Realism is a school of thought in international
relations theory, theoretically formalising
the Realpolitik statesmanship of early modern
Europe. Although a highly diverse body of
thought, it can be thought of as unified by
the belief that world politics ultimately
is always and necessarily a field of conflict
among actors pursuing power. Crudely, realists
are of three kinds in what they take the source
of ineliminable conflict to be. Classical
realists believe that it follows from human
nature, neorealists focus upon the structure
of the anarchic state system, and neoclassical
realists believe that it is a result of a
combination of the two and certain domestic
variables. Realists also disagree about what
kind of action states ought to take to navigate
world politics and neorealists are divided
between defensive realism and offensive realism.
Realists have also claimed that a realist
tradition of thought is evident within the
history of political thought all the way back
to antiquity to Thucydides.
Jonathan Haslam characterizes realism as "a
spectrum of ideas." Regardless of which definition
is used, the theories of realism revolve around
four central propositions:
That states are the central actors in international
politics rather than individuals or international
organizations,
That the international political system is
anarchic as there is no supranational authority
that can enforce rules over the states,
That the actors in the international political
system are rational as their actions maximize
their own self-interest, and
That all states desire power so that they
can ensure their own self-preservation.Realism
is often associated with Realpolitik as both
are based on the management of the pursuit,
possession, and application of power. Realpolitik,
however, is an older prescriptive guideline
limited to policy-making (like foreign policy),
while realism is a particular paradigm, or
wider theoretical and methodological framework,
aimed at describing, explaining and, eventually,
predicting events in the international relations
domain. The theories of Realism are contrasted
by the cooperative ideals of liberalism.
Realism is one of the dominant strains of
thought in modern foreign policy. As an academic
pursuit, realism is not tied to ideology;
it does not favor any particular moral philosophy,
nor does it consider ideology to be a major
factor in the behavior of nations. Priorities
of realists have been described as "Machiavellian",
with the primary focus being increasing the
relative power of one's own nation over others.
== Common assumptions ==
Realism is a tradition of international theory
centered upon four propositions.
The international system is anarchic.
No actor exists above states, capable of regulating
their interactions; states must arrive at
relations with other states on their own,
rather than it being dictated to them by some
higher controlling entity.
The international system exists in a state
of constant antagonism (anarchy).
States are the most important actors.
All states within the system are unitary,
rational actors
States tend to pursue self-interest.
Groups strive to attain as many resources
as possible (relative gain).
The primary concern of all states is survival.
States build up military to survive, which
may lead to a security dilemma.In summary,
realists think that mankind is not inherently
benevolent but rather self-centered and competitive.
This perspective, which is shared by theorists
such as Thomas Hobbes, views human nature
as egocentric (not necessarily selfish) and
conflictual unless there exist conditions
under which humans may coexist. It is also
disposed of the notion that an individual's
intuitive nature is made up of anarchy. In
regards to self-interest, these individuals
are self-reliant and are motivated in seeking
more power. They are also believed to be fearful.
This view contrasts with the approach of liberalism
to international relations.
The state emphasises an interest in accumulating
power to ensure security in an anarchic world.
Power is a concept primarily thought of in
terms of material resources necessary to induce
harm or coerce other states (to fight and
win wars). The use of power places an emphasis
on coercive tactics being acceptable to either
accomplish something in the national interest
or avoid something inimical to the national
interest. The state is the most important
actor under realism. It is unitary and autonomous
because it speaks and acts with one voice.
The power of the state is understood in terms
of its military capabilities.
A key concept under realism is the international
distribution of power referred to as system
polarity. Polarity refers to the number of
blocs of states that exert power in an international
system. A multipolar system is composed of
three or more blocs, a bipolar system is composed
of two blocs, and a unipolar system is dominated
by a single power or hegemon. Under unipolarity
realism predicts that states will band together
to oppose the hegemon and restore a balance
of power. Although all states seek hegemony
under realism as the only way to ensure their
own security, other states in the system are
incentivised to prevent the emergence of a
hegemon through balancing.
States employ the rational model of decision
making by obtaining and acting upon complete
and accurate information. The state is sovereign
and guided by a national interest defined
in terms of power. Since the only constraint
of the international system is anarchy, there
is no international authority and states are
left to their own devices to ensure their
own security.
Realists believe that sovereign states are
the principal actors in the international
system. International institutions, non-governmental
organizations, multinational corporations,
individuals and other sub-state or trans-state
actors are viewed as having little independent
influence. States are inherently aggressive
(offensive realism) and obsessed with security
(defensive realism), and that territorial
expansion is only constrained by opposing
powers. This aggressive build-up, however,
leads to a security dilemma whereby increasing
one's security may bring along even greater
instability as an opposing power builds up
its own arms in response (an arms race). Thus,
security becomes a zero-sum game where only
relative gains can be made.
Realists believe that there are no universal
principles with which all states may guide
their actions. Instead, a state must always
be aware of the actions of the states around
it and must use a pragmatic approach to resolve
problems as they arise.
== Realism in statecraft ==
Modern realist statesmenHenry Kissinger
Zbigniew Brzezinski
Brent ScowcroftThe ideas behind George F.
Kennan's work as a diplomat and diplomatic
historian remain relevant to the debate over
American foreign policy, which since the 19th
century has been characterized by a shift
from the Founding Fathers' realist school
to the idealistic or Wilsonian school of international
relations. In the realist tradition, security
is based on the principle of a balance of
power and the reliance on morality as the
sole determining factor in statecraft is considered
impractical. According to the Wilsonian approach,
on the other hand, the spread of democracy
abroad as a foreign policy is key and morals
are universally valid. During the Presidency
of Bill Clinton, American diplomacy reflected
the Wilsonian school to such a degree that
those in favor of the realist approach likened
Clinton's policies to social work. According
to Kennan, whose concept of American diplomacy
was based on the realist approach, such moralism
without regard to the realities of power and
the national interest is self-defeating and
will lead to the erosion of power, to America's
detriment.Realists often hold that statesmen
tend towards realism whereas realism is deeply
unpopular among the public. When statesmen
take actions that divert from realist policies,
academic realists often argue that this is
due to distortions that stem from domestic
politics. However, some research suggests
that realist policies are actually popular
among the public whereas elites are more beholden
to liberal ideas.
== Historical branches and antecedents ==
Historian Jean Bethke Elshtain traces the
historiography of realism:
The genealogy of realism as international
relations, although acknowledging antecedents,
gets down to serious business with Machiavelli,
moving on to theorists of sovereignty and
apologists for raison d'état, and culminating,
in its early modern forms, with Hobbes's Leviathan
(1651) before continuing the trek into the
present.While Realism as a formal discipline
in international relations did not arrive
until World War II, its primary assumptions
have been expressed in earlier writings:Modern
realism began as a serious field of research
in the United States during and after World
War II. This evolution was partly fueled by
European war migrants like Hans Morgenthau,
whose work Politics Among Nations is considered
a seminal development in the rise of modern
realism.
George F. Kennan – containment
Nicholas Spykman – geostrategy, containment
Herman Kahn – nuclear strategy
E. H. Carr
=== 
Classical realism ===
Classical realism states that it is fundamentally
the nature of humans that pushes states and
individuals to act in a way that places interests
over ideologies. Classical realism is an ideology
defined as the view that the "drive for power
and the will to dominate [that are] held to
be fundamental aspects of human nature".
=== Liberal realism or the English school
or rationalism ===
The English School holds that the international
system, while anarchical in structure, forms
a "society of states" where common norms and
interests allow for more order and stability
than that which may be expected in a strict
realist view. Prominent English School writer
Hedley Bull's 1977 classic, The Anarchical
Society, is a key statement of this position.
Prominent liberal realists:
Hedley Bull – argued for both the existence
of an international society of states and
its perseverance even in times of great systemic
upheaval, meaning regional or so-called "world
wars"
Martin Wight
Barry Buzan
=== Neorealism or structural realism ===
Neorealism derives from classical realism
except that instead of human nature, its focus
is predominantly on the anarchic structure
of the international system. States are primary
actors because there is no political monopoly
on force existing above any sovereign. While
states remain the principal actors, greater
attention is given to the forces above and
below the states through levels of analysis
or structure-agency debate. The international
system is seen as a structure acting on the
state with individuals below the level of
the state acting as agency on the state as
a whole.
While neorealism shares a focus on the international
system with the English School, neorealism
differs in the emphasis it places on the permanence
of conflict. To ensure state security, states
must be on constant preparation for conflict
through economic and military build-up.
Prominent neorealists:
Robert J. Art – neorealism
Robert Gilpin – hegemonic theory
Joanne Gowa – neorealism
Robert Jervis – defensive realism
Christopher Layne - neorealism
John Mearsheimer – offensive realism
Barry Posen - neorealism
Kenneth Waltz – structural realism
Stephen Walt – defensive realism
=== 
Neoclassical realism ===
Neoclassical Realism can be seen as the third
generation of realism, coming after the classical
authors of the first wave (Thucydides, Machiavelli,
Thomas Hobbes), and the neorealists (esp.
Kenneth Waltz). Its designation of "neoclassical",
then, has a double meaning:
It offers the classics a renaissance;
It is a synthesis of the neorealist and the
classical realist approaches.Gideon Rose is
responsible for coining the term in a book
review he wrote.The primary motivation underlying
the development of neoclassical realism was
the fact that neorealism was only useful to
explain political outcomes (classified as
being 'theories of international politics'),
but had nothing to offer about particular
states' behavior (or 'theories of foreign
policy'). The basic approach, then, was for
these authors to "refine, not refute, Kenneth
Waltz", by adding domestic intervening variables
between systemic incentives and a state's
foreign policy decision. Thus, the basic theoretical
architecture of Neoclassical Realism is:
Distribution of power in the international
system (independent variable) >>>
Domestic perception of the system and/or domestic
incentives (intervening variable) >>>
Foreign policy decision (dependent variable)While
neoclassical realism has only been used for
theories of foreign policy so far, Randall
Schweller notes that it could be useful to
explain certain types of political outcomes
as well.Neoclassical realism is particularly
appealing from a research standpoint because
it still retains a lot of the theoretical
rigor that Waltz has brought to realism, but
at the same time can easily incorporate a
content-rich analysis, since its main method
for testing theories is the process-tracing
of case studies.
Prominent neoclassical realists:
Randall Schweller
Thomas J. Christensen
William Wohlforth
Aaron Friedberg
Norrin Ripsman
Fareed Zakaria
Tom Dyson
Jonathan D. Kirshner
=== 
Left realism ===
Several scholars, including Mark Laffey at
the School of Oriental and African Studies,
and Ronald Osborn at the University of Southern
California, have argued for the idea of a
"Left Realism" in IR theory with particular
reference to the work of Noam Chomsky. Both
Laffey and Osborn have suggested in separate
articles in Review of International Studies
that Chomsky’s understanding of power in
the international sphere reflects the analytical
assumptions of classical realism combined
with a radical moral, normative or "Left"
critique of the state.
=== Realist constructivism ===
Some see a complementarity between realism
and constructivism. Samuel Barkin, for instance,
holds that "realist constructivism" can fruitfully
"study the relationship between normative
structures, the carriers of political morality,
and uses of power" in ways that existing approaches
do not. Similarly, Jennifer Sterling-Folker
has argued that theoretical synthesis helps
explanations of international monetary policy
by combining realism’s emphasis of an anarchic
system with constructivism's insights regarding
important factors from the domestic level.
Scholars such as Oded Löwenheim and Ned Lebow
have also been associated with realist constructivism.
== Criticisms ==
=== 
Democratic peace ===
Democratic peace theory advocates also that
realism is not applicable to democratic states'
relations with each another, as their studies
claim that such states do not go to war with
one another. However, Realists and proponents
of other schools have critiqued both this
claim and the studies which appear to support
it, claiming that its definitions of "war"
and "democracy" must be tweaked in order to
achieve the desired result.
=== Hegemonic peace ===
Robert Gilpin developed the theory of hegemonic
stability theory within the realist framework,
but limited it to the economic field. Niall
Ferguson remarked that the theory has offered
insights into the way that economic power
works, but neglected the military and cultural
aspects of power.
=== Federalism ===
The term refers to the theory or advocacy
of federal political orders, where final authority
is divided between sub-units and a centre.
Unlike a unitary state, sovereignty is constitutionally
split between at least two territorial levels
so that units at each level have final authority
and can act independently of the others in
some area. Citizens thus have political obligations
to two authorities. The allocation of authority
between the sub-unit and centre may vary.
Typically the centre has powers regarding
defence and foreign policy, but sub-units
may also have international roles. The sub-units
may also participate in central decision-making
bodies.
The basic idea behind federalism is that a
unifying relationship between states should
be established under a common system of law.
Conflict and disagreement should be resolved
through peaceful means rather than through
coercion or war. Its most important aspect
is in recognizing that different types of
institutions are needed to deal with different
types of political issues.
=== Post-realism ===
Post-realism suggests that Realism is a form
of social, scientific and political rhetoric.
It opens rather than closes a debate about
what is real and what is realistic in international
relations.
Prominent Post-Realists:
Francis A. Beer
James Der Derian
Robert Hariman
Michael J. Shapiro
== 
See also ==
Complex interdependence
Consensus reality
Consequentialism
International legal theory
Flipism
Game theory
Global justice
Legalism (Chinese philosophy)
Might makes right
Negarchy
Peace through strength
Realpolitik
Reinhold Niebuhr, (1892–1971), American
theologian
