[music playing]
[applause]
- WELL, IT'S MY GREAT HONOR
TODAY TO INTRODUCE OUR SPEAKER.
AND IT'S ALSO MY GREAT HONOR
TO INTRODUCE THIS
AS ONE OF OUR KEY TALKS IN
THE 75th ANNIVERSARY CELEBRATION
OF NASA AMES
AND THE DIRECTOR'S
COLLOQUIUM SERIES.
OUR SPEAKER TODAY
IS DR. ELLEN STOFAN.
SHE WAS APPOINTED
THE NASA CHIEF SCIENTIST
ON AUGUST 25th LAST YEAR.
ALMOST A YEAR--TIME GOES QUICK
WHEN YOU'RE HAVING FUN, RIGHT?
SHE SERVES AS
THE PRINCIPLE ADVISOR
TO OUR ADMINISTRATOR,
CHARLIE BOLDEN
ON THE AGENCY'S
SCIENCE PROGRAMS
AND SCIENCE-RELATED STRATEGIC
PLANNING AND INVESTMENTS.
SHE'S ALSO A MEMBER
OF THE AGENCY EXECUTIVE COUNCIL,
SO SHE SPEAKS FOR US
COOL SCIENCE PEOPLE.
SO, YOU KNOW, THE--
GIVE HER A GOOD WELCOME.
SHE IS AN ASSOCIATE MEMBER
OF THE CASSINI MISSION
TO SATURN RADAR TEAM,
AND CO-INVESTIGATOR
IN THE MARS EXPRESS MISSIONS
MARSIS SOUNDER.
SHE WAS ALSO THE PRINCIPLE
INVESTIGATOR
ON THE TITAN MARS EXPLORER,
A PROPOSED MISSION
TO SEND A FLOATING LANDER
TO A SEA ON TITAN.
THAT'S REALLY COOL.
YOU KNOW, AND I'M AN AIR FORCE
GUY BUT, YOU KNOW,
SOME OF THE NAVY PEOPLE SAID,
"WELL, THEY'RE NOT TALKING ABOUT
FLYING AN AIRPLANE
IN THE ATMOSPHERE."
I SAID, "WELL, WE DID,
BUT THEY DIDN'T GET PICKED."
BUT SAILING A BOAT.
SO WE HAVE A TITANIUM NAVY,
RIGHT?
ELLEN HOLDS A MASTER
AND DOCTORATE DEGREE
IN GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES
FROM BROWN UNIVERSITY
IN PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND,
AND A BACHELOR'S DEGREE FROM
THE COLLEGE OF WILLIAM & MARY
IN WILLIAMSBURG,
VIRGINIA.
HER TALK TODAY IS ENTITLED
"NASA SCIENCE:
LOOKING OUTWARD,
INWARD AND HOMEWARD."
PLEASE JOIN ME IN WELCOMING
DR. ELLEN STOFAN.
[applause]
- GOOD AFTERNOON.
I'M REALLY EXCITED
TO BE HERE,
AND I'M EXCITED TO TALK
TO ALL OF YOU.
BUT I UNDERSTAND THAT A LOT
OF YOU ARE SUMMER INTERNS
HERE THIS SUMMER,
AND SO I WAS WONDERING IF THE
INTERNS COULD RAISE THEIR HANDS
SO I KNOW WHO YOU ARE.
WOW. AWESOME.
OH, PETE.
[laughs]
EXCELLENT.
SO I'M HOPING
THAT MANY OF YOU
COME BACK TO NASA
AT SOME POINT
AND JOIN THIS AGENCY,
BECAUSE WE'RE DOING
AMAZING THINGS.
AND I HOPE TO GIVE YOU A LITTLE
SORT OF A BROAD BASE LOOK
AT A LOT OF THE THINGS
WE DO.
JUST FOCUSING ON A COUPLE
DIFFERENT AREAS
THAT I'M PARTICULARLY WORKING ON
AT THE MOMENT,
OR THINKING ABOUT.
AND I LIKE TO TALK ABOUT--
WHEN YOU THINK
OF NASA SCIENCE,
YOU KNOW, OFTEN OUT
IN THE GENERAL PUBLIC,
THERE'S--WE WERE TALKING ABOUT
THIS EARLIER.
THERE'S CONFUSION THAT NASA
ACTUALLY STILL EXISTS.
BUT MOVING BEYOND THAT,
SOME PEOPLE ARE MOSTLY FAMILIAR
WITH OUR LOOKING OUTWARD.
YOU KNOW, OUR STUDIES
OF THE PLANETS,
OUR STUDIES
OF THE UNIVERSE.
ALL THE GREAT SCIENCE
THAT WE DO
THAT OFTEN MAKES IT ONTO THE
FRONT PAGES OF THE NEWSPAPER.
WHAT THEY'RE A LITTLE LESS
FAMILIAR WITH,
AND WHICH THERE'S CERTAINLY
A LOT OF EXPERTISE HERE AT AMES,
IS THE LOOKING INWARD
THAT WE DO,
UNDERSTANDING THE EFFECTS OF
MICROGRAVITY ON LIVING SYSTEMS
THAT WE ARE REALLY
FOCUSED ON
ON THE INTERNATIONAL
SPACE STATION.
AND THEN THERE'S
THE LOOKING HOMEWARD,
AND I'M GOING TO SPEND
A LITTLE BIT OF TIME
TALKING ABOUT THAT
THIS AFTERNOON.
WE HAVE 18 SATELLITES IN ORBIT
AROUND THE EARTH
DOING EARTH SCIENCE EVERY DAY,
MAKING CRITICAL MEASUREMENTS
TO HELP US UNDERSTAND
OUR OWN PLANET.
AND THIS, TO ME,
SORT OF SUMMARIZES
ALL OF THE SCIENCE
THAT WE DO AT NASA,
FROM TRYING TO UNDERSTAND
THE BEHAVIOR OF OUR OWN STAR--
THE SUN--TO OUR LOOKING BACK
INTO THE EARLIEST MOMENTS
OF THE UNIVERSE,
TRYING TO UNDERSTAND THE NATURE
OF STAR FORMATION,
UNIVERSE FORMATION,
GALAXY FORMATION,
TO THE RESEARCH
THAT WE'RE DOING
UP ON THE INTERNATIONAL
SPACE STATION
TO HELP US PREPARE TO SEND
HUMANS BEYOND LOW EARTH ORBIT
FROM THE INVESTIGATIONS THAT WE
DO HERE ON OUR OWN SOLAR SYSTEM.
WE OBVIOUSLY HAVE
SPACECRAFT RIGHT NOW
PRETTY MUCH SPANNING
THE SOLAR SYSTEM,
FROM THE MESSENGER MISSION
AT MERCURY
TO THE "NEW HORIZONS"
SPACECRAFT, WHICH NOW,
A FEW DAYS SHORT
OF ONE YEAR FROM NOW,
"NEW HORIZONS" WILL HAVE ITS
CLOSEST ENCOUNTER WITH PLUTO,
WHICH IS GOING TO BE
INCREDIBLY EXCITING
TO GET A CLOSE LOOK AT PLUTO.
AND, YES, I KNOW PLUTO
IS NOT TECHNICALLY A PLANET.
[man speaks indistinctly]
[laughs]
IT WAS WHEN WE LAUNCHED.
THAT'S RIGHT.
THINGS CHANGE.
BUT NEVERTHELESS...
AND, OF COURSE,
AS THIS IMAGE INDICATES,
THE NEW--THE JUNO MISSION,
WHICH IS GOING TO BE STUDYING
JUPITER SOON.
SO REALLY, SPACECRAFT
ALL ACROSS THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
ALMOST EVERY DAY YOU CAN GO
ONTO OUR NASA WEBSITES
AND FIND SOME COOL
SOLAR SYSTEM SCIENCE
THAT'S BEEN RETURNED.
AND FINALLY, AGAIN,
THE WORK THAT WE DO
OBSERVING OUR OWN PLANET,
JUST ABOUT IN EVERY WAVELENGTH
OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM,
FROM REGIONS LIKE
OUR FRAGILE COASTLINES
TO OBSERVATIONS OF THE OCEAN,
THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE.
BUT WHEN YOU LOOK AT NASA,
THIS IS PRETTY MUCH
HOW WE'RE ORGANIZED,
IN THESE DIFFERENT DIVISIONS.
AND AS CHIEF SCIENTIST,
I HAVE THE FUN JOB
OF BEING ABLE TO LOOK ACROSS
ALL OF THIS SCIENCE THAT WE DO.
AND ONE OF THE THINGS
I LIKE TO DO
IS TRY TO COMMUNICATE
THE CONNECTIONS,
BECAUSE THERE ARE HUGE
CONNECTIONS
BETWEEN ALL OF THESE DIFFERENT
AREAS OF SCIENCE WE PURSUE.
WE REALLY--WE MIGHT BE ORGANIZED
INTO THESE STOVEPIPES,
BUT WE ACTUALLY--A LOT OF US
DON'T OPERATE THAT WAY.
AND IF YOU THINK ABOUT
THE FUNDAMENTAL QUESTIONS
THAT DRIVE WHAT WE DO,
AND YOU CAN FIND THESE QUESTIONS
IN ALL OF OUR
DRIVING DOCUMENTS,
THE DECADAL SURVEYS THAT
THE NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
HELPS THE COMMUNITY
PUT TOGETHER
WHAT ARE SORT OF THE TOP
QUESTIONS IN SCIENCE.
AND THOSE FUNDAMENTAL
QUESTIONS
ARE HOW NASA DEVELOPS
ITS SCIENCE POLICY,
HOW WE DECIDE
WHAT TO DO NEXT.
WE REALLY LOOK OUT
TO THE COMMUNITY
THROUGH THOSE DECADAL SURVEYS.
THEN WE DEVELOP OUR OWN
STRATEGIC PLANS.
AND REALLY,
IN THOSE DOCUMENTS
YOU'LL FIND BASICALLY
THESE THREE QUESTIONS
WHICH ARE GETTING AT
HOW DOES EVERYTHING FORM,
WHAT'S THE ORIGIN OF STARS,
OF PLANETS OF THE UNIVERSE,
AND THEN HOW DO THEY CHANGE
OVER TIME?
AND SO TODAY I WANTED
TO TALK ABOUT--
START TALKING--
START OUT TALKING ABOUT
THAT BOTTOM QUESTION.
HOW DOES OUR UNIVERSE WORK?
BECAUSE AS A PLANET,
WE REALLY WANT TO KNOW
HOW DOES THIS--
OUR LOCAL SOLAR SYSTEM
ENVIRONMENT EVOLVE OVER TIME?
HOW HAS THAT
AFFECTED THE EARTH,
BOTH IN THE PAST
AND MOVING INTO THE FUTURE?
AND CERTAINLY ONE OF THE
FUNDAMENTAL ISSUES WITH THAT
IS WHAT'S GOING ON
ON OUR SUN.
WE GET THESE HUGE ERUPTIONS
IN CORONAL MASS EJECTIONS,
SOLAR FLARES OF PARTICLES
THAT COME STREAMING
TOWARDS THE EARTH.
AS THOSE PARTICLES GO BY--
FOR EXAMPLE, VENUS.
VENUS DOES NOT HAVE
A MAGNETIC FIELD.
SO THOSE--THOSE--
THAT SOLAR WIND,
THOSE STRIPPING OF PARTICLES
ACTUALLY STRIP AWAY
THE TOP LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
OF VENUS,
CONTRIBUTING TO THE FACT
THAT VENUS NOW HAS
THIS INCREDIBLY INHOSPITABLE
CLIMATE.
BUT WHEN THEY REACHED
THE EARTH,
THOSE WERE PROTECTED
BY OUR MAGNETIC FIELD.
AND SO THOSE WONDERFUL
MAGNETIC FIELD LINES
SEND ALL THOSE PARTICLES
AROUND THE EARTH,
PROTECTING US FROM
SOLAR PARTICLE--
PROTECTING US
FROM COSMIC RAYS
HERE ON THE SURFACE
OF THE EARTH.
BUT OBVIOUSLY, IF WE WANT
TO SEND ASTRONAUTS
OUT BEYOND OUR LITTLE
PALE BLUE DOT
INTO DEEP SPACE,
WE HAVE TO LEARN
HOW TO PROTECT THEM
FROM THAT HARSH
SOLAR ENVIRONMENT.
AND, AGAIN, THAT'S SOME OF
THE RESEARCH THAT WE'RE DOING
RIGHT HERE AT AMES
BUT ALSO UP ON THE INTERNATIONAL
SPACE STATION EVERY DAY.
SO IF YOU REALLY THINK
OF THE EARTH
AS BEING THIS FAIRLY FRAGILE,
LITTLE PALE BLUE DOT IN SPACE
THAT CAN BE HUGELY AFFECTED
BY THINGS LIKE SOLAR STORMS,
YOU CAN THEN TURN
TO WHAT'S GOING ON
ON OUR PLANET RIGHT NOW.
AND THESE ARE THE DEVIATIONS
FROM AVERAGE
SURFACE TEMPERATURES
STARTING IN THE 1890s AND GOING
ALL THE WAY TO THE PRESENT.
SO FROM NATURAL EFFECTS
LIKE A SOLAR STORM
TO MAN-MADE EFFECTS,
OR CLIMATE CHANGE.
AND AS YOU SEE, ESPECIALLY
MOVING INTO THE 1990s,
INTO THE EARLY 2000s,
WHEN YOU SEE THAT TEMPERATURE
JUST GOING UP AND UP AND UP
WITH PARTICULARLY STRONG EFFECTS
IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA,
WHERE YOU HAVE POPULATIONS
THAT ARE REALLY THE LEAST ABLE
TO ADAPT TO ANY KIND
OF CLIMATE CHANGE,
TO HUGE CHANGES GOING ON
IN THE ARCTIC.
AND AGAIN, AS YOU SEE THIS CYCLE
BACK AROUND,
YOU'LL SEE GOING FROM ABOUT
THE LATE '90s TO THE PRESENT
THE TEMPERATURE JUST GOING
UP AND UP AND UP
IN THE ARCTIC REGION.
HUGE IMPACT ON THE POPULATIONS
THAT LIVE THERE,
AND REALLY
A SORT OF A BELLWETHER
FOR WHAT IS GOING TO HAPPEN
TO THE REST OF THE PLANET.
AND OBVIOUSLY THIS IS HAVING
HUGE EFFECTS.
THAT CONCENTRATION OF HIGHER
AVERAGE SURFACE TEMPERATURES
UP IN THE ARCTIC IS HAVING
A PRACTICAL EFFECT.
IT'S MELTING THE POLAR ICE CAPS
OVER TIME
SO THAT EVERY SUMMER,
MORE OR LESS,
WE HAVE LESS AND LESS SURFACE
AREA IN THE ARCTIC OCEAN
COVERED BY SEA ICE.
THE SEA ICE THAT REMAINS
TENDS TO BE THINNER.
IT TENDS TO OFTEN BE DARKER,
SO THAT THAT POLAR ARCTIC REGION
ABSORBS MORE AND MORE HEAT.
THAT IS THEN GIVEN OFF.
IT'S DUMPING ENERGY INTO OUR
CLIMATE AND WEATHER SYSTEM.
AND WHAT'S THE EFFECT OF THAT?
TO BE HONEST WITH YOU,
WE DON'T KNOW.
JUST THIS PAST YEAR
THROUGH THE NATIONAL ACADEMY,
OR THE NATIONAL RESEARCH
COUNCIL,
THERE WAS A BIG MEETING
OF SCIENTISTS GETTING TOGETHER
AND DEBATING, YOU KNOW,
WHAT IS THE EFFECT
OF THIS INCREASED HEAT PULSE
INTO THE ARCTIC REGION?
IS IT CAUSING
SOME OF THE WEIRD WEATHER
WE HAD ON THE EAST COAST,
FOR EXAMPLE, THIS PAST WINTER?
WE DON'T KNOW YET.
IT'S JUST--IT'S TOO SOON.
WE DON'T HAVE ENOUGH DATA.
BUT THE FACT THAT THE ARCTIC
IS CHANGING SO MUCH
SO RAPIDLY TO THE POINT, AGAIN,
BY THE 2030s
WE THINK THERE'LL BE
VERY LITTLE ICE COVER
IN THE SUMMER
IN THE ARCTIC,
IT'S CLEARLY HAVING
LONG-TERM IMPLICATIONS,
AGAIN, NOT JUST ON THE PEOPLE
WHO LIVE IN THE ARCTIC,
BUT ON THE REST OF US.
AND SO IT'S FRUSTRATING
FOR MANY OF US WHEN YOU SAY,
"WELL, WHEN CLIMATE CHANGE
OCCURS IN THE FUTURE."
AND YOU SAY,
"OKAY, FOR THE PEOPLE
"WHO ARE LIVING
IN THE ARCTIC.
IT'S SOMETHING WE OBSERVE
EVERY DAY."
NOW IF YOU SAY,
"OKAY, HOW CAN NASA
ACTUALLY PLAY
A ROLE IN THIS?"
AND CLEARLY, AGAIN,
WE HAVE THOSE 18 SATELLITES,
NOT TO MENTION THE AIRCRAFT
PROGRAM THAT WE DO.
WE HAVE THOSE 18 SATELLITES,
YOU KNOW,
AND ALL DIFFERENT INSTRUMENTS.
EVERY PHASE OF THE
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
WHERE WE'RE OBSERVING
AT DIFFERENT TIMES OF THE DAY,
AT DIFFERENT INTERVALS,
ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY,
CLOUD COVER,
SURFACE LAND CHANGE,
SURFACE WINDS,
UPPER ATMOSPHERIC WINDS--
A WHOLE RANGE
OF MEASUREMENTS
TO GET AT EACH OF THESE
DIFFERENT ASPECTS.
WE HAVE THIS INCREDIBLY
COMPLEX PLANET.
I ALWAYS TELL PEOPLE THAT'S WHY
I'D RATHER STUDY VENUS OR TITAN,
BECAUSE YOU DON'T HAVE
ALL THIS PESKY VEGETATION
AND, YOU KNOW,
PEOPLE AND STUFF AROUND.
SO THEY'RE MUCH SIMPLER.
SO IF YOU'RE TRYING
TO UNDERSTAND A PLANET
AS COMPLEX AS THE EARTH,
YOU NEED AN AWFUL LOT
OF DATA TO DO THAT.
AND OBVIOUSLY YOU'RE ALSO
DOING GREAT THINGS HERE AT AMES
THROUGH THE NEXT PROGRAM.
I'M TRYING TO MAKE THAT DATA
MORE EASILY AVAILABLE
AND USABLE
TO THE BROAD COMMUNITY.
AND SO THIS YEAR IS A YEAR
THAT WE'RE, IN PARTICULAR,
REALLY EXCITED ABOUT.
FOR THE FIRST TIME
IN OVER A DECADE,
WE HAVE FIVE "MISSION TO PLANET
EARTH" MISSIONS
BEING LAUNCHED THIS YEAR.
THE GOOD NEWS IS TWO OF THEM
HAVE ALREADY LAUNCHED,
SO WE HAVE THREE MORE
TO WAIT FOR.
GPM, THE GLOBAL PRECIPITATION
MEASUREMENT CORE,
WAS LAUNCHED IN FEBRUARY.
OCO-2 WAS JUST LAUNCHED
AT THE BEGINNING OF THIS MONTH,
AND BOTH SATELLITES
ARE DOING REALLY WELL.
WHAT I LOVE
ABOUT THE MISSIONS,
ESPECIALLY THAT WE'RE LAUNCHING
THIS YEAR,
IS YOU CAN REALLY ILLUSTRATE
HOW NASA'S TRYING TO ATTACK
THESE FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS
IN SUCH A COMPREHENSIVE WAY.
TAKE GPM AND SMAP.
AND ON THAT PREVIOUS SLIDE,
YOU SAW THE WATER CYCLE.
WELL, YOU CAN THINK OF WATER
AS SORT OF BEING
A PROXY FOR ENERGY,
AND THAT'S OBVIOUSLY
REALLY CRITICAL
TO THE WORKINGS
OF THE CLIMATE SYSTEM.
WITH GPM, WE'RE MEASURING
GLOBAL PRECIPITATION
AROUND THE GLOBE
EVERY THREE HOURS,
AND WE'RE NOT JUST MEASURING
HOW MUCH DID IT RAIN.
WE'RE MEASURING WHAT WAS
THE SIZE OF THE RAINDROPS?
WAS THERE ICE MIXED IN?
A FAVORITE OF OURS
ON THE EAST COAST:
MIXED PRECIPITATION.
AND THE SIZES
OF THOSE ICE DROPLETS.
WAS IT SNOWING?
SLEETING?
AND EXACTLY WHAT KIND
OF PRECIPITATION IS GOING ON?
AND, AGAIN, THAT'S IMPORTANT
FOR ONE THING,
BECAUSE, AGAIN,
WATER CAN BE THOUGHT OF
AS A PROXY FOR ENERGY
IN THE CLIMATE CYCLE,
BUT ALSO BECAUSE
GO BACK TO THE FACT
THAT OVER 70% OF THE EARTH'S
SURFACE IS COVERED BY WATER.
NOBODY'S OUT THERE
WITH RAIN GAUGES
MEASURING HOW MUCH
IT RAINS
OR KNOWING WHAT TYPE
OF PRECIPITATION IS FALLING.
SO SPACE-BASED MEASUREMENTS
IS THE ONLY WAY
WE CAN GET A COMPREHENSIVE LOOK
AT THAT INPUT
INTO THE WATER CYCLE.
NOW SMAP IS TAKING
A DIFFERENT LOOK AT IT.
SMAP IS MEASURING
SOIL MOISTURE.
SO, OKAY, AGAIN,
THINK OF THE WATER CYCLE,
PRECIPITATION,
EVAPORATION.
THERE'S SOMETHING ELSE
IN THERE.
I'M NOT GOOD AT THAT SONG
MY KIDS CAN SING.
SMAP IS GOING TO BE MEASURING
LAND SURFACE SOIL MOISTURE--
AGAIN, CRITICAL TO UNDERSTANDING
THE WATER CYCLE,
BUT ALSO CRITICAL
ON A FUNDAMENTAL SCALE
TO FARMERS WHO WANT TO KNOW
HOW MUCH WATER
THEIR SOIL IS RETAINING.
WHERE ARE THE WET AREAS,
WHERE'S THE DRY,
WHAT ARE THE TRENDS, HOW CAN WE
INPUT THAT DATA INTO MODELS?
NOW A SATELLITE
THAT WE'VE ALREADY LAUNCHED
THAT'S NOT ON THIS,
GRACE,
IS TAKING ANOTHER PART
OF THAT WATER CYCLE ISSUE.
GRACE MEASURES CHANGES
IN THE EARTH'S SURFACE,
GETS AT GRAVITY.
BUT WE CAN ALSO ACTUALLY USE IT
TO LOOK AT AQUIFERS.
WHEN AQUIFERS HAVE BEEN GOING
IN GENERAL DOWN THESE DAYS--
FOR EXAMPLE, IN INDIA,
WE'VE SEEN IT HERE
IN CALIFORNIA--
WE'VE ACTUALLY BEEN ABLE
TO MEASURE VERY PRECISELY
WHEN THE EARTH'S SURFACE
GOES DOWN
BECAUSE WE'VE BEEN
DRAINING AQUIFERS,
IN A LOT OF CASES
IRREVERSIBLY.
THEY'RE NOT FILLING
BACK UP AGAIN.
AND SO WE CAN ACTUALLY GO
INTO THE THIRD DIMENSION,
DOWN INTO THE SURFACE
OF THE EARTH,
AND UNDERSTAND MORE ABOUT THE
WATER BALANCE ON THE PLANET.
SO WITH THREE NASA SATELLITES,
WE'RE ACTUALLY ATTACKING
ALL DIFFERENT PIECES
OF THIS WATER CYCLE.
SO NOT JUST A PIECE
OF INFORMATION HERE OR THERE,
BUT A WHOLE SERIES OF PIECES
OF INFORMATION
THAT WE CAN KNIT TOGETHER
TO BETTER UNDERSTAND
SOME OF THESE VERY
FUNDAMENTAL CYCLES
ON OUR EXTREMELY
COMPLEX PLANET.
AND THE OTHER THING I WILL SAY
THAT'S EXCITING ABOUT THIS YEAR
IS THAT TWO
OF THESE INSTRUMENTS:
RAPIDSCAT AND CAT,
THE CLOUD-AEROSOL
TRANSPORT SYSTEM,
ARE BOTH GOING TO BE MOUNTED
ON THE INTERNATIONAL
SPACE STATION.
SO BEING ABLE TO UTILIZE
THIS AMAZING PLATFORM
THAT WE HAVE IN SPACE TO BE
DOING EARTH SCIENCE OBSERVATIONS
IN A DIFFERENT ORBIT
THAN A LOT OF THE POLAR ORBITS
THAT WE PUT SATELLITES INTO,
IT'S VERY COMPLEMENTARY TO A LOT
OF THE OTHER DATA SETS
THAT WE'RE COLLECTING,
SO WE'RE REALLY EXCITED
ABOUT THAT ALSO.
NOW, IF WE'RE TRYING TO
UNDERSTAND THIS COMPLEX PLANET,
AGAIN, IT REALLY HELPS
TO PUT IT INTO CONTEXT.
AND FOR A LOT OF YOU
SUMMER INTERNS,
A LOT OF THE TIMES WHEN
I'M TELLING PEOPLE, YOU KNOW,
FOR A LONG TIME
PEOPLE WILL SAY,
"WHY DO YOU STUDY THOSE OTHER
PLANETS ANYWAY?"
AND I TRY TO USE THE ANALOGY OF
JUST THINK IF YOU WERE A DOCTOR
AND YOU ONLY HAD ONE PATIENT.
YOU MIGHT REALLY START
TO UNDERSTAND THAT PATIENT,
LIKE WHEN THEY MIGHT GET SICK,
WHEN THEY MIGHT GET BETTER,
HOW RESILIENT THEY ARE
TO DISEASE.
BUT YOU'D NEVER BE ABLE TO
UNDERSTAND THE NATURE OF DISEASE
UNLESS YOU HAD LOTS AND LOTS
OF PATIENTS.
AND I WOULD ARGUE,
AS A GEOLOGIST,
WE HAVE THAT SAME ISSUE IF WE
ONLY HAVE THE EARTH TO STUDY.
I PRIMARILY STUDY VOLCANOES
ON PLANETARY SURFACES.
AND SO IF I CAN HAVE MULTIPLE
BODIES TO STUDY
THAT HAVE SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT
TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE--
SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT ROCK
COMPOSITIONS,
MAYBE SOMETIMES THE ROCKS
ARE MORE WET, MORE DRY,
DIFFERENT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE,
DIFFERENT ATMOSPHERIC
TEMPERATURE,
DIFFERENT GRAVITY--
I CAN START KNITTING
ALL THOSE DIFFERENT
PHYSICAL SITUATIONS TOGETHER
AND START TO BETTER UNDERSTAND
HOW A PHYSICAL PROCESS--
THE ERUPTION OF A VOLCANO--
HOW THAT OPERATES.
SO BY HAVING NOT JUST THE EARTH
BUT VENUS, MARS,
THE ICY SATELLITES
IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM,
I CAN DO COMPARATIVE
PLANETOLOGY
AND I CAN START
UNDERSTANDING
HOW PLANETARY PROCESSES
BETTER WORK.
AND OBVIOUSLY ONE OF THE THINGS
WE REALLY LIKE TO DO
IN OUR PROGRESSION
OF HOW WE STUDY PLANETS
IS GO FROM ORBITERS
THAT COLLECT REMOTE DATA...
WELL, WE USUALLY START
WITH FLY-BYS
WHEN WE CAN'T
GET INTO ORBIT.
AND THEN WE ORBIT AND COLLECT
GLOBAL COMPREHENSIVE DATA SETS.
AND ONCE WE HAVE A GOOD IDEA
OF THE GLOBAL NATURE OF A BODY,
WE LIKE TO GET DOWN
ON THE SURFACE.
WHETHER IT'S GETTING DOWN
ON THE SURFACE OF AN ASTEROID,
THE MOON, VENUS, AS THE SOVIETS
DID BACK IN THE 1980s,
MARS, WHICH I'LL TALK A LOT
ABOUT IN A MINUTE.
ONE OF MY FAVORITE PLACES
IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM: TITAN,
WITH THOSE LITTLE WHITE,
ROUND PEBBLES.
AND THEN, OF COURSE,
WE HAVE THESE BODIES
TO ACTUALLY COMPARE
BACK TO THE EARTH.
SO WHEN WE HAVE THAT IN SITU,
THAT SURFACE DATA,
WE CAN START REALLY LOOKING
AT GEOLOGIC PROCESSES,
LIKE HOW DO LAVA FLOWS FORM?
WE CAN LOOK AT THOSE
VERY SMOOTH,
PLATY LAVA FLOWS ON VENUS
AND START TO BETTER UNDERSTAND
HOW THEY COMPARE
TO VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
HERE ON EARTH.
WE CAN LOOK AT THOSE LITTLE
ROUNDED PEBBLES
ON THE SURFACE OF TITAN
AND KNOW THAT TO GET A LITTLE
ROUNDED ROCK LIKE THAT,
IT HAS TO BE TUMBLED
BY A STREAM, TUMBLED IN A RIVER.
AND INDEED, THAT IS
WHAT HAPPENED TO IT.
BUT, OF COURSE,
THOSE RIVERS AND STREAMS
HAVE LIQUID METHANE AND ETHANE
FLOWING IN THEM, NOT WATER,
BECAUSE ON TITAN,
IT'S 94 DEGREES KELVIN
ON THE SURFACE--
REALLY, REALLY, REALLY,
REALLY COLD.
SO WATER IS NOT STABLE
AS A LIQUID,
BUT LIQUID METHANE IS.
BUT ALL OF A SUDDEN WE HAVE
THESE SAME PROCESSES
THAT OCCUR
HERE ON THE EARTH,
RIVERS, STREAMS, LAKES, SEAS,
AND ALL THE PROCESSES
THAT COME WITH THAT--
WAVES, CURRENTS, TIDES.
BUT NOW IT'S ON A BODY
WITH A DIFFERENT WORKING FLUID,
DIFFERENT GRAVITY.
WHOLE DIFFERENT WORLD.
SOMETHING TO COMPARE
THE EARTH TO
TO BETTER UNDERSTAND,
FOR EXAMPLE, MARINE PROCESSES.
EXTREMELY EXCITING.
SO IT'S SOMETHING WE'D LIKE TO
ULTIMATELY SOMEDAY INVESTIGATE
A LITTLE MORE CLOSELY.
NOW, THE TOP QUESTION
ON THAT SLIDE--
I'VE BEEN MOSTLY
TALKING ABOUT...
ABOUT HOW
THE SOLAR SYSTEM WORKS.
AND THE TOP QUESTION
ON THAT LIST WAS,
"ARE WE ALONE?"
AND IF YOU GO OUT
TO THE GENERAL PUBLIC
AND START TALKING TO THEM
ABOUT THE SCIENCE
THAT WE DO AT NASA,
THAT'S PROBABLY THE QUESTION
THAT I GET ASKED
MOST FREQUENTLY.
MOST FREQUENTLY IT'S,
YOU KNOW,
"DO YOU THINK THERE'S LIFE
ON EUROPA OR MARS?"
AND THEN IT'S, "WOULD NASA TELL
PEOPLE IF WE FOUND IT?"
YES, OF COURSE WE WOULD
TELL PEOPLE IF WE FOUND IT.
BUT THIS QUESTION
OF "ARE WE ALONE"
I THINK IS ONE THAT RESONATES
WITH EVERYBODY,
BECAUSE IT'S SUCH A FUNDAMENTAL
QUESTION THAT YOU HAVE,
THAT HUMANS HAVE HAD FOREVER
WHEN YOU LOOK UP
INTO THE NIGHT SKY
AND SAY, "ARE WE THE ONLY THINGS
OUT THERE?"
WELL, OBVIOUSLY APPROACHING THAT
FROM A SCIENTIFIC POINT OF VIEW,
YOU SAY, "WELL, WHAT WERE THE
INGREDIENTS HERE ON THE EARTH
THAT LED TO THE FORMATION
OF LIFE?"
AND THOSE INGREDIENTS
THAT WE'VE COME UP WITH
ARE A SOURCE OF ENERGY
AND NUTRIENTS.
THAT'S PRETTY EASY
IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM
WITH VOLCANOES, LIGHTNING,
LOTS OF SOURCES OF ENERGY,
SOURCES OF NUTRIENTS.
CARBON--ADVANCED CARBON
COMPOUNDS--
AGAIN, NOT VERY HARD--
OCCUR IN LOTS OF PLACES.
I WAS HEARING TODAY
OUT IN THE INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM,
COMETS, ASTEROIDS.
EVERYWHERE WE GO,
WE FIND CARBON COMPOUNDS.
SO THAT'S NOT THE TOUGH PART.
THE TOUGH PART TURNS OUT
TO BE LIQUID WATER,
WHICH WE THINK IS CRITICAL
FOR THE FORMATION OF LIFE.
AND LIQUID WATER--
WATER'S OBVIOUSLY ONLY STABLE
AS A LIQUID
IN A FAIRY LIMITED
TEMPERATURE BOUND.
SO WHERE COULD WE GO
IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM
TO FIND THOSE CONDITIONS?
I WOULD ARGUE THERE'S ALSO A
FOURTH CONDITION TO THOSE THREE,
AND THAT'S STABILITY
OF ENVIRONMENT.
THAT IF THE CONDITIONS
ARE CHANGING ALL THE TIME,
IT'S GOING TO BE REALLY HARD
TO ALLOW THE CHEMISTRY
TO GO FORWARD TO GET VERY MUCH
LIFE TO OCCUR.
SO MAYBE IT'S GOING TO BE
REALLY HARD TO FIND.
SO THE LONGER
THOSE CONDITIONS
WHERE LIQUID WATER IS STABLE,
FOR EXAMPLE, PERSIST--
A STABLE RADIATION
ENVIRONMENT,
A MORE OR LESS STABLE
TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE
ENVIRONMENT--
THE MORE LIKELY YOU ARE
TO GET LIFE.
WELL, IN THE CENTER
OF THAT SLIDE IS OBVIOUSLY
ONE OF THE CHIEF AREAS THAT
WE'RE TRYING TO STUDY: MARS.
AND THAT'S MOUNT SHARP,
WHICH THE "CURIOSITY" ROVER
IS IN THE PROCESS OF CLIMBING,
GETTING BACK
REALLY EXCITING DATA
FROM ITS MULTIPLE
INSTRUMENTS,
TRYING TO GET
AT THIS QUESTION
OF WERE THERE HABITABLE
ENVIRONMENTS
ON THE SURFACE OF MARS,
AND IF SO,
HOW LONG DID THEY PERSIST?
AND THE NEWS THAT'S COME BACK
FROM "CURIOSITY"
HAS BEEN EXCITING, OKAY?
WE'VE KNOWN FOR A LONG TIME
THERE WAS WATER ON MARS.
SOME OF THE RESULTS FROM
"SPIRIT" AND "OPPORTUNITY"
SAID, WELL, SOME OF THESE
ENVIRONMENTS--
AQUEOUS ENVIRONMENTS
MAYBE WEREN'T ALL THAT--
THAT WELCOMING TO LIFE.
BUT THE ENVIRONMENTS THAT HAVE
BEEN IDENTIFIED AT GALE CRATER
SEEM TO BE, AGAIN,
LONG-LASTING
AND MUCH MORE CONDUCIVE
POTENTIALLY
TO THE FORMATION OF LIFE.
SO WE'VE BEEN REALLY EXCITED
BY THE RESULTS
COMING BACK FROM THAT.
NOT TO MENTION THAT
ONE OF THE INSTRUMENTS ON--
ON "CURIOSITY,"
THE MASS SPECTROMETER,
HAS ACTUALLY BEEN ABLE TO GET
SOME EXPOSURE AGE DATING,
WHICH IS THE FIRST AGE DATING
WE'VE BEEN ABLE TO DO
ON A PLANETARY SURFACE.
AGE DATING IS REALLY IMPORTANT
TO GEOLOGISTS,
BECAUSE IT ALLOWS YOU TO PUT
ABSOLUTE DATES ON THINGS
RATHER THAN SAYING,
"OKAY, THESE ROCKS
ARE OLDER THAN THESE ROCKS,
"BUT I DON'T REALLY KNOW
WHEN THEY FORMED
OR HOW LONG THEY TOOK
TO FORM."
AGE DATING ALLOWS YOU TO PUT
A SPECIFIC DATE ON THE ROCKS
AND ACTUALLY START TO UNDERSTAND
HOW LONG HAVE THESE ROCKS,
FOR EXAMPLE, BEEN EXPOSED
TO COSMIC RADIATION?
WHEN DID THEY FORM?
A CRITICAL TOOL
THAT WE'VE NEVER HAD
ON A PLANETARY SURFACE
UNTIL "CURIOSITY."
SO REALLY EXCITING.
BUT THE OTHER PLACES
THAT WE GO IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM
IS UP THERE
IN THE UPPER RIGHT.
EUROPA. EUROPA'S A MOON
OF JUPITER.
IT HAS AN ICY CRUST.
AND UNDER THAT ICY CRUST,
WE KNOW THERE'S A LIQUID
WATER OCEAN.
AND UNDER AT THE BASE
OF THAT OCEAN
THERE'S A LARGELY
SILICATE CORE.
NOW, EUROPA IS OBVIOUSLY,
AS I SAID,
IN ORBIT AROUND JUPITER.
JUPITER HAS A MASSIVE--
IS EXTREMELY MASSIVE,
SO IT'S ALWAYS PULLING,
PULLING, PULLING ON EUROPA.
IT IS ALWAYS TUGGING, ALSO,
HUGE TIDES ON IO,
ONE OF JUPITER'S
OTHER MOONS.
AND IO IS COVERED
WITH VOLCANOES.
OKAY, EUROPA IS A LITTLE FURTHER
OUT FROM JUPITER,
BUT STILL CLOSE ENOUGH
THAT IT HAS HUGE TIDAL EFFECTS,
UP TO 30 METERS
FROM THAT PULL OF JUPITER.
OKAY, SO THAT SILICATE CORE
INSIDE OF EUROPA
IS CONSTANTLY MOVING AROUND.
THAT MOVING AROUND CREATES
FRICTIONAL HEAT,
ENOUGH TO MELT,
ENOUGH TO CAUSE VOLCANISM.
OKAY, SO THINK OF THAT
ICY CRUST,
A BIG, THICK WATER OCEAN,
AND THEN AT THE BOTTOM OF THAT
LIQUID OCEAN: VOLCANOES.
ALL KINDS OF VOLCANIC VENTS.
VOLCANIC VENTS PRODUCE HEAT,
THEY PRODUCE LOTS OF NUTRIENTS,
ALL KINDS OF MINERALS.
A GREAT ENVIRONMENT,
POTENTIALLY,
FOR THE FORMATION OF LIFE.
AND SO ONE OF OUR
PRIMARY TARGETS--
IN FACT, JUST LAST WEEK
WE RELEASED AN ANNOUNCEMENT
OF OPPORTUNITY
FOR PEOPLE TO START THINKING
ABOUT INSTRUMENTS
FOR THE NEXT MISSION
TO EUROPA,
WHICH WE HOPE WILL TAKE PLACE
IN THE 2020s.
ON THE BOTTOM,
YOU SEE ENCELADUS,
WHICH IS ANOTHER MOON OF SATURN,
LIKE TITAN.
ENCELADUS ALSO HAS
A LIQUID OCEAN,
BUT IN THIS CASE WE THINK
IT'S A LOT SMALLER,
MORE LIKE A LIQUID SEA
UNDERNEATH ITS ICY CRUST.
SO, AGAIN, NO REAL ATMOSPHERE,
ICY CRUST,
SUB-SURFACE--SMALL,
IN THIS CASE, PROBABLY, SEA.
ENCELADUS IS ALSO BEING PULLED
ON BY SATURN,
AND THAT CAUSES CRACKS
IN THE SURFACE OF ENCELADUS.
AND IT TURNS OUT YOU HAVE
GEYSER-LIKE ERUPTIONS
COMING FROM THAT
SUB-SURFACE OCEAN,
SPEWING MATERIAL OUT.
LUCKILY WITH
THE "CASSINI" SPACECRAFT,
WE WERE ACTUALLY ABLE
TO FLY THROUGH THOSE PLUMES,
SO WE KNOW THEY'RE PARTIALLY
WATER AND WATER ICE.
BUT WE ALSO KNOW
THERE'S ALL KINDS
OF COMPLEX ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
COMING OUT FROM THE INTERIOR.
NOW, WE DON'T KNOW
EXACTLY WHAT THEY ARE,
BECAUSE THE MASS SPECTROMETER
ON "CASSINI"
REALLY WASN'T DESIGNED
TO BE ABLE
TO SPECIFY EXACTLY
WHAT THEY ARE,
BUT WE KNOW THEY'RE COMPLEX
CARBON COMPOUNDS.
SO ENCELADUS
IS ANOTHER TARGET
POTENTIALLY TO GO TO
IN THE FUTURE
TO REALLY UNDERSTAND HOW MANY
PLACES IN OUR OWN SOLAR SYSTEM
COULD BE CONDUCIVE TO LIFE.
IN THE UPPER LEFT,
YOU SEE TITAN.
AGAIN, I TALK A LOT
ABOUT TITAN,
WHICH NATHALIE CABROL
WILL APPRECIATE.
BUT NATHALIE AND I ARE
PARTICULARLY INTERESTED IN TITAN
BECAUSE OF THE FACT THAT IT HAS
THESE SEAS ON ITS SURFACE.
VERY LONG-LASTING.
WE THINK THEY ACTUALLY PERSIST
FOR LIKELY TENS OF THOUSANDS
OF YEARS.
THE SEAS, AGAIN, NOT WATER--
LIQUID ETHANE AND METHANE.
ALL KINDS OF COMPLICATED
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS,
SOME LIKE PLASTICS, ARE FORMING
IN THE ATMOSPHERE OF TITAN.
THEY FORM SOLID PARTICLES
CALLED THOLINS.
THOSE THOLINS RAIN DOWN
INTO THE SEAS
AND PERSIST IN THOSE SEAS
FOR PROBABLY, AGAIN,
VERY LONG PERIODS OF TIME.
OKAY, THERE'S NO LIQUID WATER
AND IT'S COLD.
AGAIN, EXTREMELY COLD.
SO COULD YOU HAVE ANY--
ENOUGH ENERGY
THAT WOULD LEAD TOWARDS ANYTHING
THAT LOOKED LIKE LIFE?
COULD YOU ONLY GET
SOME OF THE WAY THERE
BUT NOT ALL
OF THE WAY THERE?
WE HAVE NO IDEA.
BUT IF YOU REALLY WANT TO PUSH
ON THE LIMITS TO LIFE,
AFTER WE EXPLORE THE PLACES
WHERE WE THINK ARE MORE LIKELY
BECAUSE THERE'S LIQUID WATER,
TITAN WOULD CERTAINLY
BE HIGH ON THE LIST.
THE OTHER REASON
WE'RE PARTICULARLY EXCITED
ABOUT EUROPA RIGHT NOW
IS THIS IS A MOSAIC
OF THE SOUTHERN--
NEAR THE SOUTHERN POLAR REGION.
AND FROM SOME OF THOSE CRACKS
THAT YOU SEE
HERE NEAR THE SOUTH POLE,
HUBBLE TOOK SOME
OBSERVATIONS.
WELL, OKAY,
A SCIENTIST MADE HUBBLE
TAKE SOME OBSERVATIONS
LAST YEAR
OF THAT REGION.
AND WHAT THEY SAW WAS A HYDROGEN
AND OXYGEN CLOUD, BASICALLY,
AROUND THAT REGION
OF EUROPA,
SEEMINGLY INDICATING WHAT
ACTUALLY A BUNCH OF SCIENTISTS
HAD BEEN PREDICTING
FOR SOME TIME.
WHEN THEY SAW THOSE PLUMES
ON ENCELADUS
THEY THOUGHT, YOU KNOW,
EUROPA'S GOT ALL THESE CRACKS.
EUROPA'S IN THIS SIMILAR
SITUATION,
BEING TUGGED ON
JUST LIKE ENCELADUS IS.
MAYBE WE HAVE SIMILAR PLUMES
COMING OUT
OF THE POLE OF EUROPA.
THE PLANET
WAS ACTUALLY ALSO
AT ABOUT THE RIGHT POINT IN ITS
ORBIT AROUND JUPITER,
WHERE YOU'D EXPECT IT TO BE
REALLY BEING YANKED ON.
SO THAT WOULD BE MAYBE THE
MAXIMUM TIME OF CRACK OPENINGS,
WHEN YOU WOULD EXPECT A PLUME
TO BE FORMING.
NOW, THEY'VE LOOKED AGAIN AND
THEY HAVEN'T SEEN THE PLUMES,
SO THERE'S A WHOLE BUNCH
OF OBSERVATIONS PLANNED
TO GO BACK AND LOOK AGAIN
AND SAY,
"CAN WE SEE THESE PLUMES?"
"CAN WE UNDERSTAND?"
NOW OBVIOUSLY THAT WOULD
HUGELY AFFECT
WHAT YOU MIGHT DO NEXT
AT EUROPA,
BECAUSE FOR A LONG TIME
WE'VE CERTAINLY BEEN WONDERING,
FOR EXAMPLE,
THERE'S THIS KIND OF ORANGEY
BROWN STUFF ON THE SURFACE.
WE DON'T KNOW
WHAT ITS COMPOSITION IS.
THAT'S ONE THING AN ORBITER
OR A FLY--
A MISSION THAT WAS IN JUPITER
ORBIT GOING BY EUROPA
WOULD CERTAINLY GET AT,
WHAT'S THE CHEMISTRY
OF THAT.
BUT BECAUSE OF THAT HARSH
RADIATION ENVIRONMENT,
EXTREMELY HARSH RADIATION
ENVIRONMENT BECAUSE OF JUPITER
BEING RIGHT THERE,
WE DON'T REALLY THINK ANYTHING
COULD LIVE ON THE SURFACE
OF EUROPA.
SO ANYTHING THAT'S LIVING
WOULD LIKELY BE SUBSURFACE.
OKAY, YOU THINK, OKAY, FROM AN
OBSERVATIONAL POINT OF VIEW,
HOW AM I EVER GOING TO GET
AT THE COMPOSITION
OF THAT SUBSURFACE OCEAN
IF ALL I CAN DO
IS LOOK AT THE TOP
OF THE ICY CRUST?
WELL, WE'RE CERTAINLY INTERESTED
IN WHAT THAT MATERIAL IS
ON THE OUTSIDE.
BUT THE FACT THAT EUROPA
MIGHT ACTUALLY BE SPITTING AT US
SAMPLES OF ITS INTERIOR OCEAN
IS EXTREMELY EXCITING FROM
AN EXPLORATION POINT OF VIEW,
BECAUSE IT MEANS WE CAN
ACCESS THAT MATERIAL
AND ANALYZE IT WITHOUT HAVING
TO DO ALL THE COOL THINGS
THAT YOU READ ABOUT
THAT PEOPLE THINK ABOUT,
LIKE MELTING DOWN THROUGH
10 KILOMETERS OF ICE,
AND PUTTING SUBMARINES
INTO THE OCEANS ON EUROPA.
COOL THINGS TO THINK ABOUT,
BUT IF I WANT THIS QUESTION
ANSWERED IN MY LIFETIME,
MY BET IS WE'RE GOING TO HAVE
TO REALLY ANALYZE THE MATERIAL
COMING OUT IN THOSE PLUMES.
SO REALLY EXCITING
WORK TO DO AT EUROPA.
[coughs]
BUT IN THE MEANTIME,
WE'RE DOING ALL THIS EXCITING
WORK AT MARS.
AND THIS IS JUST FIVE
OF THE EIGHT PLACES WE'VE LANDED
ON THE SURFACE OF MARS.
AND WHEN WE THINK YOU HEAR
NASA MORE AND MORE
TALKING ABOUT...
ABOUT HUMANS TO MARS,
THAT IT'S REALLY THE DIRECTION
WE WANT TO GO,
IT'S THE ULTIMATE
DESTINATION
FOR GETTING HUMANS
DOWN ON THE SURFACE.
AND JOHN GRUNSFELD,
THE ASSOCIATE ADMINISTRATOR
FOR SCIENCE,
LIKES TO REMIND EVERYBODY
WE'RE ALREADY DEEP IN
THE PROCESS OF EXPLORING MARS.
THIS IS NOT SOMETHING NEW
THAT'S NASA DOING.
THE HUMANS WOULD BE FOLLOWING
IN THE FOOTSTEPS
OF THE EXTENSIVE WORK THAT
WE'VE BEEN DOING ROBOTICALLY,
LAYING THE CASE TO ME,
SCIENTIFICALLY,
FOR SOME OF THE REASONS
THAT IT'S SO IMPORTANT
TO ACTUALLY GET SCIENTISTS
DOWN ON THE SURFACE OF MARS.
LOTS OF DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS
THAT WE'VE EXPLORED,
BOTH IN SITU AND REMOTELY.
AND THE MORE RESEARCH WE DO,
THE MORE WE'RE ABLE TO REFINE
WHERE ARE THE BEST PLACES
TO ACTUALLY GO AND EXPLORE,
TO TRY TO REALLY PUSH
AT THIS QUESTION
OF, "DID LIFE EVOLVE
ON THE SURFACE?"
AND SO WE THINK
OF THE EVENTUALITY.
IN MY MIND, AGAIN,
BEING SOMEBODY WHO VALUES
FIELD GEOLOGY HUGELY,
IF WE'RE EVER REALLY GOING
TO RESOLVE THIS QUESTION,
I ARGUE IT'S GOING TO TAKE
ASTROBIOLOGISTS
ON THE SURFACE OF MARS,
PROBABLY WITH A LABORATORY
RIGHT THERE,
YOU KNOW,
WORKING IN A LAB ON MARS
TO ACTUALLY DEMONSTRATE, YES,
LIFE EVOLVED.
BECAUSE I THINK IT'S GOING TO BE
PRETTY HARD TO FIND.
AND I THINK THERE'LL BE
A HUGE DEBATE
IN THE SCIENTIFIC
COMMUNITY OVER
"IS THIS LIFE?",
"IS IT NOT LIFE?",
"IS IT THE BUILDING BLOCKS
OF LIFE?"
SO, AGAIN, AS A FIELD GEOLOGIST,
I'M ANXIOUS TO,
AS SOON AS WE CAN,
GET THOSE SCIENTISTS
ONTO THE SURFACE OF MARS
DOING WHAT WE DO BEST:
EXPLORING IN SITU.
AN EXCITING FUTURE
TO THINK ABOUT.
AND HOPEFULLY, AGAIN,
AS EARLY AS THE 2030s,
GETTING US DOWN
ONTO THE SURFACE.
NOW YOU CAN SAY,
"OKAY, CAN WE DO THIS?"
AND I--, I--
SOME OF YOU KNOW,
MY FATHER WORKED FOR NASA,
AND I FOUND AN INTERVIEW WITH
HIM THAT WAS DONE IN THE 1980s.
AND HE WAS SAYING--
HE WAS REALLY EXCITED
BECAUSE IN THE NEXT
20 YEARS,
WE WERE GOING TO PUT PEOPLE
ON MARS.
AND IT'S LIKE, AH,
THIS IS DEPRESSING.
BUT, YOU KNOW, I'M CONFIDENT
THAT IF WE PUT OUR WILL TO IT,
YOU KNOW, WE CAN DO IT.
AND WHAT I LIKE IS WE HAVE THIS
FORMULATED ROAD TO MARS,
AND WE'RE WELL ON THE WAY TO
ATTACKING BITS OF THIS PROBLEM.
TO START AT MARS, AGAIN,
WE HAVE--
I DON'T WANT TO CALL IT
A FLOTILLA.
THAT SOUNDS, WELL,
FIRST OF ALL, NAUTICAL.
BUT ANYWAY,
WE HAVE THESE WONDERFUL
SPACECRAFT ASSETS IN ORBIT,
ON THE GROUND,
IDENTIFYING WHERE THE BEST
SCIENCE IS,
REALLY GETTING AT A VARIETY
OF SCIENTIFIC QUESTIONS.
BUT, AGAIN, CENTERING AROUND
THIS QUESTION OF,
"DID LIFE EVOLVE ON MARS?"
BUT ALSO DOING
A LOT OF THE CHARACTERIZATION
OF THE MARTIAN ENVIRONMENT
THAT WE NEED TO DO.
AND DON'T GET ME WRONG,
WE NEED TO DO A LOT MORE--
THINGS LIKE WHAT'S THE EXACT
NATURE OF THE DUST ON MARS
THAT COULD BE HAZARDOUS
TO HUMANS
TRYING TO WORK
ON THE SURFACE--
BUT TRYING TO FILL WHAT WE CALL
THE STRATEGIC KNOWLEDGE GAPS
TO GET READY TO SAFELY SEND
HUMANS TO WORK ON MARS
AND RETURN SAFELY BACK
TO THE PLANET.
IN THE MEANTIME,
WITH HUMANS,
WE'RE DOING THE WORK
THAT WE NEED TO DO
IN WHAT WE CALL
THE EARTH RELIANT.
JUST UP ON THE INTERNATIONAL
SPACE STATION,
WHERE WE CAN EASILY AND SAFELY
RETURN HOME TO EARTH,
WE'RE DOING THIS BROAD RANGE
OF RESEARCH
TO UNDERSTAND THE EFFECTS OF
MICROGRAVITY ON THE HUMAN BODY.
AND MOST OF YOU KNOW HUGE--
A LOT OF HUGE NEGATIVE EFFECTS.
MUSCLE WASTING,
BONE DENSITY LOSS,
RAISE OF INTRACRANIAL PRESSURE
SO YOU GET PRESSURE
ON YOUR EYES.
IT AFFECTS
YOUR OPTIC NERVE,
EFFECTS ON YOUR
IMMUNE SYSTEM--
ALL OF THESE THINGS
THAT WE ACTUALLY HAVE
A REALLY DETAILED LIST
OF HERE ARE THE RISKS TO HUMANS
FOR A TRIP TO MARS
THAT WE NEED TO DO RESEARCH,
BOTH A MIXTURE OF FUNDAMENTAL
RESEARCH AND MITIGATION EFFORTS,
TO TRY TO MAKE SURE THAT WE CAN
SAFELY SEND HUMANS TO MARS
IN THE NEXT 20 YEARS
AND RETURN THEM HOME AGAIN.
SO A HUGE AMOUNT OF WORK BEING
DONE IN THIS EARTH RELIANT AREA.
NOT TO MENTION
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT.
MOST OF YOU ARE AWARE,
A COUPLE OF WEEKS AGO,
WE TESTED A SUPERSONIC
PARACHUTE.
AND WE WANT TO DO MORE
WITH TECHNOLOGY TESTING,
BOTH FROM THE ISS
AND HERE ON THE GROUND,
JUST TRY TO START BUYING DOWN
SOME OF THE BIG RISKS,
LIKE ENTRY, DESCENT,
AND LANDING
THAT WE HAVE TO OVERCOME
TO BE ABLE TO SEND HUMANS
SAFELY TO MARS.
AND THEN, ULTIMATELY,
WE WANT TO GO OUT
TO WHAT WE--BILL GERSTENMAIER
CALLS THE PROVING GROUND
OUT IN THE VICINITY
OF THE MOON,
WHERE WE CAN START GOING
THAT NEXT STEP
IN A MORE HAZARDOUS RADIATION
ENVIRONMENT,
IN A MORE NON-EARTH RELIANT,
BUT "STILL ABLE TO GET HOME
IN A FEW DAYS" ENVIRONMENT.
TO, AGAIN,
PUSH THESE TECHNOLOGIES,
PUSH DEVELOPING HABITATS,
PUSH EXTRA VEHICLE ACTI--
EXTRAVEHICULAR ACTIVITY,
ECLISS--
ALL THESE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS
THAT WE NEED TO USE
TO GET HUMANS TO MARS.
BUT THE WORK THAT WE'RE DOING ON
THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION
I THINK IS PARTICULARLY
CRITICAL.
WE JUST GOT EXTENDED
THROUGH 2024.
A CRITICAL TIME PERIOD
FOR SCIENTISTS.
IF YOU WANT SCIENTISTS OR,
FOR EXAMPLE, COMMERCIAL ENTITIES
TO BE ABLE TO SAY, "HOW CAN I
REALLY USE THIS AS A PLATFORM?"
HAVING THAT EXTENSION
OUT TO 2024
GIVES SOMEBODY
THE RELIABILITY TO SAY,
"I CAN DO A SCIENTIFIC
EXPERIMENT,
THEN I CAN FOLLOW IT UP,
THEN I CAN FOLLOW IT UP AGAIN."
SO HAVING THAT STABILITY
OF THE STATION OUT TO '24,
I THINK IS REALLY CRITICAL.
WE ARE WITH COMMERCIAL CARGO
REALLY COMING ONLINE.
WE'RE ABLE TO START
MORE AND MORE REGULARLY
HAVING REGULAR UP AND DOWN--
WELL, UPMASS MOSTLY,
HOPEFULLY SOON BETTER DOWNMASS
COMING FROM THE STATION.
AGAIN, MAKING IT A RELIABLE
ENVIRONMENT FOR SCIENTISTS
TO DO RESEARCH.
SO REALLY EXCITED ABOUT A LOT OF
WORK THAT WE'RE DOING THERE.
AND TODAY I'VE BEEN TALKING
ABOUT SOME OF THE WORK
THAT WE'RE DOING UP ON
THE ISS,
PRIMARILY FOR GETTING READY
TO GO TO MARS.
BUT OBVIOUSLY THERE'S A HUGE
RANGE OF RESEARCH GOING ON
IN OTHER AREAS.
FROM THE COLD ATOM LAB
WE'RE GOING TO BE STUDYING ATOMS
THAT ARE COOLED DOWN
TO ALMOST ABSOLUTE ZERO
AND STUDYING THAT BEHAVIOR--
THAT'S GOING TO GO UP
IN ABOUT 2018--
TO THE WORK WE DO
IN COMBUSTION,
IDENTIFYING A NEW PHASE
OF COMBUSTION
THAT WE'RE DOING WORK WITH,
ALL THE WORK IN MATERIALS
SCIENCE--
MATERIALS PRODUCTION THAT
IN MICROGRAVITY IS SO DIFFERENT,
CRYSTAL GROWTH--
HUGE RANGE
OF RESEARCH THAT'S GOING ON
ON THE INTERNATIONAL
SPACE STATION EVERY DAY.
REALLY EXCITING.
NOW SOME OF YOU HAVE HEARD ME
TALK BEFORE.
YOU KNOW HOW MUCH I LOVE THIS
IMAGE THAT WAS TAKEN LAST SUMMER
OF THE "CASSINI"--
BY THE "CASSINI" SPACECRAFT,
YOU KNOW, A BILLION KILOMETERS
AWAY FROM EARTH.
LOOKING BACK AT THE EARTH
AND OBSERVING US
IS THIS LITTLE
PALE BLUE DOT IN SPACE,
REDOING THE ORIGINAL
CARL SAGAN IMAGE
THAT WAS DONE
WITH THE "VOYAGER" DATA.
AND I THINK, AGAIN,
IF YOU GO BACK TO THE BEGINNING
OF MY TALK,
TALKING ABOUT HOW WE'RE THIS
PALE BLUE DOT IN SPACE--
YOU KNOW, SUBJECT TO
THE BEHAVIOR OF OUR STAR,
SUBJECT TO OUR OWN MISUSE
OF OUR PLANET--
HERE YOU CAN STEP BACK AND SAY
WHAT A TECHNOLOGICAL FEAT,
THAT WE HAVE GONE OVER A BILLION
MILES--A BILLION KILOMETERS
FROM OUR PLANET
AND CAN LOOK BACK AND STUDY IT.
AND SO IF YOU LOOK--
IF YOU LOOK AT THIS NOW
CLOSE UP FROM THAT SAME IMAGE
OF THE EARTH/MOON SYSTEM,
IT BRINGS UP
ANOTHER QUESTION--
FINDING AN EARTH-LIKE WORLD
AROUND ANOTHER STAR.
HERE, WE'RE ABLE TO LOOK
AT OUR OWN PLANET
AS THOUGH WE WERE
REMOTELY IMAGING
A PLANET AROUND
ANOTHER STAR.
JUST LAST WEEK AT--
I THINK IT WAS LAST WEEK--
AT NASA HEADQUARTERS,
WE HAD A COLLOQUIUM
CALLED "THE SEARCH FOR LIFE
IN THE UNIVERSE."
AND SARA SEAGER WAS THERE.
AND IT WAS REALLY
AMAZING TO ME,
WHICH IS SOMETHING MANY OF YOU
IN THIS AUDIENCE
HAVE PROBABLY THOUGHT OF,
BUT IT REALLY BLEW ME AWAY.
SHE SAID, "YOU KNOW, EVERY TIME
YOU LOOK UP IN THE NIGHT SKY
"AND YOU SEE
ALL THESE STARS,
AROUND EVERY ONE OF THOSE STARS
IS PROBABLY A PLANET."
FROM THE DATA WE'VE FOUND,
FROM BILL'S HARD WORK--
BILL BORUCKI'S HARD WORK
WITH KEPLER,
WHAT WE'VE BEEN ABLE TO KNOW
IS THAT WHEN YOU LOOK UP
IN THAT NIGHT SKY
AND YOU SEE A STAR,
THAT STAR PROBABLY HAS A PLANET.
WHEN WE LOOK INTO THE DEEPEST,
DARKEST PART OF THE SKY,
THIS IS WHAT WE FIND WHEN
WE LOOK AT IT WITH HUBBLE--
TONS AND TONS AND TONS
AND TONS OF GALAXIES,
VERY, VERY YOUNG GALAXIES
VERY, VERY DEEP IN THE UNIVERSE.
AGAIN, THOSE GALAXIES
FULL OF STARS,
SO FULL OF PLANETS.
AND I THINK ONE OF THE MOST
AMAZING THINGS TO ME,
THE MOST EXCITING THINGS
THAT'S COME OUT OF KEPLER
IS NOT JUST SINGLE-PLANET
SYSTEMS,
BUT MULTI-PLANET SYSTEMS,
SOLAR SYSTEMS TO START COMPARING
TO OUR OWN SOLAR SYSTEM.
AND JUST LIKE WITH THE PLANETS,
WHEN YOU GO AND YOU SAY,
"OKAY, HOW DOES A VOLCANO WORK
ON VENUS OR MARS
AS OPPOSED TO HOW IT WORKS
ON EARTH?"
AND YOU START LEARNING ALL KINDS
OF THINGS ABOUT VOLCANISM
THAT YOU DIDN'T EXPECT--
THAT'S HAPPENED
IN SPADES SO FAR
IN OUR STUDY OF
EXTRASOLAR PLANETS.
IT HAS CAUSED THE MODEL
THAT I LEARNED 4,000 YEARS AGO,
AS MY CHILDREN WOULD SAY,
IN GRADUATE SCHOOL
TO BE BASICALLY THROWN OUT--
OUR MODEL OF HOW WE THOUGHT
OUR SOLAR SYSTEM FORMED,
HOW THE PLANETS CONDENSED
FROM THIS TIDY LITTLE CLOUD
WHERE YOU GOT THOSE ROCKY
PLANETS CLOSE TO A SUN
AND GAS GIANTS FURTHER OUT.
AND THAT WAS THE MODEL
I WAS TAUGHT IN GRADUATE SCHOOL.
NAH, GONE.
BECAUSE WE FOUND
THAT GAS GIANTS CAN FORM
VERY CLOSE TO THEIR PARENT STAR
AND MIGRATE OUTWARD.
PLANETS CAN FORM IN WAYS
THAT WE DIDN'T EXPECT.
AND THAT, TO ME,
IS THE TRUE MAGIC
OF SOMETHING LIKE KEPLER.
IT'S THE TRUE MAGIC OF WHAT
WE'RE GOING TO BE ABLE TO DO
WITH JWST.
WE'RE GOING TO FIND THOSE--
ACTUALLY DONALD RUMSFELD'S
UNKNOWN UNKNOWNS.
WE'RE GOING TO FIND THE THINGS
THAT WE ACTUALLY DIDN'T EXPECT,
BECAUSE THAT'S WHERE YOU REALLY
PUSH SCIENCE FORWARD.
WE HAVE WHOLE NEW MODELS NOW OF
HOW WE THINK SOLAR SYSTEMS FORM.
AND I ARGUE WE'RE PROBABLY
EVEN NOW ONLY SEEING
ONE SMALL
PART OF THE PROBLEM.
AS WE DEVELOP BETTER
AND BETTER TELESCOPES,
LOOK WITH HIGHER RESOLUTION
INTO OTHER SOLAR SYSTEMS,
WE'RE GOING TO LEARN SO MUCH
MORE AND REFINE THOSE MODELS.
AND I'M REALLY EXCITED
FOR 2018,
WHEN WE LAUNCH
THE JAMES WEBB SPACE TELESCOPE
AND WE HAVE THE ABILITY
NOT JUST TO DETECT,
OKAY, HERE'S A NEW PLANET,
HERE'S ITS LIKELY MASS,
HERE'S ITS LIKELY ORBIT
AROUND A STAR.
BUT WE'RE ACTUALLY
GOING TO BE ABLE
TO START LOOKING AT
THE ATMOSPHERES OF THOSE PLANETS
AND SAYING, "WHAT ARE THOSE
ATMOSPHERES ACTUALLY MADE OF?"
AND INTO THE FUTURE,
AS WE'RE ABLE TO DEVELOP
LARGER AND LARGER APERTURE
TELESCOPES,
TO ACTUALLY BE ABLE TO SAY,
"OKAY, HOW DO THOSE ATMOSPHERES
CHANGE OVER TIME?"
AND, ULTIMATELY, CAN WE IMAGE
ONE OF THESE PLANETS
AROUND ANOTHER STAR TO TRY
TO FIND THAT HABITABLE WORLD
AROUND ANOTHER STAR?
GETTING BACK
TO THAT QUESTION,
NOT ONLY ARE WE ALONE
IN OUR OWN SOLAR SYSTEM,
BUT ARE WE ALONE IN OUR GALAXY,
IN OUR UNIVERSE?
REALLY CRITICAL QUESTIONS.
AND, AGAIN, HIGHLIGHTS
THE IMPORTANCE TO ME
OF REALLY NAILING DOWN
THIS QUESTION
IN OUR OWN SOLAR SYSTEM.
WE'D LIKE TO USE OUR OWN SOLAR
SYSTEM TO GET READY, TO ME,
AS WE, IN THE NEXT 20 YEARS,
REALLY TURN THIS STUDY
OF EXTRASOLAR PLANETS INTO WHAT
IS REALLY A NEW SCIENCE
INTO A MAJOR
FIELD OF SCIENCE.
INCREDIBLY EXCITING TIME
TO BE IN THIS FIELD.
EVERYTHING IS CHANGING.
YOU KNOW,
AT NASA WE INNOVATE,
DOING THINGS LIKE BUILDING
THESE GIANT MIRRORS
THAT ARE GOING ONTO THE HUBBLE--
THE JAMES WEBB SPACE TELESCOPE.
AND FOR YOU GUYS
IN THE AUDIENCE,
THERE'S A VIDEO ONLINE THAT
SHOWS HOW JAMES WEBB IS GOING--
IT'S WAY TOO BIG TO FIT WITH
THOSE MIRRORS ALL SPREAD OUT.
AND SO WHEN IT GETS LAUNCHED,
EVERYTHING IS ALL FOLDED UP
TO FIT INSIDE THE SHROUD.
SO AFTER IT LAUNCHES,
THE WHOLE THING HAS TO DEPLOY.
AS SOMEBODY SAID,
I THINK IT'S--
THEY SAID IT WAS THEIR, LIKE,
EIGHT DAYS OF TERROR
AS OPPOSED TO THAT
SEVEN MINUTES OF TERROR GOING--
LANDING ON THE SURFACE
OF MARS.
ANYWAY, AMAZING
TECHNOLOGICAL FEAT.
REALLY EXCITING. STAY TUNED
FOR 2018 AND JAMES WEBB.
AND WATCH THAT VIDEO
ON THE WEB.
YOU KNOW, AT NASA
WE'RE ABLE TO EXPLORE.
WE HAVE EXPLORERS
RIGHT HERE AT AMES.
AGAIN, MY FRIEND NAT,
WHO GETS OUT IN THE FIELD.
AT NASA, WE GET OUT
IN THE FIELD.
WE DO EXPERIMENTS.
WE STUDY.
WE'RE UP IN THE ARCTIC.
WE'RE DOWN IN CHILE
IN THE MOUNTAINS.
WE'RE ALL OVER THIS PLANET
TRYING TO BETTER UNDERSTAND
HOW OUR OWN PLANET
IS CHANGING,
AND THE IMPLICATIONS OF THAT
FOR OTHER WORLDS,
LIKE MARS, LIKE TITAN,
LIKE VENUS.
WE MAKE DISCOVERIES
EVERY DAY,
THE SCIENTIST HERE AT AMES.
THE SCIENTISTS THAT WE HAVE
ACROSS THE AGENCY
ARE USING INFORMATION,
WHETHER IT'S COMING
FROM A SPACECRAFT OR UP ON THE
INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION,
TO MAKE NEW DISCOVERIES,
REALLY PUSH SCIENCE BACK.
AND HOPEFULLY,
IN DOING ALL OF THESE THINGS,
IN INNOVATING, IN CREATING
THINGS LIKE JAMES WEBB,
IN EXPLORING, IN DISCOVERING,
WE'RE ACTUALLY INSPIRING
THE NEXT GENERATION
OF SPACE EXPLORERS.
AND, AGAIN, I HOPE THAT MANY
OF YOU WHO ARE HERE
AS INTERNS THIS SUMMER
CAN JOIN US IN THE FUTURE
AND HELP US
ON THAT ROAD TO MARS.
THANK YOU.
[applause]
AND I ACTUALLY PREFER ANSWERING
QUESTIONS TO TALKING, SO...
[laughs]
THANK YOU.
- THANK YOU. SO WE HAVE TIME
FOR A FEW QUESTIONS.
AS USUAL, PLEASE RAISE YOUR HAND
IF YOU HAVE A QUESTION.
WAIT FOR THE MICROPHONE,
AND STAND UP WHEN YOU ASK
YOUR QUESTION.
- THERE'S ABOUT A MILLION
NEAR-EARTH OBJECTS
BIG ENOUGH TO DESTROY A CITY,
AND WE DON'T KNOW
WHERE 99% OF THEM ARE,
AND ONE HIT US LAST YEAR.
YOU DIDN'T MENTION IT.
COULD YOU TALK A LITTLE BIT
ABOUT WHAT NASA'S DOING
TO UNDERSTAND
AND MITIGATE THAT THREAT?
- THAT'S A GREAT QUESTION.
AND OBVIOUSLY,
YOU KNOW, AGAIN,
BACK WHEN I WAS IN SCHOOL
AND WE LEARNED ABOUT
THE TUNGUSKA EVENT,
WHERE THIS EVENT--YOU KNOW,
THIS METEOR CAME IN OVER SIBERIA
AND EXPLODED,
AND KNOCKED DOWN, YOU KNOW,
HUNDREDS AND HUNDREDS OF ACRES
OF PINE TREES IN SIBERIA.
AND I THOUGHT, "WOW,
THIS IS NEVER GOING TO HAPPEN
IN MY LIFETIME."
AND THEN POOR SIBERIA,
YOU KNOW, WITH CHELYABINSK,
GETS HIT AGAIN LAST YEAR.
AND LUCKILY, OBVIOUSLY,
NO LOSS OF LIFE
BUT SOME AMOUNT OF DAMAGE.
ASTEROIDS ARE A HAZARD.
COMETS AND ASTEROIDS
BOTH ARE A HAZARD TO PLANETS.
IT'S WHAT--YOU KNOW,
THAT'S WHY THE MOON
IS SUCH A GREAT PLACE
TO STUDY,
BECAUSE IT GIVES US
THAT CRATERING HISTORY
THAT EROSION HAS WIPED AWAY
FROM THE EARTH.
AT NASA RIGHT NOW,
OUR MAJOR EFFORT
IS IN TRYING TO CHARACTERIZE
THAT POPULATION
OF EARTH-CROSSING OBJECTS ABOVE
ABOUT 2 KILOMETERS IN SIZE.
SO WE REACTIVATED
THE "WISE" SPACECRAFT,
NOW CALLED "NEOWISE."
THERE'S A HUGE EARTH-BASED
PROGRAM OF OBSERVATION.
AND IT'S REALLY TO TRY TO GET--
CHARACTERIZE THAT POPULATION
OF EARTH-CROSSERS DOWN
TO A SMALLER AND SMALLER SIZE.
OBVIOUSLY WHEN YOU ARE LOOKING
FOR THINGS THAT SMALL...
AND IN GENERAL YOU'RE TRYING TO
FIND THEM WHEN THEY'RE FAR AWAY,
SO THEY'RE VERY FAINT.
SO IT'S A CHALLENGE,
AND IT'S GOING TO TAKE US
A LITTLE LONGER TO BUILD UP THE
FULL DATABASE THAN WE HAD HOPED.
BUT WE'RE CONTINUING TO DO IT,
BECAUSE--
BECAUSE THERE'S NO QUESTION
THAT THINGS HAVE HIT US BEFORE,
AND THEY WILL HIT US AGAIN.
- SO, WHAT WOULD BE SOME
OF THE ETHICAL
AND SCIENTIFIC
CONSEQUENCES
IF WE FOUND LIFE
ON ANOTHER PLANET?
LIKE, FOR EXAMPLE,
FOR COLONIZATION.
- WELL, YOU KNOW,
ONE OF THE FIRST THINGS
THAT I THINK IT'S IMPORTANT
TO STEP BACK AND REMEMBER,
IS ONE OF THE CHIEF THINGS
WE DO AT NASA RIGHT NOW
IS TO TRY TO MAKE SURE
THAT WHEN WE GO OUT
AND LOOK FOR LIFE
ON ANOTHER PLANET
THAT WE DON'T REDISCOVER LIFE
THAT WE BROUGHT ALONG WITH US.
AND SO PLANETARY PROTECTION
IS A HUGE ISSUE.
SO ONE OF THE THINGS THAT WE DO
REALLY RIGOROUSLY
IS WHEN WE SEND SPACECRAFT...
FOR EXAMPLE,
ANYTHING THAT GOES TO MARS
HAS TO GO THROUGH
REALLY RIGOROUS PROCESSES
TO MAKE SURE IT'S BIOLOGICALLY
AS CLEAN AS WE CAN MAKE IT.
THE SAME GOES, FOR EXAMPLE,
WITH THE "CASSINI" SPACECRAFT,
HAS TO BE KEPT AWAY
FROM ENCELADUS.
AND ANYTHING THAT GOES
TO THE JUPITER SYSTEM
HAS TO BE KEPT AWAY
FROM ACTUALLY
LIKE CRASHING INTO EUROPA.
SO ONE OF THE FIRST THINGS
THAT WE DO
IS TRY TO MAKE SURE
THAT ANY LIFE WE FOUND,
WE DIDN'T BRING IT WITH US.
SO WE TRY TO MAKE IT CLEAR
WHEN WE EVENTUALLY DO FIND IT.
YOU KNOW,
I THINK ON ONE LEVEL,
OBVIOUSLY ONE OF THE THINGS
YOU'RE REALLY GONNA WANT TO DO
IS TO REALLY UNDERSTAND
HOW SIMILAR OR DISSIMILAR
IS ANY LIFE YOU FIND
TO LIFE HERE ON EARTH.
YOU KNOW, DOES IT HAVE DNA
AND RNA?
WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS
OF IT, HOW DIFFERENT IS IT?
DOES IT USE SUGARS AND PROTEINS
IN THE SAME WAY?
SO HUGE, JUST FUNDAMENTAL
BIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS.
WE HAVE ONE EXAMPLE THAT WE HAVE
STUDIED PRETTY DARN WELL,
AND WE DON'T HAVE
ANY OTHER EXAMPLES.
AND SO THE SCIENTIFIC ADVANCES
THAT WE WILL MAKE
WHEN WE FIND LIFE ON ANOTHER
WORLD I THINK IS EXCITING.
AND, FRANKLY, I DO THINK IT'S
GOING TO HAPPEN IN OUR LIFETIME,
BECAUSE I THINK BOTH EUROPA
AND MARS ARE GREAT CANDIDATES.
SO I'M PRETTY EXCITED
ABOUT IT.
YOU KNOW,
ETHICALLY AND PHILOSOPHICALLY,
YOU KNOW, YOU CAN SAY IT'S JUST
GOING TO BLOW EVERYBODY'S MIND.
YOU KNOW, THAT'S NOT A GREAT
ANSWER, BUT I THINK IT'S TRUE.
- I THINK THE DISCUSSION
OF CLIMATE CHANGE
IS EXTREMELY IMPORTANT.
AND IT SEEMS TO ME THAT NASA
SHOULD BE REALLY VERY ACTIVE,
NOT ONLY IN PROVIDING
EXPERIMENTS
TO TRY TO UNDERSTAND
THE SPACE STATION AND SO ON,
BUT IN THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM
THAT BRINGS THE CONCERNS
AND INTERESTS IN SCIENCE
TO THE PUBLIC,
AND PARTICULARLY
TO THE YOUNG.
IS THERE AN EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM,
NOW THAT THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM
HAS BEEN, TO SOME EXTENT,
DIVORCED FROM NASA,
THAT ALLOWS NASA TO CONTINUE
TO HELP YOUNG PEOPLE
LEARN ABOUT CLIMATE CHANGE?
- THE SCIENCE--BILL, I THINK
YOU'RE ABSOLUTELY RIGHT.
IT'S SUCH A--YOU KNOW...
PUTTING EVERYTHING ASIDE,
YOU KNOW,
CLIMATE CHANGE
IS THE CHALLENGE.
YOU KNOW, WE'VE--IT'S GOT
TO BE ADDRESSED.
AND THAT EDUCATION BIT
IS A GOOD PART OF IT.
THOUGH I WILL SAY MOST AUDIENCES
YOU GO OUT TO,
IF THEY'RE UNDER ABOUT 14,
THEY'RE PRETTY MUCH IN LINE.
IF THEY'RE ABOVE 14,
THAT'S WHERE IT GETS MORE DODGY.
BUT I THINK THOSE--THERE IS
STILL A LOT OF EDUCATION WORK
THAT'S GOING ON THROUGH
THE SCIENCE MISSION DIRECTORATE
AND THEN THROUGH
THE EARTH SCIENCE.
AND CLIMATE CHANGE IS A CRITICAL
PART OF ALL OF THAT.
AND I'VE TAKEN PART
IN TWO RECENT EVENTS,
THE CLIMATE DATA INITIATIVE
THAT WAS ANNOUNCED
AT THE WHITE HOUSE,
AND THEN THE--WHEN THE--
THE NATIONAL CLIMATE ASSESSMENT
CAME OUT.
NASA'S BEEN PLAYING
A HUGE ROLE IN THAT.
AND THAT'S NOT SO MUCH AIMED
AT EDUCATION
AS IT'S AIMED IN HOW CAN WE TAKE
ALL OF THIS DATA
THAT WE COLLECT AT NASA
THAT SCIENTISTS ARE USING
TO ANALYZE CLIMATE CHANGE IN
WAYS THAT ARE REALLY IMPORTANT.
I DON'T WANT
TO MAKE LIGHT OF THAT.
BUT HOW CAN WE TAKE THAT DATA
AND ACTUALLY MAKE IT
MORE ACCESSIBLE TO, SAY,
A CITY MANAGER
IN COASTAL NORTH CAROLINA?
HOW CAN THEY UNDERSTAND,
YOU KNOW,
BASED ON CURRENT MODELS,
WHAT ARE THE CHANCES
OF COASTAL INUNDATION,
COASTAL FLOODING IN THIS AREA
OVER THE NEXT TEN YEARS?
HOW CAN WE MAKE
THESE PREDICTIONS AND THESE DATA
THAT WE INCREASINGLY NOW HAVE
ON A REGIONAL LEVEL
AS CAME OUT IN THE NATIONAL
CLIMATE ASSESSMENT.
HOW CAN WE MAKE THAT DATA
AVAILABLE TO DECISION-MAKERS?
MAYBE NOT ON THE NATIONAL LEVEL
WHERE THERE'S SO MUCH NOISE,
BUT DOWN ON
A LOCAL LEVEL WHERE,
FOR EXAMPLE,
IN NORFOLK VIRGINIA,
YOU KNOW,
IT'S FLOODING ALREADY.
THERE'S SUBSIDENCE COMBINED
WITH SEA LEVEL RISE,
AND THERE'S A HUGE AMOUNT
OF MONEY BEING SPENT
TO TRY TO FIX IT,
AND IT'S NOT GOING TO GET FIXED.
AND SO I THINK TRYING TO MAKE
SURE OUR DATA SETS
ARE READILY AVAILABLE
TO THOSE
"DECISION-MAKERS" OUT THERE
IS AS CRITICAL AS THE OUTREACH
BIT THAT WE DO,
AND IT'S INCREDIBLY
IMPORTANT.
I WILL SAY IT'S A SOURCE
OF FRUSTRATION
TO MANY PEOPLE IN THE AGENCY
THAT IF WE GO OUT AND TALK ABOUT
CLIMATE CHANGE AND MARS,
THE PRESS QUOTES US ON MARS AND
NOT SO MUCH ON CLIMATE CHANGE.
AND I DO THINK THERE'S A LOT
OF PEOPLE IN THE AGENCY
TRYING TO TALK ABOUT
CLIMATE CHANGE,
BUT THE MESSAGE
DOESN'T ALWAYS--
DOESN'T ALWAYS MAKE IT
TO THE GENERAL PUBLIC.
SO I WOULD URGE ALL OF YOU
WHO GO OUT,
I SHOW THAT TEMPERATURE VIDEO,
WHICH IS AVAILABLE THROUGH THE--
THAT'S THE GODDARD
INSTITUTE OF SPACE STUDIES.
BUT, YOU KNOW, YOU JUST GOOGLE
"CLIMATE CHANGE"
OR "TEMPERATURE CHANGE."
EVERY TIME I SHOW THAT VIDEO
TO THE GENERAL PUBLIC--
YOU KNOW, IN GENERAL,
PEOPLE GASP.
YOU KNOW,
THEY JUST DON'T--
THERE ARE SO MANY PEOPLE
IN THE GENERAL PUBLIC
WHO JUST DON'T UNDERSTAND
THAT WHEN WE TALK ABOUT THE FACT
THAT THE PLANET HAS WARMED
OVER THE LAST 20 YEARS,
THEY THINK WE'RE MAKING IT UP.
AND WHEN YOU SHOW THEM THAT,
THEY SAY,
"WOW, THAT'S DATA.
I GET IT."
AND I CAN'T TELL YOU--I'VE HAD
FLOODS OF PEOPLE COME UP TO ME.
YOU KNOW, I'VE GIVEN--TALKED TO,
LIKE, A LOCAL WOMEN'S GROUP.
AND PEOPLE WILL COME UP TO ME
AND SAY,
"WOW, THAT'S KIND OF SCARY."
AND YOU'RE LIKE,
"YEAH, IT IS KIND OF SCARY."
- YOU TALKED ABOUT
DATING ROCKS ON MARS.
- [laughs]
THAT SOUNDS KIND OF ODD,
BUT YEAH.
- I WAS WONDERING
HOW YOU GO ABOUT DOING THAT,
BECAUSE IF YOU DO IT
WITH ISOTOPES,
I KNOW ON EARTH YOU HAVE TO USE
SOME PRETTY COMPLEX TABLES
THAT HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED
OVER THE YEARS
DETERMINING WHAT AMOUNTS
OF EACH ISOTOPE WERE PRESENT.
HOW DO YOU GO ABOUT DOING
SOMETHING LIKE THAT ON MARS?
- IT WASN'T MY RESEARCH,
SO I CAN'T EXACTLY
QUOTE IT TO YOU.
I'M PRETTY SURE THEY USED--
SOMEBODY CAN SHOUT OUT
AND CORRECT ME IF I'M WRONG--
I'M PRETTY SURE THEY USED
POTASSIUM ARGON,
THOUGH THEY MIGHT HAVE USED
RUBIDIUM-STRONTIUM
FOR ONE OF THE OTHER--THEY DID
A COUPLE DIFFERENT DATES.
BUT THEY WERE ABLE
TO GET--
AGAIN, YOU HAVE TO MAKE
ASSUMPTIONS.
SO IT'S NOT--IT'S NOT LIKE
THERE AREN'T ERROR BARS.
AND THE ERROR BARS ARE BECAUSE
OF WHAT YOU JUST SAID.
YOU HAVE TO MAKE ASSUMPTIONS
ABOUT THE ORIGINAL CONTENT
OF EACH OF THE RADIOACTIVE
MINERALS
TO BE ABLE TO DO THE--
TO DO IT.
BUT GIVEN THOSE ASSUMPTIONS,
WHICH MAKE YOUR ERROR BARS GO UP
AS OPPOSED TO THE MUCH SMALLER
ERROR BARS
WE HAVE HERE ON EARTH,
YOU STILL ARE ABLE TO GET
AN AGE DATE.
AND, AGAIN, WE'RE ABLE
TO KIND OF FIT IT IN
WITH EVERYTHING ELSE
WE KNOW ABOUT MARS
THAT ACTUALLY MAKES SENSE
GEOLOGICALLY.
BIGGER ERROR BARS
THAN WE WOULD LIKE,
BUT STILL AN ACTUAL
AGE DATE.
AND, AGAIN,
HUGELY POWERFUL,
NOW BE ABLE TO THINK
OF SENDING THOSE
LOTS OF PLACES ON MARS,
AGAIN, BEING ABLE TO GET
ROUGH AGE DATES ON VENUS,
WHICH WE WOULD LOVE TO KNOW.
THERE'S A HUGE DEBATE
ON THE SURFACE OF VENUS
OVER WHEN THE SURFACE--
WHEN MUCH OF THE SURFACE FORMED,
RELATIVE AGE
OF SURFACE UNITS.
AND VENUS IS A WHOLE
NOTHER STRUGGLE,
BECAUSE THE TEMPERATURES
ARE SO HIGH,
THE SYSTEMATICS MIGHT RESET
COMPLEX GEOCHEMISTRY STUFF.
BUT STILL, SOME OF THE ISSUES
THAT YOU TALK ABOUT--
STILL, GETTING
PRETTY CRUMMY AGES
IS A LOT BETTER
THAN WHAT WE HAVE NOW.
SO REALLY EXCITING
TO MOVE THE TECHNIQUE FORWARD
OFF THE PLANET.
- HI. YOU SPOKE A LOT ABOUT SOME
EXCITING PLANETARY MISSIONS
WITH A LOT FARTHER
TIME OUTLOOKS.
HOW DO YOU PLAN FOR FUNDING
THESE KINDS OF LONG-TERM,
REALLY EXCITING,
REALLY HARD-TO-DO MISSIONS
ACROSS SO MANY ADMINISTRATIONS
AND TIME FRAMES?
AND THEN IS THERE ANYTHING,
AS ENGINEERS,
THAT WE CAN DO TO HELP ENABLE
THESE KINDS OF MISSIONS
UNDER TIGHTER BUDGET
CONSTRAINTS?
- WELL, OBVIOUSLY
TO SOME EXTENT--
WE'RE A 30-YEAR AGENCY
THAT LIVES IN A TWO-YEAR TOWN.
AND, YOU KNOW, THAT--
THAT HAS ALWAYS BEEN
THE WAY IT IS.
AND SO WHAT IT--WHAT IT TAKES
IS A CONSISTENT STORY
THAT'S BROADLY ACCEPTABLE.
IF YOU THINK OF HOW DID WE GET
TO THE MOON,
WHICH TOOK AN ENORMOUS
AMOUNT OF RESOURCES,
WE HAD A CONSISTENT STORY
THAT WAS BROADLY ACCEPTED
BY THE GOVERNMENT
AS THE RIGHT THING TO DO.
AND SO THAT'S
A HARD THING TO DO, RIGHT,
TO GET IT BROADLY
ACCEPTABLE.
HOW WELL DOES THAT PLAY
IN WASHINGTON, RIGHT?
I MEAN,
SO TRYING TO OPERATE.
THE GOOD THING FOR NASA
IS WE ACTUALLY HAVE HAD,
FOR A LONG TIME,
HUGE BIPARTISAN SUPPORT.
I MEAN, I CAN'T TELL YOU.
WHEN I GO UP
ON CAPITOL HILL
AND CONGRESSMEN FIND OUT
I WORK FOR NASA,
THE FIRST THING
THEY NORMALLY SAY TO ME IS,
"I LOVE NASA.
I LOVE YOU GUYS."
AND I THINK
EVEN WHEN PEOPLE SAY,
"WELL, THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
IS SPENDING TOO MUCH MONEY,"
I THINK PEOPLE SAY, "WELL, OKAY,
WE NEED TO MAKE SURE
NASA HAS NOT UNLIMITED
RESOURCES,"
BUT THEY UNDERSTAND
THE BENEFIT.
I'M NOT HAVING TO SIT THERE
AND EXPLAIN, YOU KNOW,
IT'S AN INVESTMENT
IN THE ECONOMY,
HUGE SCIENTIFIC RETURN,
PUBLIC INSPIRATION.
THEY GET IT.
ON THE OTHER HAND,
THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
HAS A LIMITED
AMOUNT OF MONEY,
AND THERE'S A LOT OF PRESSURE
ON THAT LIMITED AMOUNT OF MONEY.
SO I THINK THE MORE AT NASA
THAT WE CAN GET OUT THERE
AND TELL OUR STORY,
THE MORE WE CAN CONVINCE
A VERY DISTRACTED PUBLIC,
WHO'S DISTRACTED BY LOTS
OF DIFFERENT INPUTS,
THAT WHAT WE'RE DOING
IS VALUABLE AND COOL.
AND THAT'S OBVIOUSLY
ON A LOT OF US
WHO DO IT
ON OUR OWN TIME.
BUT THE PUBLIC GENERALLY
REALLY APPRECIATES IT.
THEY LOVE HEARING ABOUT
WHAT WE DO.
SO THE FIRST THING YOU CAN DO
IS GET OUT THERE AND TALK.
AND I KNOW IT'S ON
YOUR OWN TIME,
AND THAT'S NOT ALWAYS GREAT.
BUT THE MORE
YOU GET OUT THERE
AND TALK ABOUT THE COOL STUFF
THAT WE'RE DOING,
THE BETTER OFF
WE'RE GOING TO BE.
AND THEN IT'S ON THE NASA
LEADERSHIP TO MAKE SURE
THAT WE HAVE A PLAN,
LIKE THE ROAD TO MARS,
WHERE WE CAN SAY
HERE'S WHAT WE'RE DOING,
HERE'S WHY, HERE'S HOW WE'RE
GOING TO DO IT.
AND HERE'S HOW NOT ONLY IS IT
SCIENTIFICALLY IMPORTANT,
IT'S LAYING OUT A TECHNOLOGICAL
CHALLENGE FOR THE NATION,
FOR THE INTERNATIONAL
COMMUNITY
THAT'S IMPORTANT FOR LONG-TERM
INVESTMENT AND SKILLS
THAT WE NEED AS A COUNTRY
TO MOVE FORWARD.
- ALL RIGHT, SO PLEASE JOIN ME
IN THANKING
NASA'S CHIEF SCIENTIST,
DR. ELLEN STOFAN.
[applause]
[musical tones]
[electronic sounds of data]
