering the larynx, but there are many more sopranos who prefer to keep the larynx too high to sound feminine. They do not find the so-called chest register. The fear of chest register is sometimes almost hysterical among some sopranos and even their teachers. The tendency to consciously binding the larynx too low or too high leaves the voice one-sided and short of both vocal range and timbre. Elastic, relaxed functioning of the laryngeal muscles preserves the best potential for the voice, and again movement protects the muscles from damage.

The students frequently ask how to make a forte, if not by increased pressure of air. Forte depends very much on the co-functioning of the elevators and depressors of the larynx. If training of the depressors is still in its early stages, the forte may not succeed at all. Forte is not in direct proportion to the increase of air, but a beginner often makes the mistake of resorting to added air pressure. Let´s remember the small soprano whose lung capacity is half that of a large male singer, but nevertheless her voice carries to the back row as resoundingly as that of her male counterpart.

Stretching the pharynx is a good habit to form at the start a singing lesson. Firstly, the pharynx is opened as wide as possible and stretched vertically for one minute without changing the position or closing the mouth in between. Secondly, with a grimace as broad as possible the pharynx is widened and stretched horizontally for a minute. Thus the pharyngeal muscles warm up quickly, and the usual singing scales and other warm-up exercises can be shortened by half. This simple exercise has also relieved many students who suffer from discomfort in the neck region. A sore throat, even though caused by bacteria, may recover more quickly if the above stretching exercises are repeated at intervals of a couple of hours. The exercise may be a bit painful but the relief is immediate. I have not found any medical evidence to support the healing effect of the method but my own guess is that it is useful to stimulate the blood circulation in the inflamed spot instead of keeping it at total rest.

Muscles at the bottom of the mouth may sometimes cause the lowering of the larynx, but they are not legitimate laryngeal depressors. When these muscles push the hyoid bone towards the thyroid cartilage, they restrict the mobility of the larynx and the pharynx. If you palpate the bottom of the mouth with the back of the hand under the jaw, you can observe that the larynx and the hyoid bone move in the right directions with a big yawn.

Another frequent question concerning the position of the larynx, is how to lower it and how to observe the movement. Exercises on syllables with the initial consonants /b/, /d/ and /g/ have been shown to be very useful. Phonation of these stop consonants closes the glottis completely and lowers the larynx. The students are often slightly tense or nervous at the beginning of the lesson but these exercises help them to relax the larynx and pharynx and even the whole body and mind. Palpating with the hand under the jaw reveals the correct movement of the Adam´s apple. The corresponding hard stop consonants /p/, /t/ and /k/ do not have this effect. This may occur with students whose mother tongue lacks the soft stops which close the vocal cords softly.

Questioning generally accepted practices or truths may sometimes be annoying, yet I recommend singers or students not to follow blindly a vocal training guru or agree with any authority without thoroughly understanding the advice and its physiological effects on the production of the singing voice. On the other hand, one cannot please everyone. As F.M. Alexander has said, if someone does not quite understand what you are saying, they may easily become your adversary. It is preferable to be a dissident with a healthy voice than to follow fashionable trends and run a risk of vocal damage.

##  15. MUSCLES OF THE PHARYNX

The muscles of the pharynx can be divided into constrictor and levator muscles.

1. _Musculus constrictor pharyngis superior,_ superior pharyngeal constrictor

2. _M. constrictor pharyngis medius,_ middle pharyngeal constrictor

3. _M. constrictor pharyngis inferior,_ inferior pharyngeal constrictor

These muscles (1-3) constrict the pharynx dorsally. In swallowing, together with the soft palate, they close the Epipharynx from the Mesopharynx. Contractions in waveform help to transport the food to the oesophagus.

4. _M. stylopharyngeus,_ from the styloid process of temporal bone obliquely descending along the lateral wall of pharynx to thyroid cartilage.

Elevates the pharynx.

5. _M. salpingopharyngeus,_ from the inferior part of the cartilage of the auditory tube obliquely descending along the lateral wall of pharynx.

Elevates the pharynx.

FIG. 4. MUSCLES OF THE PHARYNX

Muscles of the soft palate:

6. _M. uvulae,_ from the margin of the hard palate to the uvula of the soft palate. Shortens and broadens the uvula.

7. _M. levator veli palatini,_

Elevates and tenses the soft palate; narrows the isthmus of the fauces, dilates the auditory tube.

8. _M. tensor veli palatini,_

Tenses the soft palate; dilates the auditory tube.

FIG. 5. MUSCLES OF THE SOFT PALATE

##  16. THE LARYNX

At the onset of singing or speaking, the larynx will immediately be held in the grip of various muscles from all directions. Each active muscle has a counterforce, an antagonistic which inhibits or regulates the active muscle from being injured by excessive stretching or contraction. There are a great number of muscles affecting the functioning of the larynx, either directly or indirectly. The movement of some large exterior muscles can easily be examined by palpation. If the palpated exterior muscles of the larynx and the visible function of the muscles around the pharynx, tongue and jaw seem to be in order, then the smaller inner muscles are more than likely to be in assisting the action correctly. The major problem of singing would be solved thereby.

The larynx consists of the following cartilages:

1. _Cartilago thyroidea,_ Thyroid cartilage _,_ also known as Adam´s Apple because during the puberty a boy´s larynx grows much bigger than a girl´s does to allow the deeper male voice to develop. It is visible under the skin in the front of the throat. It is formed of two plates joined in the front at an angle of 90˚-120˚ that opens towards the neck. It protects the vocal cords located directly behind it.

2. _Cartilago cricoidea,_ Cricoid cartilage, has a form of a signet-ring, the broader side of the ring facing the neck. It is located between the thyroid cartilage and the first tracheal ring.

3. _Cartilago arytenoidea,_ Arytenoid cartilage, numbered two, are located on top of the broader side of the cricoid. One end of the vocal cords is attached to the arytenoid cartilages, the other end to the thyroid cartilage. The arytenoid cartilages can turn to many directions.

4. _Cartilago corniculata,_ Corniculate cartilage, two small horn shaped appendages to the arytenoids cartilages.

5. _Cartilago epiglottica,_ Epiglottic cartilage, is a flap that guards the entrance of the glottis and prevents food from entering the trachea during swallowing.

FIG. 6. CARTILAGES OF LARYNX and their relative positions

Muscles of the larynx:

1. _Musculus cricothyroideus,_ is formed of two pairs of overlapping muscles,

a. _pars recta_ (superficial) and b. _pars oblique_ (deep)  
From the outer surface of the cricoid cartilage to the anterior border of the inferior horn of the thyroid cartilage.  
They stretch the vocal cords by moving the cricoid cartilage according to its transverse axis.

2. _M. cricoarytenoideus posterior,_

From the dorsal surface of the cricoid cartilage to the muscular process and the dorsal surface of the arytenoid cartilage.  
This pair of muscles opens the rima glottidis (the glottal opening or the chink of the glottis) for instance during inhaling. "In forced inspiration the glottis may be opened almost twice the average opening of 8 mm in males" (Oren Brown: Discover your voice).

3. _M.cricoarytenoideus lateralis,_

From the lateral margin of the upper part of the cricoid cartilage to the muscular process of the arytenoid cartilage.  
This pair of muscles turns the arytenoid cartilages inwards and closes the intermembranous part (front part) of rima glottidis. During whispering, these muscles, however, leave an open space between the arytenoid cartilages.  
Muscles 2 and 3 are the "chief executives" to move the arytenoid cartilages. They are assisted by:

4. _M. arytenoideus transversus,_

From one arytenoid cartilage to the other.  
It closes the intercartilaginous part (back part) of rima glottidis by approaching the two arytenoid cartilages.

5. _M. arytenoideus obliquus,_

From the base of one arytenoid cartilage to the muscular process of the other. This pair of muscles forms the shape of letter X behind the arytenoid cartilages.  
Narrows the rima glottidis by approaching the two arytenoid cartilages.

6. _Pars aryepiglottica_ is a continuation of M.arytenoideus obliquus from the apex of the arytenoid cartilage to the epiglottic cartilage.

7. _M.vocalis,_ vocal muscles, inner vocal folds or vocal lips

From the inner surface of the thyroid cartilage to the vocal process of the arytenoid cartilage.  
Tenses the vocal folds and forms the edge of the vocal cord.

8. _M. thyroarytenoideus,_ thyroarytenoid muscles or outer vocal folds.

From the inner surface of the thyroid cartilage to the muscular process of the arytenoid cartilage, they run side by side with the inner folds.  
Narrow the rima glottidis by moving the arytenoid cartilages inwards.  
Inner and outer vocal folds together are commonly called the vocal cords.

FIG. 7a. MUSCLES OF THE LARYNX

FIG. 7b. MUSCLES OF THE LARYNX

FIG. 8. POSITION OF VOCAL FOLDS IN THE LARYNX

The vocal folds are covered by an elastic membrane that can move like the skin of the back of the hand separate from the movement of the tissues underneath. This kind of membrane covers the mouth cavity, the pharynx and the larynx down to the trachea. At the edge of the inner vocal folds the dense fibres of this membrane form a ligament called the vocal bands.

When the vocal folds are contracted they become shorter and thicker. When they are relaxed they are capable of being stretched.

In brief:

The cricothyroid muscles (1) stretch and elongate the vocal folds.

The posterior cricoarytenoid muscles (2) widen the glottal opening .

The lateral cricoarytenoid muscles (3) together with the tranverse arytenoid muscles (4) narrow or close the glottal opening.

Other muscles mentioned above assist in closing and narrowing the glottal opening and the interior of the larynx and regulate the tension of the vocal cords.

The frequency of vibrations of the vocal cords, or the pitch of the voice, depends on the tension of the vocal cords regulated by the outer and inner muscles of the larynx. What the precise effect of each individual muscle on the pitch of voice is, is not completely agreed upon. The unwanted tensions of the extrinsic muscles can however, be screened by palpation.

All laryngeal muscles play an active and important role in singing but, I would emphasize the crucial role of the elevator muscles between the larynx and the hyoid bone, such as the _M. thyreohyoideus_ which can easily ruin or save the brilliance of the voice according to how it is treated.

##  17. FACIAL MUSCLES

In the interpretation of songs, the facial expression informs others of our emotional state and, therefore, the importance of facial muscles should not be dismissed in teaching. I have often witnessed a performance where the mouth is kept most of the time in the capital letter O-position or the popular broad "colgate-smile" set on the face. Neither of this kind of singer seems to be aware of the message of the lyrics, be it happy or sad. Any tension in the facial muscles affects the pharynx and the source of the voice. The true is that the song cannot freely express itself on our face and lips, the area from which the movements of our emotional state are conveyed directly to our brain and to the audience too. If the singer´s mouth is constantly in the O-position or there is a fixed smile on the face, it will merely communicate the singer´s thought that this should be the expression to be held, this is the expression of a singer, this is the way I was taught to pose. As a result the performance will be nothing but facial gymnastics that the audience does not expect to see or listen to. Expression of feelings should always be based on flexible movement, not gymnastics or intentional tightening of facial muscles or posing. Interpretation is muscular movement brought about by our emotional state. The renowned Swedish singer, Elisabeth Söderström, once commented on the same issue: "You don´t need to look like a bunny-rabbit when singing." She had heard the same advice in her early career from a wise, elderly conductor. The face and lips are twisted in a desperate effort to produce clear pronunciation.

Here we have strayed far from the importance of the tone of voice to move on to phonetics, another important area of the whole of singing. Phonetics is essentially the study of the sounds of human speech and is quite different from the timbre of the singing voice, the world of tonal colours and nuances. Singing does not mean concentrating on the idea of the how to articulate, but rather of the why to articulate.

A singer who concentrates too much on clear and correct pronunciation, reminds me of Isadora Duncan, a pioneer of modern dance. She disregarded the strict rules of posture and formation of classical ballet "as ugly and against nature", as nothing more than meaningless gymnastics. "I spent long days and nights in the studio seeking that dance which might be the divine expression of the human spirit through the medium of the body´s movement." It is not surprising that if any person used to natural expressions and not a regular concert-goer, found a classical singing performance to be stilted and artificial.

FIG. 9. NATURAL EXPRESSIONS OF MOUTH AND LIPS

Many singers do not realize that vowel sounds are already well formed at the vocal lips' level in the larynx. It is important that the mouth and lips open for the vowels without any placing, constriction or posing. In order to free ourselves from needless movements of the jaws, mouth and face as a whole, we can try to practise ventriloquism. One student was astonished when we began this exercise, since she was under the impression that a ventriloquist really does speak from the stomach in some way. This idea is as absurd as "singing without vocal lips", as one colleague once misleadingly put it, claiming that a loud carrying voice cannot be achieved by singing with vocal lips. A good ventriloquist can speak clearly even when only minimally moving the lips and the jaws to the extent that it seems that the lips and the jaws are completely immobile. With this exercise a student can activate the tongue and the pharynx to find their proper function effectively and the vowels in particular will brighten up. Singing is literally a vocal art, and therefore, it is very important that the vowels resound clearly. Unclear articulation is often due to stiffness of the tongue, for which excessive lip and jaw movement cannot compensate.

_Forced gaping contributes neither to voice quality nor to interpretation_

FIG. 10. EXCESSIVE FACIAL EXPRESSIONS

Try to tell about a tragic event with a happy face, or a cheerful story with an angry face. You will see how difficult it is to hide the truth with a false facial expression. However, some singers seem to try it time and time again. In his book _The Complete Actor_ (pp 143-144), H. Wesley Balk presents an excellent exercise aiming to eliminate the stiffness of the facial muscles whereby the student stands in front of a mirror, or preferably two students stand face to face; they practice expressing their thoughts to each other in Pig Latin in order to make them use exaggerated facial expressions to get their message across. Before the exercise, it is good to warm up the facial muscles by twisting and stretching them to all directions. Try imitating different characters in the mirror image to help demonstrate the great effect facial expressions have on transmitting emotions and other information. Raising the eyebrows, wrinkling the forehead or singing asymmetrically with one corner of the mouth, does not make singing easier. The face should not be used in voice production otherwise the facial muscles will lose their ability to perform their real objective for the expression of thoughts and emotions. Together with the voice, facial expression is the most important instrument for communication with the audience: it carries the singer´s personality, as well as the interpretation of the song and its emotional content.

If you think of the content of the song or the operatic character in question, many different feelings, persons or characters will emerge in your mind. A one and only true interpretation does not exist. Even your own interpretation may change from day to day. The teacher should avoid too much guidance or manipulation within the area of interpretation to give room for the singer to concentrate on the meaning of every word. When watching Luciano Pavarotti sing, you can see his direct relation to the text, to the single vowels and consonant; whether singing in the upper or lower register, his every sound is as natural as normal speech, without searching for something or posing. The sincerity of the Italian character can be heard in the speech and singing of Italian singers. They set a good example to be followed.

FIG. 11. FACIAL MUSCLES

##  18. SPINE AND TORSO IN SINGING

The spine or the vertebral column which consists of 24 articulating vertebrae is the structural column of the torso and participates in all movements of the body. The spinal muscles are attached to the different vertebrae and to the head, arms, rib-cage and down to the pelvis and the legs. The action of the external muscles can be observed during singing practice and the various bodily processes should be carefully followed. In his investigation of the Phenomenology of Perception (1945) Maurice Merleau-Ponty deals with the concepts of perception and consciousness (movement and consciousness of movement). Observing the feelings of muscular movement, he realizes how "the song sings at him".

In her book "Fonetiikkaa laulajille" (Phonetics for Singers) (1984), Pirkko-Leena Otonkoski, presents the idea of a singing reflex. The idea is interesting, but a reflex is an unconscious, involuntary movement which is repeated unchanged and never needs to be practiced. The performance of art, therefore, is not analogous to reflex. In singing, the repeated muscular movement is saved in its memory, which can be regarded as analogous to riding a bicycle. Once you have learned to ride, you can freely direct your attention to traffic signs and admire the passing landscape. Once we singers have learned the "vocal riding", we can freely focus on admiring the "landscape of poetical and musical thoughts." We can rely upon memory of the muscle.

The cervical and thoracic parts of the spine are the singer´s "cornerstones." If their free movement in any direction is blocked, I repeat, in any direction, it is certain that singing itself will also be blocked. This gives a clear indication of how singing is a continuous muscular movement where mobility of the head is essential. Beginners often do not know how to hold their head. The head should be released, because any pose, no matter how elegant, will always pose problems in singing. I remember having been taught that for a good singing position, the jaw and neck should be at right angles. This may be so, but it should be remembered that any held position will cause tension in the muscles. If the head is deliberately posed, the prolonged tension of the cervical muscles will prevent the optimal functioning of the muscles needed for singing, and the singer has to resort to substitute muscles.

A useful exercise is to 'release the head' by singing so that the jaw and the bottom of mouth are relaxed and allowed to loll while the head tilts backwards. This backward tilt is generally discouraged by singing teachers, although it is quite a natural move in regard to the anatomy of the head. In the event of fainting or falling asleep sitting up, the head will naturally tilt back and the mouth remain wide open. This movement occurs by itself because the back of the head is heavier, and the atlas and axis vertebrae are created to allow such a movement. If singing does not flow freely, one reason may be that the pharyngeal muscles are held back. Bending the head forward downwards stiffens the region of pharynx. The less there is extra muscular action, the less it burdens the muscles needed in singing; the voice remains strong and healthy.

FIG. 12. CONFIDENT POSITIONS

" _Confident positions and a sense of pleasure in being there – and sharing a performance - arms and hands must feel that they belong to you, not feeling or looking stiff. They must not compensate dramatically for what you may feel too ´choked´ to give with your voice (see our singer happy but also under stress in the third picture)"_ Esther Salaman: UNLOCKING YOUR VOICE Freedom to Sing, Gollancz, London 1989.

The exercise can begin by singing the /a/ vowel with octave jumps from low to high while at the same the head is allowed to tilt backwards on its own. If the upper /a/ does not succeed, the anterior muscles of the neck, the thorax, and even of the back are opposing the octave jump. The muscles are, therefore, not relaxed and stretched but constricted. This constriction shows and is felt simultaneously in the pharynx, in the tongue and in the jaws. Do not exaggerate opening the mouth or drawing the jaw down when moving to the higher /a/ vowel. When the octave jump begins to be achieved, you can continue the exercise with all vowels singing the scales up and down. Even at the highest pitch, you do not need to pull the lower jaw down to its extreme. During this exercise one often tends to pull the jaw down and forward with the result that such a move shrinks the pharyngeal cavity. Consequently, the lips, the face and the jaws stiffen so that singing becomes very difficult, almost impossible. As soon as the vowel exercises are accomplished, the consonants can be taken along. Of the consonant types, the bilabial stops could be avoided at first. Eventually the singer learns to allow the head to move freely.

The cervical muscles in charge of head movements should remain flexible during the exercise. Releasing the head in this way can be followed by palpating the dens axis (an upward process of the axis vertebra) in the neck. The head and the atlas vertebra should move freely in relation to the dens axis. If the head is not loose, it will definitely lead to a deficiency of tonal qualities at the high range and forte, and to a decrease in carrying power of the voice. When palpating the head movement, the relaxed position of the neck muscles can also be followed. The tension in the neck region can be seen and heard clearly. It is to be hoped that this simple but all important physiological matter will be realized and commented on by singing teachers and critics rather than in the belief and fictitious expressions of forward placement and voice support.

The exercise is continued by now allowing the head to tilt sideways during singing in order for the singing to flow unchanged, even though the cheek moves close to the shoulder. The shoulders should be relaxed and hang down. Raising the shoulder is a sign of muscular constriction on that side, which opposes free singing. Allowing the head to stretch sideways and also letting the torso bend in the same direction, will release the head and the side from sideways constrictions. This manoeuvre has helped many over-breathers to relax the side and thoracic muscles. When observing the manoeuvre or rather the "let it happen"-move, the head should be released first, and consequently the torso will follow suit.

One should be able to sing freely also when the whole torso is bent or stretched in any direction. I have made students practice Queen of the Night aria in a position where the head and the upper part of the body are bent forward, the arms hanging relaxed with the knuckles almost touching the floor, the knees softly bent. Initiating this exercise I remembered well the general advice and warnings regarding a proper singing posture. The basic idea is to use only the muscles needed for singing, and make the other muscles relax. Muscles are free of tension only when they are in a total resting state or stretched. Excluding the total resting state, it is hard to think of a relaxed posture, because striking any posture means keeping still, not moving, and keeping still involves extra muscular action not needed for singing. I was surprised to find how this relaxed movement made singing free. The high coloratura of the forward-bending Queen of the Night came off without difficulty. Ever since it seemed clear that all kinds of stiff supports and postures were bad for singing. Some students who had previously used and relied on different muscular actions as support for singing were skeptical about letting their armour of abdomen and side muscles collapse, saying: "You can´t sing like that"? Yes, you can, and with ease! I say it with the certainty brought with 40 years of experience in singing and teaching singing. Unnecessary muscular tension of the big external muscles must not interfere with singing.

A talent-hunting programme on TV presented a singing artist, who was supple enough to stretch her upper body backwards into a bridge and even further so that her smiling face peeped out between her legs. Throughout the contortion, she continued to sing a vocally demanding operatic aria to perfection. I would have liked to try the same but my seventy years of age opposed the venture. The artist´s other number was the Queen of the Night aria lying on top of the bonnet of a car. That was almost a "déjà vu" experience from my teaching studio.

It is a good exercise to lie on the bed so that the head and shoulders overhang the edge with the shoulders spread softly sideways. Students tend to resist bending backward by tightening the neck muscles and especially the abdominal and thoracic muscles, just the same muscles which have the bad habit to resist singing. These backward bending exercises also show clearly how the lower jaw together with the tension of muscles of the bottom of the mouth and the chest, resist singing. The jaw and the bottom of the mouth should remain relaxed. As regards the consonants, when the jaw is used to "picking up" a consonant, it should happen casually, softly and quickly without letting the muscles of the jaw, the face and the lips tighten. If singing is not free during the backward bending exercise, the space is decreased between the tongue and the upper pharynx and between the hyoid bone and the thyroid cartilage. It is a question of the most important resonance cavity, and the result is obvious. This exercise acquaints us also with the significance of the upper jaw and the soft palate. I repeat the principle to use only the muscles that are needed for singing, and not let the irrelevant external muscles join the performance.

In the above mentioned exercises, the bodily movements have intentionally been rather extensive, but in the performance situation, a minimal move will indicate to the singer which muscles are actually participating in singing and which ones are opposing it. Singing can be compared with Tai Chi martial art, where the movement flows from one muscle to the other without actual commands to move. We learn to listen and feel our body here and now, to sense the actual muscular functioning. Not to make happen, but to let happen, change from the role of maker to that of an instrument. Singing is a continuous muscular movement. The protagonist and antagonist forces change roles and direction of muscular movement. We have to develop the sensitivity to the physiological experience, become conscious of the bodily experience. Merleau-Ponty speaks of bodily thinking, perception and knowledge. "The hands and feet know and understand what to do and when to do it". This bodily knowledge appears during various performances. According to Merleau-Ponty, this fact applies to all skills. "As regards skills, the body understands how to move, without the preceding understanding by the mind. The bodily understanding moves in the space of a trained, experienced body. Simply, it´s a question of our implicit memory, "body memory" in which previous experience enables us to do things without a conscious thought."

##  19. VOCAL REGISTERS, OPEN VOICE/COVERED VOICE

What exactly is meant by the term vocal register is not generally agreed on by vocal pedagogues. Yet, there is a common trend to divide the vocal range into a number of voice types and a certain unanimity prevails regarding the two extreme registers. The highest register, the falsetto is produced by the vibration of the thin edge of the tensed vocal folds, and a narrow chink between the vocal folds remains open. In the lowest range, the entire less tensed vocal folds vibrate, and the glottis closes tightly. As early as in 1840, Johannes Müller published his _Handbuch der Physiologie des Menschen_ , (Coblenz, Verlag Hölscher, 1840) where he distinguishes between these two registers "Brustton " (chest voice) and "Falsetton" (falsetto voice) . The registers were determined by the timbre of the voice, and clear observations were made on the essential changes of the length, tension and vibrating mass of the vocal folds in the two registers.

One of the pioneers of laryngology, Sir Morell Mackenzie, wrote in 1886 in his book, _The Hygiene of the Vocal Organs; A Practical Handbook for Singers and Speakers_ , that in singing upwards or downwards, "the throat instinctively performs some kind of muscular evolution which makes the organs work in a new way."... "In this way the weirs or the ´breaks´ are avoided."..." Strictly speaking, there is a different ´register´ i.e. a certain appropriate condition of the laryngeal orifice for every note." About the fundamental divisions of the voice, Sir Morell continues: "However over-refining musicians may multiply the ´registers´ of the voice, physiologically there are but two." They are the so-called "chest" and "head" or falsetto registers.

In the singing voice, the transition from chest voice to falsetto can be carried out in different ways. As regards trained singers, the transition is usually gradual and unnoticeable. This type of voice is often referred to as a "covered" voice by investigators. However, the terms "open voice" or "covered voice" are not quite unambiguous even among singing teachers. Quite frequently the meaning of "covered" has been explained as something to be done by the lips, like narrowing or broadening the corners of the mouth. Open and covered voice has nothing to do with the position of lips or mouth. In voice research the terms are used to describe the changes in the operation of the muscles of the vocal mechanism, e.g. when the singer moves from chest register to upper ranges, up to falsetto voice.

As a general rule, the vocal folds are lengthened as pitch is raised. However, the correlation mechanism is complicated and remains open to question. Trained and untrained singing, covered and open voices, give different results as regards the length-change of the vocal folds in relation to the pitch-rise. A study, A.Sonninen, P.Hurme, E.Vilkman: _Roentgenological Observations on Vocal Fold Length-changes with Special Reference to Register Transition, and Open/Covered Voice._ Scand. J. _Log. Phon_. 1992; p 17; pp 95-106 contributes to this issue. The study refers to previous measurements of vocal fold lengths showing that as the pitch turns higher, the vocal folds tend first to lengthen and then again to shorten. The elongation turns to shortening at about the register transition area from chest voice to falsetto (b – d´) (G#3 – A#4). Later analysis defines the main area of vocal fold elongation and register transitions to take place between (A – f´´sharp) (A2 – F#5).

Normally the lengthening of vocal folds applies to all, male and female, trained singers as well as non-singers. The vocal folds of trained female singers hardly ever lengthen above f´´sharp-pitch, as non-singers tend to continue straining to the utmost. Male singers have the same tendency, but less distinct.

The above mentioned study also refers to measurements of vocal fold lengths of a trained female singer singing with an open voice and a covered voice, and both in piano and forte. Singing on one given pitch, it was found that the vocal folds were longer in piano than in open forte, and further, in open forte they are longer than in covered forte. The differences seem to result from a certain flattening of the wings of the thyroid cartilage and the change of position of the arytenoid cartilages and the cricoarytenoid ligament.

Non-singers do not master the "covered" mechanism, but try to raise the pitch using the speaking voice mechanism, "open" voice, which results in a falsetto break and an abrupt change of the functioning of the vocal folds.

During falsetto, smoothing of the register transition takes place by the slow and proportional decrease of vocal fold tension. During open voice, much more vocal fold tension is required in relation to the pitch. It will often result in flat singing, followed by efforts to correct it by excessive use of the extrinsic laryngeal muscles. Muscles of the head and neck are contracted, air pressure is added at the vocal fold level, and the voice resembles a shout; it lacks the healthy vibrato. This way of producing voice, called belting, is typically practiced in popular music and music theatre singing. The other extremity of open voice is the falsetto voice where the chink of the glottis is not tightly closed. The voice is supple but it lacks vibrato and it certainly lacks the action of the vocal folds as a whole, as is needed for optimal voice production.

This leads to a vicious circle and further to overstraining of the voice. Moving from low range to falsetto voices without a noticeable change of timbre or break of voice, is not easy for beginners. Even singers with some experience may have difficulties in reaching the higher notes because they do not allow the gradual decrease of active vocal fold mass as the pitch is raised. Laryngeal control is lost, resulting in falsetto breaks. The phenomenon is more common in male voices.

The intrinsic and extrinsic muscles of the larynx that regulate all laryngeal movements, must necessarily maintain their elasticity to allow for the mobility of the larynx. If the larynx is tied in place by pressing air against the vocal folds, as beginners often tend to do, the result won´t be good. The voice remains breathy or shouty. The real covered voice is produced by the unimpeded functioning, contraction and relaxation, of the intrinsic and extrinsic muscles of the larynx.

In my teaching practice I have noticed that if register problems appeared, they were often positioned on the e-f or b-c notes of the different octaves, depending on the voice category, male or female. It was rather embarrassing that in the keyboard the notes were played by two white keys next to each other. It seemed as if the piano also had a built-in "register problem"

If synchronization of the laryngeal muscles is disturbed, it will take a long time and much practising to readjust it. A good exercise is to sing from the top downwards starting with a thin voice inspired by the feeling of a yawn. It is essential not to strive for a strong voice but to allow a relaxed production of the voice, where the muscles synchronize each other to a continuous movement. Male students sometimes do not find this exercise very easy.

The Old Italian school used the practice of "messa di voce", singing with single pitch, first crescendo and then gradually returning back to pianissimo. This exercise can very well be adapted to singing scales downwards and upwards. The latter version also trains the ringing, healthy "middle register" which is much used in normal speech.

The falsetto register used in classical singing, is produced by the vibration of the thin edge of the vocal folds. The laryngeal muscles must necessarily maintain the elasticity and the thin membranes of the vocal folds close the glottis during each cycle of vibration, contrary to the untrained falsetto voice, or collapsed falsetto where the larynx is tied in place by pressing air against the vocal folds and allowing a continuous flow of air to escape between them.

Distinguishing the collapsed falsetto voice from the falsetto register is not easy. Male students can try to imitate countertenor or female voices, thus observing how the falsetto voice feels in the throat compared with the falsetto register singing. It depends on the musical ear and the motor skills of the student, to learn to make a clear distinction between the two types of voice production. Even naming the two different types of falsetto is confusing. This uncertainty may partially have led some singers not to make good use of fine pianissimos, most pleasing to the ear. Male students especially are afraid of sounding effeminate when using the falsetto register. Mastering of the falsetto register is a guarantee of a healthy voice both for men and women.

When using the falsetto register, no audible escape of air should be allowed between the vocal folds, as this will make the voice sound breathy. Singing downwards, the falsetto register is followed by the middle or modal register, which is used in normal speech. Below this middle register is the chest register.

While male students hesitate to use the falsetto register, female students are afraid of practising the chest register to full capacity. Keeping the larynx in the grip of the depressor muscles does not succeed at first. Some teachers neglect or almost panic in front of chest register. Sopranos in particular are afraid of losing the high notes. This fear is, however, completely groundless. Paying attention to the depressors of the larynx, and even training them intentionally, is important. Beginners only too easily tend to rely more on the laryngeal elevator muscles. The position of the larynx is regulated by the balanced grip of the depressor and elevator muscles working together to lower or raise the larynx. Each change in the balance has a direct effect on the state of the pharyngeal cavity and on the vocal timbre. If either group of muscles, depressors or elevators is predominant, the production of the voice is not ideal. Without a proper counter-work of the depressors, the high notes will not reach the best possible timbral splendour.

Falsetto-type voice production in the lower ranges neither carries nor allows much dynamic change, but in the higher ranges it can ring loud and less "leaky", according to (H.K.Schutte; W.W.Seidner, _Sprache-Stimme-Gehör_ 1988, 12). However, learning the use of falsetto register is important for baritones and basses, otherwise they may try to forcibly push the highest notes at the risk of damaging the vocal organ.

The generally acceptable position of the larynx during singing is not an absolute choice. Different ways of singing outside the familiar Western classical music circles give different views of vocal registers and of the position of larynx as well. Typical examples could be the traditional Chinese opera with the high pitched and piercing voices, or the uniform timbral goals of certain choral styles. The vocal registers or the way we let our voice ring is continuously debated. The rules of Western opera or classical singing are nothing but an unwritten law.

I would even like to claim that our vocal tradition may have fallen behind the Asian folk song virtuosi as regards the versatile skills in using the vocal organ. Are we prisoners of the bel canto tradition and its upholders? Many tight rules restrict the liberties in the use of all the expressive qualities of the vocal instrument. Some colleagues perhaps do not agree, but there might be room for vocal evolution if not revolution. The demand for extremely pure or absolute pitch may lead to an open voice which lacks vibrato and timbre. The demand for phonetically correct pronunciation leads to over-emphasis of the sounds of single letters instead of the expression of thoughts and emotions. A diploma from any Western conservatoire hardly gives the vocal capability to match the Chinese folk song virtuoso.

Certain notes or pitch can be sung using different registers or different manners of voice production. A beginner starts to sing using the same manner as in normal speech. When the pitch is raised, the voice will soon slip to falsetto. Having practiced more, the register transitions areas from chest to middle register and from middle to falsetto register are established at certain pitches. Because a trained singer uses the registers freely without fixed noticeable transition areas, it is impossible or of no use to try to determine fixed register transition areas. (O.Tosi: _Voice Identification, Theory and Legal Applications_. Baltimore, University Park Press, 1979).

In open voice, muscles of the head and neck are contracted, the subglottal pressure is high, the larynx is lowered, and the voice resembles a shout, it lacks the healthy vibrato. This way of producing voice, called belting is typically used in musical theatre and popular music, and differs from the operatic or classical concert singing in many ways. A study, Comparisons of pharynx, source, formant and pressure characteristics in operatic and musical theatre singing (J.Sundberg, P.Gramming, J. Lovetri; _Journal of Voice_ , 7 (4) pp 301-310 (1993) refers to belting as frequently associated with disturbances of voice function.

Untrained singers are inclined to try to stretch the vocal lips until the end. This phenomenon that is more typical of male singers, is generally referred to as "open voice". In the press reviews it is not uncommon that this "open" way of singing is mentioned as admirable and even highly recommended. There are hardly any other fields of life where understanding could be more totally misled by a few single words.

With the sensation of making a light yawn, the muscles of the vocal mechanism are apt to undertake good singing and this sensitivity should be present even when singing the lowest or the highest notes. The way in which we regulate the action of the muscles depends on the dynamic changes and the pitch required by the music, and first and foremost on the interpretation of our own tonal imagination.

"Pressing or forcing" the voice sounds unattractive and confusing as regards healthy voice production. The larynx can be "forced" lower using the co-work of the extrinsic laryngeal muscles. The voice produced in this manner includes no health risks but it is not acceptable to certain song performances. A singer has to train a lighter, but yet a timbre rich lower vocal range. The low falsetto-type voice can be achieved with the help of the "yawn position" which stretches the soft palate upwards. This stretched position should be maintained even during the lowest tones because the soft palate often tends to loll or be constricted as pitch goes lower, which results in reduced resonance cavity and loss of timbre. It is necessary to learn to sing a particular note using different registers. If the laryngeal movement is tied up, the healthy transition between registers cannot take place and the coloratura will not succeed. On the other hand, the laryngeal movements are rather small, and a singer should be careful not to allow it rise too high even when speaking and especially at exciting situations.

To get over register problems as soon as possible, it has been my habit to train two particular octave phonation exercises, such as hooting like an owl in the woods, imitating a crying reflex, laughing or reciting flatteringly, mockingly, gladly, etc. The young students have hardly noticed any vocal registers but have learned to phonate easily using both speech and song to move within a range of two octaves or even more.

It is a way to begin, but the most important step is to sing songs, a wide selection of songs to ensure the training of vocal muscle coordination as widely as possible. If instead, singing lessons repeatedly consist of one-sided vocal exercises, the muscular coordination becomes one-sided. The voice may lose its ability to adapt to more complex music, even though there seems to be nothing wrong in the throat. In such a situation the student may be willing to find another teacher. The new teacher´s different vocal exercises will clearly improve the voice at first, but if the new exercises also remain one-sided, the change from one teacher to another will continue. It is the variety of vocal exercises, or rather the variety of songs that makes the voice.

After a certain period of time of serious singing lessons, singers begin to feel and become aware of their own, most suitable way of singing, which partially depends on inherited muscle and bone structure. The voice of singers who use a light grip of extrinsic laryngeal muscles, generally a soprano, (voce bianca), is described as "light", "bright", "placed forward". But the same voice can also be characterized as "thin", "not sonorous", "lacking in timbre" or even "screaming". They use the falsetto register more than the other typical example, generally a mezzo soprano (voix mixte) who use a stronger grip of the extrinsic laryngeal muscles, and whose voice is described as "dark", "rich in timbre", "full", but it can also be heard as "placed backward" or "heavy".

Over-emphasizing either one of the above voice types, leads to one-sided vocal expression and poor timbral quality. Using the stronger laryngeal grip, the highest vocal range will not ring, or it remains completely out of reach, (baritones, basses), whereas the lighter grip may cause difficulties in producing a voice sonorous enough to carry farther than to the first rows (sopranos, tenors).

Besides the physical qualifications, the choice of personal vocal genre may be directed by idolized models, by influential teachers or simply by a strong inner feeling of a favourite vocal category. One could imagine that statistically all voice types should be equally represented. In reality the number of sopranos is way ahead of mezzo sopranos or altos, thanks to opera scores, opera impresarios and even public opinion which are all in favour of shrill voices in leading roles. Good mezzo sopranos are capable of singing with more soprano-like voice, which they sometimes have to do for more job opportunities.

It is understandable that a number of teachers try to "clone" singers into the voice type they themselves admire. If this happens to be against the students´ natural abilities, any good results achieved will be only temporary. As a general rule, fixing the vocal category at an early stage of studies is not to be recommended. If we compare Mozart´s mezzo soprano roles with those of Verdi´s operas, it seems obvious that Mozart-voices are not ideal for Verdi-roles. There is a clear distinction between the "mezzo soprano" and "mezzo alto" voices, although the term mezzo alto is used more rarely than the comparable terms "bass baritone" and "tenor baritone".

Soft female voices are often the outcome of singing for a long time in a girls´ choir using the so called "angelic choir sound" and as a result, require considerable retraining in order to restore the ability to use the complete vocal folds in singing. A student may proudly show a clear upper register although the healthy vibrato is completely lacking. The same applies to male singers who attack the upper tones too forcibly. The timbral nuances and dynamic variations will shrink into nothing from both "angels" and "machos". It takes quite a while to develop a timbral ear sensitive enough to distinguish unwanted vocal habits.

Use of the whole spectrum of vocal registers is the basis of healthy and brilliant vocal art. In certain genres of singing like Lied and oratorio, there are schools which uphold the style of using predominantly a thin falsetto voice. Some Lieder-singers have created a "brand image" of ultra-sophisticated falsetto nuances, with many inspired followers. Such singing may sometimes give an impression of snobbish "singing-posing" as Kim Borg once put it. Highly dramatic songs are interpreted as being feather-light, like a miniaturist´s brush; skillfully, yes, but is such narrowing of voice still vocal art in its most profound sense? Or is it rather a show of perfect skill, which alone is not enough, even though an essential part of singing? Electronic amplification is advantageous to small voices, whereas big voices not needing amplification are seldom heard to sing with equal flexibility and virtuosity.

##  20. MUSICAL MEMORY, ABSOLUTE PITCH

If register problems appear, then they will also be those of pitch. The belief that pitch control depends on a singer´s ear is false, and conscious attempts to raise or lower the pitch do not succeed. Pitch control is very much dependent upon motor skills, that is, how the complex vocal folds can carry out the idea of certain fundamental frequency originated from the brain. If the impulse from brain to vocal folds is not realized, there may be slight defects in the transmission of nerve impulses. Such disorder is normally rectified with time, and exceptions, if any, are rare. It is, therefore, pointless to criticize only a singer´s pitch without giving the reasons for the failure, such as the incorrect way of singing or undeveloped vocal muscles. Even a person said to possess absolute pitch, also referred to as perfect pitch, can sing out of tune just as anyone else.

Absolute pitch is the ability to name, play or sing a given tone without external reference. How and at what age this absolute pitch ability develops is not commonly agreed upon. Practically everyone can achieve it at an early age in a favourable home environment. Some child prodigies are said to have had absolute pitch at the age of two or three years. Normally the critical period might be the six first years. Early music lessons and a music family seem to stimulate the development of absolute pitch. Musical memory develops partly by listening or being exposed to music and partly by inherited qualities regarding memory, such as retaining and recalling musical information more sensitively than the rest of us.

My daughter played violin and began to wonder at the age of ten why the accompanying piano was out of tune. Having absolute pitch sometimes creates a continuous job of having to transpose the music in hand. My son had a comparable experience in his forties, after an interval of over 20 years of not playing violoncello, when he grabbed the instrument and needed no external reference to tune it up to concert pitch. We "average mortals" do not need to worry, though, because most of us can learn relative pitch, a skill to stay in tune after having taken the reference pitch from a tuning fork or some other source. Relative pitch is quite enough to become a good musician.

Singing can be trained by everyone from babyhood. If a mother sings any kind of melodies or songs in tune, a baby will listen and reproduce these sounds without any difficulties in register. Pitch changes automatically from low to high without notable register transitions, which might interfere with staying in tune. This could be observed clearly when I had the opportunity to start a junior singing class consisting of children at the ages from 5 to 6, with a background from musical kindergarten and now entering primary school. Ten of the first applicants were enrolled as "guinea pigs" without an entrance test. We sang nursery songs, Vaccaj -vocalizes and operatic arias. We found plenty of songs by Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven, Schubert, Schuman and other classical composers, songs which inspired the children and were suited to gradually developing their skills. They always held sheet music in their hands, because I wanted to see whether they would learn to read music at the same time as when they learned the alphabet. Two of them learned to read music almost instantly but the others needed solfege training. I remember Jessica, 7, who was upset at her school´s Christmas party when she was given a sheet of paper with only the words of the songs. "I´m not accustomed to singing without music ", she said. Her words were the best possible proof of learning solfege without special solfege training.

Training on instruments for primary school age children is routine at Music schools and for some reason the vocal training class for children was not acceptable for long, and our class was closed. However, having "got the bug", the children and their parents insisted on continuing with the singing class privately. The basic rule was that the children were not pushed but attended classes of their own free will. Seven of the original ten pupils continued into the upper secondary school age. Two had chosen to concentrate on music with instruments and one had moved away. At that stage I also advised two boys to focus more on normal school work, because I wanted to continue mainly with those who seemed talented enough to choose music as a career.

Children have a rather wide vocal range where they sing healthily and with ease. As they use the whole vocal range on a regular basis, there is no need to take up the question of vocal registers. Those who had training in singing from the early school years to the age of majority continued to sing, blissfully unaware of vocal registers. On the other hand, I have met with many singers, even experienced ones who had started vocal training closer to adulthood and who were seriously trapped within register problems. The young pupils had adopted a taste for classical music and were openly critical of the narrowness of the normal school music education consisting mainly of pop and light music. Music and Art education plays an important part in intellectual growth and, therefore, should not be overwhelmingly dominated by some narrow commercial musical uniformity.

The idea of starting a junior singing class was to avoid potential incorrect vocal habits from the very beginning. The goal was to facilitate and speed up the readiness to become a qualified singer. All junior pupils learned to read music better than the average adult singing students. Pronunciation of foreign languages was also more natural and more open-minded than that of adult students who made their first attempts to sing in a foreign language. And even more important was the junior singers´ very well developed taste in music style compared with that of some "karaoke"-based adult students.

As a new teacher in the Conservatoire, I was put in charge of young singing students around 15 years of age. Neither these young beginners nor the experimental class pupils ever suffered vocal damage. All of them made good progress although not all of them were born singers. As regards the youngest pupils, it is essential to avoid striving for a powerful voice and to avoid training for too long daily. One singing lesson a week under the teacher´s direction seemed to be quite enough to plant the seed of good vocal habits in the pupil´s mind from whence they sprang up well.

All junior class pupils sang very well in tune by just singing together or solo under the teacher´s attentive presence. They were given no informative material on the anatomy of the vocal organ before the age of around fifteen years. Observing their body movements, or rather, watching the signs of potential muscular tension, was the best means of controlling their singing. Slight body movement during singing seemed to relax the tensions which sometimes appeared in their adolescent bodies. They were naturally encouraged to take piano lessons as a normal precondition for those who would later choose singing or music as career.

To summarize the experimental junior class, they attended singing lessons for 9-13 years and three of them were clearly vocally talented enough to become good singers. The idea was not to become performers, let alone "talents of the year", but to enjoy singing and familiarize the pupils with the treasures of classical vocal music. Now, approaching the age of 30, one of them continues singing, another has chosen an instrumental music career. Another became a priest. What a joy to hear the Word of God in a clear voice and the songs of praise in tune. When boys' voices break, active vocal training had to be temporarily discontinued when most of them then concentrated on other school subjects and later found interest in fields other than music. However, I hope that all of them received a useful addition to their all-round education and became at the very least "discerning concert-goers". Finally, from a teacher´s point of view, it was very interesting and rewarding to experiment on vocal training from scratch with young, eager, intelligent and open-minded pupils.

##  21. WHAT WE HEAR, WHAT WE COMPREHEND

It is well known that vowels and voiced consonants become longer and more accentuated in singing. According to Cook, 1990, vowels and voiced consonants represent 95% of the time in singing, whereas in normal speech the corresponding share is 62%. The number of alphabetic and corresponding sounds is around 30%. The notion that each sound would have certain correct and perfect standard articulation and pronunciation does not conform to reality. If it were so, there would have been long since generally applicable systems to recognize and process speech in everyday use. The sounds as such are not too complicated to be scanned or processed, for instance, whistles which can imitate certain individual sounds were made and used long ago. Spectrographs that can measure and display the physical and acoustic qualities of phonated sounds have been commonly used in voice research since the 1950s. Certain separate sounds can easily be produced artificially and their qualities can be precisely analyzed.

Sound is mechanical energy, a vibration that is transmitted by longitudinal waves through air or other media. A sound, such as a musical note, has three main properties: pitch, loudness and timbre, which correspond to the physical characteristics of frequency, amplitude and harmonic structure. The frequency of sound that is perceivable by the human ear is roughly between 20-20 000 Hz. The ear responds best to frequencies between 2000-4000 Hz. Sound waves can be dispersed into a frequency and amplitude spectrum in each segment of timeline. The spectral analysis can further display the amplitude (intensity) of a particular frequency at a particular time.

Figure 11. is an example of spectrogram, a visual representation of a man saying [tatata]. The horizontal axis is time (s), the vertical axis is frequency (Hz), and the intensity of a particular frequency is represented by a thicker line. The greater the intensity, the darker the particular point in the spectrogram. The ranges of frequencies, where the peaks of intensity seem to appear are called formants.

FIG.13. SPECTROGRAM (Source: Wikipedia Commons, Praat-spectrogram-tatata)

In the pioneer stage of spectrographic studies in the 1940s, there might have been certain expectations that the human ear and brain would analyze speech in the same way as a spectrograph. The aim was to find the qualities of sound that made them distinguishable from each other. If these qualities were found, recognizing speech would be easy. The ear would pick up the qualities sound by sound, link them together into words which then would form into phrases. Certain distinguishable qualities were found especially among vowels. The formants of [æ] sound seemed to be around 700, 1600 and 2460 Hz (Potter, Kopp & Green, 1947). Similar constant qualities were not very frequent for other sounds. For instance, the frequency of the second lowest formant of [d] sound varied between 1000-2500 Hz depending on the vowel following immediately after.

The effect of the vowel on the qualities of the preceding consonant was studied by Schatz (1957). In his experiment, he recorded the syllable /pi/ for the test subjects to listen to, and then separately the sounds /a/ and /u/. When the sound /p/ was cut from the syllable /pi/ and added to the /a/, they heard the /u/ when they then heard the syllable /pu/. For some reason or other, the very same stimulus /p/ was heard in two completely different ways.

Regarding speech recognizing computer systems, the variation of the qualities of a sound depending on the preceding and the following sounds, is a hard task, if not a futile attempt. It is not enough to recognize the 29 sounds corresponding to the alphabet, but if the preceding sound has to be taken into account, the number will be 29x29, and if the effect of the following sound is also counted, the computer has to learn 29x29x29 (= 24 389) different kinds of sound. Even that would not be enough.

In the study made by Warren R.M.(1970) Restoration of missing speech sounds. _Science_ , 167, pp 392-393, the following two sentences were heard by the test subjects: "The ?eel was on the axle" and "The ?eel was on the orange". Some phonemes (the question marks) were replaced by a coughing sound. In the first sentence the test subjects heard the word "wheel", and in the other sentence they heard "peel". The last words of the sentences determined which sound was heard in the first words. The test subjects filled in the missing sounds using the context of the sentence. From this we conclude that, although the computer had learned all the 24389 alternative sounds, its speech recognizing capacity would still be inadequate, because it does not know that the words "wheel" and "axle" appear more often in the same context than the words "peel" and "axle".

The issue becomes even more complicated because different speakers have different ways of speaking. The qualities of sounds, such as the formants, vary depending on the speaker. The listener has to be trained to recognize each speaker´s personal "sound system". The sounds of the speaker have to be recognized even if they are jammed by a sneeze. In reality, the starting point of the interpretation of any speaker's sounds is their own characteristics. Ladefoged and Broadbent (1957) made the following experiment: subjects A and B took turns to tape-record the sentence: "Please, say what this word is." Ladefoged and Broadbent manipulated a target word after the sentence. Test subjects heard the target word as "bet" after the sentence read by A and as "bit" after the sentence read by B.

Generally applicable speech recognition systems have not yet been introduced, but systems which recognize special terminology and expressions are more and more in use. Medical doctors, for instance, use personal Dictaphones which take into account the doctor´s way of speaking, and also knows the general sound combinations which may occur in the medical language, and more importantly, which words might appear contextually. The Dictaphone has been trained to know thousands of medical terms and acoustic qualities that these terms may possess. Outside this memorized vocabulary and sound collection, even the smartest Dictaphone can be somewhat helpless and unreliable at times. This is the main obstacle in the way of developing speech recognizing machines. In order to understand and use all the details and hints given in the context of a sentence, the machine should thoroughly know the subject in question, or as a matter of fact, the machine should have the same experience of life as ordinary human beings.

When a singer sings in his or her native language, the teacher should as a rule, not intervene in the articulation, unless the singer has acquired habitual tensions which prevent the muscles related to articulation from moving freely. Even then it is not advisable to start lecturing on how individual vowels or consonants should be articulated, but rather to focus on eliminating the more harmful elements of tension.

Artificial production of human speech is much easier than speech recognition. A speech synthesizer does not need to care about the context of a sentence or a large vocabulary. It is enough to produce certain average qualities of sound combinations. The real work and responsibility is left to the listener, whether it is a question of listening to a speech synthesizer or to a speaker in the flesh. Singing teachers might benefit from being familiar with sound producing technology. On the other hand, it is good to know what kind of problems singing may cause to computer technology.

Suppose that a person has got a rather unusual first name, for instance _Matti_ Williams. At the post office he may get into the following dialogue with the post-office clerk:

Clerk: "Your first name, please?"

Matti: "Matti."

Clerk: "All right, Matthew."

Matti: "No, Matti!"

Clerk: "Oh, I´m sorry!

Matti:"M-a-t-t-i." (laying stress on each individual letter)

Clerk: "That's fine, Marty. And the family name, please?"

Instead of carefully stressing each letter, Matti should have answered with a complete sentence: "My name is Matti Williams", then the clerk: 1) would have got used to Matti´s way of speaking, and 2) the sounds preceding and following the name would have given the clerk some hint about the uncommon name. To be honest, in reality Matti would have spelled his name, but in this example it would have nullified the point of this chapter.

If the listener is not familiar with a larger entirety, misunderstanding is very likely. In the song of Sibelius, the text "Im Feld ein Mädchen singt" may easily be misheard "Im Feld ein Mädchen sinkt", which was absolutely not meant by the poet. Only having heard the whole song, the listener may get the intended idea. The unvoiced consonant /t/ may easily make the preceding voiced consonant /g/ sound unvoiced. When voiced and unvoiced consonants are consecutive, voiced consonants are frequently devoiced or vice versa in fluent speech or careless singing. This tendency should be under control when the pronunciation of particular sounds is being trained.

##  22. THE SINGER´S FORMANT

Over seventy years ago, Wilmer T. Bartholomew published an article in the Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1934, presenting frequency spectra of spoken and sung voices, and the differences which appeared between spoken and sung vowel sounds. The test subjects represented both trained and untrained singers. In the spectrum, he had noticed a prominent intensity peak in trained singers´ voices repeatedly at 2400-3200 Hz frequencies. The peak was absent in speech or in the untrained singers´ spectra. This resonance phenomenon has since been widely investigated and it is commonly referred to as the "singer´s formant ".

According to Johan Sundberg (1974, 1987), the singer´s formant is dependent on the special shape of the pharynx and the larynx. An opera singer is able to use and control this resonance cavity during singing. Sundberg has introduced a model of a "two-tube resonating system" comprised of a shorter and wider tube of the pharynx and a narrower tube, the epiglottic funnel between the vocal cords and the epiglottis. Other investigations have complemented and shed some new light on the hypothesis.

FIG. 14. THE SINGER´S FORMANT, (Source: NCVS tutorials, originally Sundberg 1977)

An investigation by Rebecca Finley Detweiler (1994) mentions studies on Chinese and North Indian classical singers who exhibit an intensive "singer´s formant" with an elevated laryngeal carriage contrary to the Sundberg model of a lower laryngeal posture. The Western classically trained singers have also demonstrated certain variation in the vertical laryngeal posture. For instance, a tenor utilized no lengthening of the vocal tract during phonation. His vocal tract (from glottis to lips) measured 176 mm. A baritone, with a darker voice, lowered the larynx and achieved a vocal tract length of 180 mm. The singer´s formant remained stable, and the two test subjects imagined having sung with the larynx clearly lowered from the resting state.

Some investigators have proposed the idea of voice classification based on singer´s formant. The idea would require the definition of distinctive voice spectra of soprano, mezzo-soprano, alto, tenor, baritone and bass. Until now, commonly acceptable results have not been presented to enable the usual classification of voice categories, let alone separating good singers from the not so good. According to Detweiler, trained singers did not necessarily have the formant. It was also observed that a higher pitch and a louder voice usually correlated with a clearer singer´s formant. Strangely enough, trained sopranos often lacked the formant. Previous investigations had shown that the singer´s formant would appear in the first place when vowels [i] and [e] were sung, while Detweiler observed that vowels [a], [o] and [u] were more often the reason for this phenomenon.

The singer´s formant was a subject of lively discussion in the first Pan-European Voice Conference (PEVOC) in London 1995. Investigations by Morozov had shown that strong emotions in performances may cause changes both in the amplitude and the frequency range of the formant. Joyful songs had increased the formant, while sad songs seemed to have the opposite influence. In the same conference Sundberg presented results showing a clear singer´s formant for alto voices but not for sopranos, while Sataloff reported on a formant rather characteristic of soprano voices than altos.

Voice classification is a difficult and sensitive task in vocal pedagogy. It cannot reliably be based on voice spectra analyses. Singers´ voices should not be put in pigeonholes of vocal categories at first hearing. It is often heard that certain songs or certain composer´s opera arias would not suit a singer´s voice or they might even damage the voice. That is not true, because only the wrong manner in voice production can damage it. Heavy opera roles, even those of Wagner can be sung with a lighter voice. At the beginning of vocal training, it is fruitful for sopranos to practise alto arias and vice versa, and that light sopranos practise dramatic arias and vice versa. Also male singers should try alternative voice categories. After having examined feelings, explored the possibilities and tested the limits, a singer will gradually begin to discover the vocal category where the voice moves easily and where it sounds and feels most natural. Friends and relatives may also try to meddle in this delicate and highly personal matter, but they should remember that "The bull should stay away from the china shop."

##  23. VIBRATO, TRILL, TREMOLO

As singing studies make good progress, a healthy vibrato will normally appear. Vibrato is caused by minimal changes of muscular tension in the vocal cords, which results in periodic pitch variation, in the same way as a violinist shortens and lengthens the string with the slight movement of fingertip. Rapid pulsation of the voice between two frequencies is however perceived as the fundamental frequency. Some choir directors demand singers, especially sopranos, to sing without vibrato in order to achieve singing in absolute tune and vocal harmony. There is no denying that voice without vibrato has only one definite pitch. On the other hand, it is prone to fatigue and injuries much easier than a voice with vibrato. The periodic muscular movement in vibrato seems to be nature´s way of maintaining muscular health. Vibrato indicates healthy, relaxed singing and besides, it adds timbral quality to the voice. For these reasons soloists often avoid singing in choirs.

Almost all Western opera singers have a vibrato without consciously thinking of it or trying to develop one. "It develops quasi automatically as voice training successfully proceeds" (Bjoerklund 1961). Intentional pulsation of voice caused by changes of subglottal pressure or by abdominal muscle vibration is often heard but it should not be confused with the "real vibrato". As vibrato develops automatically, it is very difficult to consciously change the rate of pulsation or the extent of pitch variation.

Religious choral music has traditionally favoured singing with a light, straight voice. It is understandable that Baroque music in particular is sung without vibrato. It is a tradition and it certainly rings out beautifully under the high arched vaults of an old church. Today´s congregational life and modern church architecture may, however, demand much more timbral variation in choral singing. Many church choirs consist of amateurs who have not had much vocal training and to bring them together quickly as a group, they are taught to sing with a thin straight voice, with their natural untrained voice. If the choir has more ambitious musical goals, the singers should be trained to use a wider variety of vocal colours. Religious singing should undoubtedly express all human features, praise to God, worship, sin and penitence.

Use of vocal versatility may cause minor pitch problems initially. Singing on pitch is essential, but it should not be idealized at the expense of other essentials pertaining to singing. The fascinating point in singing is that it comprises the entire human being, body and soul. Being right or doing something right is less important. Limiting the richness of voice by restricting its dynamic and timbral variation would mean the same as withering the whole concept of singing as an art. From the vocal pedagogue´s point of view, it is sad to see sopranos with light, straight singing voices. To train their voices to normal, flexible use of the vocal folds and to achieve a richer timbral variation, would take several years of training. Vibrato is proof of a healthy way of singing, and furthermore, the slight movement of vocal folds does not strain but rather relieves and invigorates the voice.

The trill is a musical ornament where tone rapidly alternates between two adjacent notes, usually between the written note and the note half tone above it. Trill is said to be produced by a shaking movement of the larynx or by an independent vibration of the vocal folds, as in vibrato but with a larger variation in pitch. The latter way is very rare. The trill will not develop automatically; the shaking movement of the larynx has to be acquired by practice. Starting to practise the trill may sometimes embarrass the students: the trick will start to work when the student is asked to imitate an elderly, flower-hatted singer with a wobbling kind of tremolo in her voice. The term tremolo usually refers to variation of the volume of the tone only, but it is also used to describe variations in both volume and pitch. Practising the tremolo does not lead to a wobbling voice, on the contrary. If the tremolo does not work, the result will be a glissando instead of distinct notes. The thyroid cartilage should be able to move freely without any obstructive muscular grip. Practising the tremolo can be started with Minims (Half notes), then Crotchets (Quarter notes) and Quavers (Eighth notes) and so on, quickening the pace. All this effort has positive results as moving gradually to shorter note lengths and shorter intervals will soon lead to a perfect trill.

Excessive vibrato or tremolo-effect is often caused by the tension of the jaw muscles. The mouth and lips should open without tension and allow the jaw to drop freely back and down. If there is tension, it will move on and stiffen the jaw muscles and lengthen those of the pharynx and larynx. Another common reason for excessive tremolo is the added subglottal pressure by forced diaphragmatic action with the aim of compensating for the weakened muscular function around the larynx. In the worst cases, the wide vibrato or tremolo shows in the wobbling of the lower jaw and the entire head.

##  24. SINGER´S AFFINITY WITH LYRICS

Marjatan laulu (Marjatta´s song)

Keinutan kehtoa, laulatan lasta

vaulussa vemmelpuun.

Nukkuos tähtiä katselemasta,

vaipuos kuusia kuuntelemasta,

uinuos äitisi lauleluun,

uinuos keinuhun vemmelpuun.

Ihmiset emollesi kantavat kaunaa,

Saanut en kylpyä

saanut en saunaa.

Pysty on kulkea pyytäjän tie,

Sulleko loivempi lie.

Pakkanen viiltää,

kuunsirppi kiiltää,

kuolonko kulkuset,

kuolonko kulkuset sois.

Hengitä halla,

kohtalon halla

hengitä orponi onneton pois.

This poem by the Finnish poet, Eino Leino, composed by Toivo Kuula, gives an example of interpreting poetical thoughts by singing. In poetry the letters (sounds) represent in a way the notes of a composition. The letter or note symbols cannot totally express what the poet or the composer meant and certainly if singers concentrate mainly on clear and correct pronunciation of sounds according to standard pronunciation guides, they will not reach the essential content of the song.

Alliteration and the rich use of the /u/ vowel makes this simple poem sound like a musical composition. In Finnish lullabies the frequency of the /u/vowel sound is much higher than average. In this song, Marjatta is in ultimate desperation and prays for the merciful death of her child. This song is not a usual "lullaby"!

Talented singers will instantly realize in this song the richness of the /u/ vowel sound, and how it determines the predominant timbre of the song. They are not concerned with the correctness of the pronunciation of the /u/ vowel, but concentrate on listening to the innermost thoughts of how this vowel sound is made for lulling someone to sleep. In this way they can reach the emotional wavelength of Finnish mothers who have since time immemorial rocked their babies to sleep with these vowels. "Tuutulaulu" is the Finnish equivalent of "lullaby". In English lullabies, the corresponding sound is the long /e/, "sleep, sleep, sweet dreams". Trust your feelings and imagination with sound, trust your ear for music and for the timbre of sound since they are the most reliable tools and companions for a singer. Let the music and the poem lead you and captivate you.

Expression of different thoughts and emotions changes the clarity of articulation in speech. When we speak about a sad happening, the articulation of each sound is not very clear. When we speak about joyful matters, we do it laughingly and do not let a single sound remain inaudible behind the teeth. These examples hopefully give an elementary idea of how to develop oneself as a singer or how to train the students.

Why could we not treat the words in singing in the same way as we do when we are speaking, or can we? Individual sounds in singing should not become an end in themselves. Especially with German Lieder, it is not unusual to see a singer focusing on the "correct" pronunciation and not putting heart and soul into the poem and music.

Over-emphasizing the final /t/ consonant of a phrase is also a widespread habit. It is sometimes practised so intensely that you better keep away from the front rows in a choir concert. What is the point? Frenchmen understand each other although in French pronunciation it is the orthodox manner to leave the final letters or inflectional endings unpronounced. In dialects, words are often shortened without worsening the comprehension. The singer´s final /t/ consonant need not be more aggressive than that of a normal speaker. If Mrs. Average claims that she did not hear your last "t" consonant, it only goes to show that she is not a frequent concert-goer, nor does she understand the variation of vowel sound colours or the lengthening of voiced consonants, or alternatively you can blame the acoustics of the concert hall. It is probably the only thing that we singers are not responsible for, even though it wouldn´t surprise me if we had to take the blame for that, too.

Are some vowel sounds more beautiful than the others? In Finland the vowel "ä" [æ] is often avoided when singing. Already at school I heard it said that the vowel [æ] sounds disagreeable. When I ask my students why just [æ] is ugly, why not [i] or [ə] or any other sound, I hear no answer but I sense their thoughts: "Is our teacher really so ignorant?" I continue by saying that in Swedish the vowel [æ] sounds most lovingly to their ear, for instance in the word "kärlek" (love), and the same feeling is very true in the Finnish word "äiti" (mother). I have not noticed any vowel segregation towards [æ] sound in other countries.

The [æ] vowel complex may be caused by the timid and reserved Finnish temperament. Pronouncing the [æ] calls for a flat tongue and open pharyngeal cavity, so the sound cannot be hidden. We Finns tend to narrow the tongue and draw it back. Thus the greeting "hyvää päivää" (good day) sounds more like [huvaa paivaa]. A singer must carefully avoid all tensions that cause distortion of sounds even during normal speech. On the other hand, there are singing teachers who intentionally manipulate their students´ vowels to sound what they consider to be more civilized. The vowels are "rounded" in order to make the performance sound more sophisticated. However, art is basically not something more civilized, more sophisticated, more affected; on the contrary, it should always strive for honesty and sincerity. Intentional attempts to reach a uniformity of vowel sounds do not serve the interests of the art of singing.

In a press interview, a well-known singer and pedagogue told about a student who could not sing an [a] vowel. It was too "open" or too "straight". The teacher said that they had refined and polished it for hours, and finally the /a/ came out right. They both almost shed tears of joy after the success. I can´t imagine what had exactly happened, but in my view the above kind of "master class" is nothing but snobbery. Everyone who has learned to speak can also sing the normal vowels, such as [ɑ] in "Baa, baa, black sheep" or [ʌ] in "Humpty, dumpty". Each of us pronounces a more or less personal version of the vowel. Each of us also varies the timbre of voice depending on the mood or other conditions. A cheerful mood makes our vowels "light and bright", whereas a melancholy mood makes them "bleak and dark". The truth is that vowels are neither light nor dark, neither red nor blue, neither straight nor bowed. Therefore, the above cited singing pedagogue could not literally have meant what he said.

I remember as a child having listened ecstatically to foreign songs from the radio. Although I later on learned to know the words of those songs, at the time they did not add much to my ecstasy. The music as such brought everything that the art of singing could carry. If music and interpretation was not enough, there should be a word by word translation of foreign songs and operatic arias attached to radio broadcasts. That is not the custom, and the listeners do not demand it though in Lied concerts the availability of song texts and translations is a welcome custom.

I cannot help relating complimentary remarks made during my own career when I sang at the Recital Hall at Carnegie Hall. The translation leaflet of Tauno Pylkkänen´s songs "The Swan of Death " was missing and the audience had to listen to this fairly rare series without knowing the words. It was a pleasant surprise to read from Edward Rothstein´s review in the New York Times 18.4.1982: "The dramatic concentration was so acute, that no text was needed."

I was happy to learn about comparable comments by composer Jean Sibelius written down by his biographer Erik Tavaststjerna: _(Otavan iso musiikkitietosanakirja, Otava 1979)_ "Sibelius created a nordic, distinctive concept of songs, which even when approaching the traditional Lied, would still retain certain monumentality. ´They - our female singers - tend to overdo each frase. The absolute music that I write is so exclusively musical and strictly independent from words that refined recitation is out of place.´"

From the early days of my career my philosophy has been opposed to the common, narrow requirement of a certain "standard pronunciation" in singing. I had the opportunity to discuss the matter with Professor Antti Sovijärvi, a renowned researcher in phonetics. You can imagine just how heart-warming it was to hear the senior expert´s wise advice: "Who in this world could better determine the duration of consonants or the quality of vowels of singers if not the singers themselves". The requirement for clear articulation is made for the "Greenwich Time Lady" but not for a singer who expresses feelings and emotions.

If a singer´s words appear continuously unclear, the reason for the tensions of tongue may be psychological. Anxiety stiffens the jaws and the tongue muscles. Singers who appear on stage almost daily, are normally not anxious. Their way of singing and articulation is familiar to the audience and critics. Concerning their performances, the critics could rather focus on the colours and nuances of sound, generally speaking, on the interpretation of poetical thoughts by means of music. Experiments have shown that the message of the text is well understood, even if a few letters change places with each other.

Most languages certainly have a phonetic paradigm, a systematic model where the cardinal vowels are determined based on thorough research by tape-recordings and X-ray monitoring. The tongue positions and the position of the highest point of the tongue determine the vowel´s location in the paradigm chart. I have freed my students from the straightjacket of correct pronunciation, and asked them to observe for instance how their tongue position changes when they pronounce words with [l] consonant in different combination with vowels: Alley, Ally, Eli , Ollie, Ulcer, Ail, Oil. To many students it seems to be a novel experience to feel the play of sounds with their tongue. The play can continue using words with [s], [k], [t] and [r] consonants in different combinations.

Quite often singers are told to change the shape of their mouth and the position of their lips to clarify the vowels. It is forgotten that the vowels are largely ready-made in the phonation process at the vocal fold level. For instance, practicing the [a] vowel activates the vocal fold muscles as a whole including the outermost fine fibres. If the [a] does not come out properly, the vocal bands, the "Stretchers" are not stretched enough. In the ideal case, the glottis is tightly closed by the contraction of the crossed muscles ( _M. ary-vocalis)_ and ( _M. thyreo- vocalis_ ) that causes the stretch of vocal bands. If these muscles do not work perfectly, the clear "a" will not. The elevator muscles _(M. thyreo-hyoideus)_ between the thyroid cartilage and the hyoid bone support the position of the larynx drawing it upwards, which is more active during the phonation of the [a] vowel than any other vowel, according to (Negus V.E. The Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Larynx, _The Laryngoscope,_ 1950). These muscles cannot be controlled consciously. It should also be remembered that different vowels train the pharyngeal and laryngeal muscles in different ways. To reach a well-balanced muscular development, it is advisable to practise many songs of various kinds. Practising the same vocal exercises time and again will only lead to vocal problems and eventually to a new singing teacher

The pronunciation of the German "narrow" vowels [e] (der) and [o] (Wohl) sometimes make passions run high in the examination juries. I have never quite understood, what happens physiologically when a vowel is not "narrowed" or when a vowel is "narrow" enough. I have witnessed desperate attempts to tighten the lower jaw for an "e" or even to keep the cheeks hollow for a perfect [o]. Observing native German singers shows that the broad or narrow pronunciation is much dependent on the individual. Whether the [e] or [o] vowel is not narrow enough in the orthodox manner, is hardly distinguishable by the human ear. Why not arrange a test for the "Besserwissers" to clarify the matter? When producing the so-called narrow vowels, it would be better to watch that the tongue and the pharyngeal cavity does not become cramped. Native German singers are always a good model to observe, and on that basis you can form your own opinion on the correct pronunciation. Exact knowledge of phonetics is an asset, unless it turns into an obsession.

Producing vowels is pure acoustics. Each vowel is a combination of the formant frequency (1st formant) and the overtones (2nd, 3rd etc. formants) which are completely dependent on the vocal tract length (distance between the glottis and the lips), the position of the jaw, the tongue, the soft palate and the size and tensions of the pharynx. The collaboration of these organs is learned and adopted as a child, and that personal habit will remain throughout our lives as the most natural way of speaking and singing. It is self-evident that conscious control or exact adjustment of all the components is not possible.

In a voice conference in London in the 80s, the voice director of the Royal Shakespeare Company, Cicely Berry, presented the idea that the actors should try to return as close as possible to their mother tongue, or that very language or dialect that their mother spoke to them in their childhood. He thought that perhaps in this way the actors might reach the most profound interpretation of Shakespeare´s dramas. The actors were asked to speak the English language in many different ways: Indian English, East African English, and in various dialects of British English. The aim was to get rid of the "Bible reading" style that has sometimes been the way to present Shakespeare´s text. I remember that I found the new Shakespeare a bit strange in the beginning, but the actors and actresses seemed to enjoy their performances heart and soul to the extent that they really captivated the audience too.

In her book, _The Singers´ Manual of English Diction_ , Madeleine Marshall emphasizes the relaxation of lips as an important principle of good diction and good singing during articulation of the lip consonants (labials) [p], [b], [f], [v] and [m]. She demonstrates the principle with the following exercise:

First in the wrong way: "Rest the palm of your hand against your throat while you sing the following words with tense, tight lips: _beauty, peace, fury, vision, memory_. What happens? Feel how the muscles of your neck stand out. Listen to the ugly, laborious tones. Note that your words are far from clear."

"Now with very relaxed, rubber-like lips sing the same words, still touching the palm of the hand to the throat. What happens? The muscles of your neck are in repose, your voice sounds free, and your consonants are more audible than before."

Both singers and actors should avoid this kind of strain. Secondly you will find how the softness of your lips will increase the audibility of the consonants. The relaxed "idleness" of the lips is a guarantee of well carrying consonants. A bachelor´s degree in the English language does not give the competence to sing in English. Mere presentation of the [r] consonant takes eight pages in Madeleine Marshall´s book, which I warmly recommend to every student of singing.

There is a corresponding book of the French language, Pierre Bernac´s The _Interpretation of French Songs_. To us who are not French, the pronunciation of nasal vowels is sometimes problematic. The nasopharynx and the soft palate hang flabbily during nasal vowels in low and middle registers, but singing higher notes like that is not possible because certain elevator muscles of the larynx are attached to the soft palate and they are active in singing high notes.

The consonants are, generally speaking, produced with the cooperation of the tongue, the lips and the teeth. The position and movement of the tongue plays a key role in pronunciation. The jaw instead should be kept away from consonant production and should be relaxed and ready to move up and down. It only fetches the consonants and returns to the relaxed hanging position in order to give way to the vowels.

Comprehensive information about sounds and their standard articulation can be found in the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) publications though living among native speakers is the optimal way to adopt the natural pronunciation of foreign languages. Foreign radio and TV broadcasters are tireless teachers and a singer´s musical ear will soon pick up the limits of correct pronunciation. Trying to consciously adjust the tongue or other muscles involved in pronunciation to certain positions will lead nowhere. A singer should always concentrate on poetical and musical thoughts.

Are some languages more suitable for singing that the others? It is possible to say that certain languages like Italian and Finnish are easy to sing, because they consist predominantly of vowels, whereas words in some Slavic languages like Polish and Russian contain many consonant clusters. The English language has overwhelmingly conquered pop and rock music. One of several reasons may be the great number of short words ending with a consonant that makes the rock lyrics beat, bang and smash. An art singer is literally a vocalist. We sing mainly using vowels and voiced consonants.

Emphasizing the role of consonants in singing may lead to total ignorance, as had happened to one student who was to pass an exam in singing pedagogy. The student insisted that consonants are more important in singing than vowels. He was asked to give a reason for this view of why, for instance, singers are often referred to as vocalists. He thought that it may be some pop music term. Although I suggested that he fail the exam, he nevertheless passed. I have not heard of him since.

##  25. MISLEADING FICTITIOUS EXPRESSIONS

In his book _, The Voice of the Mind,_ the author Edgar F. Herbert-Caesari writes that the two expressions, support of singing and forward placing of the voice, have spoiled more voices than anything else. In his view the expressions have originated from Italy and taken root in other countries, especially in Germany.

If the vibration of air produced by the vocal cords, that is, the phonated sound, could be "placed forward", it would be barely audible. Where would it resonate? It would vanish into thin air without resonance. The common expression of focusing or projecting the sound can only cloud the student´s reasoning. And this is simply not true.

Sound waves travel through the air at about 340 metres per second in all directions from the sound source, which in this case is the vocal cords. When the sound waves strike some material they will be absorbed, reflected or transmitted depending on the density and other qualities of the material and the frequency of the sound. As regards singing, the essential direction of the sound is the vocal tract, which consists of the pharynx, the oral cavity and the nasal cavity.

The vocal tract acts as a resonator, it acoustically amplifies the phonated sound through a complex series of reflections from the hard palate and other hard surfaces of the vocal tract. The shape of the vocal tract can to some extent be changed, thus affecting the manner of how the sound is reflected or absorbed in the vocal tract. Shaping the vocal tract is the only way to adjust and control the phonated sound. The timbre and loudness of the voice depend mainly on the resonance cavities, of which the pharynx is the most effective resonator. It is not situated "forward" and we do not "place" the sound there. If we cannot utilize the pharynx and the vocal tract for good resonance, there is no substitute means to be found elsewhere.

In addition to the effective resonance in the vocal tract the vibrations from the vocal cords are transmitted through bone, cartilage and muscle, and are felt as resonance in the chest, neck, head and other parts of the body. These secondary vibrations do neither mean that the sound is "placed" to the chest, neck or head, nor do they contribute to the audibility of the sound. However, these secondary vibrations may help a singer to perceive the optimum resonance in the vocal tract. Yet, it is not a question of "placing" the sound. A singer may choose an acoustically good spot on the stage and utilize a wall or other structure as a sounding board for a more powerful sound. Even then one cannot say that the sound is "placed forward".

Focusing the sound on the frontal sinuses is also sheer imagination (Anita Morrison, _The Healthy Voice_ , 1999). The frontal sinuses are small, sometimes extremely small, if any at all and their existence is not perceivable by listening to someone singing. "Placing" to the frontal sinuses is however a common expression. Ask your teacher to sing, firstly "placing" the sound to the frontal sinuses, and secondly without the "placing". If you find any change in the timbre or the volume of sound, it is definitely caused by some adjustment to the shape of the vocal tract or the movement of the tongue or larynx. The secondary vibrations can be felt in the frontal sinuses, but they have little to do with the audible singing voice.

The same facts apply to the maxillary sinuses situated under the eyes. Their size, location and a narrow duct make it impossible to direct sound waves to and fro. Nor do the sinuses contribute to the resonance of the sound. The teacher can well demonstrate how the timbre of the voice remains unchanged even when the nostrils are closed, whereas the immobility or constriction of the soft palate leads to a nasal sound or nasal twang.

Again, I can´t help quoting an expressive but irresponsible press review in a Finnish daily paper not many years ago. The review was headed "A Steely Tenor": "Before entering the high notes, the Cupid took a slight pause, positioned the support into the right spot, placed the sound close to the Frontal lobe... and let the grandiose high notes out into the air". Nothing is missing from the story, if not perhaps "the Little Red Riding Hood and the Big Bad Wolf". Formal education at school has long ago broken away from the "Flat Earth" model but in the singing field the "Flat Earth" model is still going strong. The editor did not publish my objection to the review, stating that there are different schools in the singing world. I still insisted that there is no place for different schools in the physiological phenomenon of vocal sound production, but of course the subject was closed.

Ignorance feeds these fictitious, unsubstantiated terms and beliefs almost endlessly. Another common habit is to finger the bridge of the nose as if feeling or strengthening the effect of "placement". Instead, the adjustment of the soft palate during singing is not realized. The changes of sound when one has a cold have sometimes been used as evidence of the importance of the nasal passage and the maxillary sinuses in singing. A more realistic explanation is that the cold has changed the structure of the mucous membranes, and the reflecting surfaces of the vocal tract have swollen, and therefore the timbre of the voice sounds different.

The "head voice" or "head resonance" is much referred to in speech and in writing, but it is also an inexact and misleading expression. The pharynx and the vocal tract as a whole are inside the head, but that is not the fact meant by the "head voice" teacher. Again it is a question of sensations caused by the secondary vibrations of certain frequencies which are felt at the top of the head. The cranial cavity is closed and full of soft brain tissue, therefore it makes no contribution as a resonance cavity. Ask your teacher to sing firstly with "head resonance" and secondly without it. If you find any difference in the loudness of the voice, you can be sure that the changes were made in the adjustments of the vocal cords and the vocal tract, especially in the pharyngeal cavity. It is not quite harmless that even renowned writers and researchers sometimes use the inexact terms like "placing forward ", "head resonance" and "singing in the mask". The minimum requirement is to put the terms in quotation marks. Certainly, the teachers are glad to hear familiar jargon, although the truthful meaning of the expressions is mainly fictive.

Dr. W. Gould´s survey 1964, showed that many singing teachers actually did something other than what they said they were doing. The students, who nevertheless became good singers, obviously did not even try to understand what their teacher was saying. If the teacher had a good and healthy voice, the way of producing the sound was passed on to the students by imitation, and the result was good. Singing is a highly "contagious disease" with the teacher´s own particular way of singing being of paramount importance to the student.

Starting my own singing classes as a freshman, I selected my own teacher by eavesdropping at classroom doors on the various teachers´ voices. I decided on Ms. Taru Linnala, who was by no means a fashionable teacher or "guru", to which position certain teachers sometimes rise in music schools. Standing only 1m 50cm tall, she was petite, but had a grand, rich soprano voice, full and mellow in tone. She was also discreet, and had a marvellous personality; the best possible model for me. In addition, set a good example by singing herself a great deal, and never tried to embarrass her students by using foreign words or imaginary terms. In a few words, she was an excellent teacher.

"Appoggiare la voce", to support the voice, is an expression used by the traditional Italian school. The verb "appoggiare" has several translations and the traditional "appoggiare la voce" has several interpretations. What the Italians actually supported, backed up or leaned upon, and by what means, is not quite agreed on by historians. During good singing, the larynx is in the grip of a number of paired muscles, that work together flexibly, each muscle having an antagonist regulating the action of the other. If this grip slackens even partially, it is immediately heard in the sound. This is what I believe that the great Italian masters could have meant. Today´s common interpretation of "appoggiare la voce" as "support of breath" is a grave misunderstanding, and has nothing to do with the Italian tradition. Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti and other Italian composers of the bel canto era have written music that gives little possibilities of straying into breath support. Rossini´s wild coloratura cannot succeed if the larynx does not act freely and flexibly. If the muscles involved in breathing are locked one way or the other, the larynx cannot move freely. Palpating the neck externally with the hands helps to reveal and to remove extra actions, positions and tensions that affect the action of the internal voice source.

"Inhalare la voce", inhale the voice, is, if literally taken, difficult to understand as well as to carry out. It is another fictitious term from the Italian schools. First and foremost it means a manner to begin the phonation using the yawn position with part of the vocal cords active and reaching the so called "supported falsetto". The opposite of this manner is "colpo di glottide", "stroke of the glottis", or simply "glottal stop", common in many spoken languages like Danish or Arabic, where the tone is begun with a strong grip of the vocal cords suddenly closing and reopening the glottis.

Singing "senza muscoli", "without muscles", also sounds strange because singing is a continuous muscular movement. When the vocal organ is trained to a well-balanced action during singing, it needs no conscious control. The muscular action automatically follows the poetical and musical thoughts of the singer. Explanation for the expression may be that perfect muscular functioning is not felt.

In student circles a new trick to put into circulation, a vocal exercise or other "short cut to happiness" picked up from some "guru´s" master course. Use common sense and consideration, short cuts to virtuosity do not exist. Such "guru´s" tricks may help in a limited momentary case, but if practised too much, they may lead to biased development.

There is reason to be critical of all masters, even renowned and recognized experts. On the other hand, the higher the authority, the more responsibility should be carried when appearing in public.

The following are some quotations from a interview by a Finnish daily newspaper' music reviewer of a well known singer and Professor of Singing about his thoughts on vocal technique. Direct quotation 1:"Skiing has taught me to support my breath." Quotation 2: "The resonance of the sound has to be placed by means of a sort of an ´upward circle´ to a forward resonance. It is a question of a complicated action that has to be automated and made to sound free and natural." Did I really have to follow singing and vocal training for 50 years to read such strange advice from a Professor of Singing? Sound waves travel straight and are reflected from hard surfaces and resonate in a tube like the vocal tract. No matter how famous a singer is, they do not have the almighty power to position or whirl sound waves against the laws of physics. In skiing, the lungs transport the right amount of oxygen depending on the actual muscular work, which means there is hardly any opportunity to support the breath. I would also call for more responsibility from journalists, who may aggressively question political leaders´ views on global matters, but who pay homage to a celebrity´s unwarranted opinions. A singing pedagogue has to adhere to the physiological facts and make the students aware of the heresy sometimes spread by even the most famous masters.

##  26. THE PERFORMER´S MEMORY

The essential existence of a human being is stored in the memory. A person would not exist without memory, without the ability to receive, retain and recall information and experiences: the location where millions of brain cells communicate with each other. When a musician practises a work for performance it is a question of training and developing these intercellular networks which are characteristic of each individual. The same music creates different networks, unique to each individual musician, so that when a new composition has been encoded in the brain, the memory has been connected to a new network. If the next music to be practised contains the same kind of components, scales, coloratura or whatever, they are as easily recalled as well-trained material already learned, and ready to be attached to a new network. For an older musician who has played music all his life, it is easy to learn any new music by putting it together using the old familiar "material from his own archives". It is startling to realize that memory and learning are so closely connected.

By memory in everyday speech, we mean conscious remembering, but for the most part, retaining and recalling information and skills do not require attention. Motor skills develop and become automatic through practice and repetition. The different regions and structures of the brain are highly specialized in different levels of memory, for example sensory memory is located in various regions of the brain. It receives stimuli from the senses, registers and holds them for a fraction of a second, and if the information is found, it will be quickly encoded into a more durable form. Short-term memory activates particularly the frontal part of the cortex. It is the "working memory" between the sensory memory and the long-term memory which can handle only a limited amount of information at one time. Unless the information in the short-term memory is processed further, it will normally fade out in 20-30 seconds. Long-term memory can store unlimited amounts of information for a life time. The hippocampus, located in the inner part of the brain, has an important role in memory functions, since all information from sensory and short-term memories goes through the hippocampus before it is stored into long-term memory.

Emotions and knowledge are strong factors contributing to memory networks in that emotional signals have a direct impact on the facts of what and how we remember. Trivialities are forgotten, but frightening situations and highlights in life are easily recalled, and sometimes recalling the stored information during a performance may be unsuccessful. Fear of forgetting words or uncertainty about the adequacy of skills are feelings which will definitely disturb the performance. Thoughts are directed away from the main event to the point where you have to think what words or notes will come next, and then the brain starts to react in quite a different way. Instead of recollecting the singing data from familiar networks, it starts to search for escape from the situation: fright quickens the pulse, makes the hands perspire and tremble, and the throat feels dry. The amount of blood circulating in the brain may be reduced to half (Lumm 1994),and blood escapes from small muscles to large, preparing us to defend ourselves or run for our lives as if we were attacked. Small singing muscles lose their accuracy of function. The performer´s mind focuses on the physical presence instead of the music. The commands come from other parts of the brain than during the peaceful rehearsal situation, when the atmosphere was positive and encouraged focusing on music. If memory fails during a performance, it is not a question of poor memory, but of poor ability to concentrate on the main point, that is on the music.

During our daily routine we do not need to observe or watch how we perform our actions. Our feet take us to the grocery just on the thought "I need some milk", and we do not need to tell our feet to do the walking. If we are thirsty, our hand bends and tilts the glass for a drink without our having to command the hand. Of course, singing cannot be compared with walking or any other equivalent action. A singing performance is never repeated like a reflex action, there is always some variation. These variations are subtle because a well-trained entirety does not allow for great changes to be made in the performance situation. Such an effort would no doubt invite disaster if not ruin for the whole performance. But subtle changes, which actually express the performer´s deep concentration on the music, are well tolerated by the performer´s memory.

Anxiety and fright cause unforeseen difficulties if they become entrenched in the mind as early as the practice stage. The date of the performance, fear of the critics, too much self-assertion or worry, may become habitual feelings. At its worst, panic can even be trained to be part of the memory network. The teachers´ advice to students before a performance can sometimes be more harmful than helpful, such as: "Take it easy", "Don´t forget to do this and that", "Remember to concentrate on the high notes". The encouragement should rather awaken the singer to positive thoughts about the music: "Do you remember how you first started to be attracted by this song?" "How is it possible that Schubert has composed Lieder in such a masterly way?" "He is my favourite composer at any rate." If the fear of forgetting words or inadequacy of skills has appeared during rehearsal, it will easily be repeated during the stage performance as an adopted part of the memory network. It would, therefore, be wise to replace the song in question to avoid such negative memories.

A musician´s memory is based mainly on the sense of hearing, but it is important to examine the musical notation as well, even after having memorized the song. Hearing is no doubt most important to a musician´s memory, but also the significance of vision should not be forgotten either.

The ease of singing technique, or rather the lack of it, is another common worry. This worry causes nervousness that is reflected as a deficiency of the elastic coordination of muscles. More effort, more muscular force, does not compensate for the lack of elasticity of the muscles. The finishing action of small muscles is not carried out and the coloratura is not achieved. Learning "technique", with which I mean practising different ways of singing, needs to be studied carefully. Muscles throughout the whole body have to play in tune with the song. The practising phase is the time to observe how singing feels in the larynx and in the rest of the body. Trying to consider it later on will lead to harmful muscular tension, and the best possible muscular coordination will fail. Singing coloratura particularly calls for a playful mind. Just practice coloratura like a child having great fun spinning and making turns on a bicycle - making swift turns so that there is no time to think how to do it. The idea that coloratura would definitely need many years´ training to succeed is not true, and is in fact somewhat to the contrary. Students have to be encouraged right in the beginning in playful coloratura acrobatics to train the larynx to move freely and with agility.

If the fear of forgetting words or failing with techniques has become habitual, a special remedy is needed to overcome the obstacle. First of all, you have to admit to the fear and be honest with yourself and the audience. Try to be an outside observer and analyze the feelings of your body causing this fear. Feel how the heart is pounding! How would it change my life if I failed? Would there never ever be another chance? The last thoughts before a performance flash by in a split second. They seem to arise of their own accord. If you cannot relax and calm down, then just be afraid, and sing. It is not the end of the world. Having stage fright is not a criminal offence in society. There is no compelling need to succeed, unless you have taken such a burden upon yourself.

At the other extreme, some singers even seem to benefit from a certain amount of stage fright; they almost need it to tune up their mind for the performance. Again there are those who prefer to use mild tranquilizers before a performance. If you do not perform very often, it is not addictive, and if you are a frequent performer, you will hardly need such a prop.

It is good to bear in mind that a song that tests the extreme boundaries of your skills is not recommended as a number in your programme. A serious failure is very traumatic and it has a long-standing effect. It is preferable to put aside that song for a longer period of time, unless you find help from a professional. However, positive thinking or other self-help techniques are recommended and always worth a try.

When entering the stage, keep your mind bent on the music. Give a smile and a bow as is the custom, but without trying too hard to draw applause from the audience. Then let the music captivate you completely. The ingenious memory apparatus will carry out a well-trained performance through all situations. The musician´s most trustworthy means to survive is the music itself. Forget yourself and immerse yourself deep within the music.

##  27. "TRACHEAL PULL" EFFECT DURING SINGING

The _Journal of Voice,_ Vol 15, No 3 (2001) represented Jenny Iwarsson´s study: "Effects of Inhalatory Abdominal Wall Movement on Vertical Laryngeal Position During Phonation". The study received a great deal of attention among singing pedagogues. "Tracheal pull" almost became a new buzzword at first. But what is it all about?

The investigation compares two different inhalatory behaviours: (1) with a "paradoxical" inward movement of the abdominal wall, and (2) with an expansion of the abdominal wall during inhalation and the subsequent phonation. Singing teachers have largely given preference to (2) i.e. expansion of the abdominal wall during inhalation because it allows the diaphragm and lungs to descend, whereas the other manner (1) has been regarded as not so good or even damaging to the voice.

The term "tracheal pull" has been occasionally misunderstood and misused by singing teachers which gives a reason to take a closer look at the issue. The following passage is a direct quotation from the "Summary" of the Iwarsson study:

"The configuration of the body resulting from inhalatory behavior is sometimes considered a factor of relevance to voice production in singing and speaking pedagogy and in clinical voice therapy. The present investigation compares two different inhalatory behaviors: (1) with a "paradoxical" inward movement of the abdominal wall, and (2) with an expansion of the abdominal wall, both with regard to the effect on vertical laryngeal position during the subsequent phonation. Seventeen male and 17 female healthy, vocally untrained subjects participated. No instructions were given regarding movements of the rib cage. Inhaled air volume as measured by respiratory inductive plethysmography, was controlled to reach 70% inhalatory capacity. Vertical laryngeal position was recorded by two-channel electroglottography during the subsequent vowel production. A significant effect was found; the abdomen-out condition was associated with a higher laryngeal position than the abdomen-in condition. This result apparently contradicted a hypothesis that an expansion of the abdominal wall would allow the diaphragm to descend deeper in the torso thereby increasing the tracheal pull, which would result in a lower laryngeal position. In a post-hoc experiment including 6 of the subjects, body posture was studied by digital video recordings, revealing that the two inhalatory modes were clearly associated with postural changes affecting laryngeal position. The "paradoxical" inward movement of the abdominal wall associated with a recession of the chin toward the neck, such that the larynx appeared in a lower position in the neck, for reasons of a postural change. The results suggest that laryngeal position can be affected by the inhalatory behavior if no attention is paid to posture, implying that instruction from clinicians and pedagogues regarding breathing behavior must be carefully formulated and adjusted in order to insure that the intended goals are reached."

The investigation has apparently been carried out properly as it has met the high publishing standards of the _Journal of Voice._ But from the point of view of practical vocal training the investigation is far too academic and includes various assumptions and distorted factors which raises more questions rather than reliable answers. "The surprising results of the present investigation invite various interpretations and speculations rather than conclusions", as the author herself summarizes.

The term "tracheal pull" appears in earlier publications, but it seems to have found its way to the "misleading" singing jargon after the recent studies by Johan Sundberg in 1990 and Jenny Iwarsson in 2001. The term is misleading because trachea is a cartilaginous tube attached at the lower end to the bronchi and to the lungs, and at the upper end the topmost tracheal ring is attached to the cricoid cartilage of the larynx. As a rule, the rigidly installed tube, the trachea, is not able to pull or push, but transports respiratory air in and out of the lungs.

The vertical laryngeal position is dependent on a number of muscular functions; in singing the essential regulating mechanism is the extrinsic laryngeal muscles, the elevators and the depressors. All other forces should be eliminated from affecting the laryngeal position during singing, whether it be a question of abdominal wall movement or head position or any other postural change or movements of the body. Singer´s inhalation should under no circumstances have a direct effect on the vertical laryngeal position. Anyone can make a test by palpating the larynx gently by hand during inhaling; the vertical laryngeal position will not change whatever the "inhalatory behaviour." One can even discontinue inhaling for a while and make the Adam´s apple move up and down.

What lies behind the paradoxical results of the study? One fundamental reason may be the use of "vocally untrained subjects" and "no instructions were given regarding movements of the rib cage". Yet instructions were given "to keep a stable body position throughout the experiment as the RIP (respiratory inductive plethysmograph) equipment is known to be sensitive to flexing or extending of the spine." The subjects were also instructed before phonation "to inhale to 70% aspiratory capacity level" and, regarding the inhalatory strategies, (1) "let the abdomen move inward" or (2) "let the abdomen expand."

One can imagine that under these physically and mentally restricting conditions, vocally untrained subjects, unaware of the purpose of the study, still try in their minds to guess what might be expected from them. In such a situation a test subject is tense but also sensitive to register and imitate all possible acts such as laryngeal movement or respiratory muscle function of the instructor. Learning by imitation is an everyday process in vocal training.

Strict conditions and exact terminology are relevant from the experimental point of view. As regards vocal training practice, "inhalatory strategy", "stable body position" and "letting (read forcing) the abdomen move inward" during inhaling, are terms and acts which inevitably cause muscular tension and false moves, thus affecting the vertical laryngeal position and preventing free, relaxed functioning of the vocal organ. In teaching singing, the "tracheal pull" belongs to the same category of unspecified concepts as "breath support" or "placing of the voice."

##  28. PREPARING FOR A PERFORMANCE

It is a good idea to arrange group lessons in "master class" style for the students from the very beginning of their studies. In this way they can make the acquaintance of others in the group, which will then create the team spirit and feeling of security, important aspects in large institutions. Everyone sings in turn, regardless of the level of studies, while the others listen and observe: the upper grade students seem to sing better and more confidently. Yet no one is perfect. Roars of laughter in a friendly atmosphere will relieve and help to get over occasional mistakes. Both success and failure become everyday events. One realizes that singing is not a "gift from the Gods", as people sometimes may say. A gift is welcome, but hard work is the only key to good singing.

Singing competitions are a good opportunity for young singers to test their vocal ability and to make a name for themselves. Singing is a comprehensive action, where mind and body are equally important. What happens in the mind is immediately reflected in the body's reactions, and vice versa. As the day of performance nears, the visualization or mental imagery in training becomes more and more important besides the physical singing practice.

Mental imagery training has shown incredible results, especially in some skill related sports. Basketball shooting was the subject of the experiment by F. Clark (1990) with the two test groups, one concentrated only on physical training, and the other only on imagery training; both groups were subdivided into a) beginner level, b) average level and c) advanced level. After three weeks´ training the test results showed improvement as follows: Imagery training group a) 16%, b) 24%, c) 44%, and corresponding for physical training group a) 15%, b) 23%, c) 26%. As can be seen, the beginners profited least from imagery training, whereas the advanced players profited significantly.

Mental imagery makes a good contribution to vocal training but it cannot compensate for physical training. Erik W. Tawaststjerna, the Finnish musicologist and pianist, once said about the process of training: "When I have managed to play a certain piano composition one hundred times, I am quite confident that the one hundred and first time, the actual performance on stage, will also be managed." Because singing is a muscular function, it is essential to train the muscles involved in singing frequently and regularly in order to learn to know and feel the capability of the muscles and the whole body during singing.

The Italian composer and poet, Giacinto Scelsi (1905-1988), is known to have written music around one single note when he strived to explore the inside of a note, the microcosm of tonal variations, which releases an enormous amount of energy. Tone is a complex, living organism capable of moving and varying: each tone of music contributes to the variations of the organism, and practising to develop and control these variations is the singer´s work. The alternation of vowels and consonants brings another great variation to the flow of music. The singer has to keep the movement continuously flowing. A momentary standstill occurring anywhere in the body is immediately observed and felt as distressing by the audience as well as by the performers themselves. A student should learn to notice all passivity and tension during a performance as soon as possible. One has to give up trying to "perform singing", and instead should concentrate on listening and feeling the music and letting the song move the body according to the flow of music. In this respect singing can be compared with children´s playing. (Eugen Herrigel: _Zen in der Kunst des Bogenschiesses; Barth-Verlag (_ 1957) "One could say that a child plays with toys, or it could be equally true that the toys play with the child." The spontaneous enthusiasm for play is triggered by the toy. A child grabs the object unknowingly, without premeditation. A singer should reach the same enthusiasm and spontaneity when entering into singing.

Once you have been accepted to participate in a singing competition, you have all reason to congratulate yourself. You have now got the opportunity to share with the audience the joy of singing that so much enriches your life. You have your own idea of interpretation, trust it hundred-per-cent. It is disturbing to listen to other participants´ performances, because it will easily create an atmosphere of rivalry. Join the competition, but don´t compete with anyone.

In the morning of the competition day, wake up calmly. Stretch yourself thoroughly with special care of the internal muscles of the larynx and the external muscles attached to it. Think of your diet; don´t eat anything heavy during the last couple of hours before the performance. Go through the competition programme in your mind carefully, intensively and in detail just in the same way as you have done it every day during the past week. Imagine yourself in costume and make-up on the stage completely ready to start, feel the presence of the audience and the accompanist. Having mentally prepared yourself like this you will enter the real situation and everything feels familiar and safe.

Don´t let your thoughts wander. Stick to your well thought out vision. A tricky phrase of the song may come to your mind in the style of "how shall I get over it?" In such a situation, follow strictly your vocal teacher´s advice that used to help you to overcome the same kind of situations. If your teacher´s physiological advice is firmly bound to your feelings during the performance, your mind will immediately calm down and you will feel at ease to go on singing.

If the approaching competition bothers your mind with questions: "Can I really succeed?"; "What if I fail?", there is an easy and efficient exercise to help you. Start to listen to your breathing and count each inhalation, 1, 2, 3, ... If you stumble in your count, you have to start counting again. With this exercise related to the Zen-school, you can banish other contestants, the jury, the critics and all irrelevant matters from your mind.

A singing competition is not a competition in the same sense as an athletic meeting. If a singer enters the stage to compete as if it were a sports' arena, he or she will become subject to particular observation and calculation by the onlookers. It will lead the singer out from what is "his or her own". Martin Heidegger, in his book _Being and Time_ , deals with this subject using the concepts "Eigentlichkeit" (authenticity) and "Uneigentlichkeit" (inauthenticity). We enjoy ourselves and have fun like "anyone" or like "they" do. We read and watch and criticize things like "anyone" does. We stand out from the rest like "anyone" does. We are offended by the same matters as "they". The existence of the "they" is nothing exact but however everyone seems to know how "one" should behave in everyday life. Being "they" does not allow deviations; on the contrary, everything is made banal overnight, and brought back to common knowledge. New features are flattened in the mass media that reviews art and places artists back among "them". The mass media is not sensitive to nuances and authenticity. Here lies a risk to the artist. A risk to vanish into the reality of "them". It is a secure choice at the price of escaping from oneself, from authenticity. Each individual thought causes certain anxiety, and each original choice demands courage. "They" are inclined to envy our courage. "They" want to see everywhere their own way how to think and how to live. The "They" taps repeatedly on the shoulder and insist that you do (or sing) in the same manner as "they" do. (M.Heidegger, _Sein und Zeit_ , Niemeyer Verlag, Tübingen 1986)

"The critics tend to cling tooth and nail onto the ideal of ´them´" (Heidegger). It is understandable that the competition jury seeks for certain uniformity in the performances. The jury notices deviations from the customary interpretation and brings the performer back into the ranks. A strong personality is seldom successful in a competition. Therefore, there is often a fierce postmortem on the "unfair" decisions of the jury. Some listeners may have been fascinated by a strongly individual interpretation but the jury often prefers to stick to decisions favoured by the majority. It is the opinion of "them" that counts.

From my own career I remember my second concert in Helsinki. The four critics present found nothing praiseworthy in my performance. I disagreed with them and wanted to have a second opinion, and I soon got a chance to give the same concert at the Kunstmuseet in Copenhagen. It was a pleasant surprise to read the reviews in two notable Danish newspapers. The attitude to my performance was very positive, and to mention a detail, my pronunciation of different languages was praised as clear, as opposed to the Finnish critics who had condemned my articulation as unacceptable.

To my great astonishment and disappointment, a colleague asked how much I had paid for the reviews. This was offensive, not only to me, but to all parties involved in the concert procedure. I asked him to spread the word of such critics, if they existed, among his acquaintances. The idea of paid critics as well as paid applause does not belong to the ethics of classical music. However, the critics have a responsibility not to excessively discourage or wrong the singers, especially young ones. When performing in public, singers themselves know the risk of being criticized, but unfair reviews may cause grief to close relatives and friends and give a misleading view of the performer´s real potential. Coming under strong, incompetent criticism poses a threat to one´s career as a singer as well as a pedagogue, as well as putting Scholarships and other opportunities out of reach. Criticism should be constructive rather than destructive but in spite of this lack of consideration, the critic will continue to draw the monthly pay.

Arthur Rubinstein, the pianist, said in an interview: "When I played in my youth, I might sometimes have had six listeners. Today the attendance may be six hundred or much more, but the number of real connoisseurs may yet be not more than six." To other people, the audience is to some extent a mirror for the artist, but being too eager to find general acceptance will again lead away from authenticity, from what is one´s own, to live on other people´s terms. If the performance fails for one reason or another, it is never a catastrophe as the person per se is still more important than success or failure. Your closest relatives and friends will always support you, notwithstanding, and that is the real happiness in life. You don´t have to succeed, you are free to succeed or fail: it is your own life at every turn.

Having decided to test my abilities at some of the most famous concert halls in London, New York and Paris, I tried to adopt a realistic approach. In the worst scenario I might trip over the carpet onto the floor. Being a completely unknown debutant I had nothing to lose in the event of failure, but I could gain a great deal of self-confidence in the event of success. I have never had a problem in vocal technique and I have normally been able to concentrate well on the music and poetry. However, my concentration was disturbed at Carnegie Recital Hall in 1985 when I saw a light behind the side curtains of the stage and a man´s feet moving towards the dressing room where I had left my handbag. I felt I was sure to find an empty purse afterwards, but there was no time to check the incident until the concert was over. Judging from the rather excellent review by Will Crutchfield in The New York Times, 11.9.1985, the episode had not affected my performance. As a matter of fact I had completely forgotten all about my suspicions until after the concert when I needed money for the taxi.

A human being is imperfect compared with a machine. However, it is just the human imperfections that fascinate and satisfies the listeners more than a machine which would certainly repeat a faultless performance time and again in identical copies. Understanding that human imperfection is acceptable, should be a relief to a singer when aiming for success through trial and error, to grow into "Eigentlichkeit".

##  29. VOCAL TIMBRE

We all have an individual vocal timbre, or tone quality that remains distinctive throughout our lives. For example, even though we may not have heard from a friend for many years, we will immediately recognize him by his voice, if he unexpectedly calls us by telephone. Unlike the voice, our external features will change with the years until they become difficult to recognize. Imitators, on the other hand, are skilled at changing their vocal timbre to sound like others people. How does a voice imitator recall his own timbre? The vocal timbre is the result of the genetically inherited structure of the vocal organ and of the influence of home environment. After the act of imitating someone else, the imitator´s basic timbre will soon be restored to "factory settings".

The vocal timbre is of crucial importance for a singer to succeed."Some people are born singers with a sonorous voice, others are not", as Kim Borg once said to a student. The vocal timbre can, with appropriate practice, be improved to come under one´s control, although to a great extent it reflects occasional emotional, hormonal and other factors affecting the body. There can hardly be a voice ugly enough that its timbre could not be improved to a bearable quality by practice. A good singer is able to vary the vocal timbre at will to reflect the lyrics and the music. There are no methods to "train an ability", in fact, methods are neither to be recommended in most other practices of vocal training. It is better to look at the vocal possibilities within the limits of healthy voice production, and advise the students to listen and to feel their own characteristic range of variations to the timbre. The ultimate element to crown success, is the ability for the variation of vocal timbre and the sensitivity to realize the tonal variations in the essential vocal musculature and more or less in the whole body.

It would be advisable to test the level of motor skills in entrance examinations. Anyone who remembers having had difficulties in the school days in hitting the ball with a bat, should rather think of another occupation, in the same way as a singing student without adequate motor skills will be heading for a long, rocky road. This does not mean I would deny anyone a singing pursuit, but one of the difficulties lies in the fact that the muscles involved in voice production are largely hidden beyond conscious control, and, thus the nerve impulses from the tonal imagination to the muscles do not act smoothly for a singer who lacks motor skills. On the other hand, the extent of tonal imagination is mainly connected to personality, added to which, the way your mother used her voice has certainly a lasting significance.

A newborn baby is programmed to distinguish tonal qualities and hearing the mother´s voice will soon have a calming effect. Using words for communication does not normally begin until the age of two but, the mother´s reward and denial are understood even during the first months of life. Distinguishing tonal qualities is a means of perception adopted after and partially even before birth. The child´s first means of communication is based on vocal timbre. P. Ostwald: Musical Behaviour in Early Childhood _; Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology_ , 15, 1973, 367-375). Development of children´s tonal imagination can be detected rather early in play. In role-plays, a robber or a war hero speaks in quite a different tone from a shop assistant or a fairy godmother. The same phenomenon is repeated in the cast of characters in real theatres. A gentle nurse can hardly have a gloomy, monotonous or hoarse voice, and equally, a sergeant major is not expected to use a sensitive, let alone sensual tone of voice. From childhood we have absorbed the idea that certain vocal timbre or intonation belongs to a certain person or situation. Mother´s baby talk is rich in intonation and tonal colour: the baby learns to hear a consonant sound, for instance /k/, and learns to know how it sounds until it can distinguish the /k/ from other sounds of the alphabet. The sense of hearing has informed the vocal organ, how to act to produce a /k/, and how it feels in the throat. Much later the child finally learns to know how the letter representing the sound /k/ is written on paper in its recognizable form. Reading aloud will require the simultaneous action of three senses: hearing, touch and sight. This synchronized function of the vocal organ is learned in the home environment. If certain wrong reflex actions have been adopted in childhood, it will be difficult to eradicate them later, when serious singing classes begin around the age of eighteen.

Babies´ ears are keen to pick up melodies. I was astonished when my own daughter at ten months, alone in the pram, hummed a simple nursery song melody. The art of expressing oneself through music develops much earlier than words and speech which would indicate that the colour and intonation of the mother´s voice was picked up by the baby, unconsciously, ingeniously.

Recent studies have shown how the significance of vocal timbre is reflected in speech as largely sound symbolism. The significance of timbre seems to be tied up with the sound clusters appearing in the words. According to former ideas the frequency of onomatopoeic words in languages was assumed to be rather low but recent studies have revealed a much higher frequency of sound symbolism.

Åsa Abelin´s thesis, _Studies in Sound Symbolism_ , University of Gothenburg, 1999, investigates sound symbolism appearing in the Swedish lexicon. The emphasis of the study is on the sound symbolic properties of initial and final consonant clusters and to a certain extent of vowels. For instance, the initial cluster with the highest number of sound symbolic root morphemes is sl- (70), followed by sn- (63), kn- (62), kr- (55) and sp- (52) etc. The meanings of the listed words can be different: Sl- stands for the meanings ´pejorative´ (24), ´wetness´ (12), ´long thin form´ (12), ´slackness´ (11); sn- stands for ´pejorative´(13), ´sound´(10), ´long thin form´ (10) etc.

The sounds of which the words are composed, symbolize our thoughts. Teachers of singing and critics´ reviews tend to comment on the clear and correct pronunciation of the sounds instead of paying attention to the timbre of the sounds and words. However, vocal timbre is equally important with clear pronunciation as regards speech recognition. Clear and well controlled articulation does not tell the whole truth: the expression "You seem to be in a good mood today" could as well mean "you seem to be in a bad mood today" depending on the tonal colour. A human being is born with skills of prosodic phonology (Pamela Grunwell: _Clinical Phonology,_ Aspen Systems Corp. 1982. Only the rhythm, stress and intonation of speech will tell exactly what the speaker means. However, this does not apply to the "Greenwich Time Lady" and her informative colleagues, whose speech should rather not have too much variation of intonation and timbre in order to avoid the risk of misunderstanding.

It is not uncommon to see pianists as judges of a singing competition and as such cannot be blamed for lack of courage. On the other hand, I have never seen a singer as a member of a panel of judges at a piano competition. Vocal training should be included in the curricula of all Lied-pianists, conductors and composers, to give them a view on the richness of the vocal qualities of the singing voice, and not least, a view on the difficulties in the evaluation of a vocal performance. After all, the human voice is still our first and last musical instrument.

Before a recital in New York, I went to meet the accompanist recommended to me by the concert bureau. As I entered the pianist´s study, he was rehearsing with a middle-aged singer preceding me. The pianist´s advice on how to pronounce the German language did not meet my taste in tonal quality, and aroused my doubts right away. Then when my turn came he began to lecture on how to interpret Sibelius´ songs, my favourite and strongest repertoire. There were only three days to the concert, but in the circumstances I had to drop the idea of working together with this gentleman. At short notice, with help from my friends, I was lucky enough to find a most excellent pianist, Kenneth Merrill, a great personality with whom we gave several other concerts together later. What a richness of nuances in his accompaniment! Taking the risk of changing the pianist at the last moment turned eventually to my advantage. No doubt, it would be advisable to work with someone you know in advance, but it is not always possible.

It has come to my mind, that having any instrument in the hand, large or small, seems to give an instrumentalist the upper hand in relation to an empty handed singer. Some pianists are inclined to make singers lose their self-confidence during a rehearsal and as a result the singer is led to "accompany" the pianist. Correpetitors at Lied-seminars should not intervene in the singers´ personal interpretation. It is difficult to imagine that piano students were submitted to the tutoring of a teacher of singing. The experienced pianist´s musical correpetition and advice on matters of style is very welcome, but any supervision of vocal technique or interpretation is undesirable.

I remember with great warmth professor Pentti Koskimies, one of the most renowned Lieder –pianists in Finland. I was lucky enough to work with him in many concerts in Finland and abroad. There was not much talking or lecturing during rehearsals: Pentti Koskimies spoke through his pianism. He was knowledgeable and civilized, always respectful, had a good sense of humour, and his mastering of tonal colours was incomparable. It is a stroke of luck for a young singer to meet such an accompanist.

Use of tonal colours in speech and singing is very much bound to cultural background. Encountering different cultures of vocal timbre may sometimes feel confusing. For instance, our ear is not accustomed to enjoy the Chinese tones of voice without a certain reservation. We cannot distinguish the meanings of their tonal world. We do not quite understand how their minds are reflected in the vocal timbre. We are not able to receive their poetical and musical message in the same way as the native Chinese do. On the other hand, Chinese artists have their own huge audience to whom the Western Lieder- and opera –music may sound equally confusing. The vocal timbre may vary depending on culture or individual interpretation, but the essential point is that the singer´s voice remains healthy. We could ask whether, in the foreseeable future, there is a time when vocal training would understand and employ more of the tonal ideals of different cultures?

The vocal expressions of certain feelings or emotions are common worldwide. Yelps of pain, screams of joy, cries of sorrow or cries for help are clearly understood everywhere. The importance of nonverbal communication has been outlined in a book by Ruesch and Kees _Nonverbal communication: Notes on the Visual Perception of Human Relations,_ University of California Press, 1956. Encountering great emotion, our verbal skills regress: words disappear, sign language and action language gain more significance. In sudden astonishment we remain gaping unable to utter a word. Having a quarrel, we tend to use forte so that the volume and timbre become more important than the literal meaning of the words. Quarrelling does not settle differences; it happens later when the mind calms down so that it becomes possible to discuss the actual reasons for the dispute. The other extreme, falling in love, also causes verbal regression towards infantile babble. Again, the literal meaning of words plays a secondary role. Even bird-song has been observed to regress during the most passionate nesting season. It is the intensity of the emotion combined with the vocal timbre that carries the message.

We know how people have been forced into obedience particularly by famous dictators´ political rhetoric when the roaring timbre agitates the population much more than the words themselves. Children are afraid of a loud voice, and shouting has always been used to make children obey. Political theatre intentionally uses cold and harsh tonal colours to such an extent that the voice becomes hoarse, and without vibrato and eloquence.

It is difficult to find any justification for certain pop and rock singers´ ideals of vocal timbre. This phenomenon of using the same hoarse, roaring "effects" in singing, regardless of the contents of the lyrics, did not exist two or three generations ago. It is irresponsible to present to young people these stars, whose hoarse voices lack the elementary vocal skills and reveal clear signs of a seriously damaged vocal organ. Would it not be normal that the better you master your instrument, the better professional you are, whatever your field? Yet the over-commercialized music business can promote to success vocal "skills" that in classical music would lead to a disaster. The music reviewers sometimes join the praises by naming as a "living legend" an actor whose voice sounds more like sandpaper or a dying person´s wheezing.

In his book, _Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee_ (1970), Dee Brown tells the story of how an Indian chief sent an envoy to listen to the neighbouring chief´s talk, not the words but the timbre of the voice. Based on that information the chief could judge, whether the neighbouring chief was reliable enough to make a contract. The modern world has grown quite far from that kind of vocal culture in communication.

##  31. TEACHING SINGING IS INTERESTING AND REWARDING

Having read Frederick Husler´s estimation that roughly one in a thousand would not learn to sing, I was curious enough to experiment as to whether there could be any truth in his allegation. I agreed to enroll a few students with damaged or undeveloped voices, students who sang off-key or who could hardly produce a singing voice. Training these students took a great deal of time and patience, but they started the basics with student teachers under my supervision, and after a couple of years´ work they could enter the regular studies. After the intermediate-level studies, they could pass the entrance exam for higher degree programmes and most of them went on to become fine singers and singing teachers. The following are a few success stories.

Michael could hardly read music, and only succeeded in singing scales or simple triads in his second year. However, after some years I witnessed his stage performance singing Wagner with the Finnish National Opera Chorus. There is only one opera house in Finland and even experienced singers find it difficult to qualify for the group. Michael, whose vocal range once hardly exceeded one octave, could now gather valuable experiences in life, and it goes without saying that his teacher was made very happy indeed. In addition, he was a reliable soloist in the conservatoire opera and oratorio productions.

Kristiina came from a remote provincial music school to apply to Tampere Conservatoire. The excitement made her fail the first entrance examination. However, I had noticed the hidden vocal material and obtained permission to tentatively enroll her in my class. This timid and reserved young girl grew quickly in skills and confidence into a competent and controlled mezzo-soprano. She was an unforgettable Jeanne d´Arc in Tshaikovsky´s opera presented at the Berliner Philharmonie Hall in Berlin. After her opera career in German Opera Houses she joined the Rundfunkchor Berlin and frequents world tours as the soloist in the choir. Her teaching at the Hanns Eisler Academy of Music in Berlin has no doubt been an extra delight to her erstwhile singing teacher.

Anita was another "country girl" who had been expelled from a provincial music school as untalented. Her soft voice could hardly carry from the stage to the front rows. I hesitated myself, whether her kind of poor performance could be made into a proper singer. Little by little her voice began to take shape and strengthen, and eventually she possessed a stronger than average, beautiful, dark-coloured mezzo voice. Eventually she became a professional singer in the Finnish National Opera Chorus. If only I had tape-recorded her first classes to show the unbelievable before/after change.

Helen was well advanced to becoming a pianist when two of her fingers started to cramp which limited her practicing before a decisive examination. She came to see me in tears to talk about her unhappy situation. I encouraged her straight away by saying that if piano playing did not work out, then let´s make a singer out of you. She stopped crying and burst into laughter. She was made into a singer after all, and an excellent singing pedagogue as well.

Pentti lived in the Tampere suburb of Pirkkala, singing pop and rock music by ear. Living nearby I learned to know him and encouraged him to start serious music studies. In the entrance examination his score in musical theory was poor but I saw his general musical talent was so evident that he scraped through the exam. He made a promising solo career in the Savonlinna Opera Festival and in the Finnish National Opera and in some guest appearances abroad. He also enjoys a reputation for cross-over performances and recordings.

I am ready to agree with Frederick Husler on his idea that only one in a thousand is not able to learn to sing well enough to enter the stage but it is quite another question how each and everyone will be placed in the musical world. Many talented singers will never find their way to appear on stage. A few of my students have managed to make a career in the Central European Opera Houses. I have certainly been very happy about their successes, but on the other hand, they have not necessarily been the most talented ones or the most brilliant voices from my class. Not everyone has the possibility or courage to dedicate their lives to an opera career, since there are priorities. If an international singing career is chosen as first priority, there can hardly remain important second or third priorities. Life, quite simply, is not fair.

Family and the closest personal relations remain most important after all. No standing ovations and bravos can be as good as the closest relatives. Although fame and worldly success may remain out of reach, you can always rely on singing itself and music and poetry. You have your own wonderful world of singing. "Ich leb´allein in meinem Himmel, in meinem Lieben, in meinem Lied" (Friedrich Rückert). You will always have the right to the Art of Singing just like your more glamorous colleagues. There are writers who do not publish much but they feel an urge to write. Singers can have the same kind of urge. Do we really always need an audience? My personal choice was to give a Lieder-recital now and then instead of having an agent and running after opera roles.

As soon as a few students had made good progress, I thought it would be right to start singing ensemble opera scenes, acts and finally complete operas, normally with piano accompaniment. Choral singing was included in the regular curriculum but in my view it was not enough. It was a great pleasure to give the students the wonderful experience of performing a complete opera. As the number and skills of the students increased, we were able to cast all the leading and minor roles and a small chorus of many great operas, such as: Mozart´s _The Abduction from the Seraglio_ and the _Magic Flute_ , Purcell´s _Dido and Aeneas_ , Britten´s _The Turn of the Screw_ and many oratorios too, like Haydn´s _Stabat Mater_ and Bach´s as well as Saint-Saëns´s _Christmas Oratorios._ Later the Conservatoire started an Opera Class where my students still had the leading roles like: Bizet´s _Carmen_ , Puccini´s _Bohème_ , and Mozart´s _The Marriage of Figaro._ I take pride and joy in having started with many students from scratch to train them vocally and initiate them into such great musical works. Some students who have later chosen other occupations have wondered at their own opera achievements. They succeeded because I did not allow them to find singing difficult.

Singing differs in many ways from instrumental music making. No instrumentalist can produce recognizable music at the first music lesson like a singer can. The use of the singer´s instrument has been developing since childhood, mainly by speech and other vocal activity. The instrumentalists carry their "sound" in the instrument case, a sound that will never become ill, catch a cold or cough; it is not prone to stress, traumas or anxiety. The singer´s instrument has both a physical and a mental nature, therefore vocal training, or rather discovering and unlocking the voice is extremely interesting. Basically all human vocal organs are much alike, but each individual singing voice still has its own special quality depending on the dimensions and the proportions of the body. The singer´s personality will finally determine the individual vocal qualities.

A professor of phonetics wrote that vocal training of actors and actresses should not include training of an "opera voice". The idea behind the statement did not become quite clear, but in my view every singer, actor or other "voice worker" should learn to know about the instrument, which is the voice, and its use as thoroughly as possible. Right there is our essential work as teachers and vocal coaches.

Since childhood everyone learns certain vocal habits depending on the social environment. On reaching adulthood these habits may have caused certain body tensions or we have consciously tried to follow certain methods or vocal models which may have increased the tensions in the muscles of voice production. Release from these tensions is the singing teacher´s field. Studying singing cannot be compared with many other studies where the facts and the truth can be found printed in the textbook. Studying singing is a journey to explore the interaction of the body and mind and by that means to discover one´s own voice. Considering this, it is understandable that studying ten years or even more is not unusual for development into maturity as a singer.

##  31. TO A NOVICE TEACHER OF SINGING

You may have heard stories about brilliant singing teachers of the bel canto era. Did they really have some secret wisdom of teaching, or were the greater part of songs of the time simply well suited to singing? It is a fact that many bel canto composers studied singing and were good singers themselves. May I ask how many present-day composers have actively attended singing classes? Different compositions with different combinations of pitch and rhythm seem to strain the vocal organ in different ways. The use of bel canto time music in my teaching practice has clearly helped many students to find the way to easy and healthy singing. However, the term bel canto has been used excessively in connection with vocal training and has lead to both right and wrong interpretations, like many other inexact expressions.

Unsubstantiated stories tend to mix things up and confuse students´ minds. Worst of all, some expressions may sound clever and scientific. One serious error is to occupy oneself with the schools of respiration. Voice training seems to focus the attention far too much on the conscious control of breathing. On the other hand, the anatomy and the physiology of the laryngeal, pharyngeal and other relevant vocal musculature are omitted. The pharynx was already a special subject of attention of the bel canto masters, (David Galliver: "Cantare con la Gorga", The Coloratura technique of the Renaissance Singer _, Studies in Music 7_ , 1973). Interest in the functioning of the larynx and the vocal chords during singing was the main reason for the Spanish baritone and voice pedagogue Manuel Garcia invention of the laryngoscope as early as 1854. Singing voice research has since produced a great deal of reliable knowledge on singing and vocal training for the particular use of teachers. Comparison of your own observations in practical voice training with the corresponding research results will often confirm your good work. Do not uncritically follow any fashionable top vocal coach. Make your own observations and think, together with support from well proven knowledge.

Give time for your students to mature. The examinations and performances seem to approach too soon. One should have time to "drive a horse drawn carriage" as a colleague once put it. It is good to set the pace, let the horse eat some grass now and then and continue when it feels right. Don´t let the examination day worry you too much. Your student may sing well at the final rehearsal, but don´t be surprised if the actual performance still turns out to be less successful. Don´t blame yourself and your teaching skills. Just remember your own first performances when you entered the stage without former experience. Go on driving the horse drawn carriage but have a steady grip on the reins. Your student may panic and stumble but still have to stay calm. Just remind your student that no one is perfect and everyone has a right to a second chance. Let´s enjoy the successes and weather the failures together as you will most certainly experience both.

Be aware that that your way of teaching does not necessarily please or is good enough for everyone. F. M. Alexander reminded Alexander technique teachers that if the students do not completely understand what you are saying they will oppose you, if not they will become your enemy. Personality plays a major role in vocal training and some individuals just do not sympathize with each other so that it is sensible to work with those students who are open-minded and show positive response. The characters and personalities may be different but with mutual respect and confidence the work together will turn out well.

It also happens that some singing pedagogues who have won fame and status, are inclined to recruit well advanced students. It is understandable because the first steps in vocal training are the most difficult. Teachers who are capable of training good healthy singing voices are few but if word gets around, many beginners will come knocking at your door. There are many more teachers who can train advanced students further. They can focus on making music with skilled singers not needing to worry about the basics. Having to part with your star student after many years´ close teacher-student relationship, may seem hard at first but that´s life; simply wish them good luck in the future before parting. In the event you receive students from other teachers, do not emphasize the possible mistakes caused by the former teacher, but try to discreetly eliminate the poor and discover the good.

If students cannot clearly discern the advancement or decline of their own vocal skills, they will hardly become reliable, independent singers. Your students may return from a two weeks' master class and have noticeably lost half an octave of the vocal range, but you should still appear to approve of the charismatic teacher´s advice. You can only advise them to come to their own conclusions on the grounds of the sudden decline in their vocal skills. Uncritical running from one guru to another will never make a serious professional singer. You may also receive pop singers who want to strengthen their voice to better endure the strain entailed by their heavy repertoire. As a voice trainer it is none of your business to express your opinion on someone´s musical interest or taste; your work is to help them discover their own voice and activate all its qualities concerning pitch, timbre and loudness. The music that you offer for vocal training purpose may also open new perspectives regarding the singer´s musical preferences. It is not unusual that pop singers, after having found their complete voice, would like to sing opera too.

A good teacher needs a deep knowledge of several subjects and relevant practical experience. Firstly, one has to master many languages and know the vocal music repertoire as widely as possible. Secondly, it is important to follow relevant singing voice research and the current international singing events. It is also essential to have concert experience oneself to know what is involved, and, to take into consideration Winston Churchill's words, that success is not final and failure is not fatal, it´s the courage to continue that counts. Mental maturity and knowledge of human nature are important qualities. For the act of teaching, 100% presence is needed to hear and observe the smallest vocal development immediately as even the smallest advancement gives reason for immediate, positive feedback. However, the talent for a musical ear and sensitivity to discern the little nuances of vocal timbre are qualities that can hardly be taught, but they will develop along with teaching practice, with a variety of voices to be trained. Knowledge of human nature will also develop with time and "driving a horse drawn carriage".

When your students are quick to learn and the best of them will soon make their debut on stage and start a career, do not be surprised if some of them equally soon forget the name of their long-time teacher. This is what the renowned singing pedagogue, Vera Rózsa, once told me. She continued, that if you are a good teacher you will always have two to three students around to make you happy. Based on my over 40 years´ experience in the field I quite agree with Vera Rózsa´s words.

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Schematic anatomy illustrations are based on Sobotta: Atlas of Human Anatomy, _Volume 1, 13_ th _Edition, Urban &Fischer 2001_

**Raija Roivainen** mezzo-soprano, teacher of singing

Graduated from the Sibelius-Academy, Helsinki, she made her Finnish Lieder-debut in 1969 and London debut at the Wigmore Hall in 1976. Thereafter she has been a frequent performer at the Purcell Room, London and at the Recital Hall at Carnegie Hall, New York among other esteemed concert halls. Besides her concert singer´s career she enjoys a reputation as a teacher of singing.

After retirement from the Tampere Conservatoire she published a book on singing "The Unbearable Ease of Singing" 2004, now published as an e-book.

Voice is a psychophysical phenomenon. Singing can be considered as a continuous muscular movement. The elasticity, mobility and tension-free action of the muscles of the entire body are the essential prerequisites of easy, natural singing.

Stress and anxiety, stiff postures and conscious attempt at muscular control will impede the ease of performance. In brief, don't do the singing, let it happen.

These essential ideas have encouraged the author the compile basic knowledge, thoughts, findings and views of singing accrued during the over 40 years´ career as a singer and teacher of singing.

