## NATURAL DISASTER VERSUS MAN MADE DISASTER

History of mankind is replete with both natural disasters as well as man-made disasters. However, in ancient times it were only natural disasters that caused havoc on humanity, today man-made disasters are playing an equal, if not bigger role in causing destruction of life and property at various places of the world. Man made disasters are newly ad-vented calamities authored by actions of human beings all around the globe. There can be deliberate man made disasters like wars and terrorism and artificially created famines for ethnic cleansing by rogue heads of the State. There can also be accidental disasters like, malfunctioning of nuclear plants and chemical or biological industry/accidents in various industries, Leaking/breakdown of levies or bunds of rivers or sea walls, breaching of walls of dams etc due to poor planning, human negligence or use of sub standard materials.

## A VITAL QUESTION FOR THE SURVIVAL OF DISASTER hit POPULATION/COMMUNITIES

All humanitarian agencies agree that water management is a priority and a central issue in humanitarian operations. People affected by natural diseases or man-made catastrophes are more likely to fall victim to either unsanitary waste or unsanitary conditions than any other cause. The most important consequences in number and in effect are those who are affected by either diarrhea or contagious transmitted by oral anal means. Contaminated water, deplorable hygiene and sanitation conditions, are ideal means for the spread of epidemics of transmissible

The objective of potable water management programs, such as a sanitary environment, are to allow the assisted population to benefit from at least a minimum amount of drinkable water, to reduce the transmission of air-born illness, and finally, to decrease the sources of carriers (such as mosquitoes) needing water for their growth and reproduction.

From the start of an emergency situation, it is essential to focus on the provisioning of water. A disruption in the supply of water can have disastrous consequences; therefore, it is often a question of creating storage capacities and auxiliary systems (individual or collective reservoirs, trucks, basins, pumping systems, canals, etc.) to minimize the effects of any interruption in the supply. The lack of water at the beginning of disasters sets off the worst epidemics of cholera and other infectious diseases. In the most extreme cases, when all logistical capacities have been exhausted and have been insufficient in managing the situation, one must resort to moving the affected population in order to avoid the disaster that could result from an insufficiently restricted sector.

There are several water sources that can act as a supply from an situations – surfaces sources of water (rivers, ponds, sea, lakes, dams), springs (run through pipes to pumps), and rain water (particularly important in dry and arid areas).

Whatever the means of retaining the water, a number of standards will underlie the definition of the humanitarian intervention, such as:

  * Analysis of capacities, taking into account the seasons, the demands, and the local logistics, etc.
  * Analysis of the rapidity with which the supply source is functional, as well as the technical viability of the selected system (cost/opportunity analysis, population education, and protection of the source and security of the site).
  * The purity level of the water and the management of obvious pollution risks that will likely result.

### Management of Water as a Rare Resource

In the short period directly following the establishment of an emergency humanitarian operation, the first step remains the identification of available local resources in relation to the needs (food network, wells, lakes, distribution elements, available trucks, protected springs or those further away, etc.). Ideally, all of these are able to guarantee the supply of the threatened population that is dependent on the identified water source. It is imperative that the provisioning of water does not place the water supply of the local population in peril and that the risks linked to the supply of water, like the spread of disease or source of disease, the identified. The information will be treated in the means of particular criteria of access to points of water, of the available quantity (and the estimated consumption by the newly arrived population), the quality of water, the access to toilet facilities (and the distances of these from the previously mentioned items), as well as the management of sanitation activities made necessary by the news concentration of people in a given location.

The formation, establishment, and functioning of a system of water acquisition and distribution must be planned and managed, with the goal of safely delivering clean water directly to the displaced population. Several specialized agencies have developed technical expertise in dealing with the problem of water distribution: OXFAM UK, M.S.F., M.D.M., UNICEF and UNHCR. The difficulties to be faced in large-scale water acquisition will vary based on specific geographical conditions, topographical locations, and the consumption practices of the population. Whatever the identified water source (running water, river, pond, lake, dam, reservoir or urban system) the water will rarely be pure enough to be consumed without additional treatment to ensure ideal, risk free consumption.

Considering these differences, a number of common points on the conditions of use as well as of water quality are:

  * Availability of minimum of 15 litres of water per person per day – Each family should have at their disposal a minimum of two containers with a capacity of 10 to 20 litres as well as a storage capacity of 20 litres.
  * A flow at each water source of at least 0.125 litres per second.
  * Ideally, at least one water source per 250 persons.
  * The maximum distance to a water source from a resettlement site is 500 meters.
  * The rights and well-being of local populations are respected.
  * Technical simplicity of water removal, distribution or transportation as well as ease in system maintenance.
  * There are no more than 10 fecal coli forms per 100 ml at each distribution point.
  * For distribution systems at a large level, (more than 10,000 people) water will be treated with a residual disinfectant of an acceptable standard (i.e. the chlorine residual at the tap will be 0.2 – 0.5 mg per litre and the turbidity less than 5 NTU). If the water has too strong a taste of disinfectant, there is the risk that people may decide to consume unhealthy water instead.
  * Availability of 250g of soap per person per month.
  * Availability of separate baths for men and women in such a way that each can bathe with reasonable regularity to prevent skin diseases that quickly develop in the absence of regular hygiene.
  * Availability of a washbasin and dry line for every 100 people. Clothing cleanliness is an integral part of education efforts that are the responsibilities of the camp sanitation authorities.

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ESTIMATED NECESSARY OUANTITIES OF WATER

---

Public Toilet | 1-2 litre per day for washing of hands

Flush Toilets | 20-40 litres per user per day for flushing

Anal Cleansing | 1-2 litres per person per day

Health Centres and Hospitals | 5 litre per outpatient

40-60 litres per inpatient

Additional quantities must be added for flush, toilets, laundering of sheets, clothing, etc.

Cholera Treatment Centres | 60 litres per patient per day

15 litres per virus carrier per day

Therapeutic Nutrition Centre | 15-30 litres per person per day

15 litres per patient per day

Livestock | 20-30 litres per large or medium-sized animal per day

5 litres per small animal per day

To test water quality, when it is possible to specify, the tests most commonly employed are those that enumerate and count the fecal coli-form. The concentrations of the bacteria are ordinarily expressed per 100 ml of water. Below is an index of control.

Fecal Coli-form Bacteria | Water Quality

---|---

0 – 10 | Good/acceptable quality

10 – 100 | Beginnings of pollution

100 – 1,000 | Strong pollution

1,000+ | Extremely high pollution

In the tests undertaken to halt the start of pollution from fecal matter, principally by the addition of chlorine, specialists recommend measuring the presence of the chemical element rather than that of the coli-form. A chlorine level equivalent to 0.2 mg/1 at the point of distribution indicate that the bacteria have been eliminated and that the water cannot be polluted by fecal material or other organisms.

It should be noted that in the first phases of an emergency situation, the purity level of water distributed is not immediately attainable. It is, therefore, more important to ensure that everyone can receive a medium quality of water (the principle of equal distribution) rather than to decrease the quantities of water of an immediately higher quality. If there are serious doubts as to the microbiological quality o the available water, the best solution still remains in the first emergency to treat the water with disinfectant to increase the quality.

# PREFACE

The World is shrinking as a global village, increasing the gap between developed, developing and least developed countries manifold in coming times.

Disasters, natural or man-made are uninvited catastrophes which hit the regions/humanity with unprecedented devastation. Disasters have multifarious impacts on human populations. Cities are razed, environments are impacted negatively, and loss of human lives is colossal, and complete ecosystems vanish either instantly or over a period of time.

This advanced guide on Disaster Management has been written by author so that all social, national and international actors and stake holders understand in depth the various phases of mitigation, recovery, rehabilitation, reconstruction, preparedness and response.

Search and rescue missions, timely arrival of aid and first responders will always play crucial role in mitigating the effects during response phase. Chain of command must have unity of command and all relevant information right from onset of a disaster to rebuilding phase must be disseminated with promptness to all concerned.

This advanced guide encompasses guidelines for heads of the states, Governors, parliamentarians, members of legislatures, ministers and Secretaries, heads of voluntary and other international organizations like UN and its various organs and umbrella institutions. IMF and World Bank will play crucial role in connivance with UNO, Red Cross, with intimate relationships with international disaster coordinators, governments involved and stakeholders to effectively combat any type of disaster in any region of the world.

Lt Col Sanjay Dutta (Retd)

## PHASES OF DISASTER'S LIFE CYCLE

In Disaster's Life Cycle four prominent phases can be broadly termed as:-

  * Mitigation
  * Preparation
  * Response
  * Recovery

Disaster is calamitous event specially occurring suddenly and causing great damage or hardship. It is a catastrophe or mishap occurring unexpectedly. A disaster may be caused by carelessness, negligence and by a bad judgment or by natural forces like tsunami, hurricanes, floods or earthquakes. A fundamental difference between a disaster and a hazard is that a hazard is a situation which poses a threat to life, health, property or environment. Most hazards are dormant or potential with a radical threat or harm. However once a hazard becomes active it creates an emergency situation which could be termed as disaster. A disaster is an impact of natural or human made hazard that negatively affects society or environment & during the Life Cycle of disaster.

Disaster management was mostly practiced till recent times either by military personnel or by trained responders. Disaster management is actually a discipline of dealing with avoiding risks. It is a discipline which encompasses prevention and preparing and then responding and lastly rebuilding. With emergence of international societies like International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (ICRC), International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC), Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), International Organization for Migration (IOM), International Maritime Organization (IMO), International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL), United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), World Food Programme (WFP), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE) or CARE International (CI), MEDAIR (Emergency Relief And Rehabilitation), The Verification Research Training And Information Centre (VERTIC), United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA), United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UNWOMEN), and United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) have vastly improved the capacities to overcome devastations caused by emergency situations and disasters. However Twentieth century has been witnessing number of disasters which have been hitting all regions in the world with more furious severity. Modern times have seen lots of destruction, loss of human life, loss of habitats and degradation of environment due to negligence of mankind. Thus the discipline of crisis management yet needs more mutual coordination and understanding between the nations and international organizations and non government organizations (NGOs).

## ROLE OF MILITARY FORCES

It is the new paradox at this turn of the century to have seen the armed forces play such an increasingly important role in the management of humanitarian operation, whether they act on their own or in conjunction with national or international humanitarian partners.

  * Outstanding logistical capability in the form of trucks, cranes, water and sanitation equipment, etc.
  * A proven sense of organization and discipline.
  * Rapid mobilization, whether by sky, land, or sea, superior to that of any civil organization.
  * Skilled men and women, trained in large numbers, and operational in all fields of humanitarian practice (health, logistics, camp administration, water and sanitation)
  * The defensive capability to protect themselves as well as the teams and equipment of other agencies present.
  * Exceptional communication systems internal and external.
  * A lack of financial interest in the contractual agreements with the agencies of the UN system because they are supported by state funding.

When these capabilities are put to use in major humanitarian crises, they make an enormous difference. However, it often remains to channel this capacity in order to respond to clear and well-defined objectives. Military collaboration with humanitarian agencies is essential in order to facilitate a process of "handing over-taking back" at the end of their mission, for most often these missions have clear and relatively short-term mandates (this is the case with the majority of the American and Canadian-modeled "Disaster Assistance Relief Teams"). It is therefore necessary to begin preparing early the conditions for power to be passed on to an NGO or to the state.

Finally, it is important to note that today the military is also frequently supported by civil or semi-military forces which can include:

  * National domestic security forces
  * Association organized under a quasi-military model (Hospitalet Orders, the Salvation Army, etc).
  * National or international gendarmerie or civil police force

Rs. 1299

For information address the Author Lt. Col. Sanjay Dutta (Retd),

H.No.44/1A Ext. Sec – 1, Trikuta Nagar, Jammu, J&K, 180012

Tel: +91- 7298942460

E-mail: col.sanjaydutta@gmail.com

## INTRODUCTION

Today the World is like a global village, communications and media have spread to the furthest of locations of mother earth therefore destruction caused by disasters as on today is reported upon as soon as possible. However response to a particular disaster requires highly specialized equipment and extremely motivated and trained personnel. Furthermore reaction time to save the precious human lives and their further triage for specialized treatment becomes a fully blown operation within it self. Densely populated cities in high disaster prone zones are difficult challenges faced by communities, international organizations like ICRC, IFRC, United Nations & host of State's response organizations including national and international stake holders and actors.

Resilient societies and flexible communities are usually backed up by strategically adapted International Organizations which can bear external and internal stresses and shocks comprehensively one after the other.

Modern era has evolved into a manner, where ecological imbalances, unchecked building of infrastructures, melting Polar Ice, removal of forest covers, global warming & increased desertification all these factors have combined and introduced more deadly disasters strikes. Developing countries and least developed countries including small island countries bear the greater brunt of disasters. However, UN agencies and emergency managers and teams of Red Cross and other NGOs are always busy in planning and designing new methodologies and tools to combat futuristic shocks of disasters. Policy makers, International and national stakeholders and actors very well take into considerations while dealing with disasters, the factors like, population growth, human migrations, energy shortfalls, income disparities, changing environment of socio-political developments, ethnic wars, displaced populations and refugees. Similarly disasters caused naturally or products of man made actions in majority of cases in least developed countries destroy the very cultural and social fabric of the societies and communities. Even nation States identity or survival as a state is jeopardized by ethnic wars, pandemics or by natural disasters.

## PRINCIPLES OF COLLECTIVE SANITATION AND HYGIENE

There are several themes listed under this subject that we will study separately.

### Management of Human Excrement

The management of human excrement is the most important component of risk management linked to the spread of infectious diseases transmitted by human fecal matter. In addition to the inherent risks of poor management and the health problems that will result, socio-cultural issues linked to the defecation practices o the population must be considered. It is important to consult the population involved to ensure that the systems to be installed can satisfy the minimum expectations and cultural practices of the population. The cultural and anthropological aspects of their use of latrines must quickly be studied prior to deciding the model or models that will be installed for the communities (common practices, conditions of isolation or proximity, separations of sexes, positions, taboos or particular practices, orientation, use of water or paper, etc.).

Emergency situations are characterized, in their first hours, by the general dispersion of individuals for urination and defecation. This must quickly be changed; facilities must be quickly constructed that meet a certain number of criteria, such as:

  * Foresee approximately one latrine per 20 persons.
  * The latrines should be situated on more than 50 meters from the housing of the individuals, easily accessible and out of danger (especially for children, the elderly, pregnant women, and the handicapped) and provide at least a minimum of privacy.
  * The latrines are situated at least 6 metres from the housing, and even further in the case of dispensaries, food centres, and even further from wells or water source (30 metres). The base of the latrines is ideally placed 1.5 metres above the water table.
  * Latrines are lit at night, to ease the washing of hands after going to the bathroom. The latrines are easily and maintained, most frequently using local materials.
  * The facilities are reserved so that the women can dispose of feminine products and can wash and dry their clothes during menstruation.

There are three formulas applicable for latrines:

  * Single family latrines
  * Latrines for a group of houses
  * Collective latrines

In function of the system ultimately adopted, the techniques of construction will vary. The following are examples of systems:

  * Camp latrines and large trenches: these systems are primarily used in initial emergencies, dug at variable depths and must be closed over after use. The principle problem linked to these open systems is the control of the danger of disease that results from the material that remains at the bottom, as well as the management of these in conditions of excessive rain.
  * Dry pit toilettes or dug holes: more sophisticated, they serve for individual or semi-collective use. Well ventilated and protected, they avoid the spread of disease carriers before being sealed.
  * Water latrines: available systems with water facilities (must include around 5 litres per use per day).
  * Compost latrines: these latrines make the excrements inoffensive with time and produce fertilizer that is recyclable for agricultural activities after a two month period.

The privacy and comfort available to the individuals using the latrines will be a function of the degree of maintenance performed on the facilities.

### Management of Solid Waste Material (Garbage, Refuse, Etc)

The risks linked to the poor management of solid waste are obvious: the proliferation or harmful elements carrying diseases, such as flies, rats, feral dogs, and certain birds. The control of solid waste material can also have other negative consequences on the quality of surface water as well as on the environment quality of play space for children or the social life of adults. The management of solid waste of a community and the elimination of the risks, depends above all, on the measures the community itself is ready to take to combat and eliminate them. Therefore, the population must be made aware of the need to store the waster in the designated areas, to sort the waste if necessary, to ensure the adequate treatment of recyclable waste (using vegetable waster in gardening, etc.) and to take measures so that the deposit or burial locations do not become locations for the growth and spread of infectious diseases.

Following such measures, a specific number of programmes should be put in place:

  * Selection of natural waster, dangerous waster (medical and contaminated waste material), isolation or special treatment of certain categories of waste material – for example, slaughter-house waste, market waster or industrial and mechanical waste materials).
  * All the arrangements are made so that the deposit sites do not become high risk zones; incineration facilities destroy the most dangerous materials.
  * Each individual family or each group of people will dispose at one deposit site (of a capacity or 100 litres for 10 families). Ideally, the refuse will be collected on a daily basis.
  * No living space will be located less than 15 metres from a disposal site, or 100 metres from a communal disposal site.

In addition to these arrangements for solid waste material, it is important install a drainage system to carry away dirty water from washing, ablutions, food preparation, and other domestic uses. If they are not emptied, they will quickly turn into stagnant pools of water ideal for the development of mosquito and other insect larvae. The design of the canal or drainage systems should be worked out with the design of the camps so that dirty water does not, at any point, contaminate sites of potable water, wells, or ground water.

## PRINCIPLES OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The eight principles of disaster management were coined by group of emergency management practitioners and academics under the stewardship of Dr. Wayne Blanchard if FEMA's Emergency Management Higher Education Project in 2007. Directions for formulation of these emergency management principles were given by Dr. Cortez Lawrence. The principles are enumerated as below:-

### Comprehensive

Emergency managers and disaster Aid teams, national and international actors and stakeholders must have vision to comprehend and consider, taking into account all potential hazards which could suddenly and unexpectedly break into devastating disasters. They must understand all phases of disaster management and mechanics of and impact of all stakeholders. Their comprehensive knowledge may how with a due consideration, that how must they be able to coordinate efforts of all responders with mutual aid without duplication.

### Progressive

Emergency managers and disaster Aid teams, national and international actors and stakeholders must have their knowledge bank brimming with anticipatory future disasters which could arrive anywhere anytime with unknown ferocity and destruction. Emergency managers and all stake holders must develop an uncanny sense of reading the future disasters and ensure that they take preventive and preparatory measures to build disaster resistant and disaster resilient communities. To drive maximum benefit from communities they must educate, train and communicate with disaster prone communities by various advanced technologies, techniques and tools. They must guide these communities who will have to be the first ones to deal with disasters.

### Risk driven

Emergency managers and disaster Aid teams, National and International actors and stakeholders use sound risk management principles, in assigning priorities and resources. Priorities and resources dedication is based on hazard identification, risk analysis and impact analysis. However, even if they are extremely cautious and dedicated, full impact of disaster cannot be qualified and quantified. They must be technically sound enough to understand that if and when a hazard culminates into a disaster the fine magnification of its full short term and long term implications must be taken care of.

In crisis all managers become defensive and rule of law is that nobody wants to own the share of the tragic part of full impact of disaster. All work for common purpose but and nobody shares the shreds of fabric of devastation. National and international actors saving apart the active profit making stake holders and international and local media all throng at the site of disasters and more often than not the very dignity of victims is jeopardized. So priorities and resources require a very deft and nimble handling where so many rule the roost. News of reports  at emergency managers locations from various fields conditions are always dramatically over emphasizing and verifications/ restrictions of an emergency manager at coordinator's level may blur his imagination to hysteria and sense of doom. All clamor for the resources and priorities that too ASAP. Actual victim of a disaster may be lost in the paradigm and gambit of operations. Team leaders and emergency managers must caution themselves not to be swayed by inputs and situational reports of field responders and issuance of contradictory/ duplicating and confused analysis based on over emphasized news.

### Integrated

Emergency managers and disaster aid teams, national and international actors and stakeholders must ensure unity of effort among all levels of government and non government organizations and affected communities. The emergency managers and stakeholders must harmonize the efforts of prevention, preparedness response and stabilization missions including recovery phase so that multiple organizations must achieve the desired objectives efficiently. The principle requires coordination and cooperation among all elements involved in disaster management. Collateral and main efforts might go simultaneously united by same intent and purpose. In combined and interagency operations of such kind unity of command may not be possible but requirement of unity of effort becomes of paramount importance.

### Collaborative

Emergency managers and disaster aid teams, national and international actors and stakeholders create and sustain broad and sincere relationships among individuals and organizations to encourage trust, advocate a team atmosphere, build consensus and facilitate communications. Regular conferences and meetings and honest approach displayed during these events will ensure mutual understanding and genuine concern for those who need humanitarian reliefs. To have far reaching effects of collaboration between all actors and stake holders' emergency managers must use offices of public relations and campaign strategies. The emergency managers and relief workers must have an incredible passion for relief operations with an integrated approach and must reap the full contentment of their honest and genuine reputations.

### Co-ordination

Emergency managers and disaster aid teams, national and international actors and stakeholders must cooperate and work with transparency to achieve the desired results. Fine tuning and synchronization of all efforts directed to achieve the desired objectives must be coordinated with deft handling.

### Flexible

Emergency managers and disaster aid teams, national and international actors and stakeholders should use originality and innovations in solving impending challenges posed by a disaster. Leaders and emergency managers should never be short of bright ideas to solve an unexpected situation and must use original creativity ingenuity to take care of problems arising during life cycle of a disaster.

### Professional

Emergency managers and disaster aid teams, national and international actors and stakeholders must be through professionals. The competencies of aid workers and leaders must have improved their professional knowledge by practice based on enhanced education, training, experience, ethical practices, public stewardship and by attaining understanding of higher standards in scientific tools and technologies and must also develop sound technologies and models to achieve the timely handling of disasters so that with minimum of efforts maximum of the affected communities can be rendered with humanitarian aid.

## NATURAL DISASTERS ARE OF THREE CATEGORIES

Natural disasters can be split in three categories: Hydro-meteorological disasters,  Geophysical disasters and Geomorphologic disasters.

### Hydro-meteorological disasters

Hydro-meteorological disasters, like floods, are the most common (40%) natural disasters worldwide and are widely documented. The public health consequences of flooding are disease outbreaks mostly resulting from the displacement of people into overcrowded camps and cross-contamination of water sources with fecal material and toxic chemicals. Flooding also is usually followed by the proliferation of mosquitoes, resulting in an insurgence of mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria. Documentation of disease outbreaks and the public health after-effects of tropical cyclones (hurricanes and typhoons) and tornadoes however is lacking.

### Geophysical disasters

Geophysical disasters are the second-most reported type of natural disaster, and earthquakes are the majority of disasters in this category. Outbreaks of infectious diseases may be reported when earthquake disasters result in substantial population displacement into unplanned and overcrowded shelters, with limited access to food and safe water. Disease outbreaks may also result from the destruction of water/sanitation systems and the degradation of sanitary conditions directly caused by the earthquake. Tsunamis are commonly associated with earthquakes, but can also be caused by powerful volcanic eruptions or underwater landslides. Although classified as geophysical disasters, they have a similar clinical and threat profile (water-related consequences) to that of tropical cyclones (e.g., typhoon or hurricane).

### Geomorphologic disasters

Geomorphologic disasters, such as avalanches and landslides, also are associated with infectious disease transmissions and outbreaks, but documentation is generally lacking after these natural disasters.

Earthquakes, floods, landslides, volcanoes, hurricanes, tornados, tsunami and other such hazards are natural disasters that have led to colossal loss of property and lives since ancient times. These disasters create more havoc when they occur near human colonies resulting in huge financial and property losses apart from claiming priceless and innocent lives

There have been umpteen incidents of floods, droughts, Tsunamis, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in the past 100 years that have resulted in millions of people losing their lives with incalculable loss of property in places where they occurred. Health hazards are also included in the list of natural disasters as and when medicines and drugs were not available at the time epidemics claiming millions of lives. The worst in the last 100 years was the spread of Spanish Flu in 1918 that claimed 50 million lives worldwide. Modern era has witnessed its own pandemics culminating into natural disasters which caused colossal of loss of human lives. HIV and Ebola virus disease (EVD; also Ebola hemorrhagic fever, or EHF) are typical examples of unchecked pandemics.

#### HIV:

During the life cycles of a natural disasters epidemics and pandemics also claim million of precious life's and will destroy the very cultural and heritage fabric of effected populations in short span of time. In one of the worst pandemics of 20th and 21st century HIV (AIDS) has developed into a major medical disaster. Continuous human displacements, refugees, and ethnic wars including homosexuality & prostitutions have spread AIDS World Wide from continent of South Eastern Africa. Since its discovery AIDS has caused an estimated 36 million deaths worldwide as of 2012. As of 2012, approximately 35.3 million people are living with HIV (AIDS) globally. Till date vaccine of AIDS is elusive. Vaccinated populations only showed 30% results. Therefore, humanity has to wait a bit longer before science can catch up with AIDS eradication and effective vaccination.

#### Ebola Virus Disease:

Ebola virus disease (EVD; also Ebola hemorrhagic fever, or EHF), or simply Ebola, is a disease of humans and other primates caused by Ebola viruses (EBOV). Signs and symptoms typically start between two days and three weeks after contracting the virus as a fever, sore throat, muscle pain and headaches. Then, vomiting, diarrhea and rash usually follow, along with decreased function of the liver and kidneys. At this time some people begin to bleed both internally and externally. Death, if it occurs, follows typically six to sixteen days after symptoms appear and is often due to low blood pressure from fluid loss.

The virus spreads by direct contact with blood or other body fluids of an infected human or other animal. Infection with the virus may also occur by direct contact with a recently contaminated item or surface. Spread of the disease through the air has not been documented in the natural environment. EBOV may be spread by semen or breast milk for several weeks to months after recovery. Fruit bats are believed to be the normal carrier in nature, able to spread the virus without being affected by it. Humans become infected by contact with the bats or with a living or dead animal that has been infected by bats. After human infection occurs, the disease may also spread between people. Other diseases such as malaria, cholera, typhoid fever, meningitis and other viral hemorrhagic fevers may resemble EVD. Blood samples are tested for viral RNA, viral antibodies or for the virus itself to confirm the diagnosis.

Control of outbreaks requires coordinated medical services, along with a certain level of community engagement. The medical services include: rapid detection of cases of disease, contact tracing of those who have come into contact with infected individuals, quick access to laboratory services, proper care and management of those who are infected and proper disposal of the dead through cremation or burial. Prevention includes limiting the spread of disease from infected animals to humans. This may be done by handling potentially infected bush meat only while wearing protective clothing and by thoroughly cooking it before consumption. It also includes wearing proper protective clothing and washing hands when around a person with the disease. Samples of body fluids and tissues from people with the disease should be handled with special caution.

No specific treatment for the virus is available. Efforts to help those who are infected are supportive; they include giving either oral (slightly sweetened and salty water to drink) or intravenous fluids as well as treating symptoms. This supportive care improves outcomes. The disease has a high risk of death, killing between 25 percent and 90 percent of those infected with the virus, with an average mortality rate of 50 percent. EVD was first identified in an area of Sudan (now part of South Sudan), and in Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo). The disease typically occurs in outbreaks in tropical regions of sub-Saharan Africa. From 1976 (when it was first identified) through 2013, the World Health Organization reported a total of 1,716 cases. The largest outbreak to date is the ongoing epidemic in West Africa, which is centered in Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia. As of 25 October 2014, the current outbreak in West Africa includes 13,703 suspected cases resulting in the deaths of 4,922 people. Efforts are under way to develop a vaccine.

##### Signs and Symptoms of Ebola:

The length of time between exposure to the virus and the development of symptoms of the disease is usually 2 to 21 days. Symptoms usually begin with a sudden influenza-like stage characterized by feeling tired, fever, pain in the muscles and joints, headache, and sore throat. The fever is usually higher than 38.3 °C (100.9 °F). This is often followed by vomiting, diarrhea and abdominal pain. Next, shortness of breath and chest pain may occur, along with swelling, headaches and confusion. In about half of the cases, the skin may develop a maculopapular rash (a flat red area covered with small bumps).

In some cases, internal and external bleeding may occur. This typically begins five to seven days after the first symptoms. All infected people show some decreased blood clotting. Bleeding from mucous membranes or from sites of needle punctures has been reported in 40–50 percent of cases. This may result in the vomiting of blood, coughing up of blood or blood in stool.

Bleeding into the skin may create petechiae, purpura, ecchymoses or hematomas (especially around needle injection sites). Bleeding into the whites of the eyes may also occur. Heavy bleeding is uncommon, and if it occurs, it is usually located within the gastrointestinal tract.

Recovery may begin between 7 and 14 days after the start of symptoms. Death, if it occurs, follows typically 6 to 16 days from the start of symptoms and is often due to low blood pressure from fluid loss. In general, bleeding often indicates a worse outcome, and this blood loss may result in death. People are often in a coma near the end of life. Those who survive often have ongoing muscle and joint pain, liver inflammation and decreased hearing among other difficulties.

##### Cause:

Ebola virus (taxonomic group) and Ebola virus (specific virus) EVD in humans is caused by four of five viruses of the genus Ebola virus. The four are Bundibugyo virus (BDBV), Sudan virus (SUDV), Taï Forest virus (TAFV) and one simply called Ebola virus (EBOV, formerly Zaire Ebola virus). EBOV is the only member of the Zaire Ebola virus species and the most dangerous of the known EVD-causing viruses, and is responsible for the largest number of outbreaks. The fifth virus, Reston virus (RESTV), is not thought to cause disease in humans, but has caused disease in other primates. All five viruses are closely related to marburgviruses.

##### Life cycles of the Ebola virus:

Between people, Ebola disease spreads only by direct contact with the blood or body fluids of a person who has developed symptoms of the disease. Body fluids that may contain Ebola viruses include saliva, mucus, vomit, feces, sweat, tears, breast milk, urine and semen. The WHO states that only people who are very sick are able to spread Ebola disease in saliva, and whole virus has not been reported to be transmitted through sweat. Most people spread the virus through blood, feces and vomit. Entry points for the virus include the nose, mouth, eyes, open wounds, cuts and abrasions. Contact with objects contaminated by the virus, particularly needles and syringes, may also transmit the infection. The virus is able to survive on objects for a few hours in a dried state and can survive for a few days within body fluids.

## MITIGATION

Mitigation is the first phase of disaster management. Mitigation is a more of long term measure for reducing or eliminating the risks. Mitigation is a more of strategies which are implemented before any hazard culminates into a disaster and also become crucial part of the process during recovery and rebuilding phase.

Strategies involving mitigation can be structural or non structural. Structural measures are more of physical efforts and technological solutions to prevent disasters. In structural measures in flood zone areas, dams could be constructed and man-made reservoirs could be created and number of canals could be constructed to reduce the impact of floods. Similarly in case of natural disasters like earthquakes guidelines for planning of buildings in towns and cities with earthquake resistant engineering solutions must be introduced to check to reduce number of casualties and destruction of property.

In case of Tsunamis examples of countries like Netherlands could be adopted where they have constructed one of the great engineering marvels by constructing dykes all along shores of North Sea. In case of Tsunami's, sea storms and hurricanes degradation of man groves could be checked under structural preventive measures of mitigation. In non-structural measures of mitigation legislation needs a very concentrated and effective effort on the part of national policy makers. The legislation has to be duly ratified with all rules and regularly defining policies, programs and the overall involvement for disaster management. All legislations need to be descriptive in shape of rules, acts and regulations for emergency managers and commanders and coordinators of unified command who would handle the emergencies effectively. In non structural mitigation phase only insurance policies need to be introduced for safety and security of all likely stake holders. During non structural mitigation phase, groups and communities need to be made resilient so that during subsequent phase of preparedness well rehearsed synchronized drills and procedures introduce adaptability. Since mitigation is more of strategic planning in advance, it is made to comprehend the likely disaster. It is more cost effective. Mitigation also includes provisions of regulations regarding evacuation, sanctions against those who refuse to obey the regulations such as mandatory evacuations and communications to the potential risk to the public. Some structural mitigation measures may have adverse effect on ecosystem like breaching of a dam, collapsing of reservoir or breakdown of levies in flood prone areas and breach of sea walls constructed in hurricane/strong surge regions. During mitigation phase the assessment of vulnerability risk catastrophe needs special risk assessments. During mitigation phase non-structural regulations for evacuation plans and introduction of insurance of buildings, crops and livestock are formulated and provision of stocks of special antidotes and medicines labeled in local languages is ensured. At the same time structural solutions like construction of new roads, communication centers, field hospitals, super specialist hospitals in hinterland, air ambulances, earmarking of aerial aid of life saving stocks, new railway lines are constructed so that evacuation plans under the said regulations could be implemented including distribution of boats and communication equipment to affected populations. The adverse impact of hazards culminating into disasters cannot be prevented fully but their scale and severity can be reduced by mitigation strategies and plans.

## NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS

### Care International

CARE works at the community level with survivors of disasters and conflicts, delivering immediate relief and longer-term rehabilitation. CARE provides a range of assistance, including food and seeds, tools, temporary shelter, clean water, sanitation services, medical care, family planning and reproductive health services. CARE aims to rebuild livelihoods and reduce disaster vulnerability through the sustainable use and management of natural resources. CARE has specific expertise and capacity in conducting community-based environmental assessments.

### Benfield Hazard Research Centre

The Centre transfers cutting-edge natural hazard and risk research, practices and innovations from the academic world to the humanitarian response community. In particular, the Center has developed a tool for Rapid Environmental Impact Assessment in Disaster Response (REA). Real time REA assistance is available within five to seven days, and experts can remain in the field for up to a month.

### Disaster Waste Management (DWM)

DWM's goal is to provide timely solid waste management and environmental protection support to communities affected by emergencies. Working with key stakeholders, DWM's support varies from advice and training to implementation of projects.

### World Conservation Union (IUCN)

IUCN is not a disaster relief or humanitarian assistance organization, but it can play an important role in addressing environmental impacts, particularly by supporting efforts to rehabilitate affected areas.

GENEVA, 16 November 2011 \- A strong push from the UN Environment Programme for green investments to protect key sectors of the economy from crises and shocks has earned praise from private companies keen to reduce disaster risk. "Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication," launched in Beijing, says $1.3 trillion should be spent in 10 areas to improve economic efficiency and create a buffer against disasters – agriculture, buildings, energy supply, fisheries, forestry, industry including energy efficiency, tourism, transport, waste management and water. To counter food shocks, for example, UNEP recommends $108 billion to green the agriculture sector, including by reducing crop losses from hazards such as drought or floods. The report says less than five per cent of agricultural research funding is targeted at reducing post-harvest losses. Peter Gruetter, Director and Distinguished Fellow at CISCO Internet Business Solutions Group – a member of the private sector advisory group associated with the UN office for disaster risk reduction (UNISDR) – expressed support for UNEP's assertion that governments should encourage green investments with incentives, but stressed that those investments must be "disaster proof."   
"To be truly green, investment planning must account for the risk of floods, hurricanes and extreme weather patterns that have now become the norm," Mr. Gruetter said. "Green policies need not be complicated. They simply need to be well-thought out. Investors need to know what risks are involved, how best to handle those risks, and what to do when something goes wrong."

Every year, an estimated 11.2 billion ton of solid waste are collected worldwide. In emerging economies with rapid growth and urbanization, the need to green the waste sector is particularly strong, says the report. In developing countries, half the budget for waste management is spent on collection, while expenditure on technologies and facilities for treatment, recovery and disposal is generally low. The World Bank, for example, has estimated that China must increase its national waste management budget at least eight-folds.

## NATIONAL NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS

This term is usually used to refer to the Northern NGOs that intervene in the event of a humanitarian emergency and who possess the financing as well as the manpower and materials to act rapidly and effectively. Yet that definition overlooks the fact that the large majority of non-governmental organizations who work with the UNHCR are smaller national NGOs. These organizations clearly possess invaluable expertise and experience on the ground. In a significant number of situations, however, they are hardly in a position to intervene rapidly in an emergency because the level of intensity during the first weeks of action requires resources that they do not have at their disposal. The reasons for this situation, which will most likely continue for the next several years, are fairly clear:

  * Lack of adequate financing as well as specialized personnel to create an effective and sustainable income capacity
  * Lack of funding from foreign sponsors, who privilege their own national Organization
  * Difficulty in maintaining a fixed structure specifically for intervening in emergency situations
  * Difficulty, as nationals, of easily maneuvering in a highly politicized context. This can even be dangerous for certain personnel.
  * Difficulty, even for certain Red Cross agencies, of maintaining a totally neutral and impartial profile

In the face of these problems, which concern the most critical (and the most highly publicized) weeks of a humanitarian crisis, some agencies, beginning with the UNHCR, hope to priorities work with national agencies in the future with the goal of capitalizing on national resources capable of managing existing settlements Maximizing the national response to the challenges of managing a humanitarian emergency and giving national actors the tools to take charge again when the time comes for reconstruction or rehabilitation.

## DISASTERS AND CONFLICTS, ROLE OF WHO

Children are among the most vulnerable to the health aspects of crises. Both human-made crises and natural disasters can debilitate or destroy the lifelines--water supply, power, and food supply systems, etc.--needed for day-to-day survival, well-being, and growth. Children often bear the brunt of the health consequences of broken systems. For example, when water supply systems are contaminated, diarrheal diseases can disproportionately affect children. Crises can also damage health services and de-activate vital immunization campaigns needed to protect children against diseases to which they are particularly susceptible.

Ongoing violent conflicts, as well as natural disasters, can cause mass population displacements and expose children to the unhealthy physical and psychological environments. Crises can also severely weaken the capacity of caretakers (family members or others) to address the needs of children. Children left without adequate caretakers, such as street children or orphans, are the most vulnerable. Currently, WHO is working with partners--including UNICEF, UNFPA, UNHCR, and ICRC—are to ensure that the health needs of all children and their caretakers are met in disaster situations.

## WHAT ARE DISASTERS

A disaster is a natural or man-made or technological hazard that has come to fruition, resulting in an event of substantial extent causing significant physical damage or destruction, loss of life, or drastic change to the environment. A disaster can ostensibly defined as any tragic event with great loss stemming from events such as earthquakes, floods, catastrophic accidents/fires, or explosions. It is a phenomenon that can cause damage to life, property and destroy the economic, social and cultural life of people. In contemporary academia, disasters are seen as the consequence of inappropriately managed risk. These risks are the product of a combination of both hazards and vulnerability. Hazards that strike in areas with low vulnerability will never become disasters, as is the case in uninhabited regions. Developing countries suffer the greatest costs when a disaster hits – more than 95 percent of all deaths caused by disasters occur in developing countries, and losses due to natural disasters are 20 times greater in developing countries than in industrialized countries.

Man made or natural calamities when strike inhabited areas or communities, where huge loss of precious human lives, property is lost either in a short span of time or during longer periods depending upon the ferocity of disaster and vulnerability of disaster hit communities. Major disaster will cause invariably loss of social and cultures fabric of societies or communities in inhabited areas. Environment and economies get shattered and international and national stakeholders and hit populations undergo physical and psychological agonies. If communities are not well prepared & do not have resilience, humanity will be torn apart and long term effects will chase the past demons of disasters. Search & rescue missions during disasters will play vital role as to provide relief. Before food scarcity hits the devastated areas and communities provisioning of potable water will poses maximum challenges to first responders and subsequent international and national agencies. Medical Teams more they are pressed into service, still lesser the efforts seems as number of casualties and their treatment assumes paramount importance during management of disasters. Triage of wounded & injured becomes rule of thumb, and medical teams are always over whelmed by casualties of disasters and human crises.

Disaster emergencies have emerged more prominently in International Scenario which requires aid of almost all experts of sciences and humanities concurrently at one Juncture. UN Gen Assembly may pass a resolution, declaring a disaster as International tragedy and ways to combat it, then at the same time Red Cross Teams and Teams of Doctors without frontiers may be heavily involved in treatment of injured and wounded at site of disaster. Logistics of potable water, food, prefabricated shelters, medicines and clothing becomes essential and on the other hand, simultaneously treatment of injured and construction of field hospitals, temporary settlements, construction of roads and reorientation and redeployment of communications and introduction of additional communication tools will be one of the major priorities of all international & national  response teams. Along with response go hand in hand resettlement, reconstruction & reintegration of affected societies.

### Hazards

A hazard is a situation which poses a level of threat to life, health, property or environment. Most hazards are dormant or potential, with only a theoretical risk of harm, however, once a hazard becomes 'active', it can create an emergency situation. A disaster is the impact of a natural or human-made hazard that negatively affects society or environment. Despite all the advances in science and technology, man is helpless in the face of natural calamities that are termed as disasters because of the trail of destruction in terms of loss of lives and property caused by them. Disasters are not always natural and there are man-made disasters also. Earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, wildfires, landslides, droughts, and volcanic eruptions are natural hazards that cause a lot of destruction but they are termed as disasters when they occur in regions/areas that are heavily inhabited. Earthquake, floods, tsunamis, wildfires, landslides, droughts, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes and typhoons are natural hazards that occur frequently in many parts of the world but are labeled as disasters only when they take place where there is built up environment of human population. It is clear that a hazard is an event that has the potential to cause widespread destruction and loss of lives and property. But when a hazard strikes an area that has no human population, though it still has destructive properties, it is not termed as a disaster.

Hazards are natural phenomenon, they cannot be prevented. But we can certainly learn to live in harmony with nature by not taking steps that can turn hazards into major disasters. If one takes into account the cost that we finally pay when a disaster strikes that the cost of averting it, we come to a conclusion that it is prudent to be having placed, introduced and well rehearsed and practiced, mitigation, preparation, response and recovery plans with the help of international, national, state and regional actors and stake holders at all levels. All nations and regions which are highly vulnerable to disasters and communities which are prone to regular disasters must be inculcated with capacity-building exercises as to make them resilient societies which will be first responders in case of disasters, before arrival of international humanitarian aid and assistance from various organizations including UN agencies and states and NGOs.

In a precise manner, a hazard is considered to be anything which can cause harm. Generally, a hazard is said to be present when there is an object or a situation present which may have an adverse effect on the surroundings. There can be other hazards like an explosion, breakdown of nuclear plants and spread of radioactive radiation, accidents in chemical plants, epidemics and pandemics & leakage of toxic gas etc.

### Risk

Risk can be taken as chance or a probability that harm may occur. Risk can be considered as negligible or high. We can see that we are surrounded by risks in our everyday lives. As rational beings, we are always assessing the level of risk either consciously or unconsciously.

### Difference between Hazard and Risk

There is a fine line between the risk and hazard; some experts claim that if the factors remain the same in the surrounding, the risk associated with each action is proportional to the associated hazard. However, in reality, the factors are never the same.

# ADVANCED GUIDE ON DISASTER MANAGEMENT NATURAL & MANMADE VOLUME - I
## EMERGENCY RESPONSE TO CBRN /TERRORIST INCIDENTS

CBRN (Chemical, Biological, Radiation and Nuclear) accidents by negligence or by terrorist's actions can have extremely devastating and catastrophic effects. In addition to eradication of large populations, property and infrastructure, CBRN disasters will pose umpteen number of medical emergencies. The vital question remains, is a terrorist chemical, biological or nuclear and radiation induced attack possible at pre-designated area or highly populated metropolitan city?

The answer is 'YES'. It is not a matter of if rather WHEN and WHERE?

Many of today's terrorist organizations appear more likely to explode or use illegally The Weapons of Mass destruction (WMDs). After break off USSR in early nineties, availability of enriched bomb making Uranium or Plutonium in black market will be available someday by rogue/rogue scientist. Similarly, normal pesticides/insecticides in large volumes dispersed in confined places like auditorium, theatres, schools, hospitals or in high density peak hour markets can generate massive medical casualties and fear psychosis. In biological attacks fear and actual introduction of infectious diseases will spread like wild fires and more contagious they are more the population will be affected.

Lack of right medicines, detection and protective clothing will further pose multifarious problems for rescue teams. These kinds of disasters can produce maximum amount of fear, trepidation and potential panic among the civilian populations. It is pertinent to bring at this stage that in a case of terrorist attack if primary device is exploded, usually as a matter of factum, the terrorist outfit may in all the likelihood also explode a delayed secondary device. Secondary device may be made to accidently actuate by the members of first responders/ relief teams at the site, thereby causing maximum casualties of relief teams and mass hysteria. Similarly, while addressing NBC facility accidents during the rescue operations of response phase, secondary explosions, fires and further damage of industry or facility will be responsible for more casualties and harm coming in the way of aid workers.

### First/Primary Concern; Scene Safety and Security

When dealing with any potential terrorist attack, past experience has taught that the first necessary task is to secure the area and ascertain the nature and severity of the threat. Particularly in the past few years, several instances have been reported when a secondary device has been targeted at emergency responders, or armed secondary assault has been perpetrated by offenders, in an attempt to harm or kill rescuers and disrupt emergency operations. In most cases, both a primary and secondary secured perimeter must be established. A thorough search of these perimeters must be a priority at the onset of the incident. In the event of a biological or chemical release, a large downwind area may also need to be rapidly secured and evacuated in order to minimize civilian casualties.

### Priority Problem; Identification

The second most pressing problem involving Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD), and a terrorist release of a chemical or biological agent, is that of identification. As is the case in most common industrial hazardous-materials accidents, the first priority in the management of the incident involves ascertaining the identity and physical properties of the substance that has been released. It is only after the product identity can be ascertained that an effective outer perimeter can be established, neutralization plans formulated, decontamination procedures entertained, emergency medical treatment plans made, and environmental preservation precautions taken. Of most serious consideration by emergency planners is the fact that most civilian emergency service agencies, including specialized hazardous materials teams, currently do not possess the effective testing equipment to help identify sophisticated chemical or biological warfare agents that might be used in a potential terrorist attack. While they may be able to quantify those agents that have civilian counter-parts, for instance (organophosphate pesticides) there are any numbers of others, for which they have no testing reagents or detection meters. It is suggested that federal funding be made available for the purchase of the necessary detection and monitoring equipment that emergency agencies will need to manage this burgeoning threat.

### Emergency Service Duties to Be Performed At A Chemical/ Biological Weapons Release

The primary functions that must be performed at any toxic release remain fairly consistent. The top twenty actions that must be taken will generally involve:

  * Incident "Size-up" and assessment
  * Scene Control/establishment of perimeter(s)
  * Product Identification/information gathering
  * Pre-entry examination and determination/donning of appropriate protective clothing & equipment Personal protective equipment (PPE) refers to protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other garments or equipment designed to protect the wearer's body from injury. The hazards addressed by protective equipment include physical, electrical, heat, chemicals, biohazards, and airborne particulate matter. Protective equipment may be worn for job-related occupational safety and health purposes.
  * Establishment of a decontamination area
  * Entry planning/preparation of equipment
  * Entry into a contaminated area and rescue of victims (as needed)
  * Containment of spill/release. Bunding, also called a bund wall, is a constructed retaining wall designed to prevent inundation or breaches from a known source. It is a secondary containment system commonly used to protect environments from spills where chemicals are stored. Secondary spill containment is the containment of hazardous liquids in order to prevent pollution of soil and water. Common techniques include the use of spill berms to contain oil-filled equipment, fuel tanks, truck washing decks, or any other places or items that may leak hazardous liquids
  * Neutralization of spill/release
  * Decontamination of victims/patients/rescuers
  * Triage of ill/injured Triage is the process of determining the priority of patients' treatments based on the severity of their condition. This rations patient treatment efficiently when resources are insufficient for all to be treated immediately. The term comes from the French verb Trier, meaning to separate, sift or select. Triage may result in determining the order and priority of emergency treatment, the order and priority of emergency transport, or the transport destination for the patient.
  * BLS Care Basic life support (BLS) is the level of medical care which is used for victims of life-threatening illnesses or injuries until they can be given full medical care at a hospital. It can be provided by trained medical personnel, including emergency medical technicians, paramedics, and by laypersons who have received BLS training. BLS is generally used in the pre-hospital setting, and can be provided without medical equipment.
  * Hospital/expert consultation
  * ALS care/specific antidotes. ALS C.A.R.E. is a voluntary, physician-directed program to improve outcomes for patients diagnosed with Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
  * Transport of patients to appropriate hospital
  * Post-Entry evaluation examination of rescuers/equipment
  * Complete stabilization of the release/collection of evidence
  * Delegation of final clean up to responsible party
  * Recordkeeping/after-action reporting
  * Complete analysis of actions/recommendations to action plan

### Toxicology Understanding

In order to effectively perform their duties at a chemical/biological release, EMS/ medical/ management personnel must understand some basic toxicology principals. They include (but are not limited too):

  * Acute and Delayed toxicity
  * Routes of Exposure: Inhalation, Absorption, Ingestion, Through open wound/Injection

  * Local and systemic effects of exposure
  * Dose Response as it relates to risk assessment
  * Synergistic effects of combined substances
  * Assessment and use of toxicology information services/treatment modalities
  * Relationship of proper decontamination to higher mortality and morbidity
  * Alteration of triage principals as they relate to toxically exposed patients.
  * Levels of personal protective clothing and equipment needed

### Preplanning and Multi-Agency Response

Another major consideration is the need for an effective pre-planning process. Although the site of an unexpected/intentional toxic release can't be anticipated or identified, the personnel and equipment that would be needed to respond to it can be. Response mechanisms and interagency agreements, that may need to be implemented, must be up to date and workable. Jurisdictional issues should be resolved before even the first agencies arrive on the scene of this kind of incident. It is mandatory that these plans be made and exercised prior to the onset of any emergency; this is particularly true when an incident of the magnitude of a terrorist chemical/ biological attack is involved.

It would appear that any number of types of incidents would mandate a response of any number of national agencies (i.e., terrorism, an attack on dignitaries, foreign embassies, airports, military installations, and government buildings) and consideration must be given to the fact that federal law enforcement agencies will assume jurisdiction and the leadership role. Conversely, law enforcement personnel, who may have assumed command of an incident involving a chemical/ biological attack, must be cognizant of the fact that if any possible perpetrators have fled and the scene is secure, and there are still victims or a gas plume present, that a majority of the remainder of the operation will functionally and legally be the responsibility of unified command personnel and subsequently responding Central Govt. or State Govt. or military personnel. Obviously, excellent interagency cooperation and communication is a necessity in consequence management of chemical/ biological attacks.

Some typical examples of biological warfare agents might include:

  * Anthrax
  * Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B (SEB)
  * Bubonic/Pneumonic Plague
  * Cholera
  * Other bio-engineered agents

### Managing traumatic stress: Tips for recovering from disasters and other traumatic events

Disasters are often unexpected, sudden and overwhelming. In some cases, there are no outwardly visible signs of physical injury, but there is nonetheless a serious emotional toll. It is common for people who have experienced traumatic situations to have very strong emotional reactions. Understanding normal responses to these abnormal events can aid in coping effectively with feelings, thoughts and behaviors, and help along the path to recovery.

What happens to people after a disaster or other traumatic event? Shock and denial are typical responses to traumatic events and disasters, especially shortly after the event. Both shock and denial are normal protective reaction.

Shock is a sudden and often intense disturbance of your emotional state that may leave you feeling stunned or dazed. Denial involves not acknowledging that something very stressful has happened, or not experiencing fully the intensity of the event. You may temporarily feel numb or disconnected from life.

As the initial shock subsides, reactions vary from one person to another. The following, however, are normal responses to a traumatic event:

  * Feelings become intense and sometimes are unpredictable. You may become more irritable than usual, and your mood may change back and forth dramatically. You might be especially anxious or nervous, or even become depressed.
  * Thoughts and behaviour patterns are affected by the trauma. You might have repeated and vivid memories of the event. These flashbacks may occur for no apparent reason and may lead to physical reactions such as rapid heartbeat or sweating. You may find it difficult to concentrate or make decisions, or become more easily confused. Sleep and eating patterns also may be disrupted. 
  * Recurring emotional reactions are common. Anniversaries of the event, such as at one month or one year, can trigger upsetting memories of the traumatic experience. These "triggers" may be accompanied by fears that the stressful event will be repeated.
  * Interpersonal relationships often become strained. Greater conflict, such as more frequent arguments with family members and co workers, is common. On the other hand, you might become withdrawn and isolated and avoid your usual activities.
  * Physical symptoms may accompany the extreme stress. For example, headaches, nausea and chest pain may result and may require medical attention. Pre-existing medical conditions may worsen due to the stress.

#### How do people respond differently over time

It is important for you to realize that there is not one "standard" pattern of reaction to the extreme stress of traumatic experiences. Some people respond immediately, while others have delayed reactions — sometimes months or even years later. Some have adverse effects for a long period of time, while others recover rather quickly.

And reactions can change over time. Some who have suffered from trauma are energized initially by the event to help them with the challenge of coping, only to later become discouraged or depressed.

A number of factors tend to affect the length of time required for recovery, including:

  * The degree of intensity and loss. Events that last longer and pose a greater threat, and where loss of life or substantial loss of property is involved, often take longer to resolve.
  * A person's general ability to cope with emotionally challenging situations. Individuals who have handled other difficult, stressful circumstances well may find it easier to cope with the trauma.
  * Other stressful events preceding the traumatic experience. Individuals faced with other emotionally challenging situations, such as serious health problems or family-related difficulties, may have more intense reactions to the new stressful event and need more time to recover.

#### How should I help myself and my family?

There are a number of steps you can take to help restore emotional well-being and a sense of control following a disaster or other traumatic experience, including the following:

  * Give yourself time to adjust. Anticipate that this will be a difficult time in your life. Allow yourself to mourn the losses you have experienced. Try to be patient with changes in your emotional state.
  * Ask for support from people who care about you and who will listen and empathize with your situation. But keep in mind that your typical support system may be weakened if those who are close to you also have experienced or witnessed the trauma.
  * Communicate your experience. In whatever ways feel comfortable to you — such as by talking with family or close friends, or keeping a diary.
  * Find out about local support groups that often are available. Such as for those who have suffered from natural disasters or other traumatic events. These can be especially helpful for people with limited personal support systems.
  * Try to find groups led by appropriately trained and experienced professionals. Group discussion can help people realize that other individuals in the same circumstances often have similar reactions and emotions.
  * Engage in healthy behaviours to enhance your ability to cope with excessive stress. Eat well-balanced meals and get plenty of rest. If you experience ongoing difficulties with sleep, you may be able to find some relief through relaxation techniques. Avoid alcohol and drugs.
  * Establish or re-establish routines such as eating meals at regular times and following an exercise program. Take some time off from the demands of daily life by pursuing hobbies or other enjoyable activities.
  * Avoid major life decisions such as switching careers or jobs if possible. These activities tend to be highly stressful.

#### When should I seek professional help?

Some people are able to cope effectively with the emotional and physical demands brought about by traumatic events by using their own support systems. It is not unusual, however, to find that serious problems persist and continue to interfere with daily living. For example, some may feel overwhelming nervousness or lingering sadness that adversely affects job performance and interpersonal relationships. Individuals with prolonged reactions that disrupt their daily functioning should consult with a trained and experienced mental health professional. Psychologists and other appropriate mental health providers help educate people about normal responses to extreme stress. These professionals work with individuals affected by trauma to help them find constructive ways of dealing with the emotional impact. With children, continual and aggressive emotional outbursts, serious problems at school, preoccupation with the traumatic event, continued and extreme withdrawal, and other signs of intense anxiety or emotional difficulties all point to the need for professional assistance. A qualified mental health professional can help such children and their parents understand and deal with thoughts, feelings and behaviors that result from trauma.

## My sincere thanks to Harjinder Singh, with whose help, this guide could see the light of the day.

# 

# Advanced Guide on Disaster Management Natural & Manmade Volume – I

By

Lt. Col. Sanjay Dutta (Retd)

Copyright © 2017 by Lt. Col. Sanjay Dutta (Retd)

E-Published on www.pothi.com

ISBN: 978-93-5268-818-0

All rights in this book are reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information address the author Lt. Col. Sanjay Dutta (Retd), 44/1A Ext. Sec – 1, Trikuta Nagar, Jammu, J&K, 180012

## MAN-MADE DISASTERS

Man-made disasters are those disasters that may be smaller in magnitude but have increased in frequency with all the development and advancement. These are hazards that are a result of human intent or negligence, or result from poor human designs that cannot withstand fury of natural forces. There has always been crime in human societies but it has rarely caused as much havoc as genocide, World War I, II and terrorism, which are special types of crimes against humanity. Ethnic wars and terrorism have become an international phenomenon. Civil/ Ethnic wars raging inside many nations of the world are another example of man-made disasters that result in loss of property and lives. Wars between nations are ongoing phenomenon that causes innumerable deaths and loss of property. However, no war can match the intensity and loss that resulted from the two World Wars. Accidents are other man-made disasters that cause loss of lives and property. All over the world mining accidents have taken place, which also have an environmental impact. The Bhopal Gas tragedy in India and the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in the erstwhile Soviet Union are some of the worst man-made disasters. The recent Tsunami that struck Japan was a natural disaster but the way it affected the nuclear reactors there it transformed itself into a through a man-made disaster of a huge magnitude.

## RECOVERY

Recovery plays a vital role in rebuilding and rehabilitation of effected communities. Usually rebuilding of destroyed property, reemployment and repair of all essential infrastructures is carried out. Recovery phase is actually called window of opportunity because rebuilding process can always be better than the destroyed infrastructure. During recovery, better construction materials are used to make buildings resilient in case of hurricanes and strong surges. Similarly temporary shelters can be converted into permanent homes for the homeless. In case of Tsunami's and hurricanes better quality boats including heavy duty power boats can be given as an aid. Nutritious and easily digestible food should be provided to children, women, old and sick persons. Better quality sanitation infrastructure must be created. Location of potable water tanks/ purification plants will be located at appropriate locations. Disposal of human refuge and medical waste will be disposed off at selected and safer pre designated locations as worked out by specialists. Engineers and pioneers' efforts must be initiated at the earliest to reconstruct/repair damaged lines of transport and communication. Schools, hospitals, community centers can be rebuilt with better quality materials which can withstand more devastating disasters in the future. Similarly sewage system and drainage of devastated localities and areas can be constructed with modern technologies to withstand future disasters/emergencies. Similarly installation of mobile communication towers synchronized with satellite communications can be installed for better and easily understood communications. In case of man-made disasters which may culminate due to natural disasters can be avoided in future by raising the standards of infrastructure. To improve and stabilize economic growth of disaster hit region/locality, self employed enterprises should be encouraged and regulations for evacuation plans will be modified to restrict the severity of any future disaster. Similarly insurance plans and insurance policies will play a more dominant role during the rebuilding process. Agricultural reforms, industrial safety regulations and more precise legislation will be incorporated during the resettlement of disaster hit regions/communities. Construction of new roadways, railways and airports/ helipads can be initiated so that economic and social stability becomes faster during recovery phase. Since 1980 the World Bank has approved more than 500 operations related to disaster management, amounting to more than US$ 40 billion. These include post disaster reconstruction projects, as well as projects with components aimed at preventing and mitigating disaster impacts, in countries such as Argentina, Bangladesh, Colombia, Haiti, India, Mexico, Turkey and Vietnam to name only a few. Common areas are focus for prevention and mitigating projects which includes forest fire prevention measures such as early warnings and education campaigns to discourage farmers from slash and burn agriculture that agnates forest fires; early warning systems for hurricanes; flood prevention mechanisms ranging from shore protection and terracing in rural areas to adaptation of production; and earthquake prone construction. In a joint venture with Columbia University under the umbrella of the Prevention Consortium the World Bank has established a Global Risk Analysis of Natural Disaster Hotspots. In June 2006, the World Bank established the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery, a long term partnership with other aid donors to reduce disaster losses by mainstreaming disaster risk reduction in development and support of the Hyogo Framework of Action. The facilities help the developing country's fund, development projects and programs that enhance local capacities for disaster prevention and emergency preparedness.

The International Recovery Platform (IRP) was conceived at the World Conference on Disaster Reduction (WCDR) in Kobe, Hyogo, Japan in January 2005. As a thematic platform of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) system, IRP is a key pillar for the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for action (HFA) 2005-2015. Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters, a global plan for disaster risk reduction for the decade was adopted by 168 governments at the WCDR. The key role of IRP is to identify gaps and constraints experienced in post disaster recovery and to serve as a catalyst for the development of tools, resources and capacity for resilient recovery. IRP aims to be an international source of knowledge on good recovery practices.

### Environmental Emergency

An environmental emergency is a sudden onset disaster or accident resulting from natural, technological or human-induced factors, or a combination of these, that cause or threaten to cause severe environmental damage as well as loss of human lives and property. This term is coming into increasingly common usage as the link between disasters and the environment becomes better understood. It relates to the interface between disasters, human life and health, and the environment.

## CONTROLLING THE SOURCES LEADING TO THE PROPAGATION OF DISEASE

The sources that lead to the spread of disease in unusual circumstances are numerous. For a list of the principle vectors (carriers)

Vector (Carriers) | Risks

---|---

Flies | Eye Infections (particularly in infants and children); diarrhoea

Mosquitoes | Malaria, filariasis, dengue, dengue, yellow fever, encephalitis

Mites | Scabies, typhus

Lice | Endemic typhus, recurrent fever

Fleas | Plague (due to infected rats), endemic typhus

Ticks | Recurrent fever, scarlet fever

Rats | Fever due to rat bite, salmonella

### Training and Awareness of the Principles of Hygiene

One could not succeed in managing water and maintaining cleanliness in living areas without placing an effort in training and awareness activities. In hygiene, as in nutrition, a certain number of "good practices" exist that one must try hard to apply. The population should also be made sensitive to problems of deterioration of their environment. Women and children should be included in any training or awareness programme. At the heart of controlling disease is the principle of "shared responsibility" between the population and the agencies that develop the sanitation structures. Through such cooperation will come success of policies for controlling the sources that lead to the propagation or pathogenic agents, as well as the other diseases linked to poor or improper use of toilet systems and water systems.

The promotion of the basic principles of hygiene, like the cleanliness of an environment, is the result of the agreement and commitment between the population and those working with it. A certain number of principles guide the politics of promoting hygiene:

  * The concerned persons effectively use toilets, and dispersed excrements (by children, for example) are eliminated.
  * Toilets, either public or private, are used in a hygiene fashion, respecting others and the health of everyone.
  * The communities are made conscious of the issues, by participating in the digging of pits, or the gathering of waster, at the appropriate level. The maintenance programs are given to teams locally organized and motivated
  * Children and adults have access to water for washing after the use of the toilets and can wash themselves before either preparing or eating food.
  * The public hygiene facilities (showers, wash basins) are used in an equitable and appropriate manner
  * All of the areas where stagnant water is collected are either eliminated or covered to avoid the possible breeding ground for mosquitoes
  * The clothes of the population are washed and dried on a regular basis
  * The layout for the management of solid waste is made possible by the arrangement of adequate facilities (trash, waste pits, incinerators, etc.).

### Supporting Community Awareness of Hygiene

It is important to immediately select people from the population who hold the moral authority and the authority and the education necessary to begin raising the awareness about the awareness about the importance of adhering to collective rules of good hygiene. A certain number of priorities can be named:

  * Calling attention to persons with a high level of schooling, leadership skills, social stature or pertinent technical know-how of the subject (paramedical personnel, group or community leaders).
  * Maximizing the use of either local or institutional intermediaries by way of institutions or structures in place: dispensaries, gynaecological or maternity centre, schools, food-aid centres, public toilets.
  * Spreading the message with mass media transmission (radio or loud-speakers) and print (posters or pamphlets).

### Protection of Supply Sources

In the first instances of an emergency of crisis, refugees or displaced persons will logically use the water sources that are the closest to their arrival site or encampment. Therefore, it is important in these instances to take a few simple measures, such as:

  * Protection of the sources of the water supply form both human and animal excrement and fecal waste material. In the case of rivers, reserve areas to be kept clean and if needed these areas should be protected or guarded from humans as well as animals. Do not hesitate to place armed guards if it is necessary to enforce these measures.
  * Use of individual devices for withdrawing water to avoid micro-biological contamination.
  * Arrange to distribute water at points of distribution away from the source itself. This is to decrease the distance the population must travel to go to get water and to protect the water source itself. The best approach to this is a system called "bladders," which are placed at specific points distributed within the camps.
  * From the time a refugee camp is established, a clear distinction should be made between the different functions of water use: family consumption, animals, toilets, washing, and children's recreation. The distinction of one activity from another is made by the physical separation of the different functions. The goal of these measures is to minimize the impact on the principle source of water and on the other applications and uses of the water.

### Synergy and Mutual Understanding

With the humanitarian management of the 1992 Somalian crisis "Restore Hope," which followed the management of the Iraqi refugee crisis in 1991, the world suddenly realized the importance of operational assistance from the military in the event of a major humanitarian crisis.

In each case, by using the concept of "humanitarian interface" to its full extent, troops under order from the United Nations were able to bring vital logistical and operational support to alleviate the suffering of hundreds of thousands of people displaced by famine or conflict. From securing logistics, transportation, and food distribution to securing safety zones and bringing unique logistical support soldiers proved, if proof was needed, the importance of entrusting them with specific tasks of incomparable support within the chain of duties of a complex humanitarian crisis.

Following the fall of the Berlin Wall, the world suddenly realized that a large number of actors that barely knew each other before would have to work side by side. From then on, these groups would work simultaneously and continuously to manage different phases of a complex humanitarian crisis or the reconstruction of a state. In this environment, different actors share precise and connected tasks. Schematically, these are:

  * "Humanitarian": Manage humanitarian assistance procedures that allow a particular group of the population to receive medical attention, food rations, water, and shelter, in a given area. The management of a humanitarian question can be the main goal of intervention in a complex operation where humanitarians are heavily involved.
  * Military: Usually present to secure territorial and physical space where beneficiary populations (refugees or repatriates, displaced persons, civil servants and local administrations) as well as humanitarian or civil actors can operate. The military can have complementary roles and temporary roles during life cycle of disasters.   
From mandate to mandate, the military can carry out peacekeeping or peacemaking functions, or simply act as heavy duty responds in disasters/ethnic wars or while dealing with refugees and displaced persons.
  * Police: They are present in the role of replacements, to manage the local or national police. Under the auspices of a United Nations or regional mandate, the police take charge of supervising local forces in their activities of population control, criminal investigations and training. At the beginning of a crisis police activities are often carried out by the military.
  * Media: Observers to the unfolding of a crisis, the media enjoy a singular and close collaboration with all other partners. They seek out the support of these partners to obtain information and to verify what they have before releasing it. They may also become critical observers of what they see. Under strict codes of professional ethics, the media give an impartial and objective account without becoming the spokesman for actors with whom they have privileged relations.
  * Politicians: Politicians are the national and international decision-makers who judge and determine the evolution or a complex humanitarian and political crisis. Some of these include the Special Representative or the Secretary General of the United Nations, the Civil Administrator who represents him, the Special Committee for tracking crises, accredited diplomatic representatives, representatives of special UN agencies, and representatives of regional agencies (ECOWA, League of Arab Nations, OSCE, and European Community). Politicians analyse political, humanitarian, and strategic information they receive and make decisions to continue into operations. They have power over a certain number of actors (particularly soldiers or members of the judiciary) and their decisions involve the continuation as well as the orientation of some of their activities while addressing major or minor disasters.
  * Diplomats: States representatives or members of the United Nations political staff, diplomats try to reach agreements on the principles that were proposed by politicians. They negotiate with the aim of accomplishing the objectives fixed by the Security Council, the General Assembly, or a consortium of States or an organization that they represent (OSCE, NATO, OEA, OUA, UE, or others). Even Gen. Assembly of UN will pass resolutions to combat disasters.
  * Justice/Courts/Law: The international Court of Justice in The Hague has existed since the end of WWII, but it has never occupied a specific place in the management of politico-humanitarian crises where short-term interests are at stake. The Courts needs a great deal of time to determine law between States, especially if at least two parties have agreed in advance to obey the judgement that is rendered. Finally during crises role of National actors can be brought to ICS is negotiate.

On the other hand, since the creation of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda and the former-Yugoslavia, as well as the creation of the Internal Criminal Court, international justice has acquired new tools to compel States to investigate, pursue and bring before the court was criminals that the court wishes to see presented. International justices are often called to fill a substitutive or to support role to compensate for a lack of judges or qualified judiciary personnel. Finally, in the context of state reconstruction, they can also function in training or advising capacity to new courts little trained or practiced in the current management of judicial affairs.

Civil Administrators: They are charged with the re-establishment of the functions of the State in its reconstruction or rehabilitation phase. During a fixed period, the administrators assume coordination of functions related to the management of a civil society and are responsible for training state personnel that will eventually replace them (police, administration, education, health, customs, etc.).

Elections Organizers: These members of the "New Partnership" organize and manage the entire election process as it is fixed and decided by politicians and diplomats. They comprise a professional body of poll watches, electoral judges and other nationals qualified to manage the electoral process. Along with observers from all nations, they supervise the proper unfolding of elections and report their observations directly to political directors of an operation after taking gradual charge from international and national aid workers/army.

## UNITED NATIONS

### The Joint UNEP/OCHA Environment Unit (Joint Unit)

UNEP's emergency response capacity is integrated into the Emergency Services Branch of the UN Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). The Joint Unit can be reached 24 hours/day, seven days/week, all year round and operates at the request of affected countries. The Joint Unit should be called when acute environmental risks to life and health as a result of conflicts, natural disasters and industrial accidents are suspected.

The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) French: Le Bureau de la coordination des affairs humanitarians, is a United Nations body formed in December 1991 by General Assembly Resolution 46/182. The resolution was designed to strengthen the UN's response to complex emergencies and natural disasters by creating the Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA), and replacing the Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator, which had been formed in 1972. In 1998, due to reorganizations, DHA merged into the OCHA and was designed to be the UN focal point on major disasters. Its mandate was also expanded to include the coordination of humanitarian response, policy development and humanitarian advocacy. It is a sitting observer of the United Nations Development Group. OCHA is therefore and inter-agency body, serving UN agencies and NGOs in the humanitarian domain. Its main product is the Consolidated Appeals Process, an advocacy and planning tool to deliver humanitarian assistance together in a given emergency.

#### Staff:

OCHA is headed by the Undersecretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator, currently Valerie Amos.

As of 2007 OCHA has some 1,064 staff, distributed across the world. Major OCHA country offices are located in Afghanistan, Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Colombia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Ivory Coat, Palestinian territories, Sri Lanka, Sudan (including a sub-office in Southern Sudan's capital Juba), Uganda, and Zimbabwe, while regional offices are located in Panama City, Dakar, Cairo, Johannesburg, and Bangkok. OCHA also has some liaison and support staff in New York and Geneva.

#### Services:

OCHA has built up a range of services in the execution of its mandate. Some of the larger ones are:

  * IRIN, Integrated Regional Information Networks, a humanitarian news and analysis service (1995)
  * INSARAG, International Search and Rescue Advisory Group
  * Relief Web time-critical humanitarian information on Complex Emergence and Natural Disasters (1996)
  * Central Emergency Response Fund (2006)
  * Humanitarian Information Centres (HICs), an emergency-specific, data exchange platform, supported by the Field Information Support Unit. The purpose of the site is to improve information exchange and collaboration between operational agencies responding to Cyclones. Based in Bangkok, the HIC is providing support to the Humanitarian Partnership teams and other humanitarian partners in Yangon, as well as those based in Bangkok.
  * Humanitarian Reform seeks to improve the effectiveness of humanitarian response by ensuring greater predictability, accountability and partnership.
  * Who does What Where Database and Contact Management Directory, to ensure that appropriate and timely humanitarian response is delivered during a disaster or emergency situation, information must be managed efficiently. The key information that are important to assess and ensure that humanitarian needs are met in any emergency/disaster are, to know which organizations (Who) are carrying out what activities (What) in which locations (Where) which is also universally referred to as the 3W (Who does What Where). The 'who does what where' database (3W) is one product that is universally agreed to be the most important priority for any co-ordination activity. The integrated Contact Management Directory complements the 3W database, making it easy for the user to navigate through the application. (2006)
  * Common and Fundamental Operational Datasets, The Common Operational Datasets (CODs) are critical datasets that are used to support the work of humanitarian actors across multiple sectors. They are considered a de facto standard for the humanitarian community and should represent the best-available datasets for each theme. The Fundamental Operational Datasets (FODs) are datasets that are relevant to a humanitarian operation, but are more specific to a particular sector or otherwise do not fit into one of the seven COD themes.
  * Since 2004, OCHA had partnered with the Center for Excellence in Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance to facilitate OCHA's Civil Military Coordination (UN-CMC) course in the Asia-Pacific Region. The Un-CMC Course is designed to address the need for coordination between international civilian humanitarian actors, especially UN humanitarian agencies, and international military forces in an international humanitarian emergency. This established UN training plays a critical role in building capacity to facilitate effective coordination in the field by bringing together approximately 30 practitioners from the spectrum or actors sharing operational space during a humanitarian crisis and training them on UN coordination mechanisms and internationally recognized guidelines for civil military coordination.

### The UNEP Post-Conflict and Disaster Management Branch (PCDMB)

The PCDMB leads UNEP's support to early recovery by rapidly mobilizing teams of international and national environmental experts to conduct detailed environmental assessments based on field investigations and laboratory analyses. The assessments identify major environmental risks to human health, livelihoods and security, as well as institutional capacity challenges, and recommend an environmental recovery plan to the UN country team and national counterparts. Following the assessment phase, PCDMB implements capacity building, environmental diplomacy and clean-up programmes upon the request of host governments.

### United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)

The United Nations Development Fund for Women, commonly known as UNIFEM (from the French "Fonds de development des Nations Unies pour la femme") was established in December 1976 originally as the Voluntary Fund for the United Nations Decade for Women in the International Women's Year. It provided financial and technical assistance to innovative programmes and strategies that promote women's human rights, political participation and economic security. Since 1976 it has supported women's empowerment and gender equality through its programme offices and links with women's organizations in the major regions of the world. Its work on gender responsive budgets began in 1996 in Southern Africa and has expanded to include East Africa, Southeast Asia, South Asia, Central America and the Andean region. It has worked to increase budgets as a tool to strengthen economic governance in all countries.

UNIFEM was part of the United Nations Development Group (UNDG). Its role in the UNDG is now taken over by its successor, UN Women. The current Executive Director of UNIFEM is lnes Alberdi. In January 2011, UNIFEM was merged into UN Women, a composite entity of the UN, along with International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW), and Office of the Special Advisor on Gender Issues (OSAGI), and Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW).

### Resolutions and Reports Disaster Reduction Mandate from the UN General Assembly & UNISDR (United Nations of Strategy for Disaster Reduction)

Consistent with UNISDR's "Making Cities Resilient" campaign, which is founded on 10 essential actions to strengthen city safety, the Green Economy Report recommends that $110 billion be invested in waste management, such as preventing uncontrolled dumping that blocks drainage systems and contributes to floods.

"A basic thrust of UNISDR's resilient cities campaign is to encourage municipal governments to assign a budget for disaster risk reduction," said Gruetter. "They are also encouraged to provide incentives to both businesses and the public sector to invest in reducing their susceptibility to disaster, which we believe is consistent with the tenets of a green economy." UNISDR is part of the United Nations Secretariat. Created in December 1999, UNISDR is the secretariat of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR). It is the successor to the secretariat of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction with the purpose of ensuring the implementation of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (General Assembly (GA) resolution 54/219).

The mandate of UNISDR expanded in 2001 to serve as the focal point in the United Nations system for the coordination of disaster reduction and to ensure synergies among the disaster reduction activities of the United Nations system and regional organizations and activities in socio-economic and humanitarian fields (GA resolution 56/195). This was in response to a need for mainstreaming disaster risk reduction within the development and other areas of work of the UN. . The "Hyogo Declaration" and the "Hyogo Framework for Action 2005 -2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters" was adopted by the World Conference on Disaster Reduction, held in Kobe, Hyogo, Japan, in January 2005. The Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) tasked UNISDR with supporting the implementation of the HFA.

UNISDR's core functions span the development and humanitarian fields. Its core areas of work includes ensuring disaster risk reduction (DRR) is applied to climate change adaptation, increasing investments for DRR, building disaster-resilient cities, schools and hospitals, and strengthening the international system for DRR.UNISDR's vision is based on the three strategic goals of the Hyogo Framework for Action: integrating DRR into sustainable development policies and planning, developing and strengthening institutions, mechanisms and capacities to build resilience to hazards, and incorporating risk reduction approaches into emergency preparedness, response and recovery programs. The Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction, led by UNISDR, meets every two years. UNISDR leads the preparation and follow-up of the Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction, established in 2006 (GA resolution 61/198). The Global Platform has become the main global forum for disaster risk reduction and for the provision of strategic and coherent guidance for the implementation of the Hyogo Framework and to share experience among stakeholders. Other areas of work for UNISDR includes issuing the Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction every two years, supporting countries in monitoring risk trends and the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action, and leading global campaigns on disaster risk reduction for safer schools, safer hospitals and safer cities. There is no such thing as a 'natural' disaster, only natural hazards. Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) aims to reduce the damage caused by natural hazards like earthquakes, floods, droughts and cyclones, through an ethic of prevention. Disaster risk reduction is the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyze and reduce the causal factors of disasters. Reducing exposure to hazards, lessening vulnerability of people and property wise management of land and the environment, and improving preparedness for adverse events are all examples of disaster risk reduction. Disaster risk reduction is about choices. Disasters often follow natural hazards. A disaster's severity depends on how much impact a hazard has on society and the environment. The scale of the impact in turn depends on the choices we make for our lives and for our environment. These choices relate to how we grow our food, where and how we build our homes, what kind of government we have, how our financial system works and even what we teach in schools. Each decision and action makes us more vulnerable to disasters - or more resilient to them.

Disaster risk reduction is everyone's business. Disaster risk reduction includes disciplines like disaster management, disaster mitigation and disaster preparedness, but DRR is also part of sustainable development. In order for development activities to be sustainable they must also reduce disaster risk. On the other hand, unsound development policies will increase disaster risk - and disaster losses. Thus, DRR involves every part of society, every part of government, and every part of the professional and private sector. UNISDR is under the authority of the Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs. It reports to the 2nd Committee (Economic and Financial) of the General Assembly under the Sustainable Development program. UNISDR is a distinct and separate entity from OCHA, and as such UNISDR is not integrated in the administrative and financial structures and processes of OCHA. Created in 2008, the functions of this post includes leading and overseeing UNISDR in the executions of its functions entrusted by the General Assembly (GA), Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) and the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA), as well as policy directions by the Secretary-General, overseeing the management of the Trust Fund for the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, and carrying out high-level advocacy and resource mobilization activities for risk reduction and implementation of the HFA. The Special Representative also ensures the strategic and operational coherence between disaster-reduction and humanitarian disaster preparedness and response activities, as well as socio-economic activities of the UN system and regional organizations. UNISDR works with the wider UN system at headquarters and field levels. At the HQ level it leads inter-agency country-specific and thematic discussions as well as contributes to the development of UN programming tools, such as guidelines on risk reduction for United Nations Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF) and post-disaster needs assessments. It regularly provides UN Country Teams with strategic and operational support for the development of country programs. It also develops a close partnership with the UN regional commissions, in particular the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) and Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC).

### Resolutions and Reports Supporting the Implementation of the Internal Strategies for Disaster Reduction

UNISDR has developed a unique partnership with the World Bank, in particular its Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR). It has also been developing close partnerships with regional international organizations around the world such as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), Pan American Health Organization (PAHO, Applied Geo science and Technology Division of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SOPAC), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and African Union (AU). UNISDR is also closely associated with a wide network of scientific and development organizations researching on disaster risk and monitoring risk information. Global UNISDR's work is guided by four strategic objectives:-

  * Strategic Objective 1: Disaster risk reduction accepted and applied for climate change adaptation
  * Strategic Objective 2: Measurable increases in investments in disaster risk reduction
  * Strategic Objective 3: Disaster-resilient cities, schools and hospitals
  * Strategic Objective 4: Strengthened international system for disaster risk reduction

### The World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations. It is the UN system's authoritative voice on the state and behavior of the Earth's atmosphere, its interaction with the oceans, the climate it produces and the resulting distribution of water resources.

WMO has a membership of 191 Member States and Territories (on 1 January 2013). It originated from the International Meteorological Organization (IMO), which was founded in 1873. Established in 1950, WMO became the specialized agency of the United Nations in 1951 for meteorology (weather and climate), operational hydrology and related geophysical sciences.

As weather, climate and the water cycle knows no national boundaries, international cooperation at a global scale is essential for the development of meteorology and operational hydrology as well as to reap the benefits from their application. WMO provides the framework for such international cooperation.

Since its establishment, WHO has played a unique and powerful role in contributing to the safety and welfare of humanity? Under WMO leadership and within the framework of WHO Programmes, National Meteorological and Hydrological Services contribute substantially to the protection of life and property against natural disasters, to safeguarding the environment and to enhancing the economic and social well-being of all sectors of society in areas such as food security, water resources and transport.

WMO promotes cooperation in the establishment of networks for making meteorological, climatologically, hydrological and geophysical observations, as well as the exchange, processing and standardization of related data, and assists technology transfer, training and research. It also fosters collaboration between the National Meteorological and Hydrological Services of its Members and furthers the application of meteorology to public weather services, agriculture, aviation, shipping, the environment, water issues and the mitigation of the impacts of natural disasters.

WMO facilitates the free and unrestricted exchange of data and information, products and services in real- or near-real time on matters relating to safety and security of society, economic welfare and the protection of the environment. It contributes to policy formulation in these areas at national and international levels. WMO plays a leading role in international efforts to monitor and protect the environment through its Programmes. In collaboration with other UN agencies and the National Meteorological and Hydrological Services, WMO supports the implementation of a number of environmental conventions and is instrumental in providing advice and assessments to governments on related matters. These activities contribute towards ensuring the sustainable development and well-being of nations.

#### Weather:

Under the World Weather Watch of WMO, National Meteorological Services observe weather and climate around the clock and around the world, providing a steady flow of data which are then transmitted worldwide for forecasts and planning purposes. It is a unique system that networks observing stations to national, regional and global centers 24 hours a day in real-time, delivering data from the land surface and from space for forecasts and warnings for end-users and the public.

The weather knows no national boundaries and the work carried out by meteorologists, often behind the scenes for our benefit and safety is very much a team effort, hence the WMO slogan "Working together in weather, climate and water".

WMO Members operate and coordinate their observational networks under the Global Observing System (GOS) that provides essential and unique observational data and information on the state of the Earth and its atmosphere. GOS is the most important operational global Earth observing system with end-to-end capability.

Observation systems within these networks collect meteorological, climatological, hydrological and marine and oceanographic data from more than 15 satellites, 100 moored buoys, 600 drifting buoys, 3000 aircraft, 7300 ships and some 10000 land-based stations. Powerful computers use mathematical models based on physical laws to produce charts, digital products, weather and air-quality forecasts, climate predictions, risk assessments and early warning services. Meteorological satellites broadcast real-time weather information several times a day to more than 1000 locations.

The observations and data help create products and forecasts and all of these are then transferred around the world through WMO's Global Telecommunication System (GTS). In this way, Members are enabled to provide reliable and effective weather services in support of safety of life and property, as well as the general welfare and well-being of their populations. Examples are safe, regular and efficient aviation operations, agriculture, fisheries and food security, shipping and safety at sea (weather.gmdss.org), monitoring of water resources and early warning of natural hazards and community preparedness.

On average, a five-day weather forecast of today is as reliable as a two-day weather forecast 20 years ago. The challenges include characterizing and communicating the changing uncertainties in individual forecasts and advancing our forecasting skill in areas where progress has been difficult (e.g. heavy rainfall and the genesis, intensity and structure of tropical cyclones).

WMO's World Weather Research Programme (WWRP) plays a leading role in addressing these challenges with a focus on weather events having large impacts on society, the economy and the environment. WWRP efforts cover time-scales ranging from hours to weeks and even months, in some cases. The largest WWRP activity is THORPEX (The Observing System Research and Predictability Experiment) that aims to accelerate improvements in both the accuracy and utilization of one-day to two-week forecasts of high-impact weather. Environment

All life depends on a healthy planet, but the interwoven systems of atmosphere, oceans, watercourses, land, ice cover and biosphere, which form the natural environment, are threatened by human activities. Moreover, while a fragile environment becomes more vulnerable to natural disasters, the natural disasters also degrade the environment in a pernicious circle of causes and effects.

The observational data of weather, climate and the atmosphere that are collected through WMO's networks of observing, data-transmitting and forecasting systems keep policy-makers informed of the state of the environment so that they are in a better position to prevent its further degradation.

The natural environment suffers, for example, from lack of precipitation for extended periods and uncontrolled land use, leading to desertification. It is estimated that one-third of the Earth's surface and one-fifth of the world's population are threatened by desertification. WMO therefore directs its attention to the aspects of climate variability and change which impact the environment.

Biodiversity (the variety of life on Earth and the natural patterns it forms) helps keep the global environment working. Polluted air, depleted or contaminated water, degraded soil and urban growth are all threats to biodiversity. Rising ocean temperatures are responsible for the widespread bleaching of coral reefs, which support vast populations of marine life and are also an important tourist attraction. El Niño events are particularly critical.

Ecosystems such as wetlands, forests and lakes are an important part of the natural regime of a river. They are a buffer between river and terrestrial ecosystems and play an important role in storing or attenuating floodwaters. It is necessary therefore to ensure they remain healthy. Structural flood-management interventions cannot fully control extreme flood events beyond the design standard and may have adverse impacts on the natural environment.

Stratospheric ozone protects plants, marine life, animals and people from solar ultraviolet radiation, which harmful for life on Earth. Chlorofluorocarbons and other anthropogenic chemicals are responsible for the destruction of ozone

An essential activity of National Meteorological and Hydrological Services is to monitor long-term changes in atmospheric greenhouse gases, ultraviolet radiation, aerosols and ozone, and to assess their consequent effects on people, climate, air and water quality and marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Another important activity is monitoring the atmospheric and water transport of dangerous particles in the wake of a volcanic explosion or an industrial accident. WMO's observational data are used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in its assessments of climate change, its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation. WMO's provides support to Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs)

Data and derived value-added information are the foundation on which our knowledge of the environment is built. WMO Members operate the WMO Integrated Global Observing System, which includes complex networks in space, the atmosphere, on land and at sea. WMO is the recognized, comprehensive source of unique global systematic observations on the state of a wide variety of geophysical phenomena, datasets and long-term archives, and scientific and technical expertise in support of policy advice on various critical environmental issues. In particular, WMO reports on the state of the global climate system and the state of the atmospheric environment and produces various scientific assessments, statements, bulletins and other advisories on the state of climate and environment. The weather and hydrological forecasts and warnings and climate advisories, as well as other environment-related information are issued by the National Meteorological and Hydrological services all over the world on a routine basis.

#### WMO Provides Direct Support To A Number Of MEAs:

WMO hosts and co-sponsors the Secretariats of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Global Climate Observing System and provides direct support to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change WMO organizes the work of the Ozone Research Managers to the Vienna Convention on Protection of the Ozone Layer, supported by the Ozone Secretariat (hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme);

WMO participates in the work of subsidiary bodies on scientific and technical advice with the following organizations:

  * International Convention to Combat Desertification,
  * The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Convention on Long-range Trans-boundary Air Pollution,
  * The Convention on Biological Diversity and the Convention for the Protection of Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean.

### United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC)

The United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) is a part of the international emergency response system for sudden-onset emergencies. It is designed to help the United Nations and governments of disaster-affected countries during the first phase of a sudden-onset emergency. UNDAC also assist in the coordination of incoming international relief at national level and/or at the site of the emergency. UNDAC was created in 1993 and currently is composed by 259 national experts in emergency situations, as well as by OCHA personnel and regional and international organizations, including UN agencies.

The UNDAC system comprises four components:

  * Staff: - Experienced emergency managers made available for UNDAC missions by their respective governments or organizations. UNDAC members are specially trained and equipped for their task.
  * Methodology: - Pre-defined methods for establishing coordination structures, and for organizing and facilitating assessments and information management during the first phase of a sudden-onset disaster or emergency.
  * Procedure: - Proven systems to mobilize and deploy an UNDAC team to arrive at the disaster or emergency site within 12-48 hours of the request.
  * Equipment: - Personal and mission equipment for UNDAC teams to be self-sufficient in the field when deployed for disaster/emergencies.

The UNDAC system has three regional teams: Europe/Africa/Middle East, the Americans (including the Caribbean) and Asia-Pacific. UNDAC teams can deploy at short notice (12-48 hours) anywhere in the world. They are provided free or charge to the disaster-affected country, and deployed upon the request of the United Nations Resident or Humanitarian Coordination and/or the affected Government.

Assessment, coordination and information management are UNDAC's core mandates in an emergency response mission. Specifically in response to earthquake, UNDAC teams set up and manage the On-Site Operations Coordination Centre (OSOCC) to help coordinate international Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) teams responding to the disaster – essential if USAR assistance is to function effectively. This concept was strongly endorsed in United Nations General Assembly resolution 57/150 of 16 December 2002, on "Strengthening the effectiveness and coordination of international urban search and rescue assistance".

### Witnessing As Equal to Helping

According to the principles of impartiality and neutrality, rendering or voicing judgment about the unfolding of a conflict or its humanitarian consequences is both forbidden (and sometimes dangerous for the field teams), or contrary to the founding principles of an organization (as is the case with the Red Cross). It is in the spirit of disagreement with this policy of silence—which did guarantee free access to victims— that the most active humanitarian non-governmental organizations operating in the last 30 years were created: French Doctors, Doctors without Borders, or Doctors of the World, as well as militant organizations that seek a greater respect for human rights the world over. Today, Human Rights Watch or Amnesty International have enlarged their spheres of action to take a critical look at the conditions of populations that are at highest risk in a given geographic space, namely the humanitarian space.

Doctors without Borders even pioneered the concept of "Populations in Danger" so that year after year, attention would be focused on groups that are more exposed to the dangers of war, more subject to persecution or neglect by their governing authorities, or other problems. From groups overlooked in a particular conflict to a change in attitude towards a social group by those in power or to "silent" persecutions inflicted on another human population, many humanitarian agencies have taken as their mission not only to lend material and/or psychological assistance to "populations in danger," but also to bear witness in order to encourage other powers and counter powers to demonstrate, to bring pressure, to keep watch and if need be force a government to live up to its responsibilities. A well-known example occurred in 1984, when Doctors without Borders denounced a policy of "population resettlement" in Ethiopia that in their view was in effect a deportation program organized for military and political reasons. Despite the immediate expulsion of DWB from the country, the international pressure that followed forced the regime of dictator Mengistu to make a partial retreat and to suspend a large portion of this program. Witnessing has therefore become a working tool: an obligation to tell, to investigate, and to express. On the other hand, it has become a new threat to governments that fear the interference of international organizations on their own turf, and above all else, the excessive media publicity about actions contrary to their international image. From Reporters Sans Frontiers (Reporters without Borders) to Human Rights Watch, both of which have greatly surpassed other reporting groups, witnessing has become as vital an action of humanitarian assistance as material aide. With rare exceptions, the "duty to witness" remains limited to non-governmental organizations. It often requires clear, graphic, and irrefutable evidence for international organizations to raise their voices and take a stand, for in doing so they risk damaging the relationship that they are building with a particular government or with actors on the terrain (opposing parties, rebels, or others). With the new range of tools available to international organizations, it is also important to note the creation of International Tribunals for International Humanitarian Law in Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia, as well as the International Criminal Court (ICC). The latter will have jurisdiction to determine guilt, as well as to indict international criminals and hear victims of large scale humanitarian violations. The accusation of Slobodan Milosevic, the leader of the Republic of Serbia, is the most clear example of the configuration of this new international court: military officials, political leaders, and humanitarians are called upon to testify and to furnish prosecutors with evidence and testimony that will allow for the indictment of war criminals, in the hope of forcing human barbarity to retreat a bit more each day.

### International Assistance

Regarding the international assistance provided by the ICRC, IHL is based upon the following elements:

  * Parties involved in conflict do not have the right to starve the population of their adversary, and must, as all states must, allow free passage of needed international assistance.
  * Parties in conflict are obligated to provide food, medicines, and other essential goods necessary to survival to populations in the territories which they control – including their own population.
  * In cases where parties in conflict are unable to provide goods to those populations, they must accept international assistance measures within controlled territories, including their own area.

### Respect for State Sovereignty versus the Right of Intervention

Especially in the Cold War context before 1990, where humanitarian stakes were also political, States could bring but partial solutions to these questions. International organizations of the UN system, bound by this absolute respect for the rules of non-interference, had to follow these same rules, reserving the possibility of occasionally inventing opportune and creative negotiated solutions, which nonetheless received the acceptance of States and/or parties in an armed conflict. In particular, we can cite the case of Operation Lifeline Sudan (OLS) directed by UNICEF, where for many years UNICEF has worked out of its logistical base in Kenya to provide humanitarian and impartial care and aid to populations of southern Sudan.

From this effort were born several innovative concepts in contemporary humanitarian intervention. These include "Corridors of Peace," "Safe Havens," "Peace Zones," "Open Relief Centers," "Child Vaccination Days," and more. All of these are negotiated openly by an international humanitarian organization in the presence of each party to a conflict. UNICEF in particular has been outstanding in its creativity and its effort to develop new approaches in difficult and delicate humanitarian contexts, where the most vulnerable populations were the first affected by the lack of curative or palliative care for young children or pregnant or breast-feeding women.

### Respect for At-Risk Populations: Analysis of SWOT

#### Strengths and Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats:

The image, or at least the media view, of humanitarian intervention is often one of compassion and deliberate dramatization. Frequently the image of populations in need of assistance is reduced to one of victims without means, completely dependent on outside assistance to provide assistance and relief. For field workers, the reality is often different. This is sometime seen in contradiction to messages conveyed by their own organizations in an attempt to raise funds and resources that will allow them to intervene efficiently. Too often interventions are characterized by this one-sided assistance, without any consideration given to the potential of beneficiary populations.

  * Respect for the dignity of populations. Though often-forgotten, the principle of respect for others is and remains one of the keys of humanitarian intervention, especially as it concerns the condition of people in distress, but also regarding their identity as individuals or a social group. The objective of humanitarian intervention is not only to keep people alive, but to seek to restore their dignity, during disaster's life cycle, after recovery/reintegration, in exile as well as in their return home.
  * Adaptation of intervention. Understanding better in order to help better, heal better and serve better. Large international organizations of ten solicit the services of anthropologists to understand the best way to live among the populations with which they are working. Better understanding of the groups that are benefiting from intervention allows for:
  * Adapting intervention to suit cultural or social criteria of a particular group.
  * Avoiding committing errors of "social diagnosis" that risk endangering all or a part of a population, excluding certain action groups, or inciting practices that are contrary to societal principles of a group.
  * Adjusting quantities or qualities of service delivery to better serve the beneficiaries.
  * Taking advantage of synergies between operating and beneficiary groups, improving operational synergies to make the humanitarian action in process more effective, more efficient, and more productive.
  * Identifying resources for future repatriation. Even at the beginning of a crisis, humanitarian reflection must be able to capitalize on the most pertinent resources of social groups that are the beneficiaries of an intervention. This allows them to identify what particular actions would be needed to prepare for the return of populations when repatriation is deemed possible.
  * Refusing the exclusion of unidentified groups. Logically, and by the internal dynamics unique to each type of population, a social group tends to deliberately or implicitly eliminate one or more social groups in the process.

## INTERNATIONAL FEDERATIONS AND MOVEMENTS (PARTICIPANTS) FOR AID DURIND LIFE CYCLE OF DISASTERS

Following are the example of the Red Cross and the Red Crescent Societies (a movement that brings together all of the national societies subscribing to the principles of the Red Cross), a number of NGOs originating in one country have since become international and have joined together to form Federations and Movements. Several examples can be used to illustrate this phenomenon:-

### Medicines sans Frontiers (Doctors without Borders)

Originally founded in France in the late 1960's, MSF today is a movement composed of more than 17 organizations bearing the same name. According to a decision made by the movement's founding members, only 6 of the 17 chapters can actually conduct operations (France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Basque country, Spain, and Switzerland), and thus work in their own or another country while wearing the movement's colors. MSF's International Coordinating Bureau is in Brussels.

### CARE International

This agency began as a cooperative of American charitable organizations created to help European populations overcome the horrors of war. Today CARE is a movement of over a dozen North American, European, and Asian members, but only three of these members- USA, Canada, and Australia – have the right to initiate humanitarian/developmental operations or programs under this name. Strict rules govern financial and operational relations between different CARE groups in a given country. These examples are representative of other important non-governmental organization movements such as OXFAM, S.C.F. (Save the Children Fund International), M.D.M (Medicines du Monde), World Vision, L.W.F. (Lutheran World Federation), A.D.R.A. (Adventist Development Relief Association). Certain coordinating agencies can emerge from negotiations between different organizations that decide to join forces to be more effective in the international arena. Thus A.C.T. (Action of Churches Together), an organization increasingly present on the humanitarian scene, is coming together of various Churches throughout the world that voluntarily elected to combine their efforts, skills, and finances in order to be stronger and more present in the management of humanitarian crises. Other NGOs also have the opportunity to assemble in federative bodies—for example VOICE in Europe or I.C.V.A. (International Council of Voluntary Organizations) based in Geneva—that annually represent the world of NGOs at the UNHCR. Executive Committee is held in Geneva. Each of the large NGO federations has its own rules of operation, but there is no question that these groups have certain comparative advantages over national NGOs. For example, CARE or ADRA are part of a small group of agencies that have framework agreements with the World Food Program (WFP).

  * The opportunity to access diverse and varied funding sources at the international level (European Union, National Government aid, United Nations, individual donors, etc.).
  * The opportunity to draw on specialized recruitment pools in the countries where they have an institutional presence.
  * The ability to integrate funds obtained from different levels of fundraising and directs them towards a common action in a single crisis (the lever effect).
  * The opportunity to bear witness on a worldwide level if the majority of the members so wish or desire!

### Major International Conferences

The Advisory Group on Environmental Emergencies is a unique international forum that brings together disaster managers and environmental experts from governments, UN agencies, NGOs and civil society. It also provides guidance for the Joint UNEP/OCHA Environment Unit, which provides a Secretariat to the meeting. The most recent meeting was held in Rosersberg, Sweden, June 13–15, 2007. At this meeting, the 'Rosersberg Initiative' was launched to empower a wide range of stakeholders to address gaps in the global regime to respond to and prepare for environmental emergencies.

## NUTRITION CONSIDERATIONS IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The Philippines is one of the most disaster-prone areas in the world, having shares of calamities causing considerable loss of lives and destruction to property. Situated within the Typhoon Belt Area", "Circum-Pacific Seismic Belt" and "Ring of Fire", the country is vulnerable to a wide spectrum of disasters. Some disasters are predictable and preventable, while the adverse impact of those which cannot can be mitigated. Disaster relief is an indispensable service to the injured, the sick, the homeless and the distressed. Food then becomes an even more important necessity in times of disaster. Thus, emergency feeding is a major component of disaster relief.

Emergency feeding should not only satisfy hunger and cravings but also consider nutritional needs. Otherwise, malnutrition will remain uncontrolled or will eventually ensue, with its consequences on morbidity and even mortality. Emergency feeding aims to satisfy the needs of victims to sustain life and maintain good health. It also provides relief to the condition of casualties boosts the morale of displaced people and enables emergency workers to perform their tasks. The Mount Pinatubo Experience On June 12, 1991, Mt. Pinatubo spewed ash and pyroclastic materials, triggering lahars flows when it rains, which until today cause havoc to life and property. Had it not been for the early warning of volcanologists on the impending eruption and the timely evacuation of inhabitants through the concerted efforts of the National Disaster Coordinating Council (NDCC), concerned government officials, community leaders, civic organizations and the citizens themselves, a tragedy of greater magnitude could have resulted?

Thus, the Food and Nutrition Research Institute (FNRI), in cooperation with the Field Epidemiology Training Program of the DOH, spearheaded the nutritional assessment of children below five years old and their families in selected evacuation centers in Pampanga, Tarlac and Zambales including the cities of Angeles and Olongapo (Villavieja, et al., 1991). These evacuation centers were selected based on total population, resident status and health conditions of evacuees.

The survey aimed to determine the nutritional status of the most vulnerable groups and provide directions on appropriate interventions to control and prevent malnutrition. The survey covered 1,289 children five years old and below including their families, half of whom are Aetas while the other half is non-Aetas. Children were measured for weight and height or recumbent length.

Mothers or guardians were interviewed to determine the one-day food intake of children using the 24-hour recall technique. The interviews also sought information on family food supply and dietary practices. The anthropometric survey results showed an extremely high proportion of malnutrition among children as manifested by various indicators. Fifty percent were moderately and severely underweight-for-age, 43.8% were stunted and 30.8% were wasted. Severe chronic malnutrition was evidently rampant. About 15 of every 100 children were both wasted and stunted. Malnutrition was worst among children aged six months to two years old. There was gross inadequacy in the children's food and nutrient intake. Intake of energy and all the major nutrients except protein was grossly deficient, especially among the Aetas. The influence of food rationing was evident in the diet of children at various age levels. Food available to the families on a per capita basis was only less than half a kilo, 65% of which, or 300 grams, was rice. The rest was made up of root crops, dried and canned fish (usually sardines), processed meat, milk, dried beans and vegetables. These foods came either through ration or donation, or in the case of non-Aetas, purchased or self-acquired. Rations reaching the children were grossly inadequate for their nutritional needs.

### Major Nutritional Considerations

While we cannot prevent disasters such as the Mt. Pinatubo explosion, much can be done to alleviate the condition of disaster victims by paying attention to their nutritional needs, particularly the children, pregnant and lactating women and the elderly. Proper planning and management of emergency feeding are vital components of disaster management. Food and nutritional management may vary according to the kind of disaster and length of time during which food supplies are needed.

There are three phases in emergency feeding reflecting the stages of the situation. These are the early, intermediate and extended emergency periods. Nutritional objectives, priority nutrients, and the food sources differ according to the period of emergency (Donato, et al., 1983).

#### Early Emergency:

Early Emergency lasts for just a few hours to one or two days immediately following a disaster. People are hungry but not starving. The period is characterized by stress, anxiety or even shock. The objective is providing victims with something to eat and drink, provide them comfort, improve morale and to help counteract shock. All victims are targeted, with special consideration to the infants, preschoolers, pregnant and nursing mothers, the sick and wounded. At least four cups of safe water per person must be provided. Simple, easy-to-serve quick energy foods high in calories derived from carbohydrates sustain bodily processes.

Examples:

  * plain water/milk and root crops/tubers
  * tea/coffee/cocoa/salabat (ginger tea) and cereals/cereal products
  * coconut water/soft drinks and sweets/ spreads

#### Intermediate Emergency:

Intermediate Emergency is the transition period from initial onset of disaster to rehabilitation, which may last from several days to weeks. Conditions are still far from normal but the initial shock is over. The objective is to provide food and water within nutritional limits for temporary maintenance. Special consideration should again be given to the vulnerable groups. Priority care is also due to the sick and injured, as well as the rescue workers who need energy replenishment. Water, calories, protein, thiamin and salt are the priority nutrients. Foods may be in the form of ready-to-eat, packed or canned, served with or without heating.

Examples:

  * plain water and cereals/cereal products
  * beverage and sweets/ spreads
  * soups and canned/ cured/dried fish or meat
  * juices/milk and dried beans/milk products/ high-protein formulations

#### Extended Emergency:

Extended Emergency is the period where the worst is over. The objective is to sustain life and maintain normal health. If rations are provided for more than a month, diet should be aimed at reaching and maintaining the recommended dietary allowances for calories, proteins, vitamins and minerals by serving more varied and hearty meals capped with fruits and vegetables. External food supplies, domestic or imported, may continue to be utilized, while increasing self reliance and veering away from total dependence on external help. It should be noted that imported foods are not popularly consumed. It is best to use foreign donated foods in formulating local recipes for victims. The energy-giving, body-building, and regulating foods are convenient guides in planning adequate meals. Hot meals, soups, one-dish meals with cereals, fruits, and beverages served at a regular meal pattern may be given. Fortified or enriched local or donated foods or even pharmaceutical preparations may be served to ensure supply of micronutrients.

## ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW (IHL)

### Basic Principles

It is important for an intervening party to understand the basic principles underlying the actions of the ICRC during an armed conflict. The constant concern to maintain one's neutrality makes it sometimes difficult to understand certain decisions made by the ICRC in weighing whether or not to act. These decisions are best understood once one knows the fundamentals of International Humanitarian Law as compiled by the ICRC. These principles are universal and can thus guide the actions of intervening parties in a situation where no direct presence of the ICRC is manifested.

  * Individuals displaced by fighting and those not directly involved in hostilities have the right to the respect of their lives and physical well-being. These individuals will be, in all circumstances, protected and treated humanely, without prejudice.
  * It is not permitted to kill or harm a surrendering enemy, or one who is not directly involved in hostilities.
  * The sick and wounded will be gathered together and cared for by the party gaining authority over that region. Health officials, their establishments, transportation equipment and health materials will be protected.
  * The emblems of the Red Cross and Red Crescent set against a white background are the signs of that protection, and must be respected.
  * Captured combatants and civilians have the right to the respect of their lives, dignity, personal rights, and convictions (political, religious, or others). They will be protected from all acts of violence and vengeance. They will have the right to exchange news with family and will be permitted to receive aid.
  * All individuals will benefit from fundamental judicial guarantees. No one will be held responsible for acts he or she did not commit. No one will be subjected to physical or mental torture, or to corporal punishment or degrading treatment.
  * Parties in conflict and members of their armed forces do not have unlimited choice as to their methods of warfare. Use of weapons and methods of warfare that cause useless losses and excessive suffering is not permitted.
  * The parties in conflict will do their utmost to identify the civilian population. The civilian population as such and civilians individually, will not be targets of attack. Attacks will only be against military objectives.

This last principle is fundamental. During the First World War, only 10% of those killed during the conflict were civilians. This figure rose to 50% during World War II. With the proliferation of conflicts of low intensity since the late 1980s, this figure often reaches 90-95%. This characteristic of intense violence directed against civilians (for example, in the cases of the former Yugoslavia and Sierra Leone) actually becomes the most common shared feature of these (so-called) low-intensity conflicts.

### Analysis of Phases of Intervention

#### Precursory Signs and Contingency Plans:

Humanitarian situations rarely appear spontaneously. All refugee situations are originally fuelled by a series of precursors that humanitarian agencies must be able to interpret in order to be prepared.

How does one interpret precursor signs? When dealing with a natural disaster, it is often possible to anticipate a hurricane or possible flood and take protective measures as a result. When dealing with crises provoked by humans, the question is more complex and no response or scientific model will entirely address all aspects of the problem, such as how many people will be involved, and where and how a crisis will develop.

The important thing then is to remain vigilant and to attempt a detailed analysis of "breaking point factors" that can push populations into exile. Before such a moment there often exist triggers, whether major or minor, often followed by social or economic responses which together make up the indicators announcing a crisis. Understanding these triggering mechanisms sometimes enables agencies to anticipate large-scale human movement and to prepare contingency plans to be ready to meet these people.

A contingency plan consists of the following elements:

  * Mobilization and pre-positioning of material or goods necessary to face a crisis.
  * Mobilization and pre-positioning of national and international human resources.
  * Establishment of verification and analysis systems which aid in better examining the situation from a closer point of view.
  * Installation of logistic and communication systems.
  * Establishment of provisionary coordinating structures between different participants (UN, governments, or intervening agencies).
  * Elaboration of scenarios and possible intervention plans.
  * Preparation of facilities and logistical points (shelter, water, kitchens, stocks, etc.) ready to be used and applied in the event of a crisis.

The success of a contingency plan depends on several factors:

  * The understanding of phenomena or indicators that will allow the most rapid response in situations of large-scale population movements.
  * A positive and constructive participation on the part of government authorities in the host country where the crisis will unfold.
  * An adequate and timely mobilization of human, financial, and material resources.

#### Scenarios and Sequences of a Humanitarian Crisis:

This sequence illustrates the importance that international protection has in a system of assistance. Whether it is to benefit refugees, internally displaced populations, children orphaned by AIDS, or the elderly in the centre of an armed conflict, the protection of the ICRC or of another agency as mandated by the UNHCR remains the most cross-cutting activity in humanitarian action. It has no time-limiting mandate and continues to have an important role in the establishment of long term solutions.

  * The first phase reiterates the important points, like entitled "Evaluation; the Capacity of Intervention; and Observations." This phase corresponds to one of a "State on the Brink," which allows humanitarian actors to understand the political and social environment, the work environment and potential partners, the capacity for the creation of a credible intervention and the establishment of necessary preparatory mechanisms.
  * The second phase corresponds to that of the "Early Warning," as well as the implementation of the "Special Intervention Plan." Following this, the "Advanced Detection Phase" is preceded by the "Final Preparations" during which "Liaison Activities" and the coordination of NGO activities will take place, as well as the pre-selection of sites and the "Establishment of Welcoming Procedures."
  * The third phase is related to the actual work performed in humanitarian crises. The "Operational Emergencies" are categorized in groups of ten, each corresponding to one of the lessons, whether it be Health, Logistics and Transport, Communications, Food and Nutrition, Protection, Water Provision, Sanitation, Camp Development, Storage and Recording Activities. The development of these activities is ideally simultaneous with activities that aid in the survival of populations.
  * "Care and Maintenance" is a phase which follows the first six months subsequent to the emergency deployment. It entails the survival support work for refugee or displaced populations through the provision of basics services, namely Food, Health, and Shelter. Of all the activities performed by UNHCR, this phase is least covered by the media and is perhaps the most difficult to finance due to lack of donor interest and commitment on the part of those responsible for the repatriation of these populations.

Other types of actions, especially within the context of a complex operation, can also be envisioned:

  * Placement of international military personnel charged with the protection of the camps (or deployment and financing of military units from the host state—in cases of "closed camps" where refugees do not have the possibility to leave their camp).
  * Engaging of the UN Blue Guards, UN civil policemen who can be deployed in certain circumstances to ensure the protection of groups of individuals in danger (in refugee cases such as in Iran or Iraq).
  * Separation of at-risk elements (vulnerable or handicapped individuals, the most recognizable political refugees, civil or political figures, former military servicemen, etc) and thinking of possible alternative solutions (from installation in separate camps to relocation).

#### Visibility and Transparency:

Visibility is not only an idea invented to do "humanitarian marketing," but is indispensable for self-identification and to make one self known in a complex environment when an organization is relatively unknown. The Red Cross remains the most universally recognized symbol in the past century and at the ICRC, certain specialized delegates are responsible for the dissemination and promotion of the value of this symbol so that it may be recognized and respected.

Other humanitarian agencies, colors, symbols, whether they be on cars, planes, trucks, T-shirts, cassettes, vests or others, are necessary elements that clearly make their identity known and improve the chances of protection in all circumstances. A symbol is both an element of communication as well as an element of protection. The disrespect of this protection by a party should ensure their loss of all benefits deriving from the presence and work of humanitarian agencies. Retreat and/or evacuation procedures in these circumstances send strong signals as actions necessary to ensure maximum protection of personnel in the field.

Visibility should also be associated with an effort at transparency (via local media, public presentation, ongoing dialogue between all groups of a population) regarding the objectives and mandates of the entire organization, so that other intervening agencies, both national and international, have a clear vision of why and how the organization is intervening. Humanitarian work is not a secret science! It must know its capacities and its limits, and make known its position through constant representation of cooperative symbols associated with its actions in the field.

#### Communications:

Communication within and without remain a high priority. The conditions of humanitarian operations are highly volatile and information control remains an essential element in strategic or tactical decision-making. Two priorities existent at this level are:-

  * Ensuring optimal communications methods at the internal level: walkie-talkie, base and mobile radios, regular communications within security teams; the coordination and maximization of actions in the field thus depend on excellent information management.
  * Ensuring the fluid and constant communication of information between intervening organizations, national and international which should represent known information and aid in the decision-making process. Daily or weekly meetings, section meetings, meetings between civilian coordinating agencies, military meetings with different authorities, and security meetings are all good for the regulation of the constant flux of communication necessary for helping teams, media, and social organizations uniting programming and fund-raising.

#### Logistics and Training:

In view of what has been stated, it is clear that a good logistic plan is complimentary to a good security policy. Review of vehicles, exchange of normal materials for superior ones, anti-mine protection under vehicle chassis, helmets and bullet-proof vests or bullet-proof vehicles in high risk situations. Some humanitarian agencies take physical risks which justify the use of such extreme logistic measures in order to protect themselves and act in complete security.

Logistics do not only denote individual measures. Logistics are said to be the sum total of material activities permitting the realization of a mandate or objective in optimal security conditions. Good logistics will enable the military and civilian personnel on a mission to realize joint goals and bring them to fruition (for example, a vaccination campaign in a war zone). In this sense, logistical success of the operation is tied to the professionalism of the team, the accumulated experiences of that team, and the rigorous planning of the combination of operations to be executed.

#### Management of a Temporary Camp:

At this stage only we will examine in greater detail the concepts of Nutrition, Health, Shelter, Water and Purification and Storage. It is important however to list certain precise criteria for organizational conduct in the context of camp management. Camp management remains the only activity which affects the majority of population lives, or those of displaced peoples around the world. Whether in "open camps" where authorities allow free movement or in "closed camps" where authorities do not permit exits each type of camp has its own human and social dynamics. The management of each should follow simple management guidelines and entail coordination between the different participants such that the affected population can live with relative ease.

#### Coordination between Actors:

The UNHCR is the official authority with the responsibility of managing sector duties in a refugee/ displaced persons camps. One must remember that the UNHCR does not direct a single activity directly in a camp unless it is managing security activities. The UNHCR delegates sector responsibility to operational partners with which it has signed a M.O.U — Memorandum of Understanding — which is a contract defining the conditions of execution and allocation of assigned duties. This is done with an institutional partner (a governmental Agency of Office, or national or international NGO).

Agencies working in camps can also sign accords of cooperation and financing with other donors (a national donor agency, UNICEF, etc.), but the UNHCR reserves the right to examine this cooperation if it affects operations to be undertaken in camps for which it is responsible. Can there be camps that do not fall under the operational responsibilities of the UNHCR (such as a case where the state takes complete charge of the camp's management and does not want the presence of other organizations and their services)? The answer is YES.

In the management of important and complex refugee situations, it is common for the UNHCR to decide to work with a regular number of agencies that have each developed a particular expertise in one activity or another, such as OXFAM UK for water distribution management, CARE International for camp management, Doctors Without Borders or Doctors of the World for health management etc. Though an unwritten agreement, this enables the UNHCR to work with organizations that have great experience in activities they direct. The UNHCR can also work with a wide range of partners, no less that 400 of them world wide. These organizations thus have wide and varying levels of experience, but are not always familiar with the work standards expected of them by the UNHCR. As a result, section heads work often as consultants to direct and control the organization's work.

#### Geography of a Camp:

Today, "ideal camp plans" correspond to precise quantitative studies of the needs of a given population such as water, latrines, and individual and communal living spaces. The UNHCR gives the average measurements for an individual's living space as being 4.5 square meters, while including space for access roads and infrastructures necessary for common services. This measure is valid in organized areas or where space is readily available. Most of the time however, the UNHCR does not have the time to plan for a given situation. We will see the range of techniques necessary to ensure a minimum of comfort, security, and dignity for individuals in difficult conditions in camps. Large agencies, such as the military forces of superpower nations, have developed standard camp installation plans that strongly resemble military camps supported by all necessary equipment.

Humanitarian agencies try to consult local populations to ensure that their camp operations techniques respond to the culture of affected populations. This taking into account of the nature of the displaced population (such as whether the majority of the population is comprised of women or children or ethnically different families) must be considered when plans are made concerning the spatial organization of a camp. This "humane" approach to the creation of a camp explains why the standardization of camp models may sometimes conflict with anthropological and cultural realities of any given population.

### Reconstruction of Habitats in Repatriation or Reconstruction

The issue of shelter takes on a similar set of questions when refugees or displaced people reintegrate into their original neighborhoods and homes and often need to reconstruct them following the disaster that forced them to flee. Diverse formulas are envisioned by humanitarian organizations to help the repatriates in similar circumstances:

  * Constitution and gift of standard individual kits, adapted to local necessities in terms of reconstruction. An important point will be the possibility of making local purchases for the constitution of these kits.
  * Constitution of local work teams that will participate in the planning and the execution of reconstruction programs. This approach allows the distribution of financial resources at the centre of the community.
  * Course of development for specialized teams before undergoing all or any of the plans enumerated above. In reconstruction operations, particular attention should be placed on the beneficiary community participation. The reconstruction process, even applied by a humanitarian agency, should identify and participate in the engaged actions. The men of the beneficiary families should be the first to help furnish unskilled labor in this type of work. It will also be necessary to pay particular attention to families that do not have adequate physical resources to build homes.
  * In a humanitarian convoy operation, the most important precautions are: To have mechanical parts and spare tires available, to make certain to have many copies of the required documents, to make certain that the security plan ensures constant communication and that, all the personnel know the instructions.
  * A successful distribution procedure must have: Completed and verified distribution cards and lists of beneficiaries at their disposal, the capacity to distribute in calm and secure conditions, the possibility of relying on female groups as beneficiaries of rations and controllers of the distribution process.
  * A program called "Cash for rent" aims to: To financially compensate host families for hosting refugee families.
  * A Certain principle parameters that need to be taken into account for the creation of emergency lodging are: Access to essential services within near proximity, position the site far from zones inhabited by disease vectors, guarantee a habitable space of 3.5 to 4.5 m2 per person.
  * In the event of a distribution of rolls of plastic for the construction of temporary shelters, UNHCR determines that a household should receive: A plastic sheet of 4 by 6 meters.
  * Each of the following considerations is important for the placement of refugee camps in Africa (multiple): To have non-contaminated groundwater at one's disposal, that the construction material should be adapted to variations in climate.
  * Certain of the following operational parameters are important during the management of warehouses (multiple): That the stocks are in good condition and are secure and hygienic, verification between the inventory and the stock papers are periodically checked, regular measures are taken to fight against disease vectors.
  * The importance of the representation of women in a distribution operation is based on the fact that women are in a position to: Ensure representation of all segments of the community.

### Principles of Managing Shelter Creation

The management of shelters for disaster hit populations, refugees relies on a proper understanding of conditions of the settlement of a population. Time criteria and cultural criteria such as climactic, social, sanitary and of health are taken into account in each type of situation. Often, the conceptual choice for the shelter that will be used depends on external factors at the will of site planners that a government or the UNHCR has made available to the crisis managers. A camp without control can rapidly take the form of a dispersed habitat, or at the opposite the form of an excessive human concentration that is difficult to reverse. In the event that humanitarian agencies can establish selection criteria, a certain number of parameters should be taken into account:

#### Land regime:

Gaining access to suitable land for the establishment of a refugee camp can appear to be the least urgent priority in a crisis but it is critical to identify and negotiate properly for access to land. In theory, it is the responsibility of the host state to give displaced persons, refugee's adequate access to suitable land and with minimum of conditions. However, it is important to consider the existing local land laws and customs. It may be preferred to legally expropriate (with financial compensation), needed local property or to rent such a property. When selecting such a site, consideration should be given to the condition of the site, protected or agricultural zones, distance to the borders, and other legal and geographic aspects.

#### Access to essential services:

The location of the site and the installation of shelter should take into account the need for each displaced person, refugee to have access to basic services including water, sanitation, and access to food distribution services and others on a year-round basis.

#### Superficial habitation:

The World Health Organization considers the absolute minimum for inhabitable space to be 3.5 to 4.5 square meters (approximately 11.5 to 15 square feet) per person in emergency shelters, excluding spaces necessary for other human activities. For the norms advocated by the UNCHR in the sphere of furnished plastic rolls and other surfacing materials, it is specified that a foyer type should receive at least one plastic sheet of 4 by 6 meters (approximately 13 by 20 square feet). Reaction to the climate: In hot and dry climates, shelter construction materials should be thick enough to protect occupants from the heat. If only plastic tarpaulins or tents are available, supplying double roofs or an isolation layer is preferred. In cold climates, the materials used and mode of shelter construction provides needed insulation. In order for the occupants to reach a comfortable temperature, shelter is completed by furnishing clothing, blankets, bedding, and heating mechanisms and caloric contributions in sufficient quantity.

#### Positioning of site:

If site selection is not properly planned, important natural features such as drainage, running water, landslides, proximity of contaminated rivers and water sources, will not receive proper attention. It is essential to make a proper topographical study before making a final choice of site selection.

#### Protection of the environment:

The immediate pressure placed on environmental resources is a function of the number of people occupying the place of asylum. The situation varies greatly from one situation to another, but in Africa, forests or prairies are rapidly transformed into desert if substitution measures or energy consumption control (distribution and promotion of improved ovens or the adoption of collective kitchen regimens versus individual kitchens) are not quickly taken. Environmental protection also means attention to hunting, to the protection of water sites, the treatment of used water, choice of funeral sites, etc. It also means attention to a site in function of healthy criteria (to avoid zones where disease carriers such as mosquitoes easily multiply), the altitude or climate in terms of geographical origins.

### Promotion of Social, Educational and Gender Activities

Once the initial stages of emergency have passed, it is important to rapidly initiate educational and recreational activities, in particular for the groups of children and adolescents that often make up 50 to 60% of a camp's population. It is imperative that a camp be planned keeping in mind space for games and physical activities. It is also important to recruit people capable of directing educational activities for all classes and ages. Ideally, activities should mix the affected population with the local population, on the condition that the local population can somehow benefit directly or indirectly from the support of the assisting organization.

In the context of a participatory and community approach to social activities in a camp, other lines of work can be pursued:

  * Create as many activities as groups.
  * Facilitate the participation of all social groups, including women, adolescents, and the elderly.
  * Respect traditional social and cultural structures while assuming that they themselves respect the participation of all members of a group.
  * Identify internal or external revenue-generating activities and favor productive micro-investment that can help refugees in their host country as well as upon their return.
  * Seek out social components that might have been neglected or excluded by the larger social group and work at incorporating them.
  * Encourage local development of activities.

The development of gender activities or more simply, activities directed towards benefiting women and adolescents is important. It is important to make a distinction between activities specifically targeting women and activities that seek to include women in general camp activities. This approach is the most productive way to further the integration of women and adolescents in the management of on-going camp activities. One must remember that women and children often make up 80% of the population of a camp, and that they are quickly socially dominated by traditional community structures lead by men. It is often very difficult to change cultural habits that discriminate against women.

The de facto power of humanitarian organizations can allow them, without forcing traditions of established rules, to actively push for female representation in different structures of discussion and camp decisions. One must not hesitate therefore to practice what some call "affirmative action" or "positive discrimination" for women. Paradoxically, in certain long-term situations, the time that is reserved to them in participatory community activities is the first time where changes in attitudes take place. In certain cases, it is impossible to easily go against cultural traditions that leave little room for women.

Certain measures can thus be taken that will grant women equal access along with their male counterparts:

  * Access to health goods in different locations.
  * Access to educational programs and revenue generating programs based on traditional production.
  * Impose regular visits by children to health or social services to communicate women-oriented messages (such as the need for birth control, health materials for young children, childcare, etc) to women and young girls.
  * Education of women in the management of activities benefiting them.

### Health Problems in Humanitarian Situations

War and natural disaster will interrupt the social and economic life of a society and will cause an increase in the health and mortality problems of its population. The amplitude and the types of health problems generated will vary as a function of the affected population, what life was originally like, the new situation of displaced populations (war, internal conflict or natural disaster), and the available local resources to respond to disasters and to maintain health services. The principle risks undertaken during a humanitarian emergency include physical wounds, contagious diseases, malnutrition, and the exposure of populations to bad weather. Other health risks include pregnancy complications, child birth, and the aggravation of chronic illnesses. Mortality rates increase during an emergency, with children and the elderly being the most vulnerable. For example, children removed from a location with weak vaccination coverage are exposed to a greater number of contagious diseases while they are in overpopulated camps, inadequate health systems, no vaccination program, and poor nutrition programs. Displaced populations can bring with them infectious diseases such as measles, cholera, or malaria, which will naturally affect the health of populations towards which they are moved. The natural environment also plays a critical role in the health of populations in distress. Cold or near-freezing temperatures can significantly increase mortality rates, as was the case of Kurdish refugees in Iraq in 1991. Rain, mud, and floods can also limit access to fresh water sources and adequate health conditions. Health priorities are identical in all emergencies, as has been explained in this lesson, but each specific situation carries with it additional risks. Displaced populations are habitually torn from their traditional systems of economic and social support. They can immediately fall victim to medical problems that normally would not have affected them in their traditional lives.

In a war or civil conflict, wounds are important problems, for both the civilian populations and for those involved in the actual conflict. In natural disasters, wounds, burns, or famine are added to the list of potential health risks, while the communities have to come to terms with the disappearance of their homes as well as the destruction of vital infrastructures. And finally, following the genocide in Rwanda in 1994 as well as the successive wars in the Balkans, medical intervention agencies in humanitarian crises have become more and more aware of the mental health of populations.

The possibility of responding to health problems during a humanitarian crisis depends on the affected populations, the host state territories where they are located, as well as the response of the international community. Basic health services need to be installed. The resources for these types of action are often extremely limited in the first hours or days of an emergency, and the responses are often inadequate. A response coordinated between all actors, organized based upon a basic evaluation of needs, is the best hope of reducing illnesses and deaths in a population in an emergency warranting humanitarian intervention.

### Intervention in an Emergency Phase

In the hopes of preventing the deterioration of the health of a population in danger, a quick but thorough examination of the situation must be carried out. Health intervention priorities must be identified, a follow-up and evaluation system prepared, and health services installed or reinforced in response to the nature of needs. This step necessitates an analysis of local health by experts in public health and a strict collaboration between local health authorities and the agencies operating in the field. The needs and their responses will vary greatly depending on the situation, and will change as a function of the development of the situation and the emplacement of essential services.

  * Preliminary evaluation;
  * Measles vaccination;
  * Water and distribution;
  * Food and nutrition;
  * Shelter and site installation planning;
  * Health care during crises;
  * Control of contagious diseases and epidemics;
  * Surveillance of public health conditions;
  * Human resources and education;
  * Coordination.

### Evaluation, Surveillance and Implementation

#### Preliminary Evaluation:

At the onset of a humanitarian relief effort, the first priority is to complete a preliminary evaluation of the needs and resources of the affected population. The principal objectives of this evaluation are to analyze the state of health of the people, to determine the pertinence of an intervention, to identify the health priorities and the basic needs and to initiate the planning of a health program. The evaluation of heath needs must include a description of the population (size, age and sex distributions, and proportions of men, women and children) if this has not already been done. The main health problems must be accounted for and potential problems should be anticipated. The amount of human resources and required materials for the health systems that will be deployed should be estimated. The preliminary evaluation includes a description of social, cultural, political and environmentally critical contexts such as the welcoming conditions for the refugee populations. The methods utilized for the preliminary evaluation include interviews, sanitary investigations and visits of the area for the collection of local data. Interviews with community leaders and personnel from local health organizations or international agencies on location furnish the qualitative information concerning the socio-political atmosphere as well as critical health or environmental conditions, cultural rules regarding health questions, as well as services of the existing local health organizations.

The investigations constitute an epidemiological tool for the analysis of health conditions. A representative sample of the population is selected on the basis of census lists or of mapping the sites of habitation, for example, of a refugee camp. It is necessary to ensure that the sample is as representative of the population as possible, especially when particularly vulnerable groups are concerned, while sufficiently maintaining a small sample in order to complete the investigation rapidly. For example, it might be useful to identify the refugees at the centre of a local population because their health conditions can vary considerably from the population outside the centre. Likewise, the extrapolation of information from the investigation must be done carefully with respect to the global population. The structure and interpretation of results of the investigations usually require the expertise of epidemiologists to assure their scientific validity. Furthermore, visits to existing structures of health centers are essential, permitting the visual inspection of the space for available material resources, the identification of water sources as electrical energy, available medicines, and the number of available beds. Structuring this information before arriving is useful in preventing anything being left to chance. The medical registers are consulted to evaluate the most common reasons for consultation and treatment. The personnel of the health centers may be interviewed about the development of health conditions as well as their own competencies and qualifications and their formative needs.

#### Surveillance and Control:

The epidemiological surveillance is the systematic process of collecting, analyzing, interpreting and communicating essential health information to the planning, implementation and evaluation of health programs. The surveillance system furnishes information on a regular basis to allow the health system administrators to make decisions on the health problems and programs underway. The surveillance of certain criteria permits the system to detect the appearance of infectious diseases or epidemics. The data for the medical surveillance concerns the demography (size and structure of the population,) the mortality (number of deaths and their causes,) the morbidity (frequency of specific illnesses,) the fundamental needs (water purification, shelters, blankets, food distribution,) the nutritional status of the people and the in formation on the activities of the program (the numbers of medical consultations, of vaccinations and admissions to the hospital). The data may be obtained from medical registers at the health centers, from members of the health community, from coroner s, and other pertinent sources. The specially made development forms are used to facilitate the fast calculations of health indicators on a daily or weekly basis. When the health programs are operational, it becomes important to be able to evaluate the quality as well as the quantity of available services. It is a waste of time and energy to collect data that will not be used. The collection of data should be limited to the correct minimal level in order to facilitate decision making and subsequent action.

#### Essential Indicators:

In the initial phases of an emergency, the most important indicator to analyze is the mortality rate of the population. To obtain the mortality rate, it is necessary to have an estimation of the population as well as a technique for counting the deceased. This can be accomplished retrospectively and with the development of a surveillance system. In developing countries, the mortality rate (MR) is approximately 0.5 deceased/10,000 people/day. When the MR exceeds 1.0 deceased/10,000 people/day, the situation is considered as serious and it is important to find the causes of mortality. The mortality rate for children under 5 years old (U5MR) is also a useful indicator and will usually represent double the general mortality rate. The attainment objective in an urgent situation is thus to maintain the MR below 1.0 deceased/10,000 people/day and the U5MR below 2.0 deceased/10,000/day. The incidence of certain diseases, as far as being estimated on the basis of collected data can be collected at the base of the health centers. Nevertheless, the information is limited because many sick people do not show up at health centers and can escape statistics. All increases in the number of cases of a disease with potential for an epidemic, like the measles for example, should be accompanied by an active research of other potential cases at the centre of the affected community.

### Control of Communicable Diseases and Prevention of Epidemics

#### Measles:

Measles is one of the most contagious transmittable diseases and a frequent cause of infant mortality in developing countries. The risk of infection is aggravated by deplorable sanitary conditions and overpopulation. Complications and mortalities associated with measles are higher at the centre of vulnerable and malnourished populations. Mass vaccination against measles is thus a priority of public health in the majority of emergency situations. The target population for a vaccination against measles is usually between 6 months and 15 years. The vaccine should be refrigerated until its utilization and the maintenance of a chilled environment must be protected. The logistical aspects of the organization are also crucial and the population should be well informed in advance to facilitate the distribution of the vaccinations. A vaccination team can vaccinate 500 to 700 people per hour and several teams can work simultaneously.

#### Diarrheic Diseases:

Epidemics of diarrheic diseases can easily break out in situations in which a population has been displaced or where natural catastrophes have destroyed drinking water sources and there are poor purification conditions. The most dangerous diarrheic disease is cholera, which can spread very rapidly, and without treatment can kill more than 50% of those who develop the classic syndrome of liquid diarrhea and vomiting. This can be reduced to 2% thanks to an adequate treatment of rehydration and sometimes antibiotics. Epidemics of cholera can strike very rapidly so medical services in an endemic zone should always be prepared to treat a very large number of patients. Shigellosis is a form of dysentery or 'bloody diarrhea' accompanied by abdominal cramps and fever that can also be the cause of serious diseases. It has also become difficult to treat shigellosis because of the resistance to antibiotics in numerous zones. Other more common forms of infantile diarrhea can be caused by a variety of viruses or pathogenic bacteria that are an important cause of mortality and infantile morbidity. The prevention and control of all diarrheic diseases rely on the provision of adequate sanitary conditions and drinking water. The treatment protocols rely on adequate oral rehydration of the patients.

#### Malaria:

A frequent cause of disease among children and adults, malaria is also responsible for more than a million deaths a year in developing countries. Malaria, characterized by fever, shivering, anemia, and prostration is caused by one of the four parasites transmitted by the female mosquito, Anopheles. The mosquito larvae find nourishment in stagnant water. The risk of contracting malaria in an endemic environment increases during the movements of a population. Refugee camps are often excellent sites of multiplication and growth for the parasite during the rainy seasons. People without convenient shelter are more exposed and vulnerable. The public health measures to control malaria include the covering of drinking water sources and drainage systems, spreading insecticide at the centre as well as other shelters to reduce mosquito bites. The medical treatment of malaria requires adequate medical services with staff capable of identifying the disease and prescribing the appropriate medicine.

#### Acute Respiratory Infections:

Acute respiratory infections are a major cause of morbidity as well as mortality in developing countries where they account for 25 to 30% of deaths in children under 5 years old. ARI includes acute infections of upper respiratory tracts such as the cold, pharyngitis, and ear infection as well as acute infections of lower respiratory tracts such as laryngitis, bronchitis, bronchiole and pneumonia, which is fatal in 10-20%of untreated cases. ARI can be defined by a variety of viruses or pathogenic bacteria including some that are avoidable with a vaccine such as measles, diphtheria and whooping cough. The ideal treatment of ARI rests on proper diagnosis and treatment with appropriate medications. Although tuberculosis is a serious major health problem in developing countries, the control programs for this disease are difficult to implement in a crisis situation. To treat tuberculosis and prevent its appearance at the centre of a community with resistant strains to multiple antibiotics, patients should be treated continuously for at least 6 months. A poorly managed tuberculosis control program in an instable environment or at the centre of a transitioning population can have more negative effects than positive effects.

#### Sexually Transmitted Diseases:

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) were not traditionally considered as a public health priority in the sphere of displaced groups of people. With the arrival of AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) attitudes changed. The displacement of communities frequently leads to social chaos, including the destruction or separation of families as well as sexual violence and rape. The access to preventative measures like the treatment of STDs is severely compromised in these precarious situations. Male contraception, or condoms, is rarely available in refugee situations. STDs include syphilis, gonorrhea and Chlamydia as well as many others that can lead to serious handicaps and diseases in men and women. Moreover, it is recognized that STDs constitute an important risk factor in the transmission of AIDS. The prevention of AIDS like STDs is henceforth considered an integral part of reproductive health services and should be offered at the onset of emergency intervention and continued during the post-emergency phase. AIDS can also be transmitted by blood transfusions, the use of non-sterilized medical instruments as well as traditional medical practices using contaminated equipment. It is imperative to attempt to halt these transmitting practices by using appropriate medical material and applying strict medical protocols even in the centre of an emergency. This is henceforth the rule for medical agencies to employ single-use auto-blocking syringes as well as to follow strict protocols of sterilization for all reusable material. Some additional strategies include the limitation of the number of injections and of transfusions, the adequate treatment of medical waste products as well as the application of universal precautions during the manipulation of infectious material.

#### Other Infectious Diseases:

There are numerous other transmittable diseases that can affect populations during an emergency. These last include diphtheria, whooping cough, tetanus and even poliomyelitis in certain regions that can all be treated with a vaccination. Other diseases like yellow fever and meningococcal meningitis may be frequent in certain regions and can require the organization of vaccination teams to prevent an epidemic. Certain pathogenic agents can be transmitted by the fecal tract, the oral tract (like Hepatitis A) or by a mosquito (like yellow fever or dengue) and the transmission of numerous other tropical bacterial diseases, viral or parasitic, will usually increase during conditions of overpopulation or poor hygiene.

### Primary Health Care and Community Health Care

Primary health services in refugee camps or other similar situations should be composed to offer care of primary health curatives of acceptable and first quality care to the populations. Regular consultation services for the implementation and the treatment of common affectations require qualified medical personnel, nurses or medical assistants, coming from the local population or refugee population when possible. A primary health post with 2 to 5 employees should be in place to offer curative aid to a population of 3000 to 5000 people. Secondary health services should be available on a limited basis for the hospitalization and treatment of seriously ill patients. A health centre or a hospital with at least one doctor should be able to offer emergency care and first aid, minor surgery, basic obstetrics, laboratory facilities and analysis for 10,000 to 30,000 people. Operational health services should be helped to face an influx of population. If the situation requires it, a provisionary on site hospital could be installed. In any case it is necessary to identify the local hospitals that can serve as a centre of reference for secondary or tertiary care like emergency care or high-risk obstetric care. It will also be necessary to identify a mechanism for the financing of care given to refugees. The World Health Organization (WHO) and other principal intervention agencies have developed a system of 'ready-to-go' kits that can effectively respond to a variety of situations. For example, it is possible to order a standard medical kit that will respond to the estimated medical needs of a population of 10,000 people for a period of 3 months. The kit contains essential medications like analgesics, antibiotics, anti-convulsive products and the majority of medical supplies necessary to diagnose and treat emergency medical situations like cerebral malaria, convulsions, shock and anemia. Standard protocol procedures should include pre- and post-natal consultations and deliveries as well as high-risk pregnancy screenings and care of newborns. Other specialized kits furnish everything necessary for establishing vaccination companies on a large scale or the early preventive treatments of epidemics like cholera. In a stable or post-urgent situation, the most part of medications should be available at the local market or can be ordered following routine procedures. Appropriate treatment protocols and lists of essential medications should be placed at each level of service. In an emergency, donated medications coming from people or pharmaceutical companies in developed western countries are rarely useful. In many cases, the mountains of donated medicines are not appropriate for local health reasons. Some of the medicines are in poor condition, expired, or the simple political result of a "dumping of medications" on the part of pharmaceutical companies that then gain a tax deduction for their humanitarian action. Agents of community health can be educated to give essential services in refugee situations. They have an important role to play in identifying and referencing children suffering from diarrhea, malaria, measles, conjunctivitis, malnutrition or any other condition pertinent to the circumstances. They can also serve an essential role in the health education in their community. Agents of community health can report on births, deaths, arrivals and departures at the centre of the community on a daily and weekly basis. This vital information thus provides demographic and mortality statistics. Agents of community health do not need to be specialized medical personnel. Individuals with a basic education and who are respected in the community can serve as a link between the people and the agencies that assist them in camp, and to encourage the children and adults to use the existing basic services.

#### Wounds and Traumas:

When local surgical services are inadequate, international agencies can oftentimes resort to installing supplementary surgical programs for primary health care activities or, in the areas of conflict, installing programs for surgeries associated with war. Besides the exceptions that constitute the NGO like Doctors Without Borders or the International Committee of the Red Cross, few agencies bring direct medical care to war victims, until after the hostilities have ceased. The International Committee of the Red Cross, defender of the Geneva Conventions, seeing to the protection of military personnel and civil victims in conflicts, works within conflict zones and maintains channels of aid for victims on both sides of the conflict. 'Doctors Without Borders', always on the principle of impartiality, will often work on the two sides of a conflict, favoring the civilian victims. Surgical programs should also cure the direct consequences of war long after the hostilities have stopped because of the dissemination of millions of mines in a large number of rural and urban zones. The wounds from mines have dramatic effects and surgeons must often amputate the victims (mostly civilian, with a large part being children) at the thigh, leaving them handicapped for life.

  * The primary health priorities in a humanitarian crisis situation are: Initial assessment, measles vaccination, water and sanitation, food aid and nutrition, Shelter and design of settlement sites; health care during the emergency phase, control of communicable diseases and epidemics Monitoring of public health conditions, human resources, training and coordination.
  * In epidemiological analysis, the mortality rate is considered serious if it reaches: 1.0 death per 10,000 people/per day.
  * The infant mortality rate for children under 5 years old usually represents two times that of the general mortality rate. The objective is to stay below: 2.0 deaths per 10,000 people/per day.
  * Because of the high contagiousness of measles, it is necessary to initiate within the first days of the humanitarian situation, a vaccination program against measles.
  * The health service programs are offered even during emergency situations to fight against: HIV/AIDS, Syphilis, Gonorrhoea and Chlamydia.
  * Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder affects the disaster hit communities/ populations, Refugees, displaced persons, humanitarian workers, and military personnel who have experienced psychologically traumatizing situations.

### Disaster Medicine

Disaster medicine is the area of physician medical specialization serving the dual areas of providing medical care to disaster survivors and providing medically related disaster preparation, disaster planning, disaster response and disaster recovery leadership throughout the disaster life cycle. Disaster medicine specialists provide insight, guidance and expertise on the principles and practice of medicine both in the disaster impact area and healthcare evacuation receiving facilities to emergency management professionals, hospitals, healthcare facilities, communities and governments. The disaster medicine specialist is the liaison between and partner to the medical contingency planner, the emergency management professional, the incident command system, and government and policy makers.

Disaster medicine is unique among the medical specialties in that unlike all other areas of specialization, the disaster medicine specialist does not practice the full scope of the specialty everyday but only in emergencies. Indeed, the disaster medicine specialist hopes to never practice the full scope of skills required for board certification. However, like the specialists in public health, environmental medicine and occupational medicine; disaster medicine specialists engage in the development and modification of public and private policy, legislation, and disaster planning and disaster recovery.

  * Surge capacity – The ability to manage a sudden, unexpected increase in patient volume that would otherwise severely challenge or exceed the current capacity of the health care system.
  * Medical triage – The separation of patients based on severity of injury or illness in light of available resources.
  * Psychosocial triage – The separation of patients based on the severity of psychological injury or impact in light of available resources.

Internationally, disaster medicine specialists must demonstrate competency in areas of disaster healthcare and emergency management including but not limited to:

  * Disaster behavioral health
  * Disaster law
  * Disaster planning
  * Disaster preparation
  * Disaster recovery
  * Disaster response
  * Disaster safety
  * Medical consequences of disaster
  * Medical consequences of terrorism
  * Medical contingency planning
  * Medical decontamination
  * Medical implications of disaster
  * Medical implications of terrorism
  * Medical planning and preparation for disaster
  * Medical planning and preparation for terrorism
  * Medical recovery from disaster
  * Medical recovery from terrorism
  * Medical response to disaster
  * Medical response to terrorism
  * Medical response to weapons of mass destruction
  * Medical surge, surge capacity and triage
  * Psychosocial implications of disaster
  * Psychosocial implications of terrorism
  * Psychosocial triage

# An Overview of General Aspects of Disaster Management

## PREPAREDNESS

Preparedness is second phase of disaster management which encompasses continuous cycle of planning, organizing, training, equipping, exercising, evaluating and improving the activities progressively to ensure efficient command and control and coordination of the efforts.

It also involves enhancement of capabilities to prevent, protect against, respond to, recover from and mitigate against natural disasters or acts of terrorism and other man-made disasters.

In preparedness phase emergency managers develop plans of action to manage and counter their risks and take actions to build the necessary capabilities needed for the implementation of such plans. Common preparedness includes communication plans with easily understandable terminology and methods. In communication plans after evaluating the likely dimensions of disasters certain actions could be introduced like trucks with satellite links when all other towers/communication lines have been destroyed. In staging areas where the evacuated population/ refugees and dispersed persons are brought in air transport telecommunication systems could be installed so that further rescue missions could be implemented effectively. During preparedness phase extensive training of emergency services and carrying out of mock drills and procedures will be implemented for community emergency response teams. Preparedness also involves introduction, development and exercises of emergency early warning methods to the populations combined with emergency shelters and evacuation plans. Evacuation plans will also include various methods of transportation, of men and material to staging areas or pre designated areas where the evacuees would be sheltered. During formulation of these evacuation plans various axis will have to be allotted with very strict command and control so that no road blocks occur and trains/ transport are not stranded and all people requiring emergency help may be evacuated in time from the site of disaster. During preparedness phase stock piling of supplies, equipment, medicines, water purification plants, and prefabricated temporary shelters, with proper tagging and inventories must be implemented. During preparedness stage specialized training of volunteers within the civilian population is required so that they can augment all professional emergency workers who are rapidly overwhelmed in mass emergencies. So training, capacity building and resilience of civilian populations must be carried out in this phase only so that as and when disaster occurs they act as first responders. These community emergency response teams need to be taught and trained into various specializations to combat disaster or any emergency situation with efficiency. During preparedness phase prediction of casualties must be carried out in advance. This will give planners and emergency managers the exact idea of medical resources required. Emergency managers in the planning phase should be flexible and all encompassing carefully recognizing the risks and exposures of their respective regions and employing unconventional and atypical means of support. Depending on the region-municipal, or private sector emergency services can rapidly be depleted and heavily taxed. Teams of search and rescue missions must synchronize with other agencies like fire department, military personnel and first respondent teams and teams of UNDAC, of RED CROSS, RED CRESENT and others through combined trainings. The procedures and drills must be ratified and made available as standing operating procedures (SOPs). All stake holders, national actors and international actors must be prepared with flexibility and with a responsibility for unified command. Collaboration and sincere relationships between all participating agencies at national and international level must be maintained through conferences and coordinated quarterly, half-yearly and annual meetings. These coordination meetings must deliberate upon all preparation plans in detail so that the common objective of providing the humanitarian relief with sincere efforts maintaining neutrality and non discrimination in creed and color. Relief workers and humanitarian aid participants must maintain very high degree of honesty, so that religious beliefs of the effected population are not harmed.

### Members of International Red Cross Movement

The International Red Cross movement is comprised of the International Committee of the Red Cross and (I.C.R.C), the International Federation of Societies of the Red Cross and the Red Crescent, and the National Societies of the Red Cross and the Red Crescent. There is a Red Cross Society in virtually every country in the world (about 189 in 2001).

The international movement meets every four years to examine humanitarian questions of common interest and the other relevant issues. In its statues adopted in 1995, the movement reiterates its seven fundamental guiding humanitarian principles:

#### Humanity:

Born of the concern to bring emergency relief without discrimination while striving to prevent and alleviate the suffering of man in all circumstances.

#### Impartiality:

To make no distinction on the basis of national origin, race, religion, social condition or political affiliation

#### Neutrality:

To refrain from taking sides in hostilities, as well as at all times to stay out of political, racial, religion and ideological controversies.

#### Independence:

While acting as auxiliaries of public powers in their humanitarian activities and being subject to the laws that govern their respective countries, the national societies must preserve an autonomy that allows them to act according to the principles of the movement at all times.

#### Volunteerism:

It is a movement of voluntary and disinterested assistance.

#### Unity:

There can be no more than one Society of the Red Cross and Red Crescent in the same country. It must be open to all and extend its humanitarian action to the entire territory.

#### Universality:

The international movement of the Red Cross and the Red Crescent is universal. Individual Societies within it have both equal rights and the responsibility to help one another.

### The International Federation of Societies of the Red Cross and the Red Crescent

While the ICRC, created in 1863, protects and assists victims of internal or international conflicts and their direct consequences, the International Federation, founded in 1919, has for its task: Coordinating international assistance to national Red Cross Societies for catastrophe victims. Encouraging and promoting the creation and development of national Societies Acting as permanent organ of liaison, coordination, and study for the national Societies

In the context of its first mandate, then, we see that the Federation works in different contexts than those of the ICRC. A rough breakdown of this division of labour shows that the ICRC acts during conflicts while the Federation acts when natural disasters hit: earthquakes, floods, droughts, poverty. Nearly two billion people were affected in one way or another by disasters of all kinds between 1990 and 1993. Moreover, more than 90% of natural disasters struck developing countries where the consequences are often more serious and more enduring than in industrialized countries. Disasters also hit countries that are already undergoing serious socio-economic difficulties and whose public structures and services are in a fragile state. Ideally, the Federation works in a partnership with a national Society, and often directly with the support of national Societies of Northern countries.

### The Federation focuses its intervention on the following four principal objectives:

Response to disasters: basic, direct humanitarian assistance to more than 30 million persons per year (food, water, shelter, clothing, blankets, etc.) Preparation for disasters: in cooperation with national Societies, developing contingency plans for catastrophes, preparation (stocking, planning etc.) Reinforcement of health infrastructures: lessening the population's vulnerability to diseases and reinforcing basic health structures so that communities can take charge of health issues Training: strengthening and development of the national society's capacity in the preparation for catastrophes, the institutionalization of structures throughout the entire territory, training of personnel, programs on gender awareness, etc. In certain cases, it is impossible to easily go against cultural traditions that leave little room for women. Certain measures can thus be taken that will grant women equal access along with their male counterparts:

  * Access to health goods in different locations.
  * Access to educational programs and revenue generating programs based on traditional production.
  * Impose regular visits by children to health or social services
  * To communicate women-oriented messages (such as the need for birth control, health materials for young children, childcare, etc) to women and young girls.

### International Actions of the ICRC

The international actions of the ICRC are as divers e as its mandates. Strengthened by a permanent presence in 61 countries around the world (but intervening in 80), the ICRC employs over 10,000 peop0le, 95% of whom are involved in field work. In 1998, the organization's budget was close to 600 Swiss Francs (400 million US Dollars). A simple analysis of the humanitarian actions of the first six months of 1999 given an excellent picture of the scope and uniqueness of the ICRC role in international actions:

  * Visits to 184,000 political or war prisoners in over 1400 places of detention in 50 countries.
  * Distribution of over 200,000 family messages, thereby permitting family members separated by conflict, other troubles, or tensions to find each other and exchange news.
  * Locating of more than 200 people in response to a specific request to find them from families that had remained without news from them.
  * Reunion of more than 3000 people in families. The production of travel documents allowing 6000 people to return home or be resettled in a third country.
  * Distribution of 55,000 tons of aid in 45 countries (food, clothing, blankets, tents, etc.).
  * Provision of essential medicines, medical material, and equipment to 11 hospitals in Africa and substantial assistance to 193 other hospitals throughout the world; surgery and out-patient care for hundreds of millions of individuals.
  * Participation in about thirty orthopaedic projects in 14 countries to provide 4500 people with prosthetic limbs, orthopaedic devices, wheelchairs, etc.

### The International Federation of Societies of the Red Cross and the Red Crescent

While the ICRC, created in 1863, protects and assists victims of internal or international conflicts and their direct consequences, the International Federation, founded in 1919, has for its task:

  * Coordinating international assistance to national Red Cross Societies for catastrophe victims.
  * Encouraging and promoting the creation and development of national societies.
  * Acting as permanent organ of liaison, coordination, the study for the national societies.

## RESPONSE

Usually and most often during response phase of disaster management humanitarian relief teams are mobilized and will rush to the effected region for aid. If the disaster is on a large scale the initial relief workers may be overwhelmed by the sheer magnitude of the disaster. The affected communities are the first ones to respond followed by arrival of national and international teams. During response the search and rescue operations are carried out; medical aid is provided on the basis of triage. Effected populations are evacuated to pre-designated safer places where they are provided with food and potable water. During most of the disasters the first after medical emergencies the shortage of drinkable water causes maximum casualties. So the installation of water filter plants at staging areas is a thumb rule. Electricity may be provided through generators and communication of various families within themselves and within the outside world must be initiated by placing mobile communication towers within range of disaster hit communities. In fact relief teams/ disaster aid workers must prioritize unification of families to reduce long term traumas and sense of great loss. During phase of response unified coordination within various agencies is crucial as to avoid duplication so that essential and important emergency relief materials are appropriately utilized. There is a need for both discipline in structure, doctrine and process during the phase of response. Professional competence and well rehearsed drills including improvisation, creativity and adaptability of relief workers, medical and rescue teams will profoundly enhance response to a disaster. Leadership should be of very high functional ability and disaster relief leaders and policy makers must exhibit uncanny sense of management and implementation of highest degree of discipline. While providing relief operations the code of conduct for international Red Cross and Red Crescents and NGO's must be adhered with ethical standards. There are ten principal commitments which are followed during the phase of response. They are:

The humanitarian imperative comes first;

  * The humanitarian imperative, the highest priority – "The right to receive and offer humanitarian assistance is a fundamental right from which every citizen of every country ought to benefit"
  * Aid shall be delivered without any consideration of the race, creed, or nationality of the beneficiary and without discrimination of any sort – The priorities in matters of assistance shall be determined exclusively as a function of need. The guiding principles shall remain those of impartiality, universality, and of proportionality, as well as emphasis on considerations of the condition of women in humanitarian operations
  * Aid shall not be used to advance political or religious convictions, whatever they may be – In no case shall assistance be dependent on the adherence of the beneficiaries to the opinions or beliefs of an international agency
  * We shall make all possible effort to avoid serving as an instrument of the foreign policy of governments – the reaffirmation of the principle of neutrality: "We shall not apply the policy of any government except insofar as it coincides with our own, formulated completely independently"
  * We shall respects cultures and customs
  * We shall seek to use local capacities as the foundation for intervention – "Even in the event of a catastrophe, all populations and communities retain some capacity to react, even if they seem vulnerable. We endeavour to reinforce those capacities whenever possible" Emphasis shall also be placed on the coordination among different agencies in the disaster area
  * We shall try to find ways to involve the beneficiaries in the management of relief operations – "The potential beneficiaries must be included in the conception, organization, and execution of the assistance programme"
  * Reliefs programs must strive to limit future vulnerabilities as well as satisfy immediate needs – Moreover, "We will do everything to keep the negative effects of humanitarian assistance to a minimum, while seeking to prevent a situation of lasting dependence of the beneficiaries on external aid"
  * We shall hold ourselves responsible both to the potential beneficiaries of our activities as well as to our donors – the application of the principles of responsibility, transparence, and accounting. In addition, "Our programs will be based on the rigorous criteria of professionalism and competence in order to keep the depletion of precious resources to a minimum"
  * In our information, promotion, and publicity activities we shall present the victims of disasters as human beings worthy of respect and not as objects of pity – "Victims deserve respect at all times and must be considered as equal partners in our activities"

The ten articles of the code fall into two types: Articles 1 to 4 are humanitarian principles required for humanitarian response. The remaining articles are mostly aspiration and are important for improving the quality of both humanitarian and developmental work. The humanitarian imperative based on the principle of humanity together with other core principles of impartiality and independence, stresses that humanitarian response must be based on need alone.

## ROLE OF SATELLITES

A geostationary orbit satellite is hardly a stationary satellite. Instead, it races around the planet in the same direction the planet rotates in order to maintain its location above a certain spot on the earth. All geostationary orbit satellites are positioned directly over the equator of the planet, limiting the number of satellites that can be placed in orbit.

### Weather

Many weather agencies have satellites that provide them with the most up-to-date information on what the weather is doing, including data on temperatures, cloud coverage, wind speeds and pressures. These geostationary orbit satellites have greatly improved the weather prediction process and have provided people with early warnings of dangerous weather conditions satellite is a man-made object that orbits or exists in a fixed pattern around the Earth. Satellites consist of communication equipment, a control system for manipulation from ground personnel, and a power source. Satellites communicate using antenna, radio transmitters and receiving equipment and batteries. Satellites send information down to a command centre and receive information in processes called down linking and unlinking, respectively. Satellites also use thrusters to aid in maneuvering their position for protecting and gathering information. They may maintain two types of orbits: low earth orbit or a high-altitude geostationary orbit. In the latter, a satellite is able to rotate identically with the earth's rotation.

### Transmission during Natural Disasters

Satellites transmit information during natural disasters using imaging technology as well as their on-board communication equipment. As stated by the Japanese Office of Natural Disaster and Rescue, a satellite can take pictures of locations human beings cannot reach during a disaster. Satellites can gather images using their on-board cameras and downlink the information to the command centre. As satellites are much higher than aircraft, their function is not inhibited by weather.

As the satellites gather imaging and environmental information, they can downlink the data to first response organizations, government entities and other public safety associations. However, down linking can be interfered with by atmospheric conditions (e.g. rain, air static) or the condition of the command centre the satellite is attempting to downlink to (e.g. base crippled by earthquake or power loss.) Satellites can transmit to multiple types of mobile stations (e.g. vans, boats, planes, satellite phones) that can bounce the down linked information through other satellites. This chain will send the information through to the necessary channels despite primary issues with down linking.

Two types of satellites that transmit information include communication satellites and Earth observation satellites. Weather satellites are also used by government agencies to detect changes in weather patterns that could lead to hurricanes, typhoons and other disasters.

### Satellite Phones

During natural disasters, satellite technology can also be used on special telephones. A satellite phone is a portable phone that communicates using satellites in orbit as opposed to land cell towers like cell phones. Satellite phones send a signal to and receive a signal from the satellite in use. Satellite phones are considered highly effective in natural disasters as they work globally and can function during a loss of power in a building or a large geographic area.

## DISTRIBUTION OF RELIEF: FOOD GRAINS

Distribution of Relief: Food Grains, malnutrition is usually not the first concern. Complications that arise from malnutrition, however, contribute to increasing death tolls. When an immune system is weakened by a lack of nutrients from a shortage of food and/or contaminated water, even typically "harmless" illnesses like diarrhea can have devastating effects – especially for children and others whose immune systems are not fully developed or full strength. According to the Global Health Council, diarrhea killed roughly 1.3 million children in 2008 alone. Pneumonia killed another 1.6 million. Natural disasters, such as earthquakes or floods, can dramatically affect food supply and distribution. In addition, when affected populations must rely solely on the distribution of emergency relief rations for extended periods, they miss the full scope of nutrients needed for health. Malnourishment is an imbalance in a person's intake of nutrients and other dietary elements (either too much or too little); according to the World Health Organization, it affects some 3 billion people to varying degrees. One out of five people in developing countries suffer from hunger.

Unfortunately, the answer is not as simple as just shipping grain to malnourished communities. Though immediate relief efforts—such as external aid being given in the current Horn of Africa famine—significantly helped to reduce the number of deaths, for those who were seriously malnourished. Eating is a physiologically difficult task. Bacteria in the digestive system necessary for processing food may no longer be present. As such, specialized feeding programs are necessary. So, too, are distribution efforts that don't require parents to bring children to hospitals or infirmaries for food. These trips not only potentially keep a parent from earning income elsewhere; they also put that parent at risk of becoming ill from being around others who are sick. When it comes to babies, even donations of powdered infant formula can be problematic, as mixing it with dirty water can increase the chance of illness.

Well-funded research can have a profound effect in disaster preparedness around nutrition. Consider the development of Plumpy'nut, an edible peanut paste, rich in calories and vitamins that has made great strides in bringing children back from severe malnutrition. It has been distributed in areas such as Haiti and Africa with noted success, but it is expensive; as of 2010, it cost about $60 per child for a two-month supply. Opportunities still abound for creating innovative, lasting solutions for improving the worldwide picture of nutrition. Post-disaster feeding intervention programs should be part of longer-term development strategies that prevent the cycle from continuing. Dependence on external assistance and feeding efforts can keep those living in areas prone to malnutrition from seeking new solutions.

Even after immediate needs are met, malnutrition can have consequences for generations to come. When women are severely malnourished, they become unable to have children. In addition, chronic malnutrition can affect brain development, potentially diminishing cognitive ability in future years.

Issues of malnourishment and food insecurity also exist outside the traditional definition of an "emergency." Consider the pastoralists of rural Africa, nomadic communities constantly in search of appropriate pastures for goats and/or cattle. Settled members of the group—often women and children—regularly suffer from seasonal malnutrition as the herds go to graze. Nutritional supplements and culturally appropriate educational materials could make a significant impact. Malnutrition and hunger also happen in the United States. In 2010, according to the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 17.2 million U.S. households—approximately one in seven—were food insecure, the highest number ever recorded in the nation.

Ongoing nutrition surveillance is essential—especially in vulnerable populations. Disaster preparedness efforts around nutrition should take into account the ongoing specific needs of groups such as the elderly and those with HIV/AIDS or diabetes. Immune systems strengthened by good nutrition are better able to fight illness and disease.

Govt. agencies and Relief Commissioners under the ministries of Relief and Rehabilitation need to work very closely with international agencies like UNDP, World Bank, WFP & WHO, so that nutritional requirements of malnutrition of population hit by disaster can be met. Based on numbers, procurement of grains, emergency rations, and specialized rations for children, women, and lactating mothers, old sick, wounded and hospitalized casualties can be made. Further storage and stockpiling as near as possible to disaster hit areas should be made feasible. Storage has to be safe from rodents, animals, dampness, and repeated thefts.

Ensure disaster response grants incorporate nutrition. The Sphere Project, for example, offers standards for both preventing and correcting malnutrition. Those most at risk for micronutrient deficiencies and diseases include: children under two; women who are pregnant or breastfeeding; older people; and families with chronically ill members. Disasters often exacerbate pre-existing issues. Shore up plans to protect vulnerable populations should food supplies decline. Work with established agencies and programs that serve those whose immune systems are compromised by illness and/or age. In the event of a disaster, for example, what is the plan for those with diabetes or HIV/AIDS, who have different nutritional needs that the rest of the general population?

Invest in educational and public-awareness partnerships with local agencies. Partnering with experienced, well-connected individuals on the ground is more effective than just delivering supplies. Communities invested in their own long-term success will reap greater rewards.

Foster strategic partnerships to manufacture, distribute, and stockpile supplies before a disaster occurs. Work with companies that widely distribute other items to carry food supplies and supplements, and/or encourage local companies to manufacture those supplies. Malnutrition does not occur overnight; as such, preparedness can have a marked effect. Non-perishable items must be available—and a plan for getting them to the people most in need must be in place.

### Nutrition and Food Supply

Malnutrition rates lower than 5% of infants in developing countries are relatively common but any higher number would constitute a very serious message. A malnutrition rate higher than 10% indicates an emergency, calling for immediate action in an emergency, the access to sufficient and appropriate quantities of food can be compromised in that people are displaced and refugees or victims of civil unrest may impede commercial activities and agricultural production. Extraordinary situations such as drought, floods or excessive rains can aggravate the situation and accelerate the rapid exhaustion of available resources. In natural emergencies, international agencies strive to furnish refugees with adequate food rations to maintain the nutritional status and the health of the population. In the event that the crisis is not identified early or the management of programs does not prove to be effective, severe malnutrition or even famines can develop. This is what occurred in Ethiopia in 1984 and in Somalia in 1992. During the famine in southern Sudan in 1998, malnutrition rates exceeded 50%in several regions. In a refugee situation, the daily caloric needs per person are estimated at 2,100 calories that can be composed of cereal, oil, sugar and protein such as fish or dry vegetables (beans, peas). Nevertheless, the experience showed the general distributions are often insufficient and do not meet the most vulnerable groups. When food is individually distributed to families instead of passing through the community leaders, the quality and caloric content of the food rations can often be determined through a survey investigation of food distribution. Following this method, a randomly selected group of families are interviewed at the exit of a distribution centre and the received goods are weighed and measured to determine if they are adequate for all the members of the family. It is sometimes difficult to supervise this type of investigation because of local political and local administrative pressures.

In situations where the food rations and available local food resources are inadequate, symptoms of malnutrition can rapidly appear, particularly among the most vulnerable members of a group: infants, nursing children, pregnant women and elderly. Protein malnutrition can be moderate or severe and takes several forms, including depression. There are also different forms of malnutrition that stem from the lack of micronutrients, due generally to deficiencies of vitamins or other specific nutrients. There are a variety of clinical consequences for these deficiencies. Some examples of diseases caused by micronutrient deficiencies include night blindness or a diminished resistance to infections (vitamin A), beriberi (vitamin b-1), pellagra, scurvy (vitamin C), rickets (vitamin D), goiter (iodine) and iron anemia.

### Evaluation of Nutritional Status of Populations

If there is any doubt regarding the functioning of the food distribution system or signs of malnutrition among infants, a nutritional investigation could be conducted to correctly determine the proportion of children suffering from severe or moderate malnutrition. This technique requires some epidemiological expertise and can take two weeks or more to organize and put in place. The prevalence of malnutrition is obtained by weighing and measuring a random sample of children between 6 months and 5 years, calculating an index based on a weight/height relationship, then extrapolating the results of the investigation of the rest of children of the population. A child under the expected weight for his or her size may be malnourished. In certain cases a brachial perimeter analysis could also be used. Unfortunately, this method cannot replace that of weight/height and often makes a complete study necessary. The results of all studies will be utilized to plan programs to ameliorate the general food rations or to begin supplementary or therapeutic food programs.

### Targeted Food Programs

Targeted food programs are designed to increase the nutritional level of the members of the most vulnerable groups of a given population. These interventions can take the form of therapeutic or supplementary food programs. Supplementary 'dry' food programs take the form of dry ration distributions like additional cereals or highly caloric biscuits. A systematic blanket program can be the distribution to all the members of a vulnerable group, such as children, pregnant women or older people without respect to their particular nutritional status. On the other hand, targeted supplementary food programs respond to entrance as well as exit conditions, in favor of malnourished children. Children with a weight/height relationship between 70% to 80% of the median of the population are usually considered as being moderately malnourished and eligible for supplementary health programs. The youngest children between 6 and 24 months are the most vulnerable and for multiple reasons cannot plainly benefit from weekly distributions of dry rations. Thus, it can be appropriate to start a 'moist' program that furnishes a cooked meal daily for all child beneficiaries, assuring that each will obtain the 500 to 700 additional calories that are needed. If a large number of children are suffering from severe malnutrition (children with a weight/height relationship of 70% of the median reference population), it is good to initiate therapeutic food programs. Children at this stage of malnutrition can be on the verge of death and need to be re-nourished in a deliberate manner. Therapeutic food programs usually provide 24-hour attention on the basis of 6-12 highly caloric meals each day, continuous medical check-ups, immunization and prescription of a therapeutic dose of vitamin A. Signs of malnutrition should be detected at the centre of populations before it becomes a serious problem. As for all other health problems, it is easier to prevent malnutrition than to treat it. Other preventative measures can also be taken. For example, vitamin A supplements can often be given at the same time as the measles vaccination.

### Storage Management

Storage management can be directly assigned to a humanitarian agency, whether for material goods or for the care of a food depot at the entrance or centre of a refugee camp. Good storage management depends on the continuity of the provisions, the stocking, and the constitution of the reserve stocks that are very useful in dangerous zones with difficult access. Additionally, there should be measures taken to ensure that the stored goods will not be subject to spoilage due to humidity, harmful animals, repetitive theft or other mishaps. Below are presented several basic rules that will enable proper management of storage under various circumstances.

  * The stock is in secure and hygienic conditions and food products are protected against spoiling and losses.
  * The food provisions are regularly inspected and those that are unacceptable for human consumption are reported and destroyed according to established procedures.
  * Verification between inventory and food forms is periodically checked.
  * Systems are established for the management of stocks and the preparation of given accounts: this knowledge permits the documentation of transactions; large books contain the summaries of entries and exits and food forms; all the losses are recounted and reported, and regular inventory reports are established and made available.

### Principles of Allocation and Distribution

When a humanitarian emergency is declared, one of the first functions of the emergency team is to identify the immediate nutritional needs of the populations and to identify ways to meet them by:

  * An analysis of the local supply of products and food rations
  * The general nutritional status of the displaced populations
  * Eventual sources of revenue and the survival strategies developed by the people.

Behind this analysis it is important to understand that all humanitarian situations do not require the same investment in terms of food quantity and assistance on the part of humanitarian agencies. The time is also an important consideration because the population's needs, the local and international supply, the sources of revenue of the displaced populations and the nutritional status of the people varies greatly with time. Finally, it is necessary to understand that there are a variety of sources of rations for food assistance: the lending or re-administering of preplanned provisions for programs in progress (programs accomplished by agencies or programs running on cereal reserves of certain countries); loans in accordance with commercial enterprises, or exchanges organized with them; purchases on the local, regional or international markets; the direct furnishing of food supplies by donors (in the frame of bilateral or multi-lateral accords). The goals and principles of food assistance can be varied according to the nature of the situation (natural or human catastrophe).

The principles are:

  * To save lives, where the nutritional status is threatened by the immediate change in living conditions
  * To reinforce the nutritional security of the populations and/or the local economy
  * To protect the medical and nutritional status of particular groups, especially the most vulnerable people
  * To preserve the assets of families (in the goal of not selling their assets in the short-term and losing the means to replace them in the long-term)
  * To protect those who are forced to resort to food assistance as a result of socio-political conflicts or due to natural disasters/ man made disaster situations.

### Administration of Distribution Operations

The administration of a distribution operation is not as easy an exercise as it may appear. We have all seen the extreme emergencies on television in Somalia, Bosnia or Iraq, where humanitarian workers on trucks or helicopters throw large, full sacks of assistance, bread, and plastic for tents, hopelessly unable to organize the dozens of hands that are grabbing at them. The management of a distribution operation essentially depends on two factors:

First: The ability to previously organize complete and precise lists of the beneficiaries. This implies collecting important information and especially validating and verifying it with competent, local authorities (UNHCR or others). In order to prepare for a good distribution, it is important to prepare cards that take into account certain elements i.e. the civil state of the person, the time and schedule of the distribution, etc. These cards carry the logos of the executing agency or of the lender (like UNHCR) and will be stamped or punched at the time of each distribution.

The beneficiaries of food aid are aware of the quantities and the type of rations that should be distributed around the time of each distribution cycle and ideally they are consulted on the decisions concerning the most effective and equitable methods of distribution: women are consulted and contribute equally as men in the decision making.

The frequency of the distributions is a function of:

  * The cost of transporting the supplies from the distribution centre
  * The time devoted to travel in order to go to the distribution centre and return

Second: The capacity to deliver the allotted quantities to each person on the list in calm and secure conditions. To accomplish this operation it is necessary to think about:

  * The entrance and distribution spaces. Many professionals suggest closed spaces where the people, forming a line, pass from one point of entrance to another point of exit, not being able to stop in the middle of the route, nor begin exploiting the external crowd, nor complain and slow down the process. Outside, the crowd should ideally be placed in a controlled waiting line.
  * Position the personnel in front of each good or provision. Assign a person in charge of distribution that will regulate the inevitable requests and potential conflicts.
  * Carefully prepare and calculate the number of people present and the number of bags, kilos, buckets and other goods that will be distributed at the time of this operation.
  * Prepare external and internal security, constituted ideally of people from the community who can exercise necessary authority and can guarantee a minimum level of security.
  * Keep a complete and detailed register of each distribution and do not forget to make the beneficiaries of the operation sign appropriate records to indicate they have received the aid.
  * To prevent any sale of goods after the distribution finishes especially when in the presence of rationed food provisions, make the people accept the fact that female heads of the family must come for the food. This way there is less of a chance of individual embezzling organized by men. Generally the participation of women from diverse segments of the population should ensure representation of all segments of the community. This should also ensure access to resources profiting homes led by women or adolescents, the exceptionally vulnerable people. The validity of a distribution process often depends on the ability to adjust to the increase or decrease in the number of beneficiaries. It is very easy to lose a good reputation or credibility as a humanitarian interventionist on the basis of manipulating names in a group of lists, the manipulation of quantities or the resale of goods or allotted foods by beneficiaries on the free market, etc. The credibility of the process depends on the ability to consistently verify, adjust, and have validation by competent authorities on the number of beneficiaries and the distributed quantities and to have humanitarian personnel carry this out free of intimidation. Historically, humanitarian agencies state that the manner in which the beneficiaries estimate whether they are in a position to be associated with distributions depends on the catastrophe's impact on their social structures. The more destructive the impact, the less likely they are to be concerned with the processes of controlling distribution.

### Water and Food Safety

Of primary importance in emergency feeding is the provision of safe food and water. Food and water can easily be contaminated and become the source of food and water-borne diseases during disasters. Adequate and safe drinking water must be available and accessible to all victims and relief workers. The minimum water need for drinking may be calculated at one liter per person a day, three or more liters during hot climate or 15-20 liters per person a day for drinking and hand washing.

Infants and young children who critically need water require more in proportion to their weight than adults do. It is also essential for lactating mothers for adequate milk production and for fluid restoration of the sick during vomiting, diarrhea and fever. If safety of drinking water is uncertain, it is required that domestic water disinfection and protection be instituted. Bringing water to a rolling boil for 5-20 minutes is the most common way of disinfecting drinking water. Other disinfectants are chlorine compounds, iodine and potassium permanganate. It is very important that disinfected water be stored, transported and distributed in clean, covered and non-corrosive containers to avert recontamination and assure safe use. Similarly, food sanitation must be ensured. Food can become degraded or contaminated due to exposure to elements. Extra care is needed in all aspects of food management, from purchasing (or acceptance of delivered donated foods) to storage, preparation and cooking and service to lessen, if not eliminate the risk of contamination. Food handlers play a very important role in this regard. The provision of adequate and safe food ration in terms of quality and quantity, or giving full consideration to the nutritional needs of disaster victims can do much to preserve life, maintain morale and relieve the condition of casualties. In addition, this will further motivate emergency workers in their job and heal psychological scars of people made destitute due to disasters. Finally, proper planning, coordination, management and mobilization of resources, together with constant monitoring of the nutritional condition of victims particularly the children and disaster preparedness are key ingredients of successful emergency feeding operations.

### The World Food Program

This is a general accord with the UNHCR but can also, in cases where beneficiaries are not refugees, negotiate with the Red Cross, the ICRC or any other agency with which they have partnered. It is responsible for purchases and international logistics, and the shipment of food quantities by sea, land or, exceptionally by air. UNHCR will acquire food in quantity on international markets and dispenses large quantities of food which are replaced in part by States wishing to participate in a humanitarian crisis (such as Canadian wheat or American oil). Generally, the World Food Program has the responsibility to direct food until it reaches the closest point of final distribution (what one calls the Extended Delivery Point), often with the cooperation of non-governmental agencies (for example Care International in Kenya that is concerned with the food delivered to the port of Mombasa by the WFP before proceeding to the Somalians refugee camp 3 (THREE) days of travel away in the north of the country).

### Food for Work

Food for Work programs is one of the most creative of the World Food Program. Because of their flexibility and their originality, the Food for Work programs can often transform into important tools for the reconstruction, rehabilitation, or economic development of developing countries. The idea behind the programs is simple: the salaries of workers who work on a given site are paid in the form of a "food basket," usually dry rations distributed by the W.F.P. The recipients of the "food baskets" can do what they wish with the packets, whether it be consuming the packets themselves or selling them on the local food market, etc. What are the key areas identified for the Food for Work programs? A priori, they could have no limits. However, priority is generally given to the programs for public works i.e. road construction, reconstruction or rehabilitation of houses or public buildings, and the digging of dikes, canals, or land for cultivation. In addition, in special cases (a situation where the flow of capital in an economy is weak) we can finance the salaries of an administration, humanitarian program workers, etc. Therefore, the range of Food for Work activities can be limitless and can touch a number of sectors with several effects. However, it is important to note some limits to the process as follows: The availability of regular and sufficient food stuffs on the local economy to feed the necessary beneficiaries. The guarantee that the flow of foreign food products into local food markets will not produce sizeable economic volatility or imbalances, particularly regarding the price, but also on the sale of identical nationally produced products. Also, t hat the products sold are not beyond the reach of local salaries, which would create anew distortion on the local labor market.

### Cash for Food

Another special program is Cash for Food. In these programs, an organization or a government decides to grant checks, goods, or hard currency so that a group of beneficiaries can meet their food needs. Such a situation is relatively rare, but can be justified under certain circumstances, such as: The absence of sufficient quantities of international products to distribute. A lack of variety in the international products distributed. Complications and delays in the local distribution system or the comparatively elevated costs of distribution to too great of a degree. The local availability of abundant local products (in particular for extra help programs). The decision of a government to favor the economy and local products.

### Monetization

Monetization is a complicated process from the point of view of the amount of operations that it brings about. It is only realizable on scales of an important volume and only a few large agencies today undertake the risk of instituting this type of operation. Yet, monetization remains an uncommon tool of development, because it can satisfy several functions and needs in a joint manner. Briefly, monetization is the indirect transference in development programs of an important quantity of food granted by a sponsor but introduced through the local economy. This food, by the virtue of national and international commercial mechanisms, is sold at local market price (or less) to local buyers. Therefore, it permits the maintenance of the prices of the goods involved to correspond to prices locally accepted by the majority of the population, to eventually constitute the national stocks to combat a possible food shortage as well as to activate the commercial chain of food distribution. At the same time as the food assistance is being worked out, the settlement of a financial fund counterpart is being negotiated, which is composed of the revenue (once the logistical and administration costs are met) of the sale of the donated food stuffs to national intermediaries. The revenues and interest generated by these counterpart funds are reinvested locally in development projects that profit the local populations.
