Misogyny () is the hatred of, contempt for,
or prejudice against women or girls. Misogyny
manifests in numerous ways, including social
exclusion, sex discrimination, hostility,
androcentrism, patriarchy, male privilege,
belittling of women, disenfranchisement of
women, violence against women, and sexual
objectification. Misogyny can be found within
sacred texts of religions, mythologies, and
Western philosophy and Eastern philosophy.
The inverse is misandry; the hatred of, contempt
for, or prejudice against men or boys.
== Definitions ==
According to sociologist Allan G. Johnson,
"misogyny is a cultural attitude of hatred
for females because they are female". Johnson
argues that:
Misogyny .... is a central part of sexist
prejudice and ideology and, as such, is an
important basis for the oppression of females
in male-dominated societies. Misogyny is manifested
in many different ways, from jokes to pornography
to violence to the self-contempt women may
be taught to feel toward their own bodies.
Sociologist Michael Flood at the University
of Wollongong defines misogyny as the hatred
of women, and notes:
Though most common in men, misogyny also exists
in and is practiced by women against other
women or even themselves. Misogyny functions
as an ideology or belief system that has accompanied
patriarchal, or male-dominated societies for
thousands of years and continues to place
women in subordinate positions with limited
access to power and decision making. […] Aristotle
contended that women exist as natural deformities
or imperfect males […] Ever since, women
in Western cultures have internalised their
role as societal scapegoats, influenced in
the twenty-first century by multimedia objectification
of women with its culturally sanctioned self-loathing
and fixations on plastic surgery, anorexia
and bulimia.
Dictionaries define misogyny as "hatred of
women" and as "hatred, dislike, or mistrust
of women". In 2012, primarily in response
to events occurring in the Australian Parliament,
the Macquarie Dictionary (which documents
Australian English and New Zealand English)
expanded the definition to include not only
hatred of women but also "entrenched prejudices
against women". The counterpart of misogyny
is misandry, the hatred or dislike of men;
the antonym of misogyny is philogyny, the
love or fondness of women.
Misogynous can be used as adjectival forms
of the word.
== Historical usage ==
=== Classical Greece ===
In his book City of Sokrates: An Introduction
to Classical Athens, J.W. Roberts argues that
older than tragedy and comedy was a misogynistic
tradition in Greek literature, reaching back
at least as far as Hesiod. The term misogyny
itself comes directly into English from the
Ancient Greek word misogunia (μισογυνία),
which survives in several passages.
The earlier, longer, and more complete passage
comes from a moral tract known as On Marriage
(c. 150 BC) by the stoic philosopher Antipater
of Tarsus. Antipater argues that marriage
is the foundation of the state, and considers
it to be based on divine (polytheistic) decree.
He uses misogunia to describe the sort of
writing the tragedian Euripides eschews, stating
that he "reject[s] the hatred of women in
his writing" (ἀποθέμενος τὴν
ἐν τῷ γράφειν μισογυνίαν).
He then offers an example of this, quoting
from a lost play of Euripides in which the
merits of a dutiful wife are praised.The other
surviving use of the original Greek word is
by Chrysippus, in a fragment from On affections,
quoted by Galen in Hippocrates on Affections.
Here, misogyny is the first in a short list
of three "disaffections"—women (misogunia),
wine (misoinia, μισοινία) and humanity
(misanthrōpia, μισανθρωπία). Chrysippus'
point is more abstract than Antipater's, and
Galen quotes the passage as an example of
an opinion contrary to his own. What is clear,
however, is that he groups hatred of women
with hatred of humanity generally, and even
hatred of wine. "It was the prevailing medical
opinion of his day that wine strengthens body
and soul alike." So Chrysippus, like his fellow
stoic Antipater, views misogyny negatively,
as a disease; a dislike of something that
is good. It is this issue of conflicted or
alternating emotions that was philosophically
contentious to the ancient writers. Ricardo
Salles suggests that the general stoic view
was that "[a] man may not only alternate between
philogyny and misogyny, philanthropy and misanthropy,
but be prompted to each by the other."Aristotle
has also been accused of being a misogynist;
he has written that women were inferior to
men. According to Cynthia Freeland (1994):
Aristotle says that the courage of a man lies
in commanding, a woman's lies in obeying;
that 'matter yearns for form, as the female
for the male and the ugly for the beautiful';
that women have fewer teeth than men; that
a female is an incomplete male or 'as it were,
a deformity': which contributes only matter
and not form to the generation of offspring;
that in general 'a woman is perhaps an inferior
being'; that female characters in a tragedy
will be inappropriate if they are too brave
or too clever[.]
In the Routledge philosophy guidebook to Plato
and the Republic, Nickolas Pappas describes
the "problem of misogyny" and states:
In the Apology, Socrates calls those who plead
for their lives in court "no better than women"
(35b)... The Timaeus warns men that if they
live immorally they will be reincarnated as
women (42b-c; cf. 75d-e). The Republic contains
a number of comments in the same spirit (387e,
395d-e, 398e, 431b-c, 469d), evidence of nothing
so much as of contempt toward women. Even
Socrates' words for his bold new proposal
about marriage... suggest that the women are
to be "held in common" by men. He never says
that the men might be held in common by the
women... We also have to acknowledge Socrates'
insistence that men surpass women at any task
that both sexes attempt (455c, 456a), and
his remark in Book 8 that one sign of democracy's
moral failure is the sexual equality it promotes
(563b).
Misogynist is also found in the Greek—misogunēs
(μισογύνης)—in Deipnosophistae
(above) and in Plutarch's Parallel Lives,
where it is used as the title of Heracles
in the history of Phocion. It was the title
of a play by Menander, which we know of from
book seven (concerning Alexandria) of Strabo's
17 volume Geography, and quotations of Menander
by Clement of Alexandria and Stobaeus that
relate to marriage. A Greek play with a similar
name, Misogunos (Μισόγυνος) or Woman-hater,
is reported by Marcus Tullius Cicero (in Latin)
and attributed to the poet Marcus Atilius.
Cicero reports that Greek philosophers considered
misogyny to be caused by gynophobia, a fear
of women.
It is the same with other diseases; as the
desire of glory, a passion for women, to which
the Greeks give the name of philogyneia: and
thus all other diseases and sicknesses are
generated. But those feelings which are the
contrary of these are supposed to have fear
for their foundation, as a hatred of women,
such as is displayed in the Woman-hater of
Atilius; or the hatred of the whole human
species, as Timon is reported to have done,
whom they call the Misanthrope. Of the same
kind is inhospitality. And all these diseases
proceed from a certain dread of such things
as they hate and avoid.
In summary, Greek literature considered misogyny
to be a disease—an anti-social condition—in
that it ran contrary to their perceptions
of the value of women as wives and of the
family as the foundation of society. These
points are widely noted in the secondary literature.
== Religion ==
=== 
Ancient Greek ===
In Misogyny: The World's Oldest Prejudice,
Jack Holland argues that there is evidence
of misogyny in the mythology of the ancient
world. In Greek mythology according to Hesiod,
the human race had already experienced a peaceful,
autonomous existence as a companion to the
gods before the creation of women. When Prometheus
decides to steal the secret of fire from the
gods, Zeus becomes infuriated and decides
to punish humankind with an "evil thing for
their delight". This "evil thing" is Pandora,
the first woman, who carried a jar (usually
described—incorrectly—as a box) which
she was told to never open. Epimetheus (the
brother of Prometheus) is overwhelmed by her
beauty, disregards Prometheus' warnings about
her, and marries her. Pandora cannot resist
peeking into the jar, and by opening it she
unleashes into the world all evil; labour,
sickness, old age, and death.
=== Buddhism ===
In his book The Power of Denial: Buddhism,
Purity, and Gender, professor Bernard Faure
of Columbia University argued generally that
"Buddhism is paradoxically neither as sexist
nor as egalitarian as is usually thought."
He remarked, "Many feminist scholars have
emphasized the misogynistic (or at least androcentric)
nature of Buddhism" and stated that Buddhism
morally exalts its male monks while the mothers
and wives of the monks also have important
roles. Additionally, he wrote:
While some scholars see Buddhism as part of
a movement of emancipation, others see it
as a source of oppression. Perhaps this is
only a distinction between optimists and pessimists,
if not between idealists and realists... As
we begin to realize, the term "Buddhism" does
not designate a monolithic entity, but covers
a number of doctrines, ideologies, and practices--some
of which seem to invite, tolerate, and even
cultivate "otherness" on their margins.
=== Christianity ===
Differences in tradition and interpretations
of scripture have caused sects of Christianity
to differ in their beliefs with regard their
treatment of women.
In The Troublesome Helpmate, Katharine M.
Rogers argues that Christianity is misogynistic,
and she lists what she says are specific examples
of misogyny in the Pauline epistles. She states:
The foundations of early Christian misogyny
— its guilt about sex, its insistence on
female subjection, its dread of female seduction
— are all in St. Paul's epistles.
In K. K. Ruthven's Feminist Literary Studies:
An Introduction, Ruthven makes reference to
Rogers' book and argues that the "legacy of
Christian misogyny was consolidated by the
so-called 'Fathers' of the Church, like Tertullian,
who thought a woman was not only 'the gateway
of the devil' but also 'a temple built over
a sewer'."However, some other scholars have
argued that Christianity does not include
misogynistic principles, or at least that
a proper interpretation of Christianity would
not include misogynistic principles. David
M. Scholer, a biblical scholar at Fuller Theological
Seminary, stated that the verse Galatians
3:28 ("There is neither Jew nor Greek, there
is neither slave nor free, there is neither
male nor female; for you are all one in Christ
Jesus") is "the fundamental Pauline theological
basis for the inclusion of women and men as
equal and mutual partners in all of the ministries
of the church." In his book Equality in Christ?
Galatians 3:28 and the Gender Dispute, Richard
Hove argues that—while Galatians 3:28 does
mean that one's sex does not affect salvation—"there
remains a pattern in which the wife is to
emulate the church's submission to Christ
(Eph 5:21-33) and the husband is to emulate
Christ's love for the church."In Christian
Men Who Hate Women, clinical psychologist
Margaret J. Rinck has written that Christian
social culture often allows a misogynist "misuse
of the biblical ideal of submission". However,
she argues that this a distortion of the "healthy
relationship of mutual submission" which is
actually specified in Christian doctrine,
where "[l]ove is based on a deep, mutual respect
as the guiding principle behind all decisions,
actions, and plans". Similarly, Catholic scholar
Christopher West argues that "male domination
violates God's plan and is the specific result
of sin".
=== Islam ===
The fourth chapter (or sura) of the Quran
is called "Women" (An-Nisa). The 34th verse
is a key verse in feminist criticism of Islam.
The verse reads: "Men are the maintainers
of women because Allah has made some of them
to excel others and because they spend out
of their property; the good women are therefore
obedient, guarding the unseen as Allah has
guarded; and (as to) those on whose part you
fear desertion, admonish them, and leave them
alone in the sleeping-places and beat them;
then if they obey you, do not seek a way against
them; surely Allah is High, Great."
In his book Popular Islam and Misogyny: A
Case Study of Bangladesh, Taj Hashmi discusses
misogyny in relation to Muslim culture (and
to Bangladesh in particular), writing:
[T]hanks to the subjective interpretations
of the Quran (almost exclusively by men),
the preponderance of the misogynic mullahs
and the regressive Shariah law in most "Muslim"
countries, Islam is synonymously known as
a promoter of misogyny in its worst form.
Although there is no way of defending the
so-called "great" traditions of Islam as libertarian
and egalitarian with regard to women, we may
draw a line between the Quranic texts and
the corpus of avowedly misogynic writing and
spoken words by the mullah having very little
or no relevance to the Quran.
In his book No god but God, University of
Southern California professor Reza Aslan wrote
that "misogynistic interpretation" has been
persistently attached to An-Nisa, 34 because
commentary on the Quran "has been the exclusive
domain of Muslim men".
=== Sikhism ===
Scholars William M. Reynolds and Julie A.
Webber have written that Guru Nanak, the founder
of the Sikh faith tradition, was a "fighter
for women's rights" that was "in no way misogynistic"
in contrast to some of his contemporaries.
=== Scientology ===
In his book Scientology: A New Slant on Life,
L. Ron Hubbard wrote the following passage:
A society in which women are taught anything
but the management of a family, the care of
men, and the creation of the future generation
is a society which is on its way out.
In the same book, he also wrote:
The historian can peg the point where a society
begins its sharpest decline at the instant
when women begin to take part, on an equal
footing with men, in political and business
affairs, since this means that the men are
decadent and the women are no longer women.
This is not a sermon on the role or position
of women; it is a statement of bald and basic
fact.
These passages, along with other ones of a
similar nature from Hubbard, have been criticised
by Alan Scherstuhl of The Village Voice as
expressions of hatred towards women. However,
Baylor University professor J. Gordon Melton
has written that Hubbard later disregarded
and abrogated much of his earlier views about
women, which Melton views as merely echoes
of common prejudices at the time. Melton has
also stated that the Church of Scientology
welcomes both genders equally at all levels—from
leadership positions to auditing and so on—since
Scientologists view people as spiritual beings.
== Misogynistic ideas among prominent western
thinkers ==
Numerous influential Western philosophers
have been expressed ideas that can be characterized
as misogynistic, including Aristotle, René
Descartes, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, David
Hume, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, G. W. F. Hegel,
Arthur Schopenhauer, Friedrich Nietzsche,
Charles Darwin, Sigmund Freud, Otto Weininger,
Oswald Spengler, and John Lucas. Because of
the influence of these thinkers, feminist
scholars trace misogyny in western culture
to these philosophers and their ideas.
=== Aristotle ===
Aristotle believed women were inferior and
described them as "deformed males". In his
work Politics, he states
as regards the sexes, the male is by nature
superior and the female inferior, the male
ruler and the female subject 4 (1254b13-14).
Another example is Cynthia's catalog where
Cynthia states "Aristotle says that the courage
of a man lies in commanding, a woman's lies
in obeying; that 'matter yearns for form,
as the female for the male and the ugly for
the beautiful'; that women have fewer teeth
than men; that a female is an incomplete male
or 'as it were, a deformity'. Aristotle believed
that men and women naturally differed both
physically and mentally. He claimed that women
are "more mischievous, less simple, more impulsive
... more compassionate[,] ... more easily
moved to tears[,] ... more jealous, more querulous,
more apt to scold and to strike[,] ... more
prone to despondency and less hopeful[,] ... more
void of shame or self-respect, more false
of speech, more deceptive, of more retentive
memory [and] ... also more wakeful; more shrinking
[and] more difficult to rouse to action" than
men.
=== Jean-Jacques Rousseau ===
Jean-Jacques Rousseau is well known for his
views against equal rights for women for example
in his treatise Emile, he writes: "Always
justify the burdens you impose upon girls
but impose them anyway... . They must be thwarted
from an early age... . They must be exercised
to constraint, so that it costs them nothing
to stifle all their fantasies to submit them
to the will of others." Other quotes consist
of "closed up in their houses", "must receive
the decisions of fathers and husbands like
that of the church".
=== Arthur Schopenhauer ===
Arthur Schopenhauer has been noted as a misogynist
by many such as the philosopher, critic, and
author Tom Grimwood. In a 2008 article Grimwood
wrote published in the philosophical journal
of Kritique, Grimwood argues that Schopenhauer's
misogynistic works have largely escaped attention
despite being more noticeable than those of
other philosophers such as Nietzsche. For
example, he noted Schopenhauer's works where
the latter had argued women only have "meagre"
reason comparable that of "the animal" "who
lives in the present". Other works he noted
consisted of Schopenhauer's argument that
women's only role in nature is to further
the species through childbirth and hence is
equipped with the power to seduce and "capture"
men. He goes on to state that women's cheerfulness
is chaotic and disruptive which is why it
is crucial to exercise obedience to those
with rationality. For her to function beyond
her rational subjugator is a threat against
men as well as other women, he notes. Schopenhauer
also thought women's cheerfulness is an expression
of her lack of morality and incapability to
understand abstract or objective meaning such
as art. This is followed up by his quote "have
never been able to produce a single, really
great, genuine and original achievement in
the fine arts, or bring to anywhere into the
world a work of permanent value". Arthur Schopenhauer
also blamed women for the fall of King Louis
XIII and triggering the French Revolution,
in which he was later quoted as saying:"At
all events, a false position of the female
sex, such as has its most acute symptom in
our lady-business, is a fundamental defect
of the state of society. Proceeding from the
heart of this, it is bound to spread its noxious
influence to all parts."Schopenhauer has also
been accused of misogyny for his essay "On
Women" (Über die Weiber), in which he expressed
his opposition to what he called "Teutonico-Christian
stupidity" on female affairs. He argued that
women are "by nature meant to obey" as they
are "childish, frivolous, and short sighted".
He claimed that no woman had ever produced
great art or "any work of permanent value".
He also argued that women did not possess
any real beauty:
It is only a man whose intellect is clouded
by his sexual impulse that could give the
name of the fair sex to that under-sized,
narrow-shouldered, broad-hipped, and short-legged
race; for the whole beauty of the sex is bound
up with this impulse. Instead of calling them
beautiful there would be more warrant for
describing women as the unaesthetic sex.
=== Nietzsche ===
In Beyond Good and Evil, Friedrich Nietzsche
stated that stricter controls on women was
a condition of "every elevation of culture".
In his Thus Spoke Zarathustra, he has a female
character say "You are going to women? Do
not forget the whip!" In Twilight of the Idols,
Nietzsche writes "Women are considered profound.
Why? Because we never fathom their depths.
But women aren't even shallow." There is controversy
over the questions of whether or not this
amounts to misogyny, whether his polemic against
women is meant to be taken literally, and
the exact nature of his opinions of women.
=== Hegel ===
Hegel's view of women can be characterized
as misogynistic. Passages from Hegel's Elements
of the Philosophy of Right illustrate the
criticism:
Women are capable of education, but they are
not made for activities which demand a universal
faculty such as the more advanced sciences,
philosophy and certain forms of artistic production...
Women regulate their actions not by the demands
of universality, but by arbitrary inclinations
and opinions.
== Online misogyny ==
Misogynistic rhetoric is prevalent online
and has grown rhetorically more aggressive.
The public debate over gender-based attacks
has increased significantly, leading to calls
for policy interventions and better responses
by social networks like Facebook and Twitter.A
2016 study conducted by the think tank Demos
concluded that 50% of all misogynistic tweets
on Twitter come from women themselves.Most
targets are women who are visible in the public
sphere, women who speak out about the threats
they receive, and women who are perceived
to be associated with feminism or feminist
gains. Authors of misogynistic messages are
usually anonymous or otherwise difficult to
identify. Their rhetoric involves misogynistic
epithets and graphic and sexualized imagery,
centers on the women's physical appearance,
and prescribes sexual violence as a corrective
for the targeted women. Examples of famous
women who spoke out about misogynistic attacks
are Anita Sarkeesian, Laurie Penny, Caroline
Criado Perez, Stella Creasy, and Lindy West.The
insults and threats directed at different
women tend to be very similar. Sady Doyle
who has been the target of online threats
noted the "overwhelmingly impersonal, repetitive,
stereotyped quality" of the abuse, the fact
that "all of us are being called the same
things, in the same tone".
== Psychological impact ==
=== 
Internalized misogyny ===
Internalized sexism is when an individual
enacts sexist actions and attitudes towards
themselves and people of their own sex. On
a larger scale, internalized sexism falls
under the broad topic of internalized oppression,
which "consists of oppressive practices that
continue to make the rounds even when members
of the oppressor group are not present". Women
who experience internalized misogyny may express
it through minimizing the value of women,
mistrusting women, and believing gender bias
in favor of men. Women, after hearing men
demean the value and skills of women repeatedly,
eventually internalize their beliefs and apply
the misogynistic beliefs to themselves and
other women. A common manifestation of internalized
misogyny is lateral violence.
== Feminist theory ==
Subscribers to one model say that some misogyny
results from the Madonna–whore complex,
which is the inability to see women as anything
other than "mothers" or "whores"; people with
this complex place each encountered woman
into one of these categories. Another variant
model alleges that one cause of misogyny is
some men thinking in terms of a virgin/whore
dichotomy, which results in them considering
as "whores" any women who do not adhere to
an Abrahamic standard of moral purity.In the
late 20th century, second-wave feminist theorists
argued that misogyny is both a cause and a
result of patriarchal social structures.Sociologist
Michael Flood has argued that "misandry lacks
the systemic, trans-historic, institutionalized,
and legislated antipathy of misogyny".
== British legal situation ==
In recent years, there has been increasing
discussion in the UK of misogyny being added
to the list of aggravating factors that are
commonly referred to by the media as “hate
crimes”. Aggravating factors in criminal
sentencing currently include hostility to
a victim due to characteristics such as sexuality,
race or disability.In 2016, Nottinghamshire
Police began a pilot project to record misogynistic
behaviour as either hate crime or hate incidents,
depending on whether the action was a criminal
offence. Over two years (April 2016-March
2018) there were 174 reports made, of which
73 were classified as crimes and 101 as incidents.In
September 2018 it was announced that the Law
Commission would conduct a review into whether
misogynistic conduct, as well as hostility
due to ageism, misandry or towards groups
such as goths, should be treated as a hate
crime.In October 2018, two senior police officers,
Sara Thornton, chair of the National Police
Chiefs' Council, and Cressida Dick, Commissioner
of the Metropolitan Police, stated that police
forces should focus on more serious crimes
such as burglary and violent offences, and
not on recording incidents which are not crimes.
Thornton said that "treating misogyny as a
hate crime is a concern for some well-organised
campaigning organisations", but that police
forces "do not have the resources to do everything".
== Criticism of the concept ==
Camille Paglia, a self-described "dissident
feminist" who has often been at odds with
other academic feminists, argues that there
are serious flaws in the Marxism-inspired
interpretation of misogyny that is prevalent
in second-wave feminism. In contrast, Paglia
argues that a close reading of historical
texts reveals that men do not hate women but
fear them. Christian Groes-Green has argued
that misogyny must be seen in relation to
its opposite which he terms philogyny. Criticizing
R. W. Connell's theory of hegemonic masculinities,
he shows how philogynous masculinities play
out among youth in Maputo, Mozambique.
== See also ==
== Notes and references ==
== 
Bibliography ==
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Dijkstra, Bram. Idols of Perversity: Fantasies
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World Health Organization Multi-country Study
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== External links ==
Misogyny, Misandry, and Misanthropy
An Overview of Misogyny
