The European Organization for Nuclear Research,
known as CERN is a European research organization
whose purpose is to operate the world's largest
particle physics laboratory. Established in
1954, the organization is based in the northwest
suburbs of Geneva on the Franco–Swiss border,
and has 21 European member states. Israel
is the first non-European country granted
full membership.
The term CERN is also used to refer to the
laboratory, which employs just under 2,400
full-time employees and 1,500 part-time employees,
and hosts some 10,000 visiting scientists
and engineers, representing 608 universities
and research facilities and 113 nationalities.
CERN's main function is to provide the particle
accelerators and other infrastructure needed
for high-energy physics research – as a
result, numerous experiments have been constructed
at CERN following international collaborations.
It is also the birthplace of the World Wide
Web. The main site at Meyrin has a large computer
centre containing powerful data-processing
facilities, primarily for experimental-data
analysis; because of the need to make these
facilities available to researchers elsewhere,
it has historically been a major wide area
networking hub.
History
The convention establishing CERN was ratified
on 29 September 1954 by 12 countries in Western
Europe. The acronym CERN originally stood
in French for Conseil Européen pour la Recherche
Nucléaire, which was a provisional council
for setting up the laboratory, established
by 12 European governments in 1952. The acronym
was retained for the new laboratory after
the provisional council was dissolved, even
though the name changed to the current Organisation
Européenne pour la Recherche Nucléaire in
1954. According to Lew Kowarski, a former
director of CERN, when the name was changed,
the acronym could have become the awkward
OERN, and Heisenberg said that the acronym
could "still be CERN even if the name is [not]".
CERN's first president was Sir Benjamin Lockspeiser.
The first Director General was Edoardo Amaldi.
Soon after the laboratory's establishment,
its work went beyond the study of the atomic
nucleus into higher-energy physics, which
is concerned mainly with the study of interactions
between particles. Therefore the laboratory
operated by CERN is commonly referred to as
the European laboratory for particle physics
which better describes the research being
performed at CERN.
Scientific achievements
Several important achievements in particle
physics have been made during experiments
at CERN. They include:
1973: The discovery of neutral currents in
the Gargamelle bubble chamber;
1983: The discovery of W and Z bosons in the
UA1 and UA2 experiments;
1989: The determination of the number of light
neutrino families at the Large Electron–Positron
Collider operating on the Z boson peak;
1995: The first creation of antihydrogen atoms
in the PS210 experiment;
1999: The discovery of direct CP violation
in the NA48 experiment;
2010: The isolation of 38 atoms of antihydrogen;
2011: Maintaining antihydrogen for over 15
minutes;
2012: A boson with mass around 125 GeV/c2
consistent with long-sought Higgs boson.
The 1984 Nobel Prize in physics was awarded
to Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer for
the developments that led to the discoveries
of the W and Z bosons. The 1992 Nobel Prize
in physics was awarded to CERN staff researcher
Georges Charpak "for his invention and development
of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire
proportional chamber."
Computer science
The World Wide Web began as a CERN project
called ENQUIRE, initiated by Tim Berners-Lee
in 1989 and Robert Cailliau in 1990. Berners-Lee
and Cailliau were jointly honoured by the
Association for Computing Machinery in 1995
for their contributions to the development
of the World Wide Web.
Based on the concept of hypertext, the project
was aimed at facilitating sharing information
among researchers. The first website went
on-line in 1991. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced
that the World Wide Web would be free to anyone.
A copy of the original first webpage, created
by Berners-Lee, is still published on the
World Wide Web Consortium's website as a historical
document.
Prior to the Web's development, CERN had been
a pioneer in the introduction of Internet
technology, beginning in the early 1980s.
A short history of this period can be found
at CERN.ch.
More recently, CERN has become a centre for
the development of grid computing, hosting
projects including the Enabling Grids for
E-sciencE and LHC Computing Grid. It also
hosts the CERN Internet Exchange Point, one
of the two main internet exchange points in
Switzerland.
Faster-than-light neutrino anomaly
On 22 September 2011, the OPERA Collaboration
reported the detection of 17-GeV and 28-GeV
muon neutrinos, sent 730 kilometers from CERN
near Geneva, Switzerland to the Gran Sasso
National Laboratory in Italy, traveling apparently
faster than light by a factor of 2.48×10−5,
a statistic with 6.0-sigma significance. However,
in March 2012 it was reported by a new team
of scientists for CERN, Icarus, that the previous
experiment was most likely flawed and will
be retested by scientists of both the Opera
and Icarus teams; on 16 March, CERN stated
in a press release that the results were flawed
due to an incorrectly connected GPS-synchronization
cable.
Particle accelerators
Current complex
CERN operates a network of six accelerators
and a decelerator. Each machine in the chain
increases the energy of particle beams before
delivering them to experiments or to the next
more powerful accelerator. Currently active
machines are:
Two linear accelerators generate low energy
particles. Linac2 accelerates protons to 50 MeV
for injection into the Proton Synchrotron
Booster, and Linac3 provides heavy ions at
4.2 MeV/u for injection into the Low Energy
Ion Ring.
The Proton Synchrotron Booster increases the
energy of particles generated by the proton
linear accelerator before they are transferred
to the other accelerators.
The Low Energy Ion Ring accelerates the ions
from the ion linear accelerator, before transferring
them to the Proton Synchrotron. This accelerator
was commissioned in 2005, after having been
reconfigured from the previous Low Energy
Antiproton Ring.
The 28 GeV Proton Synchrotron, built in 1959
and still operating as a feeder to the more
powerful SPS.
The Super Proton Synchrotron, a circular accelerator
with a diameter of 2 kilometres built in a
tunnel, which started operation in 1976. It
was designed to deliver an energy of 300 GeV
and was gradually upgraded to 450 GeV. As
well as having its own beamlines for fixed-target
experiments, it has been operated as a proton–antiproton
collider, and for accelerating high energy
electrons and positrons which were injected
into the Large Electron–Positron Collider.
Since 2008, it has been used to inject protons
and heavy ions into the Large Hadron Collider.
The On-Line Isotope Mass Separator, which
is used to study unstable nuclei. The radioactive
ions are produced by the impact of protons
at an energy of 1.0–1.4 GeV from the Proton
Synchrotron Booster. It was first commissioned
in 1967 and was rebuilt with major upgrades
in 1974 and 1992.
The Antiproton Decelerator, which reduces
the velocity of antiprotons to about 10% of
the speed of light for research into antimatter.
The Compact Linear Collider Test Facility,
which studies feasibility issues for the future
normal conducting linear collider project.
Large Hadron Collider
Most of the activities at CERN are currently
directed towards operating the new Large Hadron
Collider, and the experiments for it. The
LHC represents a large-scale, worldwide scientific
cooperation project.
The LHC tunnel is located 100 metres underground,
in the region between the Geneva International
Airport and the nearby Jura mountains. It
uses the 27 km circumference circular tunnel
previously occupied by LEP which was closed
down in November 2000. CERN's existing PS/SPS
accelerator complexes will be used to pre-accelerate
protons which will then be injected into the
LHC.
Seven experiments will run on the collider;
each of them will study particle collisions
from a different point of view, and with different
technologies. Construction for these experiments
required an extraordinary engineering effort.
Just as an example, a special crane had to
be rented from Belgium in order to lower pieces
of the CMS detector into its underground cavern,
since each piece weighed nearly 2,000 tons.
The first of the approximately 5,000 magnets
necessary for construction was lowered down
a special shaft at 13:00 GMT on 7 March 2005.
This accelerator has begun to generate vast
quantities of data, which CERN streams to
laboratories around the world for distributed
processing. In April 2005, a trial successfully
streamed 600 MB/s to seven different sites
across the world. If all the data generated
by the LHC is to be analysed, then scientists
must achieve 1,800 MB/s before 2008.
The initial particle beams were injected into
the LHC August 2008. The first attempt to
circulate a beam through the entire LHC was
at 8:28 GMT on 10 September 2008, but the
system failed because of a faulty magnet connection,
and it was stopped for repairs on 19 September
2008.
The LHC resumed operation on Friday 20 November
2009 by successfully circulating two beams,
each with an energy of 3.5 trillion electron
volts. The challenge that the engineers then
faced was to try to line up the two beams
so that they smashed into each other. This
is like "firing two needles across the Atlantic
and getting them to hit each other" according
to the LHC's main engineer Steve Myers, director
for accelerators and technology at the Swiss
laboratory.
At 1200 BST on Tuesday 30 March 2010 the LHC
successfully smashed two proton particle beams
travelling with 3.5 TeV of energy, resulting
in a 7 TeV event. However, this was just the
start of the road toward the expected discovery
of the Higgs boson. When the 7 TeV experimental
period ended, the LHC revved up to 8 TeV in
March 2012, and soon began particle collisions
at that rate. In early 2013 the LHC was shut
down for a two-year maintenance period, to
strengthen the huge magnets inside the accelerator.
Eventually it will attempt to create 14 TeV
events. In July 2012, CERN scientists announced
the discovery of a new sub-atomic particle
that could be the much sought after Higgs
boson believed to be essential for formation
of the Universe.
Decommissioned accelerators
The original linear accelerator.
The 600 MeV Synchrocyclotron which started
operation in 1957 and was shut down in 1991.
The Intersecting Storage Rings, an early collider
built from 1966 to 1971 and operated until
1984.
The Large Electron–Positron Collider, which
operated from 1989 to 2000 and was the largest
machine of its kind, housed in a 27 km-long
circular tunnel which now houses the Large
Hadron Collider.
The Low Energy Antiproton Ring, commissioned
in 1982, which assembled the first pieces
of true antimatter, in 1995, consisting of
nine atoms of antihydrogen. It was closed
in 1996, and superseded by the Antiproton
Decelerator.
Sites
The smaller accelerators are on the main Meyrin
site, which was originally built in Switzerland
alongside the French border, but has been
extended to span the border since 1965. The
French side is under Swiss jurisdiction and
there is no obvious border within the site,
apart from a line of marker stones. There
are six entrances to the Meyrin site:
A, in Switzerland, for all CERN personnel
at specific times.
B, in Switzerland, for all CERN personnel
at all times. Often referred to as the main
entrance.
C, in Switzerland, for all CERN personnel
at specific times.
D, in Switzerland, for goods reception at
specific times.
E, in France, for French-resident CERN personnel
at specific times. Controlled by customs personnel.
Named "Porte Charles de Gaulle" in recognition
of his role in the creation of CERN.
Tunnel entrance, in France, for equipment
transfer to and from CERN sites in France
by personnel with a specific permit. This
is the only permitted route for such transfers.
Under the CERN treaty, no taxes are payable
when such transfers are made. Controlled by
customs personnel.
The SPS and LEP/LHC tunnels are almost entirely
outside the main site, and are mostly buried
under French farmland and invisible from the
surface. However, they have surface sites
at various points around them, either as the
location of buildings associated with experiments
or other facilities needed to operate the
colliders such as cryogenic plants and access
shafts. The experiments are located at the
same underground level as the tunnels at these
sites.
Three of these experimental sites are in France,
with ATLAS in Switzerland, although some of
the ancillary cryogenic and access sites are
in Switzerland. The largest of the experimental
sites is the Prévessin site, also known as
the North Area, which is the target station
for non-collider experiments on the SPS accelerator.
Other sites are the ones which were used for
the UA1, UA2 and the LEP experiments.
Outside of the LEP and LHC experiments, most
are officially named and numbered after the
site where they were located. For example,
NA32 was an experiment looking at the production
of charmed particles and located at the Prévessin
site while WA22 used the Big European Bubble
Chamber at the Meyrin site to examine neutrino
interactions. The UA1 and UA2 experiments
were considered to be in the Underground Area,
i.e. situated underground at sites on the
SPS accelerator.
Most of the roads on the CERN campus are named
after famous physicists, e.g.- Richard Feynman,
Niels Bohr, Albert Einstein.
Participation and funding
Member states and budget
Since its foundation by 12 members in 1954,
CERN regularly accepted new members. All new
members have remained in the organization
continuously since their accession, except
Spain and Yugoslavia. Spain first joined CERN
in 1961, withdrew in 1969, and rejoined in
1983. Yugoslavia was a founding member of
CERN but left in 1961. Initially only West
Germany was a member of CERN. Of the twenty
members, 18 are European Union member states.
Switzerland and Norway are not. Israel joined
CERN as a full member on 6 January 2014, becoming
the first non-European member.
Enlargement
Associate Members, Candidates:
 Romania, first approved by CERN Council
in December 2008, became a candidate for accession
to CERN on 11 February 2010 and will become
a full member in 2015.
 Serbia became a candidate for accession
to CERN on 19 December 2011, signed an association
agreement on 10 January 2012 and became an
official "Associate Member in the pre-stage
to Membership" on 15 March 2012.
 Cyprus became an associate member on 5 October
2012.
 Ukraine became an associate member on 3
October 2013.
 Brazil was approved by CERN Council on 13
December 2013 to become the first Latin American
associate member. As of July 2014, Brazil
still needs to sign and ratify its accession
agreement.
 Turkey became an associate member on 12
May 2014.
 Pakistan became an associate member on 19
June 2014.
More countries have confirmed their wish to
become members and are awaiting approval from
the CERN Council:
 Slovenia, which cooperates scientifically
with CERN since 1991, applied for membership
in 2009.
 Russia, working with CERN in practice since
1959 and currently an observer state, formally
applied for membership in 2012.
International relations
Four countries have observer status:
Also observers are the following international
organizations:
 UNESCO – since 1954
European Commission – since 1985
Non-Member States currently involved in CERN
programmes are:
CERN also has scientific contacts with the
following countries:
International research institutions, such
as CERN, can aid in science diplomacy.
Public exhibits
Facilities at CERN open to the public include:
The Globe of Science and Innovation, which
opened in late 2005 and is used four times
a week for special exhibits.
The Microcosm museum on particle physics and
CERN history.
The Hindu deity, Shiva, a 2 metre statue styled
on Chola bronzes of the deity engaging in
the Nataraja dance of Chidambaram, parallelling
the movements or "dance" of subatomic particles.
In popular culture
CERN's Large Hadron Collider is the subject
of a rap video starring Katherine McAlpine
with some of the facility's staff.
CERN is depicted in an episode of South Park
called "Pinewood Derby". Randy Marsh, the
father of one of the main characters, breaks
into the "Hadron Particle Super Collider in
Switzerland" and steals a "superconducting
bending magnet created for use in tests with
particle acceleration" to use in his son Stan's
Pinewood Derby racer. Randy breaks into CERN
dressed in disguise as Princess Leia from
the Star Wars saga. The break-in is captured
on surveillance tape which is then broadcast
on the news.
John Titor, a self-proclaimed time traveler,
alleged that CERN would invent time travel
in 2001.
CERN is depicted in the visual novel/anime
series Steins;Gate as SERN, a shadowy organization
that has been researching time travel in order
to restructure and control the world.
In Dan Brown's mystery-thriller novel Angels
& Demons, a canister of antimatter is stolen
from CERN.
In the popular children's series The 39 Clues,
CERN is said to be an Ekaterina stronghold
hiding the clue hydrogen.
In Robert J. Sawyer's science fiction novel
Flashforward, at CERN, the Large Hadron Collider
accelerator is performing a run to search
for the Higgs boson when the entire human
race sees themselves twenty-one years and
six months in the future.
In season 3 episode 15 of the popular TV sitcom
The Big Bang Theory titled "The Large Hadron
Collision", Leonard and Rajesh travel to CERN
to attend a conference and see the LHC.
The 2012 student film Decay, which centers
around the idea of the Large Hadron Collider
transforming people into zombies, was filmed
on location in CERN's maintenance tunnels.
The Compact Muon Solenoid at CERN was used
as the basis for the Megadeth's Super Collider
album cover.
In Denpa Kyoushi, the main character is scouted
by "CERM"
In Super Lovers, Haruko worked at CERN, and
Ren was taught by CERN professors
Associated institutions
Swiss National Supercomputing Centre
See also
CERN Openlab
Fermilab
Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk
Onderzoek
Science and technology in Switzerland
Scientific Linux
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
World Wide Web
Large Hadron Collider at Wikipedia books
References
External links
Official website of CERN: CERN Accelerating
science
CERN at 50
CERN Courier – International journal of
high-energy physics
Israel may become first non-European member
of nuclear research group CERN
Big Bang Day: The Making of CERN, September
2008, A BBC Radio program
