Carl Gustav Jung (; German: [jʊŋ]; 26 July
1875 – 6 June 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist
and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology.
Jung's work was influential in the fields
of psychiatry, anthropology, archaeology,
literature, philosophy, and religious studies.
Jung worked as a research scientist at the
famous Burghölzli hospital, under Eugen Bleuler.
During this time, he came to the attention
of the Viennese founder of psychoanalysis,
Sigmund Freud. The two men conducted a lengthy
correspondence and collaborated, for a while,
on a joint vision of human psychology.
Freud saw in the younger Jung the potential
heir he had been seeking to carry on his "new
science" of psychoanalysis. Jung's research
and personal vision, however, made it impossible
for him to bend to his older colleague's doctrine,
and a schism became inevitable. This division
was personally painful for Jung, and it was
to have historic repercussions lasting well
into the modern day.
Among the central concepts of analytical psychology
is individuation—the lifelong psychological
process of differentiation of the self out
of each individual's conscious and unconscious
elements. Jung considered it to be the main
task of human development. He created some
of the best known psychological concepts,
including synchronicity, archetypal phenomena,
the collective unconscious, the psychological
complex, and extraversion and introversion.
Jung was also an artist, craftsman and builder
as well as a prolific writer. Many of his
works were not published until after his death
and some are still awaiting publication.
== Biography ==
=== Early years ===
==== Childhood family ====
Carl Gustav Jung was born in Kesswil, in the
Swiss canton of Thurgau, on 26 July 1875 as
the second and first surviving son of Paul
Achilles Jung (1842–1896) and Emilie Preiswerk
(1848–1923). Their first child, born in
1873, was a boy named Paul who survived only
a few days. Being the youngest son of a noted
Basel physician of German descent, also called
Karl Gustav Jung (1794–1864), whose hopes
of achieving a fortune never materialised,
Paul Jung did not progress beyond the status
of an impoverished rural pastor in the Swiss
Reformed Church; his wife had also grown up
in a large family, whose Swiss roots went
back five centuries. Emilie was the youngest
child of a distinguished Basel churchman and
academic, Samuel Preiswerk (1799–1871),
and his second wife. Preiswerk was antistes,
the title given to the head of the Reformed
clergy in the city, as well as a Hebraist,
author and editor, who taught Paul Jung as
his professor of Hebrew at Basel University.When
Jung was six months old, his father was appointed
to a more prosperous parish in Laufen, but
the tension between his parents was growing.
Emilie Jung was an eccentric and depressed
woman; she spent considerable time in her
bedroom where she said that spirits visited
her at night. Although she was normal during
the day, Jung recalled that at night his mother
became strange and mysterious. He reported
that one night he saw a faintly luminous and
indefinite figure coming from her room with
a head detached from the neck and floating
in the air in front of the body. Jung had
a better relationship with his father.Jung's
mother left Laufen for several months of hospitalization
near Basel for an unknown physical ailment.
His father took the boy to be cared for by
Emilie Jung's unmarried sister in Basel, but
he was later brought back to his father's
residence. Emilie Jung's continuing bouts
of absence and depression deeply troubled
her son and caused him to associate women
with "innate unreliability", whereas "father"
meant for him reliability but also powerlessness.
In his memoir, Jung would remark that this
parental influence was the "handicap I started
off with. Later, these early impressions were
revised: I have trusted men friends and been
disappointed by them, and I have mistrusted
women and was not disappointed." After three
years of living in Laufen, Paul Jung requested
a transfer; he was called to Kleinhüningen,
next to Basel in 1879. The relocation brought
Emilie Jung closer into contact with her family
and lifted her melancholy. When he was nine
years old, Jung's sister Johanna Gertrud (1884–1935)
was born. Known in the family as "Trudi",
she later became a secretary to her brother.
==== Childhood memories ====
Jung was a solitary and introverted child.
From childhood, he believed that, like his
mother, he had two personalities—a modern
Swiss citizen and a personality more suited
to the 18th century. "Personality Number 1",
as he termed it, was a typical schoolboy living
in the era of the time. "Personality Number
2" was a dignified, authoritative and influential
man from the past. Although Jung was close
to both parents, he was disappointed by his
father's academic approach to faith.A number
of childhood memories made lifelong impressions
on him. As a boy, he carved a tiny mannequin
into the end of the wooden ruler from his
pencil case and placed it inside the case.
He added a stone, which he had painted into
upper and lower halves, and hid the case in
the attic. Periodically, he would return to
the mannequin, often bringing tiny sheets
of paper with messages inscribed on them in
his own secret language. He later reflected
that this ceremonial act brought him a feeling
of inner peace and security. Years later,
he discovered similarities between his personal
experience and the practices associated with
totems in indigenous cultures, such as the
collection of soul-stones near Arlesheim or
the tjurungas of Australia. He concluded that
his intuitive ceremonial act was an unconscious
ritual, which he had practiced in a way that
was strikingly similar to those in distant
locations which he, as a young boy, knew nothing
about. His observations about symbols, archetypes,
and the collective unconscious were inspired,
in part, by these early experiences combined
with his later research.At the age of 12,
shortly before the end of his first year at
the Humanistisches Gymnasium in Basel, Jung
was pushed to the ground by another boy so
hard that he momentarily lost consciousness.
(Jung later recognized that the incident was
his fault, indirectly.) A thought then came
to him—"now you won't have to go to school
anymore." From then on, whenever he walked
to school or began homework, he fainted. He
remained at home for the next six months until
he overheard his father speaking hurriedly
to a visitor about the boy's future ability
to support himself. They suspected he had
epilepsy. Confronted with the reality of his
family's poverty, he realized the need for
academic excellence. He went into his father's
study and began poring over Latin grammar.
He fainted three more times but eventually
overcame the urge and did not faint again.
This event, Jung later recalled, "was when
I learned what a neurosis is."
==== University studies and early career ====
Jung did not plan to study psychiatry since
it was not considered prestigious at the time.
But, studying a psychiatric textbook, he became
very excited when he discovered that psychoses
are personality diseases. His interest was
immediately captured—it combined the biological
and the spiritual, exactly what he was searching
for. In 1895 Jung began to study medicine
at the University of Basel. Barely a year
later in 1896, his father Paul died and left
the family near destitute. They were helped
out by relatives who also contributed to Jung's
studies. During his student days, he entertained
his contemporaries with the family legend,
that his paternal grandfather was the illegitimate
son of Goethe and his German great-grandmother,
Sophie Ziegler. In later life, he pulled back
from this tale, saying only that Sophie was
a friend of Goethe's niece.In 1900 Jung began
working at the Burghölzli psychiatric hospital
in Zürich with Eugen Bleuler. Bleuler was
already in communication with the Austrian
neurologist Sigmund Freud. Jung's dissertation,
published in 1903, was titled On the Psychology
and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena.
In 1906 he published Diagnostic Association
Studies, and later sent a copy of this book
to Freud. It turned out that Freud had already
bought a copy.Eventually a close friendship
and a strong professional association developed
between the elder Freud and Jung, which left
a sizeable correspondence. For six years they
cooperated in their work. In 1912, however,
Jung published Wandlungen und Symbole der
Libido (known in English as Psychology of
the Unconscious), which made manifest the
developing theoretical divergence between
the two. Consequently, their personal and
professional relationship fractured—each
stating that the other was unable to admit
he could possibly be wrong. After the culminating
break in 1913, Jung went through a difficult
and pivotal psychological transformation,
exacerbated by the outbreak of the First World
War. Henri Ellenberger called Jung's intense
experience a "creative illness" and compared
it favorably to Freud's own period of what
he called neurasthenia and hysteria.
==== Wartime army service ====
During World War I Jung was drafted as an
army doctor and soon made commandant of an
internment camp for British officers and soldiers
(The Swiss were neutral, and obliged to intern
personnel from either side of the conflict
who crossed their frontier to evade capture).
Jung worked to improve the conditions of soldiers
stranded in neutral territory and encouraged
them to attend university courses.
==== Marriage ====
In 1903, Jung married Emma Rauschenbach, seven
years his junior and the elder daughter of
a wealthy industrialist in eastern Switzerland,
Johannes Rauschenbach-Schenck, and his wife.
Rauschenbach was the owner, among other concerns,
of IWC Schaffhausen – the International
Watch Company, manufacturers of luxury time-pieces.
Upon his death in 1905, his two daughters
and their husbands became owners of the business.
Jung's brother-in-law—Ernst Homberger—became
the principal proprietor, but the Jungs remained
shareholders in a thriving business that ensured
the family's financial security for decades.
Emma Jung, whose education had been limited,
evinced considerable ability and interest
in her husband's research and threw herself
into studies and acted as his assistant at
Burghölzli. She eventually became a noted
psychoanalyst in her own right. They had five
children: Agathe, Gret, Franz, Marianne, and
Helene. The marriage lasted until Emma's death
in 1955.During his marriage, Jung engaged
in extramarital relationships. His alleged
affairs with Sabina Spielrein and Toni Wolff
were the most widely discussed. Though it
was mostly taken for granted that Jung's relationship
with Spielrein included a sexual relationship,
this assumption has been disputed, in particular
by Henry Zvi Lothane.
== Relationship with Freud ==
=== Meeting and collaboration ===
Jung was thirty when he sent his Studies in
Word Association to Sigmund Freud in Vienna
in 1906. The two men met for the first time
the following year and Jung recalled the discussion
between himself and Freud as interminable.
He recalled that they talked almost unceasingly
for thirteen hours. Six months later, the
then 50-year-old Freud sent a collection of
his latest published essays to Jung in Zurich.
This marked the beginning of an intense correspondence
and collaboration that lasted six years and
ended in May 1913. At that time Jung resigned
as the chairman of the International Psychoanalytical
Association, a position to which he had been
elected with Freud's support.
Jung and Freud influenced each other during
the intellectually formative years of Jung's
life. Jung had become interested in psychiatry
as a student by reading Psychopathia Sexualis
by Richard von Krafft-Ebing. In 1900, Jung
completed his degree, and started work as
an intern (voluntary doctor) under the psychiatrist,
Eugen Bleuler at Burghölzli Hospital. It
was Bleuler who introduced him to the writings
of Freud by asking him to write a review of
The Interpretation of Dreams (1899). In 1905
Jung was appointed as a permanent 'senior'
doctor at the hospital and also became a lecturer
Privatdozent in the medical faculty of Zurich
University. In that period psychology as a
science was still in its early stages, but
Jung became a qualified proponent of Freud's
new "psycho-analysis." At the time, Freud
needed collaborators and pupils to validate
and spread his ideas. Burghölzli was a renowned
psychiatric clinic in Zurich and Jung's research
had already gained him international recognition.
Preceded by a lively correspondence, Jung
met Freud for the first time, in Vienna on
3 March 1907. In 1908, Jung became an editor
of the newly founded Yearbook for Psychoanalytical
and Psychopathological Research.
in 1909, Jung traveled with Freud and the
Hungarian psychoanalyst Sándor Ferenczi to
the United States; they took part in a conference
at Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts.
The conference at Clark University was planned
by the psychologist G. Stanley Hall and included
twenty-seven distinguished psychiatrists,
neurologists and psychologists. It represented
a watershed in the acceptance of psychoanalysis
in North America. This forged welcome links
between Jung and influential Americans. Jung
returned to the United States the next year
for a brief visit.
In 1910, Jung became Chairman for Life of
the International Psychoanalytical Association
with Freud's support. Freud would come to
call Jung "his adopted eldest son, his crown
prince and successor".
=== Divergence and break ===
While Jung worked on his Wandlungen und Symbole
der Libido (Psychology of the Unconscious:
a study of the transformations and symbolisms
of the libido, a contribution to the history
of the evolution of thought), tensions became
manifest between him and Freud because of
their disagreements over the nature of libido
and religion. Jung de-emphasized the importance
of sexual development and focused on the collective
unconscious: the part of the unconscious that
contains memories and ideas that Jung believed
were inherited from ancestors. While he did
think that libido was an important source
for personal growth, unlike Freud, Jung did
not believe that libido alone was responsible
for the formation of the core personality.
Jung believed his personal development was
influenced by factors he felt were unrelated
to sexuality.
In 1912 these tensions came to a peak because
Jung felt severely slighted after Freud visited
his colleague Ludwig Binswanger in Kreuzlingen
without paying him a visit in nearby Zurich,
an incident Jung referred to as "the Kreuzlingen
gesture". Shortly thereafter, Jung again traveled
to the United States and gave the Fordham
University lectures, a six-week series, which
were published as The Theory of Psychoanalysis
(1912). While they contain some remarks on
Jung's dissenting view on the libido, they
represent largely a "psychoanalytical Jung"
and not the theory of analytical psychology,
for which he became famous in the following
decades.
Another primary disagreement with Freud stemmed
from their differing concepts of the unconscious.
Jung saw Freud's theory of the unconscious
as incomplete and unnecessarily negative and
inelastic. According to Jung, Freud conceived
the unconscious solely as a repository of
repressed emotions and desires. Jung's observations
overlap to an extent with Freud's model of
the unconscious, what Jung called the "personal
unconscious", but his hypothesis is more about
a process than a static model and he also
proposed the existence of a second, overarching
form of the unconscious beyond the personal,
that he named the psychoid – a term borrowed
from Driesch, but with a somewhat altered
meaning. The collective unconscious is not
so much a 'geographical location', but a deduction
from the alleged ubiquity of archetypes over
space and time. Freud had actually mentioned
a collective level of psychic functioning
but saw it primarily as an appendix to the
rest of the psyche.In November 1912, Jung
and Freud met in Munich for a meeting among
prominent colleagues to discuss psychoanalytical
journals. At a talk about a new psychoanalytic
essay on Amenhotep IV, Jung expressed his
views on how it related to actual conflicts
in the psychoanalytic movement. While Jung
spoke, Freud suddenly fainted and Jung carried
him to a couch.Jung and Freud personally met
for the last time in September 1913 for the
Fourth International Psychoanalytical Congress
in Munich. Jung gave a talk on psychological
types, the introverted and extraverted type
in analytical psychology. This constituted
the introduction of some of the key concepts
which came to distinguish Jung's work from
Freud's in the next half century.
=== Midlife isolation ===
It was the publication of Jung's book Psychology
of the Unconscious in 1912 that led to the
break with Freud. Letters they exchanged show
Freud's refusal to consider Jung's ideas.
This rejection caused what Jung described
in his (posthumous) 1962 autobiography, Memories,
Dreams, Reflections, as a "resounding censure".
Everyone he knew dropped away except for two
of his colleagues. Jung described his book
as "an attempt, only partially successful,
to create a wider setting for medical psychology
and to bring the whole of the psychic phenomena
within its purview." (The book was later revised
and retitled Symbols of Transformation in
1922).
==== London 1913–14 ====
Jung spoke at meetings of the Psycho-Medical
Society in London in 1913 and 1914. His travels
were soon interrupted by the war, but his
ideas continued to receive attention in England
primarily through the efforts of Constance
Long who translated and published the first
English volume of his collected writings.
==== The Red Book ====
In 1913, at the age of thirty-eight, Jung
experienced a horrible "confrontation with
the unconscious". He saw visions and heard
voices. He worried at times that he was "menaced
by a psychosis" or was "doing a schizophrenia".
He decided that it was valuable experience
and, in private, he induced hallucinations
or, in his words, "active imaginations". He
recorded everything he felt in small journals.
Jung began to transcribe his notes into a
large red leather-bound book, on which he
worked intermittently for sixteen years.Jung
left no posthumous instructions about the
final disposition of what he called the Liber
Novus or the Red Book. Sonu Shamdasani, a
historian of psychology from London, tried
for three years to persuade Jung's resistant
heirs to have it published. Up to mid-September
2008, fewer than two dozen people had seen
it. Ulrich Hoerni, Jung's grandson who manages
the Jung archives, decided to publish it to
raise the additional funds needed when the
Philemon Foundation was founded.In 2007, two
technicians for DigitalFusion, working with
New York City publishers W. W. Norton & Company,
scanned the manuscript with a 10,200-pixel
scanner. It was published on 7 October 2009,
in German with a "separate English translation
along with Shamdasani's introduction and footnotes"
at the back of the book, according to Sara
Corbett for The New York Times. She wrote,
"The book is bombastic, baroque and like so
much else about Carl Jung, a willful oddity,
synched with an antediluvian and mystical
reality."The Rubin Museum of Art in New York
City displayed the original Red Book journal,
as well as some of Jung's original small journals,
from 7 October 2009 to 15 February 2010. According
to them, "During the period in which he worked
on this book Jung developed his principal
theories of archetypes, collective unconscious,
and the process of individuation." Two-thirds
of the pages bear Jung's illuminations of
the text.
== Travels ==
Jung emerged from his period of isolation
in the late nineteen-teens with the publication
of several journal articles, followed in 1921
with Psychological Types, one of his most
influential books. There followed a decade
of active publication, interspersed with overseas
travels.
=== England (1920, 1923, 1925, 1938) ===
Constance Long arranged for Jung to deliver
a seminar in Cornwall in 1920. Another seminar
was held in 1923, this one organized by Helton
Godwin Baynes (known as Peter), and another
in 1925.At the tenth International Medical
Congress for Psychotherapy held at Oxford
from 29 July to 2 August 1938, Jung gave the
presidential address, followed by a visit
to Cheshire to stay with the Bailey family
at Lawton Mere.
=== United States 1924–25, 1936–37 ===
Jung made a more extensive trip westward in
the winter of 1924–5, financed and organized
by Fowler McCormick and George Porter. Of
particular value to Jung was a visit with
Chief Mountain Lake of the Taos Pueblo near
Taos, New Mexico.
Jung made another trip to America in 1936,
giving lectures in New York and New England
for his growing group of American followers.
He returned in 1937 to deliver the Terry Lectures
at Yale University, later published as Psychology
and Religion.
=== East Africa ===
In October 1925, Jung embarked on his most
ambitious expedition, the "Bugishu Psychological
Expedition" to East Africa. He was accompanied
by Peter Baynes and an American associate,
George Beckwith. On the voyage to Africa,
they became acquainted with an English woman
named Ruth Bailey, who joined their safari
a few weeks later. The group traveled through
Kenya and Uganda to the slopes of Mount Elgon,
where Jung hoped to increase his understanding
of "primitive psychology" through conversations
with the culturally isolated residents of
that area. Later he concluded that the major
insights he had gleaned had to do with himself
and the European psychology in which he had
been raised.
=== India ===
In December 1937, Jung left Zurich again for
an extensive tour of India with Fowler McCormick.
In India, he felt himself "under the direct
influence of a foreign culture" for the first
time. In Africa, his conversations had been
strictly limited by the language barrier,
but in India he was able to converse extensively.
Hindu philosophy became an important element
in his understanding of the role of symbolism
and the life of the unconscious, though he
avoided a meeting with Ramana Maharshi. He
described Ramana as being absorbed in "the
self", but admitted to not understanding Ramana's
self-realization or what he actually did do.
He also admitted that his field of psychology
was not competent to understand the eastern
insight of the Atman "the self". Jung became
seriously ill on this trip and endured two
weeks of delirium in a Calcutta hospital.
After 1938, his travels were confined to Europe.
== Final publications and death ==
Jung continued to publish books until the
end of his life, including Flying Saucers:
A Modern Myth of Things Seen in the Skies
(1959), which analyzed the archetypal meaning
and possible psychological significance of
the reported observations of UFOs. He also
enjoyed a friendship with an English Roman
Catholic priest, Father Victor White, who
corresponded with Jung after he had published
his controversial Answer to Job.Jung died
on 6 June 1961 at Küsnacht, after a short
illness. He had been beset by circulatory
diseases.
== Thought ==
Jung's thought was formed by early family
influences, which on the maternal side were
a blend of interest in the occult and in solid
reformed academic theology. On his father's
side were two important figures, his grandfather
the physician and academic scientist, Karl
Gustav Jung and the family's actual connection
with Lotte Kestner, the niece of the German
polymath, Johann Wolfgang Goethe' s "Löttchen".
Although he was a practicing clinician and
writer and as such founded analytical psychology,
much of his life's work was spent exploring
related areas such as physics, vitalism, Eastern
and Western philosophy, alchemy, astrology,
and sociology, as well as literature and the
arts. Jung's interest in philosophy and the
occult led many to view him as a mystic, although
his preference was to be seen as a man of
science.
=== Key concepts ===
The major concepts of analytical psychology
as developed by Jung include:Archetype – a
concept "borrowed" from anthropology to denote
supposedly universal and recurring mental
images or themes. Jung's definitions of archetypes
varied over time and have been the subject
of debate as to their usefulness.
Archetypal images – universal symbols that
can mediate opposites in the psyche, often
found in religious art, mythology and fairy
tales across cultures
Complex – the repressed organisation of
images and experiences that governs perception
and behaviour
Extraversion and introversion – personality
traits of degrees of openness or reserve contributing
to psychological type.Shadow – the repressed,
therefore unknown, aspects of the personality
including those often considered to be negative
Collective unconscious – aspects of unconsciousness
experienced by all people in different cultures
Anima – the contrasexual aspect of a man's
psyche, his inner personal feminine conceived
both as a complex and an archetypal image
Animus – the contrasexual aspect of a woman's
psyche, her inner personal masculine conceived
both as a complex and an archetypal image
Self – the central overarching concept governing
the individuation process, as symbolised by
mandalas, the union of male and female, totality,
unity. Jung viewed it as the psyche's central
archetype
Individuation – the process of fulfilment
of each individual "which negates neither
the conscious or unconscious position but
does justice to them both".Synchronicity – an
acausal principle as a basis for the apparently
random simultaneous occurrence of phenomena.
=== Extraversion and introversion ===
Jung was one of the first people to define
introversion and extraversion in a psychological
context. In Jung's Psychological Types, he
theorizes that each person falls into one
of two categories, the introvert and the extravert.
These two psychological types Jung compares
to ancient archetypes, Apollo and Dionysus.
The introvert is likened with Apollo, who
shines light on understanding. The introvert
is focused on the internal world of reflection,
dreaming and vision. Thoughtful and insightful,
the introvert can sometimes be uninterested
in joining the activities of others. The extravert
is associated with Dionysus, interested in
joining the activities of the world. The extravert
is focused on the outside world of objects,
sensory perception and action. Energetic and
lively, the extrovert may lose their sense
of self in the intoxication of Dionysian pursuits.
Jungian introversion and extraversion is quite
different from the modern idea of introversion
and extroversion. Modern theories often stay
true to behaviourist means of describing such
a trait (sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness
etc.) whereas Jungian introversion and extraversion
is expressed as a perspective: introverts
interpret the world subjectively, whereas
extraverts interpret the world objectively.
=== Persona ===
In his psychological theory – which is not
necessarily linked to a particular theory
of social structure – the persona appears
as a consciously created personality or identity,
fashioned out of part of the collective psyche
through socialization, acculturation and experience.
Jung applied the term persona, explicitly
because, in Latin, it means both personality
and the masks worn by Roman actors of the
classical period, expressive of the individual
roles played.
The persona, he argues, is a mask for the
"collective psyche", a mask that 'pretends'
individuality, so that both self and others
believe in that identity, even if it is really
no more than a well-played role through which
the collective psyche is expressed. Jung regarded
the "persona-mask" as a complicated system
which mediates between individual consciousness
and the social community: it is "a compromise
between the individual and society as to what
a man should appear to be". But he also makes
it quite explicit that it is, in substance,
a character mask in the classical sense known
to theatre, with its double function: both
intended to make a certain impression on others,
and to hide (part of) the true nature of the
individual. The therapist then aims to assist
the individuation process through which the
client (re)gains their "own self" – by liberating
the self, both from the deceptive cover of
the persona, and from the power of unconscious
impulses.
Jung's theory has become enormously influential
in management theory; not just because managers
and executives have to create an appropriate
"management persona" (a corporate mask) and
a persuasive identity, but also because they
have to evaluate what sort of people the workers
are, in order to manage them (for example,
using personality tests and peer reviews).
=== Spirituality ===
Jung's work on himself and his patients convinced
him that life has a spiritual purpose beyond
material goals. Our main task, he believed,
is to discover and fulfill our deep, innate
potential. Based on his study of Christianity,
Hinduism, Buddhism, Gnosticism, Taoism, and
other traditions, Jung believed that this
journey of transformation, which he called
individuation, is at the mystical heart of
all religions. It is a journey to meet the
self and at the same time to meet the Divine.
Unlike Freud's objectivist worldview, Jung's
pantheism may have led him to believe that
spiritual experience was essential to our
well-being, as he specifically identifies
individual human life with the universe as
a whole. Jung's ideas on religion counterbalance
Freudian scepticism. Jung's idea of religion
as a practical road to individuation is still
treated in modern textbooks on the psychology
of religion, though his ideas have also been
criticized.Jung recommended spirituality as
a cure for alcoholism, and he is considered
to have had an indirect role in establishing
Alcoholics Anonymous. Jung once treated an
American patient (Rowland Hazard III), suffering
from chronic alcoholism. After working with
the patient for some time and achieving no
significant progress, Jung told the man that
his alcoholic condition was near to hopeless,
save only the possibility of a spiritual experience.
Jung noted that, occasionally, such experiences
had been known to reform alcoholics when all
other options had failed.
Hazard took Jung's advice seriously and set
about seeking a personal, spiritual experience.
He returned home to the United States and
joined a First-Century Christian evangelical
movement known as the Oxford Group (later
known as Moral Re-Armament). He also told
other alcoholics what Jung had told him about
the importance of a spiritual experience.
One of the alcoholics he brought into the
Oxford Group was Ebby Thacher, a long-time
friend and drinking buddy of Bill Wilson,
later co-founder of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA).
Thacher told Wilson about the Oxford Group
and, through them, Wilson became aware of
Hazard's experience with Jung. The influence
of Jung thus indirectly found its way into
the formation of Alcoholics Anonymous, the
original twelve-step program.
The above claims are documented in the letters
of Jung and Bill Wilson, excerpts of which
can be found in Pass It On, published by Alcoholics
Anonymous. Although the detail of this story
is disputed by some historians, Jung himself
discussed an Oxford Group member, who may
have been the same person, in talks given
around 1940. The remarks were distributed
privately in transcript form, from shorthand
taken by an attender (Jung reportedly approved
the transcript), and later recorded in Volume
18 of his Collected Works, The Symbolic Life,
For instance, when a member of the Oxford
Group comes to me in order to get treatment,
I say, 'You are in the Oxford Group; so long
as you are there, you settle your affair with
the Oxford Group. I can't do it better than
Jesus.
Jung goes on to state that he has seen similar
cures among Roman Catholics.
=== Paranormal beliefs ===
Jung had an apparent interest in the paranormal
and occult. For decades he attended seances
and claimed to have witnessed "parapsychic
phenomena". Initially he attributed these
to psychological causes, even delivering 1919
lecture in England for the Society for Psychical
Research on "The Psychological Foundations
for the belief in spirits". However, he began
to "doubt whether an exclusively psychological
approach can do justice to the phenomena in
question" and stated that "the spirit hypothesis
yields better results".Jung's ideas about
the paranormal culminated in "synchronicity",
his idea that meaningful connections in the
world manifest through coincidence with no
apparent causal link. What he referred to
as “acausal connecting principle”. Despite
his own experiments failing to confirm the
phenomenon he held on to the idea as an explanation
for apparent ESP. As well as proposing it
as a functional explanation for how the I-Ching
worked, although he was never clear about
how synchronicity worked.
=== Interpretation of quantum mechanics ===
Jung influenced one philosophical interpretation
(not the science) of quantum physics with
the concept of synchronicity regarding some
events as non-causal. That idea influenced
the physicist Wolfgang Pauli (with whom, via
a letter correspondence, he developed the
notion of unus mundus in connection with the
notion of nonlocality) and some other physicists.
=== Alchemy ===
The work and writings of Jung from the 1940s
onwards focused on alchemy.
In 1944 Jung published Psychology and Alchemy,
in which he analyzed the alchemical symbols
and came to the conclusion that there is a
direct relationship between them and the psychoanalytical
process. He argued that the alchemical process
was the transformation of the impure soul
(lead) to perfected soul (gold), and a metaphor
for the individuation process.In 1963 Mysterium
Coniunctionis first appeared in English as
part of The Collected Works of C. G. Jung.
Mysterium Coniunctionis was Jung's last book
and focused on the "Mysterium Coniunctionis"
archetype, known as the sacred marriage between
sun and moon. Jung argued that the stages
of the alchemists, the blackening, the whitening,
the reddening and the yellowing, could be
taken as symbolic of individuation — his
favourite term for personal growth (75).
=== Art therapy ===
Jung proposed that art can be used to alleviate
or contain feelings of trauma, fear, or anxiety
and also to repair, restore and heal. In his
work with patients and in his own personal
explorations, Jung wrote that art expression
and images found in dreams could be helpful
in recovering from trauma and emotional distress.
At times of emotional distress, he often drew,
painted, or made objects and constructions
which he recognized as more than recreational.
=== Dance/movement therapy ===
Dance/movement therapy as an active imagination
was created by C.G. Jung and Toni Wolff in
1916 and was practiced by Tina Keller-Jenny
and other analysts, but remained largely unknown
until the 1950s when it was rediscovered by
Marian Chace and therapist Mary Whitehouse,
who after studying with Martha Graham and
Mary Wigman, became herself a dancer and dance
teacher of modern dance, as well as Trudy
Schoop in 1963, who is considered one of the
founders of the dance/movement therapy in
the States.
=== Political views ===
==== Views on the state ====
Jung stressed the importance of individual
rights in a person's relation to the state
and society. He saw that the state was treated
as "a quasi-animate personality from whom
everything is expected" but that this personality
was "only camouflage for those individuals
who know how to manipulate it", and referred
to the state as a form of slavery. He also
thought that the state "swallowed up [people's]
religious forces", and therefore that the
state had "taken the place of God"—making
it comparable to a religion in which "state
slavery is a form of worship". Jung observed
that "stage acts of [the] state" are comparable
to religious displays: "Brass bands, flags,
banners, parades and monster demonstrations
are no different in principle from ecclesiastical
processions, cannonades and fire to scare
off demons". From Jung's perspective, this
replacement of God with the state in a mass
society leads to the dislocation of the religious
drive and results in the same fanaticism of
the church-states of the Dark Ages—wherein
the more the state is 'worshipped', the more
freedom and morality are suppressed; this
ultimately leaves the individual psychically
undeveloped with extreme feelings of marginalization.
==== Germany, 1933 to 1939 ====
Jung had many friends and respected colleagues
who were Jewish and he maintained relations
with them through the 1930s when anti-semitism
in Germany and other European nations was
on the rise. However, until 1939, he also
maintained professional relations with psychotherapists
in Germany who had declared their support
for the Nazi regime and there were allegations
that he himself was a Nazi sympathizer.
In 1933, after the Nazis gained power in Germany,
Jung took part in restructuring of the General
Medical Society for Psychotherapy (Allgemeine
Ärztliche Gesellschaft für Psychotherapie),
a German-based professional body with an international
membership. The society was reorganized into
two distinct bodies:
A strictly German body, the Deutsche Allgemeine
Ärztliche Gesellschaft für Psychotherapie,
led by Matthias Göring, an Adlerian psychotherapist
and a cousin of the prominent Nazi Hermann
Göring;
International General Medical Society for
Psychotherapy, led by Jung. The German body
was to be affiliated to the international
society, as were new national societies being
set up in Switzerland and elsewhere.The International
Society's constitution permitted individual
doctors to join it directly, rather than through
one of the national affiliated societies,
a provision to which Jung drew attention in
a circular in 1934. This implied that German
Jewish doctors could maintain their professional
status as individual members of the international
body, even though they were excluded from
the German affiliate, as well as from other
German medical societies operating under the
Nazis.As leader of the international body,
Jung assumed overall responsibility for its
publication, the Zentralblatt für Psychotherapie.
In 1933, this journal published a statement
endorsing Nazi positions and Hitler's book
Mein Kampf. In 1934, Jung wrote in a Swiss
publication, the Neue Zürcher Zeitung, that
he experienced "great surprise and disappointment"
when the Zentralblatt associated his name
with the pro-Nazi statement.
Jung went on to say "the main point is to
get a young and insecure science into a place
of safety during an earthquake". He did not
end his relationship with the Zentralblatt
at this time, but he did arrange the appointment
of a new managing editor, Carl Alfred Meier
of Switzerland. For the next few years, the
Zentralblatt under Jung and Meier maintained
a position distinct from that of the Nazis,
in that it continued to acknowledge contributions
of Jewish doctors to psychotherapy.In the
face of energetic German attempts to Nazify
the international body, Jung resigned from
its presidency in 1939, the year the Second
World War started.
==== Anti-Semitism and Nazism ====
Jung's interest in European mythology and
folk psychology has led to accusations of
Nazi sympathies, since they shared the same
interest. He became, however, aware of the
negative impact of these similarities:
Jung clearly identifies himself with the spirit
of German Volkstumsbewegung throughout this
period and well into the 1920s and 1930s,
until the horrors of Nazism finally compelled
him to reframe these neopagan metaphors in
a negative light in his 1936 essay on Wotan.
There are writings showing that Jung's sympathies
were against, rather than for, Nazism. In
his 1936 essay "Wotan", Jung described the
influence of Hitler on Germany as "one man
who is obviously 'possessed' has infected
a whole nation to such an extent that everything
is set in motion and has started rolling on
its course towards perdition."Jung would later
say that:
Hitler seemed like the 'double' of a real
person, as if Hitler the man might be hiding
inside like an appendix, and deliberately
so concealed in order not to disturb the mechanism
... You know you could never talk to this
man; because there is nobody there ... It
is not an individual; it is an entire nation.
In an interview with Carol Baumann in 1948,
Jung denied rumors regarding any sympathy
for the Nazi movement, saying:
It must be clear to anyone who has read any
of my books that I have never been a Nazi
sympathizer and I never have been anti-Semitic,
and no amount of misquotation, mistranslation,
or rearrangement of what I have written can
alter the record of my true point of view.
Nearly every one of these passages has been
tampered with, either by malice or by ignorance.
Furthermore, my friendly relations with a
large group of Jewish colleagues and patients
over a period of many years in itself disproves
the charge of anti-Semitism.
Others have argued contrary to this, with
reference to his writings, correspondence
and public utterances of the 1930s. Attention
has been drawn to articles Jung published
in the Zentralblatt fur Psychotherapie stating:
“The Aryan unconscious has a greater potential
than the Jewish unconscious” and "The Jew,
who is something of a nomad, has never yet
created a cultural form of his own and as
far as we can see never will". His remarks
on the qualities of the "Aryan unconscious"
and the “corrosive character” of Freud's
“Jewish gospel” have been cited as evidence
of an anti-semitism “fundamental to the
structure of Jung’s thought”. However,
Aniela Jaffé says that such sentences must
be put in the context of the many positive
statements Jung made about Jews and Judaism,
and that the above quoted claims were framed
by his argument that Jews are a "race with
a three-thousand year civilization", while
"Aryans" were race with a "youthfulness not
yet weaned from barbarism." Jung saw the former
as "possessing the inestimable advantage of
greater consciousness and differentiation,
while the latter were closer to nature and
unlike Jews, capable of creating new cultural
forms". For Jung, the "epithet "barbarism"
was anything but a compliment".During the
1930s, Jung had worked to protect Jewish psychologists
from antisemitic legislation enacted by the
Nazis. Jung's individual efforts to aid persecuted
German-Jewish psychologists were known only
to a few; however, during this period he discretely
helped a large number of Jewish colleagues
with active and personal support in their
efforts to escape the Nazi regime - and many
of those he helped in this period would later
become friends of his.
==== Service to the Allies during World War
II ====
Jung was in contact with Allen Dulles of the
Office of Strategic Services (predecessor
of the Central Intelligence Agency) and provided
valuable intelligence on the psychological
condition of Hitler. Dulles referred to Jung
as "Agent 488" and offered the following description
of his service: “Nobody will probably ever
know how much Professor Jung contributed to
the Allied Cause during the war, by seeing
people who were connected somehow with the
other side.” Jung's service to the Allied
cause through the OSS remained classified
after the war.
== Legacy ==
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), a
popular psychometric instrument, and the concepts
of socionics were developed from Jung's theory
of psychological types. Jung saw the human
psyche as "by nature religious" and made this
religiousness the focus of his explorations.
Jung is one of the best known contemporary
contributors to dream analysis and symbolization.
His influence on popular psychology, the "psychologization
of religion", spirituality and the New Age
movement has been immense. A Review of General
Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked
Jung as the 23rd most cited psychologist of
the 20th century.
== In popular culture ==
=== 
Literature ===
Laurens van der Post, Afrikaner author who
claimed to have had a 16-year friendship with
Jung, from which a number of books and a film
were created about Jung's life. The accuracy
of van der Post's claims about the closeness
of his relationship to Jung has been questioned.
Hermann Hesse, author of works such as Siddhartha
and Steppenwolf, was treated by Joseph Lang,
a student of Jung. For Hesse this began a
long preoccupation with psychoanalysis, through
which he came to know Jung personally.
In his novel The World is Made of Glass (1983)
Morris West gives a fictional account of one
of Jung's cases, placing the events in 1913.
As stated in the author's note, the novel
is "based upon a case recorded, very briefly,
by Carl Gustav Jung in his autobiographical
work Memories, Dreams, Reflections".
=== Art ===
The visionary Swiss painter Peter Birkhäuser
was treated by a student of Jung, Marie-Louise
von Franz, and corresponded with Jung regarding
the translation of dream symbolism into works
of art.
American Abstract Expressionist Jackson Pollock
underwent Jungian psychotherapy in 1939 with
Joseph Henderson. His therapist made the decision
to engage him through his art, and had Pollock
make drawings, which led to the appearance
of many Jungian concepts in his paintings.
Contrary to some sources, Jung did not visit
Liverpool but recorded a dream in which he
had, and of which he wrote "Liverpool is the
pool of life, it makes to live." As a result,
a statue of Jung was erected in Mathew Street
in 1987 but, being made of plaster, was vandalised
and replaced by a more durable version in
1993.
=== Music ===
Musician David Bowie described himself as
Jungian in his relationship to dreams and
the unconscious. Australian artist Tanja Stark
extensively explored Jungian aspects of his
work in her essay "Crashing Out with Sylvian:
David Bowie, Carl Jung and the Unconscious".
Bowie sang of Jung on his album Aladdin Sane
(a word play on sanity) and attended the exhibition
of The Red Book in New York with artist Tony
Oursler, who described Bowie as "... reading
and speaking of the psychoanalyst with passion".
Bowie's 1967 song "Shadow Man" poetically
encapsulates a key Jungian concept, while
in 1987 Bowie tellingly described the Glass
Spiders of Never Let Me Down as Jungian mother
figures around which he not only anchored
a worldwide tour, but also created an enormous
onstage effigy.
Argentinian musician Luis Alberto Spinetta
was influenced by the texts of Carl Jung in
the development of his 1975 conceptual album
Durazno sangrando, specifically in the songs
"Encadenado al ánima" and "En una lejana
playa del ánimus", which deal with the jungian
concepts of Anima and Animus.
=== Theatre, film and television ===
Federico Fellini brought to the screen an
exuberant imagery shaped by his encounter
with the ideas of Jung, especially Jungian
dream interpretation. Fellini preferred Jung
to Freud because Jungian analysis defined
the dream not as a symptom of a disease that
required a cure but rather as a link to archetypal
images shared by all of humanity.
BBC interview with Jung for Face to Face with
John Freeman at Jung's home in Zurich. 1959.
Stanley Kubrick's 1987 film Full Metal Jacket
features an underlying theme about the duality
of man throughout the action and dialogue
of the film. One scene plays out this way:
A Colonel asks a soldier, "You write 'Born
to Kill' on your helmet and you wear a peace
button. What's that supposed to be, some kind
of sick joke?" To which the soldier replies,
"I think I was trying to suggest something
about the duality of man, sir... The Jungian
thing, sir."
The Soul Keeper, a 2002 film about Sabina
Spielrein and Jung.
The Talking Cure, a 2002 play by Christopher
Hampton
A Dangerous Method, a 2011 film directed by
David Cronenberg based on Hampton's play The
Talking Cure, is a fictional dramatisation
of Jung's life as a psychoanalyst between
1904 and 1913. It mainly concerns his relationships
with Freud and Sabina Spielrein, a Russian
woman who became his lover and student and,
later, an analyst herself.
Matter of Heart (1986), a documentary on Jung
featuring interviews with those who knew him
and archive footage.
Carl Gustav Jung, Salomón Shang, 2007. A
documentary film made of interviews with C.
G. Jung, found in American university archives.
The World Within. C. G. Jung in his own words,
1990 documentary (on YouTube)
=== Video games ===
The Persona series of games is heavily based
on his theories, as is the Nights into Dreams
series of games.
== Bibliography ==
=== Books ===
1912 Psychology of the Unconscious
1921 Psychological Types
1933 Modern Man in Search of a Soul
1938 Psychology and Religion
1951 Aion: Researches into the Phenomenology
of the Self
1952 Symbols of Transformation (revised edition
of Psychology of the Unconscious)
1952 Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting
Principle
1954 Answer to Job
1955 Mysterium Coniunctionis: An Inquiry into
the Separation and Synthesis of Psychic Opposites
in Alchemy
1957 Animus and Anima
1961 Memories, Dreams, Reflections
1963 Analytical Psychology: Its Theory and
Practice
=== Collected Works ===
The Collected Works of C. G. Jung. Eds. Herbert
Read, Michael Fordham, Gerhard Adler. Executive
ed. W. McGuire. Trans R.F.C. Hull. London:
Routledge Kegan Paul (1953-1980).
1. Psychiatric Studies (1902–06)
2. Experimental Researches (1904-10) (trans
L. Stein and D. Riviere)
3. Psychogenesis of Mental Disease (1907-14;
1919-58)
4. Freud and Psychoanalysis (1906-14; 1916-30)
5. Symbols of Transformation (1911-12; 1952)
6. Psychological Types (1921)
7. Two Essays on Analytical Psychology (1912-28)
8. Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche (1916-52)
9.1 Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious
(1934-55)
9.2 Aion: Researches into the Phenomenology
of the Self (1951)
10. Civilization in Transition (1918-1959)
11. Psychology and Religion: West and East
(1932-52)
12. Psychology and Alchemy (1936-44)
13. Alchemical Studies (1919-45):
14. Mysterium Coniunctionis (1955–56):
15. Spirit in Man, Art, and Literature (1929-1941)
16. The Practice of Psychotherapy (1921-25)
17. The Development of Personality (1910;
1925-43)
18. The Symbolic Life: Miscellaneous Writings
19. General Bibliography
20. General IndexSupplementary volumes
A. The Zofingia Lectures
B. Psychology of the Unconscious (trans. Beatrice
M. Hinckle)Seminars
Analytical Psychology (1925)
Dream Analysis (1928-30)
The Kundalini Yoga (1932)
Nietzsche’s Zarathustra (1934-39)
== See also ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Introductory texts
Modern Man in Search of a Soul, a book of
psychological essays by Jung collected in
1933
Jung, Carl Gustav; Marie-Luise von Franz (1964).
Man and His Symbols. Doubleday. ISBN 84-493-0161-0.
Carl Gustav Jung, Analytical Psychology: Its
Theory and Practice (The Tavistock Lectures)
(Ark Paperbacks), 1990, ISBN 0-7448-0056-0
Anthony Stevens, Jung. A 
Very Short Introduction, Oxford University
Press, Oxford, 1994, ISBN 0-19-285458-5
Anthony Stevens, On Jung, Princeton University
Press, 1990 (1999)
The Basic Writings of C. G. Jung, edited by
V. S. de Laszlo (The Modern Library, 1959)
The Portable Jung, edited by Joseph Campbell
(Viking Portable), ISBN 0-14-015070-6
Edward F Edinger, Ego and Archetype, (Shambhala
Publications), ISBN 0-87773-576-X
Robert Hopcke, A Guided Tour of the Collected
Works of C. G. Jung, ISBN 1-57062-405-4
Edward C. Whitmont, The Symbolic Quest: Basic
Concepts of Analytical Psychology, Princeton
University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1969,
1979, ISBN 0-691-02454-5
O'Connor, Peter A. (1985). Understanding Jung,
understanding yourself. New York, NY: Paulist
Press. ISBN 0-8091-2799-7.
The Cambridge Companion to Jung, second edition,
eds Polly Young-Eisendrath and Terence Dawson,
published in 2008 by Cambridge University
PressTexts in various areas of Jungian thought
Robert Aziz, C. G. Jung's Psychology of Religion
and Synchronicity (1990), currently in its
10th printing, is a refereed publication of
State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-0166-9
Robert Aziz, Synchronicity and the Transformation
of the Ethical in Jungian Psychology in Carl
B. Becker, ed., Asian and Jungian Views of
Ethics. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1999. ISBN
0-313-30452-1
Robert Aziz, The Syndetic Paradigm: The Untrodden
Path Beyond Freud and Jung (2007), a refereed
publication of The State University of New
York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-6982-8
Robert Aziz, Foreword in Lance Storm, ed.,
Synchronicity: Multiple Perspectives on Meaningful
Coincidence. Pari, Italy: Pari Publishing,
2008. ISBN 978-88-95604-02-2
Wallace Clift, Jung and Christianity: The
Challenge of Reconciliation. New York: The
Crossroad Publishing Company, 1982. ISBN 0-8245-0409-7
Edward F. Edinger, The Mystery of The Coniunctio,
ISBN 0-919123-67-8
Manfred Engel, "Towards a Theory of Dream
Theories (with an Excursus on C.G. Jung)".
In: Bernard Dieterle, Manfred Engel (eds.),
Theorizing the Dream / Savoir et théories
du rêve (= Cultural Dream Studies 2) Würzburg:
Königshausen & Neumann 2018, 19-42 ISBN 978-3-8260-6443-2
Wolfgang Giegerich, The Soul's Logical Life,
ISBN 3-631-38225-1
James A Hall M.D., Jungian Dream Interpretation,
ISBN 0-919123-12-0
James Hillman, "Healing Fiction", ISBN 0-88214-363-8
Montiel, Luis, "El rizoma oculto de la psicología
profunda. Gustav Meyrink y Carl Gustav Jung",
Frenia, 2012, ISBN 978-84-695-3540-0
Catherine M Nutting, Concrete Insight: Art,
the Unconscious, and Transformative Spontaneity,
UVic Thesis 2007 214
Andrew Samuels, Critical Dictionary of Jungian
Analysis, ISBN 0-415-05910-0
June Singer, Boundaries of the Soul, ISBN
0-385-47529-2. On psychotherapy
Marion Woodman, The Pregnant Virgin: A Process
of Psychological Transformation, ISBN 0-919123-20-1
Simosko, Vladimir. Jung, Music, and Music
Therapy: Prepared for the Occasion of the
C.G. "Jung and the Humanities" Colloquium,
1987. Winnipeg, Man., The Author, 1987Academic
texts
Andrew Samuels, The Political Psyche (Routledge),
ISBN 0-415-08102-5
Lucy Huskinson, Nietzsche and Jung: The Whole
Self in the Union of Opposites (Routledge),
ISBN 1-58391-833-7
Davydov, Andrey. From Carl Gustav Jung's Archetypes
of the Collective Unconscious to Individual
Archetypal Pattern. HPA Press, 2014. ISBN
9781311820082
Remo, F. Roth: Return of the World Soul, Wolfgang
Pauli, C.G. Jung and the Challenge of Psychophysical
Reality [unus mundus], Part 1: The Battle
of the Giants. Pari Publishing, 2011, ISBN
978-88-95604-12-1
Remo, F. Roth: Return of the World Soul, Wolfgang
Pauli, C.G. Jung and the Challenge of Psychophysical
Reality [unus mundus], Part 2: A Psychophysical
Theory. Pari Publishing, 2012, ISBN 978-88-95604-16-9Jung-Freud
relationship
Kerr, John. A Most Dangerous Method: The Story
of Jung, Freud, and Sabina Spielrein. Knopf,
1993. ISBN 0-679-40412-0.Other people's recollections
of Jung
van der Post, Laurens, Jung and the Story
of Our Time, New York : Pantheon Books, 1975.
ISBN 0-394-49207-2
Hannah, Barbara, Jung, his life and work;
a biographical memoir, New York: G. P. Putnam's
Sons, 1976. SBN: 399-50383-8
David Bailey's biography of his Great Aunt,
Ruth Bailey, ‘The English Woman and C.G.Jung’
drawing extensively on her diaries and correspondence,
explores the deep and long-lasting friendship
between Ruth, Jung, and Jung's wife and family.Critical
scholarship
Dohe, Carrie B. Jung's Wandering Archetype:
Race and Religion in Analytical Psychology.
London: Routledge, 2016. ISBN 978-1138888401
Grossman, Stanley (1979). "C.G. Jung and National
Socialism". Jung in Contexts: A Reader. ISBN
9780415205580.
Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (1996). "New Age Religion
and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror
of Secular Thought". Leiden/New York/Koln:
E.J. Brill.
Wulff, David M. (1991). "Psychology of Religion:
Classic and Contemporary Views". New York:
John Wiley & Sons.
Paul Bishop, Carl Jung (Critical Lives) (Reaktion
Books, 2014)
Noll, Richard (1994). The Jung Cult: Origins
of a Charismatic Movement (1st ed.). Princeton
University Press. p. 336.
Richard Noll, The Aryan Christ: The Secret
Life of Carl Jung (Random House, 1997)
Anthony Stevens, On Jung (second edition)
Sonu Shamdasani, Cult Fictions, ISBN 0-415-18614-5
Sonu Shamdasani, Jung and the Making of Modern
Psychology: The Dream of a Science, ISBN 0-521-53909-9
Sonu Shamdasani, Jung Stripped Bare, ISBN
1-85575-317-0
Bair, Deirdre. Jung: A Biography. Boston:
Little, Brown and Co, 2003
== External links ==
Publications by and about Carl Jung in the
catalogue Helveticat of the Swiss National
Library
C.G. Jung Institute, Zurich
Museum House of C.G. Jung Küsnacht, Zurich
(Switzerland)
Carl Jung Resources
The Jung Page
Philemon Foundation
Works by or about Carl Jung at Internet Archive
Works by Carl Jung at LibriVox (public domain
audiobooks)
Carl Jung: Foreword to the I Ching
The Association Method Full text article from
1916. Originally Published in the Collected
Papers on Analytical Psychology.
On The Psychology & Pathology of So-Called
Occult Phenomena Full text article from 1916.
Originally published in the Collected Papers
on Analytical Psychology.
The Seven Sermons to the Dead, 1916 Carl Gustav
Jung
Jung's 'Essay on Wotan'
Bollingen Foundation Collection From the Rare
Book and Special Collections Division, Library
of Congress
Carl Gustav Jung: Arquetipos, Mística e Inconsciente
Colectivo (Jung Society – Dublin)
'The World Within. C. G. Jung in his own words
1990 documentary
Jung, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Brett Kahr,
Ronald Hayman, & Andrew Samuels (In Our Time,
2 December 2004)
