Racial segregation is the separation of people
into racial or other ethnic groups in daily
life. It may apply to activities such as eating
in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain,
using a public toilet, attending school, going
to the movies, riding on a bus, or in the
rental or purchase of a home or of hotel rooms.
Segregation is defined by the European Commission
against Racism and Intolerance as "the act
by which a (natural or legal) person separates
other persons on the basis of one of the enumerated
grounds without an objective and reasonable
justification, in conformity with the proposed
definition of discrimination. As a result,
the voluntary act of separating oneself from
other people on the basis of one of the enumerated
grounds does not constitute segregation".
According to the UN Forum on Minority Issues,
"The creation and development of classes and
schools providing education in minority languages
should not be considered impermissible segregation,
if the assignment to such classes and schools
is of a voluntary nature".Racial segregation
is generally outlawed, but may exist de facto
through social norms, even when there is no
strong individual preference for it, as suggested
by Thomas Schelling's models of segregation
and subsequent work. Segregation may be maintained
by means ranging from discrimination in hiring
and in the rental and sale of housing to certain
races to vigilante violence (such as lynchings).
Generally, a situation that arises when members
of different races mutually prefer to associate
and do business with members of their own
race would usually be described as separation
or de facto separation of the races rather
than segregation. In the United States, segregation
was mandated by law in some states and came
with anti-miscegenation laws (prohibitions
against interracial marriage). Segregation,
however, often allowed close contact in hierarchical
situations, such as allowing a person of one
race to work as a servant for a member of
another race. Segregation can involve spatial
separation of the races, and mandatory use
of different institutions, such as schools
and hospitals by people of different races.
== History ==
Wherever there have been multiracial communities,
there has been racial segregation. Only areas
with extensive miscegenation, or mixing, such
as Hawaii and Brazil, despite some social
stratification, seem to be exempt.
=== French Algeria ===
Following its conquest of Ottoman controlled
Algeria in 1830, for well over a century France
maintained colonial rule in the territory
which has been described as "quasi-apartheid".
The colonial law of 1865 allowed Arab and
Berber Algerians to apply for French citizenship
only if they abandoned their Muslim identity;
Azzedine Haddour argues that this established
"the formal structures of a political apartheid".
Camille Bonora-Waisman writes that, "[i]n
contrast with the Moroccan and Tunisian protectorates",
this "colonial apartheid society" was unique
to Algeria.This "internal system of apartheid"
met with considerable resistance from the
Muslims affected by it, and is cited as one
of the causes of the 1954 insurrection and
ensuing independence war.
=== Germany ===
In fifteenth-century north-east Germany, people
of Wendish, i.e. Slavic, origin were not allowed
to join some guilds. According to Wilhelm
Raabe, "down into the eighteenth century no
German guild accepted a Wend."German praise
for America's institutional racism, previously
found in Hitler's Mein Kampf, was continuous
throughout the early 1930s, and radical Nazi
lawyers were advocates of the use of American
models. Race based U.S. citizenship laws and
anti-miscegenation laws directly inspired
the two principal Nuremberg Laws—the Citizenship
Law and the Blood Law. The ban on interracial
marriage (anti-miscegenation) prohibited sexual
relations and marriages between people classified
as "Aryan" and "non-Aryan." Such relationships
were called Rassenschande (race defilement).
At first the laws were aimed primarily at
Jews but were later extended to "Gypsies,
Negroes and their bastard offspring". Aryans
found guilty could face incarceration in a
concentration camp, while non-Aryans could
face the death penalty. To preserve the so-called
purity of the German blood, after the war
began, the Nazis extended the race defilement
law to include all foreigners (non-Germans).Under
the General Government of occupied Poland
in 1940, the Nazis divided the population
into different groups, each with different
rights, food rations, allowed housing strips
in the cities, public transportation, etc.
In an effort to split Polish identity they
attempted to establish ethnic divisions of
Kashubians and Gorals (Goralenvolk), based
on these groups' alleged "Germanic component."
During the 1930s and 1940s, Jews in Nazi-controlled
states were made to wear yellow ribbons or
stars of David, and were, along with Romas
(Gypsies), discriminated against by the racial
laws. Jewish doctors were not allowed to treat
Aryan patients nor were Jewish professors
permitted to teach Aryan pupils. In addition,
Jews were not allowed to use any public transportation,
besides the ferry, and were able to shop only
from 3–5 pm in Jewish stores. After Kristallnacht
("The Night of Broken Glass"), the Jews were
fined 1,000,000 marks for damages done by
the Nazi troops and SS members.
Jews and Roma were subjected to genocide as
"undesirable" racial groups in the Holocaust.
The Nazis established ghettos to confine Jews
and sometimes Romas into tightly packed areas
of the cities of Eastern Europe, turning them
into de facto concentration camps. The Warsaw
Ghetto was the largest of these ghettos, with
400,000 people. The Łódź Ghetto was the
second largest, holding about 160,000.Between
1939 and 1945, at least 1.5 million Polish
citizens were transported to the Reich for
forced labour (in all, about 12 million forced
laborers were employed in the German war economy
inside Nazi Germany). Although Nazi Germany
also used forced laborers from Western Europe,
Poles, along with other Eastern Europeans
viewed as racially inferior, were subject
to deeper discriminatory measures. They were
forced to wear a yellow with purple border
and letter "P" (for Polen/Polish) cloth identifying
tag sewn to their clothing, subjected to a
curfew, and banned from public transportation.
While the treatment of factory workers or
farm hands often varied depending on the individual
employer, Polish laborers as a rule were compelled
to work longer hours for lower wages than
Western Europeans – in many cities, they
were forced to live in segregated barracks
behind barbed wire. Social relations with
Germans outside work were forbidden, and sexual
relations (Rassenschande or "racial defilement")
were punishable by death.
=== Imperial China ===
==== Tang dynasty ====
Several laws enforcing racial segregation
of foreigners from Chinese were passed by
the Han chinese during the Tang dynasty. In
779 the Tang dynasty issued an edict which
forced Uighurs to wear their ethnic dress,
stopped them from marrying Chinese females,
and banned them from pretending to be Chinese.
Chinese disliked Uighurs because they practiced
usury. The magistrate who issued the orders
may have wanted to protect "purity" in Chinese
custom. In 836, when Lu Chun was appointed
as governor of Canton, he was disgusted to
find Chinese living with foreigners and intermarriage
between Chinese and foreigners. Lu enforced
separation, banning interracial marriages,
and made it illegal for foreigners to own
property. Lu Chun believed his principles
were just and upright. The 836 law specifically
banned Chinese from forming relationships
with "Dark peoples" or "People of colour",
which was used to describe foreigners, such
as "Iranians, Sogdians, Arabs, Indians, Malays,
Sumatrans", among others.
==== Qing dynasty ====
The Qing Dynasty was founded not by the Han
Chinese who form the majority of the Chinese
population, but the Manchus, who are today
an ethnic minority of China. The Manchus were
keenly aware of their minority status, however,
it was only later in the dynasty that they
banned intermarriage.
Han defectors played a massive role in the
Qing conquest of China. Han Chinese Generals
who defected to the Manchu were often given
women from the Imperial Aisin Gioro family
in marriage while the ordinary soldiers who
defected were given non-royal Manchu women
as wives. The Manchu leader Nurhaci married
one of his granddaughters to the Ming General
Li Yongfang after he surrendered Fushun in
Liaoning to the Manchu in 1618. Jurchen (Manchu)
women married most the Han Chinese defectors
in Liaodong. Aisin Gioro women were married
to the sons of the Han Chinese Generals Sun
Sike (Sun Ssu-k'o), Geng Jimao (Keng Chi-mao),
Shang Kexi (Shang K'o-hsi), and Wu Sangui
(Wu San-kuei).A mass marriage of Han Chinese
officers and officials to Manchu women numbering
1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto
and Hongtaiji in 1632 to promote harmony between
the two ethnic groups.Geng Zhongming, a Han
bannerman, was awarded the title of Prince
Jingnan, and his son Geng Jingmao managed
to have both his sons Geng Jingzhong and Geng
Zhaozhong become court attendants under Shunzhi
and get married to Aisin Gioro women, with
Haoge's (a son of Hong Taiji) daughter marrying
Geng Jingzhong and Prince Abatai's (Hong Taiji)
granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong.The
Qing differentiated between Han Bannermen
and ordinary Han civilians. Han Bannermen
were made out of Han Chinese who defected
to the Qing up to 1644 and joined the Eight
Banners, giving them social and legal privileges
in addition to being acculturated to Manchu
culture. So many Han defected to the Qing
and swelled up the ranks of the Eight Banners
that ethnic Manchus became a minority within
the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with
Han Bannermen dominating at 75%. It was this
multi-ethnic force in which Manchus were only
a minority, which conquered China for the
Qing.It was Han Chinese Bannermen who were
responsible for the successful Qing conquest
of China, they made up the majority of governors
in the early Qing and were the ones who governed
and administered China after the conquest,
stabilizing Qing rule. Han Bannermen dominated
the post of governor-general in the time of
the Shunzhi and Kangxi Emperors, and also
the post of governors, largely excluding ordinary
Han civilians from the posts.To promote ethnic
harmony, a 1648 decree from the Manchu Shunzhi
Emperor allowed Han Chinese civilian men to
marry Manchu women from the Banners with the
permission of the Board of Revenue if they
were registered daughters of officials or
commoners or the permission of their banner
company captain if they were unregistered
commoners, it was only later in the dynasty
that these policies allowing intermarriage
were done away with.The Qing implemented a
policy of segregation between the Bannermen
of the Eight Banners (Manchu Bannermen, Mongol
Bannermen, Han Bannermen) and Han Chinese
civilians. This ethnic segregation had cultural
and economic reasons: intermarriage was forbidden
to keep up the Manchu heritage and minimize
sinicization. Han Chinese civilians and Mongol
civilians were banned from settling in Manchuria.
Han civilians and Mongol civilians were banned
from crossing into each other's lands. Ordinary
Mongol civilians in Inner Mongolia were banned
from even crossing into other Mongol Banners.
(A banner in Inner Mongolia was an administrative
division and not related to the Mongol Bannermen
in the Eight Banners)
These restrictions did not apply Han Bannermen,
who were settled in Manchuria by the Qing.
Han bannermen were differentiated from Han
civilians by the Qing and treated differently.
The Qing Dynasty started colonizing Manchuria
with Han Chinese later on in the dynasty's
rule, but the Manchu area was still separated
from modern-day Inner Mongolia by the Outer
Willow Palisade, which kept the Manchu and
the Mongols in the area separate.
The policy of segregation applied directly
to the banner garrisons, most of which occupied
a separate walled zone within the cities in
which they were stationed. Manchu Bannermen,
Han Bannermen, and Mongol Bannermen were separated
from the Han civilian population. While the
Manchus followed the governmental structure
of the preceding Ming dynasty, their ethnic
policy dictated that appointments were split
between Manchu noblemen and Han Chinese civilian
officials who had passed the highest levels
of the state examinations, and because of
the small number of Manchus, this insured
that a large fraction of them would be government
officials.
=== Italy ===
In 1938, the fascist regime led by Benito
Mussolini, under pressure from the Nazis,
introduced a series of Italian Racial Laws
instituting an official segregationist policy
in the Italian Empire, especially aimed against
Jews. This policy enforced various segregationist
norms, like the prohibition for Jews to teach
or study in ordinary schools and universities,
to own industries reputed of major national
interest, to work as journalists, to enter
the military, and to wed non-Jews.
Some of the immediate consequences of the
introduction of the 'provvedimenti per la
difesa della razza' (norms for the defence
of the race) included many of the best Italian
scientists leaving their job, or even Italy.
Amongst these, world-renowned physicists Emilio
Segrè, Enrico Fermi (whose wife was Jewish),
Bruno Pontecorvo, Bruno Rossi, Tullio Levi-Civita,
mathematicians Federigo Enriques and Guido
Fubini and even the fascist propaganda director,
art critic and journalist Margherita Sarfatti,
who was one of Mussolini's mistresses. Rita
Levi-Montalcini, who would successively win
the Nobel Prize for Medicine, was forbidden
to work at the university. Albert Einstein,
upon approval of the racial law, resigned
from honorary membership of the Accademia
dei Lincei.
After 1943, when Northern Italy was occupied
by the Nazis, Italian Jews were rounded up
for the Holocaust.
=== Jewish segregation ===
Jews in Europe generally were forced, by decree
or by informal pressure, to live in highly
segregated ghettos and shtetls. In 1204 the
papacy required Jews to segregate themselves
from Christians and to wear distinctive clothing.
Forced segregation of Jews spread throughout
Europe during the 14th and 15th centuries.
In the Russian Empire, Jews were restricted
to the so-called Pale of Settlement, the Western
frontier of the Russian Empire corresponding
roughly to the modern-day countries of Poland,
Lithuania, Belarus, Moldova and Ukraine. By
the early 20th century, the majority of European
Jews lived in the Pale of Settlement.
Jewish population were confined to mellahs
in Morocco beginning from the 15th century.
In cities, a mellah was surrounded by a wall
with a fortified gateway. In contrast, rural
mellahs were separate villages inhabited solely
by the Jews.In the middle of the 19th century,
J. J. Benjamin wrote about the life of Persian
Jews:
…they are obliged to live in a separate
part of town…; for they are considered as
unclean creatures… Under the pretext of
their being unclean, they are treated with
the greatest severity and should they enter
a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are
pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and
dirt… For the same reason, they are prohibited
to go out when it rains; for it is said the
rain would wash dirt off them, which would
sully the feet of the Mussulmans… If a Jew
is recognized as such in the streets, he is
subjected to the greatest insults. The passers-by
spit in his face, and sometimes beat him…
unmercifully… If a Jew enters a shop for
anything, he is forbidden to inspect the goods…
Should his hand incautiously touch the goods,
he must take them at any price the seller
chooses to ask for them... Sometimes the Persians
intrude into the dwellings of the Jews and
take possession of whatever please them. Should
the owner make the least opposition in defense
of his property, he incurs the danger of atoning
for it with his life... If... a Jew shows
himself in the street during the three days
of the Katel (Muharram)…, he is sure to
be murdered.
=== Latin America ===
Spanish colonists created caste systems in
Latin American countries based on classification
by race and race mixture. An extensive nomenclature
developed, including the familiar terms "mulatto",
"mestizo", and "zambo" (the latter the origin
of "sambo"). The Spanish had practiced a form
of caste system in Hispania before their expulsion
of the Jews and Muslims. While many Latin
American countries have long since rendered
the system officially illegal through legislation,
usually at the time of independence, prejudice
based on degrees of perceived racial distance
from European ancestry combined with one's
socioeconomic status remain, an echo of the
colonial caste system.
=== Norway ===
On 16 May 1940 the Administrasjonsrådet asked
Rikskommisariatet why radio receivers had
been confiscated from Jews in Norway. That
Administrasjonsrådet thereafter "quietly"
accepted racial segregation between Norwegian
citizens, has been claimed by Tor Bomann-Larsen.
Furthermore, he claimed that this segregation
"created a precedent. 2 years later (with
NS-styret in the ministries of Norway) Norwegian
police arrested citizens at the addresses
where radios had previously been confiscated
from Jews.
=== Rhodesia ===
Following a dispute over the terms for the
granting of full independence, the British
self-governing colony of Rhodesia, governed
by a predominantly white minority government,
unilaterally declared independence in 1965.
Led by Prime Minister Ian Smith, it endured
as an unrecognized state under white rule
for the next 14 years, with majority rule
coming in 1979 with the Internal Settlement
between Smith's government and moderate black
nationalists, the associated multiracial elections
and the reconstitution of the country as Zimbabwe
Rhodesia, with Bishop Abel Muzorewa at the
helm of a coalition cabinet comprising 12
blacks and five whites. This new order also
failed to win legitimacy in the eyes of the
world, and British control returned to the
country in December 1979, following the Lancaster
House Agreement. New elections were held in
1980, and Zimbabwe gained recognized independence
in April 1980, with Robert Mugabe as prime
minister.
Laws enforcing segregation had been around
before 1965, although many institutions simply
ignored them. One highly publicized legal
battle occurred in 1960 involving the opening
of a new theatre that was to be open to all
races; the proposed unsegregated public toilets
at the newly built Reps Theatre in 1959 caused
an argument called "The Battle of the Toilets".
=== South Africa ===
The apartheid system carried out by Afrikaner
minority rule enacted a nationwide social
policy "separate development" with the National
Party victory in 1948, following the "colour
bar"-discriminatory legislation dating back
to the beginning of the Union of South Africa
and the Boer republics before which, while
repressive to black South Africans along with
other minorities, had not gone nearly so far.
Apartheid laws can be generally divided into
following acts. Firstly, the Population Registration
Act in 1950 classified residents in South
Africa into four racial groups: "black", "white",
"Coloured", and "Indian" and noted their racial
identities on their identifications. Secondly,
the Group Areas Act in 1950 assigned different
regions according to different races. People
were forced to live in their corresponding
regions and the action of passing the boundaries
without a permit was made illegal, extending
pass laws that had already curtailed black
movement. Thirdly, under the Reservation of
Separate Amenities Act in 1953, amenities
in public areas, like hospitals, universities
and parks, were labeled separately according
to particular races. In addition, the Bantu
Education Act in 1953 segregated national
education in South Africa as well. Additionally,
the government of the time enforced the pass
laws, which deprived black South Africans
of their right to travel freely within their
own country. Under this system black people
were severely restricted from urban areas,
requiring authorisation from a white employer
to enter.
Uprisings and protests against apartheid appeared
immediately when apartheid arose. As early
as 1949, the youth wing of the African National
Congress (ANC) advocated the ending of apartheid
and suggested fighting against racial segregation
by various methods. During the following decades,
hundreds of anti-apartheid actions occurred,
including those of the Black Consciousness
Movement, students' protests, labor strikes,
and church group activism etc. In 1991, the
Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures
Act was passed, repealing laws enforcing racial
segregation, including the Group Areas Act.
In 1994, Nelson Mandela won in the first multiracial
democratic election in South Africa. His success
fulfilled the ending of apartheid in South
African history.
=== United States ===
After Jim Crow laws were passed that segregated
African Americans and Whites, the lives of
those who were negatively affected saw no
progress in their quest for equality. Racial
segregation was not a new phenomenon, as almost
four million blacks had been slaves before
the Civil War. The laws passed segregated
African Americans from Whites. Signs were
used to show non whites where they could legally
walk, talk, drink, rest, or eat. For those
places that were racially mixed, blacks had
to wait until all White customers were dealt
with. Rules were also enforced that restricted
African Americans from entering white stores.
Segregated facilities extended from white
only schools to white only graveyards.After
the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery
in America, racial discrimination became regulated
by the so-called Jim Crow laws, which mandated
strict segregation of the races. Though many
such laws were instituted shortly after fighting
ended, they only became formalized after the
1877 end of the Reconstruction period. The
period that followed is known as the nadir
of American race relations. The legislation
(or in some states, such as Florida, the state
constitutions) that mandated segregation lasted
at least until Brown v. Board of Education
(1954).
While the U.S. Supreme Court majority in the
1896 Plessy v. Ferguson case explicitly permitted
"separate but equal" facilities (specifically,
transportation facilities), Justice John Marshall
Harlan, in his dissent, protested that the
decision was an expression of white supremacy;
he predicted that segregation would "stimulate
aggressions … upon the admitted rights of
colored citizens," "arouse race hate," and
"perpetuate a feeling of distrust between
[the] races. Feelings between whites and blacks
were so tense, even the jails were segregated."
Elected in 1912, President Woodrow Wilson
ordered segregration throughout the federal
government. In World War I, blacks served
in the United States Armed Forces in segregated
units. Black soldiers were often poorly trained
and equipped, and were often put on the frontlines
in suicide missions. The U.S. military was
still heavily segregated in World War II.
The air force and the marines had no blacks
enlisted in their ranks. There were blacks
in the Navy Seabees. The army had only five
African-American officers. In addition, no
African-American would receive the Medal of
Honor during the war, and their tasks in the
war were largely reserved to noncombat units.
Black soldiers had to sometimes give up their
seats in trains to the Nazi prisoners of war.
American sports were racially segregated until
the mid-twentieth century. In baseball, the
"Negro leagues" were established by Rube Foster
for non-white players, such as Negro league
baseball, which ran through the early 1950s.
In basketball, the Black Fives (all-black
teams) were established in 1904, and emerged
in New York City, Washington, D.C., Chicago,
Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, and other cities.
Racial segregation in basketball lasted until
1950, when the NBA became racially integrated.
On September 11, 1964, John Lennon announced
The Beatles would not play to a segregated
audience in Jacksonville, Florida. City officials
relented following this announcement. A contract
for a 1965 Beatles concert at the Cow Palace
in California specifies that the band "not
be required to perform in front of a segregated
audience".
In the reception to honor his Olympic success
Jesse Owens was not permitted to enter through
the main doors of the Waldorf Astoria New
York and instead forced to travel up to the
event in a freight elevator. The first black
Oscar recipient Hattie McDaniel was not permitted
to attend the premiere of Gone with the Wind
with Georgia being racially segregated, and
at the Oscars ceremony in Los Angeles she
was required to sit at a segregated table
at the far wall of the room; the hotel had
a no-blacks policy, but allowed McDaniel in
as a favor.
Many U.S. states banned interracial marriage.
While opposed to slavery in the U.S, in a
speech in Charleston, Illinois in 1858, Abraham
Lincoln stated, "I am not, nor ever have been
in favor of bringing about in any way the
social and political equality of the white
and black races, that I am not, nor ever have
been in favor of making voters or jurors of
negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office,
nor to intermarry with white people. I as
much as any man am in favor of the superior
position assigned to the white race". In 1967,
Mildred Loving, a black woman, and Richard
Loving, a white man, were sentenced to a year
in prison in Virginia for marrying each other.
Their marriage violated the state's anti-miscegenation
statute, the Racial Integrity Act of 1924,
which prohibited marriage between people classified
as white and people classified as "colored"
(persons of non-white ancestry). In the Loving
v. Virginia case in 1967, the Supreme Court
invalidated laws prohibiting interracial marriage
in the U.S.Institutionalized racial segregation
was ended as an official practice during the
civil rights movement by the efforts of such
civil rights activists as Clarence M. Mitchell
Jr., Rosa Parks, and Martin Luther King Jr.,
working for social and political freedom during
the period from the end of World War II through
the passage of the Civil Rights Act in 1964
and the Voting Rights Act in 1965 supported
by President Lyndon B. Johnson. Many of their
efforts were acts of non-violent civil disobedience
aimed at disrupting the enforcement of racial
segregation rules and laws, such as refusing
to give up a seat in the black part of the
bus to a white person (Rosa Parks), or holding
sit-ins at all-white diners.
By 1968 all forms of segregation had been
declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court,
and by 1970 support for formal legal segregation
had dissolved. Brown v. Board of Education
of Topeka, Kansas in 1954 outlawed segregation
in public schools. The Fair Housing Act of
1968, administered and enforced by the Office
of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity, prohibited
discrimination in the sale and rental of housing
on the basis of race, color, national origin,
religion, sex, familial status, and disability.
Formal racial discrimination became illegal
in school systems, businesses, the American
military, other civil services and the government.
== Contemporary segregation ==
=== Bahrain ===
On 28 April 2007, the lower house of Bahraini
Parliament passed a law banning unmarried
migrant workers from living in residential
areas. To justify the law MP Nasser Fadhala,
a close ally of the government said "bachelors
also use these houses to make alcohol, run
prostitute rings or to rape children and housemaids".Sadiq
Rahma, technical committee head, who is a
member of Al Wefaq said: "The rules we are
drawing up are designed to protect the rights
of both the families and the Asian bachelors
(..) these labourers often have habits which
are difficult for families living nearby to
tolerate (..) they come out of their homes
half dressed, brew alcohol illegally in their
homes, use prostitutes and make the neighbourhood
dirty (..) these are poor people who often
live in groups of 50 or more, crammed into
one house or apartment," said Mr Rahma. "The
rules also state that there must be at least
one bathroom for every five people (..) there
have also been cases in which young children
have been sexually molested."Bahrain Centre
for Human Rights issued a press release condemning
this decision as discriminatory and promoting
negative racist attitudes towards migrant
workers. Nabeel Rajab, then BCHR vice president,
said: "It is appalling that Bahrain is willing
to rest on the benefits of these people's
hard work, and often their suffering, but
that they refuse to live with them in equality
and dignity. The solution is not to force
migrant workers into ghettos, but to urge
companies to improve living conditions for
workers – and not to accommodate large numbers
of workers in inadequate space, and to improve
the standard of living for them."
=== Canada ===
Since the 1970s, there has been a concern
expressed by some academics that major Canadian
cities are becoming more segregated on income
and ethnic lines. Reports have indicated that
the inner suburbs of post-merger Toronto and
the southern bedroom communities of Greater
Vancouver have become steadily more immigrant
and visible minority dominated communities
and have lagged behind other neighbourhoods
in average income. A CBC panel in Vancouver
in 2012 discussed the growing public fear
that the proliferation of ethnic enclaves
in Greater Vancouver (such as Han Chinese
in Richmond and Punjabis in Surrey) amounted
to a type of self-segregation. In response
to these fears, many minority activists have
pointed out that most Canadian neighbourhoods
remain predominately White, and yet Whites
are never accused of "self-segregation".
The Mohawk tribe of Kahnawake has been criticized
for evicting non-Mohawks from the Mohawk reserve.
Mohawks who marry outside of their tribal
nation lose their right to live in their homelands.
The Mohawk government claims that its policy
of nationally exclusive membership is for
the preservation of its identity, but there
is no exemption for those who adopt Mohawk
language or culture. The policy is based on
a 1981 moratorium which was made law in 1984.
All interracial couples are sent eviction
notices regardless of how long they have lived
on the reserve. The only exemption is for
mixed national couples married before the
1981 moratorium.
Although some concerned Mohawk citizens contested
the nationally exclusive membership policy,
the Canadian Human Rights Tribunal ruled that
the Mohawk government may adopt policies it
deems necessary to ensure the survival of
its people.A long-standing practice of national
segregation has also been imposed upon the
commercial salmon fishery in British Columbia
since 1992 when separate commercial fisheries
were created for select aboriginal groups
on three B.C. river systems. Canadians of
other nations who fish in the separate fisheries
have been arrested, jailed and prosecuted.
Although the fishermen who were prosecuted
were successful at trial (see the decision
in R. v. Kapp), the decision was overturned
on appeal. On final appeal, the Supreme Court
of Canada ruled in favour of the program on
the grounds that segregation of this workplace
is a step towards equality in Canada. Affirmative
action programs in Canada are protected from
equality rights challenges by s. 15(2) of
the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
Segregation continues today, but more than
35%of the fishermen in the BC commercial fishery
are of aboriginal ancestry, yet Canadians
of aboriginal ancestry comprise less than
4% of BC's population.
=== Fiji ===
Two military coups in Fiji in 1987 removed
a democratically elected government led by
an Indo Fijian. The coup was supported principally
by the ethnic Fijian population. A new constitution
was promulgated in 1990, establishing Fiji
as a republic, with the offices of President,
Prime Minister, two-thirds of the Senate,
and a clear majority of the House of Representatives
reserved for ethnic Fijians; ethnic Fijian
ownership of the land was also entrenched
in the constitution. Most of these provisions
were ended with the promulgation of the 1997
Constitution, although the President, and
14 of the 32 Senators were still selected
by the all-indigenous Great Council of Chiefs.
The last of these distinctions were removed
by the 2013 Constitution.Fiji's case is a
situation of de facto ethnic segregation.
Fiji has a long complex history with more
than 3500 years as a divided tribal nation.
Unification under the British rule as a colony
for 96 years brought other racial groups,
particularly immigrants from the Indian subcontinent.
=== Israel ===
Israeli Declaration of Independence proclaims
equal rights to all citizens regardless of
ethnicity, denomination or race. Israel has
a substantial list of laws that demand racial
equality (such as prohibition of discrimination,
equality in Employment, libel based on race
or ethnicity.). There is however, in practice,
significant institutional, legal, and societal
discrimination against the country's Arab
citizens.In 2010, the Israeli supreme court
sent a message against racial segregation
in a case involving the Slonim Hassidic sect
of the Ashkenazi Jews, ruling that segregation
between Ashkenazi and Sephardi students in
a school is illegal. They argue that they
seek "to maintain an equal level of religiosity,
not from racism." Responding to the charges,
the Slonim Haredim invited Sephardi girls
to school, and added in a statement: "All
along, we said it's not about race, but the
High Court went out against our rabbis, and
therefore we went to prison."Due to many cultural
differences, and animosity towards a minority
perceived to wish to annihilate Israel, a
system of passively co-existing communities,
segregated along ethnic lines has emerged
in Israel, with Arab-Israeli minority communities
being left "marooned outside the mainstream".
This de facto segregation also exists between
different Jewish ethnic groups ("edot") such
as Sepharadim, Ashkenazim and Beta Israel
(Jews of Ethiopian descent), which leads to
de facto segregated schools, housing and public
policy. The government has embarked on a program
to shut down such schools, in order to force
integration, but some in the Ethiopian community
complained that not all such schools have
been closed. In a 2007 poll commissioned by
the Center Against Racism and conducted by
the GeoCartographia Institute, 75% of Israeli
Jews would not agree to live in a building
with Arab residents, 60% would not accept
any Arab visitors at their homes, 40% believed
that Arabs should be stripped of their right
to vote, and 59% believe that the culture
of Arabs is primitive. In 2012, a public opinion
poll showed that 53% of the polled Israeli
Jews said they would not object to an Arab
living in their building, while 42% said they
would. Asked whether they would object to
Arab children being in their child's class
in school, 49% said they would not, 42% said
they would. The secular Israeli public was
found to be the most tolerant, while the religious
and Haredi respondents were the most discriminatory.
=== Kenya ===
The end of British colonial rule in Kenya
in 1964 led to an inadvertent increase in
ethnic segregation. Through private purchases
and government schemes, farm land previously
held by European farmers was transferred to
African owners. These farms were further sub-divided
into smaller localities, and, due to joint
migration, many adjacent localities were occupied
by members of different ethnic groups. This
separation along these boundaries persists
today. Kimuli Kasara, in a study of recent
ethnic violence in the wake of the disputed
2007/2008 Kenyan elections, used these post-colonial
boundaries as an instrument for the degree
of ethnic segregation. Through a 2 Stage Least
Squares Regression analysis, Kasara showed
that increased ethnic segregation in Kenya's
Rift Valley Province is associated with an
increase in ethnic violence.
=== Liberia ===
Liberian Constitution limits Liberian nationality
to Negro people (see also Liberian nationality
law).
For example, Lebanese and Indian nationals
are active in trading, as well as in the retail
and service sectors. Europeans and Americans
work in the mining and agricultural sectors.
These minority groups have long tenured residence
in the Republic, but many are precluded from
becoming citizens as a result of their race.
=== Malaysia ===
Malaysia has an article in its constitution
which distinguishes the ethnic Malays and
indigenous peoples of Malaysia—i.e. bumiputra—from
the non-Bumiputra such as ethnic Chinese and
Indians under the social contract, of which
by law would guarantee the former certain
special rights and privileges. To question
these rights and privileges however is strictly
prohibited under the Internal Security Act,
legalised by the 10th Article(IV) of the Constitution
of Malaysia. The privileges mentioned herein
covers—few of which—the economical and
education aspects of Malaysians, e.g. the
Malaysian New Economic Policy; an economic
policy recently criticised by Thierry Rommel—who
headed a European Commission's delegation
to Malaysia—as an excuse for "significant
protectionism" and a quota maintaining higher
access of Malays into public universities.
While legal racial segregation in daily life
is not practiced, self-segregation does exist.
=== Mauritania ===
Slavery in Mauritania was finally criminalized
in August 2007. It was already abolished in
1980 though it was still affecting the black
Africans. The number of slaves in the country
was not known exactly, but it was estimated
to be up to 600,000 men, women and children,
or 20% of the population.For centuries, the
so-called Haratin lower class, mostly poor
black Africans living in rural areas, have
been considered natural slaves by white Moors
of Arab/Berber ancestry. Many descendants
of the Arab and Berber tribes today still
adhere to the supremacist ideology of their
ancestors. This ideology has led to oppression,
discrimination and even enslavement of other
groups in the region of Sudan and Western
Sahara.
=== United Kingdom ===
The United Kingdom has no legally sanctioned
system of racial segregation and has a substantial
list of laws that demand racial equality.
However, due to many cultural differences
between the pre-existing system of passively
co-existing communities, segregation along
racial lines has emerged in parts of the United
Kingdom, with minority communities being left
"marooned outside the mainstream".The affected
and 'ghettoised' communities are often largely
representative of Pakistanis, Indians and
other Sub-Continentals, and has been thought
to be the basis of ethnic tensions, and a
deterioration of the standard of living and
levels of education and employment among ethnic
minorities in poorer areas. These factors
are considered by some to have been a cause
of the 2001 race riots in Bradford, Oldham
and Burnley in the north of England which
have large Asian communities.There may be
some indication that such segregation, particularly
in residential terms, seems to be the result
of the unilateral 'steering' of ethnic groups
into particular areas as well as a culture
of vendor discrimination and distrust of ethnic
minority clients by some estate agents and
other property professionals. This may be
indicative of a market preference amongst
the more wealthy to reside in areas of less
ethnic mixture; less ethnic mixture being
perceived as increasing the value and desirability
of a residential area. This is likely as other
theories such as "ethnic self segregation"
have sometimes been shown to be baseless,
and a majority of ethnic respondents to a
few surveys on the matter have been in favour
of wider social and residential integration.
=== United States ===
De facto segregation in the United States
has increased since the civil rights movement.
The Supreme Court ruled in Milliken v. Bradley
(1974) that de facto racial segregation was
acceptable, as long as schools were not actively
making policies for racial exclusion; since
then, schools have been segregated due to
myriad indirect factors.Redlining is the practice
of denying or increasing the cost of services,
such as banking, insurance, access to jobs,
access to health care, or even supermarkets
to residents in certain, often racially determined,
areas. The most devastating form of redlining,
and the most common use of the term, refers
to mortgage discrimination. Over the next
twenty years, a succession of further court
decisions and federal laws, including the
Home Mortgage Disclosure Act and measure to
end mortgage discrimination in 1975, would
completely invalidate de jure racial segregation
and discrimination in the U.S., although de
facto segregation and discrimination have
proven more resilient. According to the Civil
Rights Project at Harvard University, the
actual de facto desegregation of U.S. public
schools peaked in the late 1980s; since that
time, the schools have, in fact, become more
segregated mainly due to the ethnic segregation
of the nation with whites dominating the suburbs
and minorities the urban centers. According
to Rajiv Sethi, an economist at Columbia University,
black-white segregation in housing is slowly
declining for most metropolitan areas in the
US. Racial segregation or separation can lead
to social, economic and political tensions.
Thirty years (the year 2000) after the civil
rights era, the United States remained in
many areas a residentially segregated society,
in which blacks, whites and Hispanics inhabit
different neighborhoods of vastly different
quality.Dan Immergluck writes that in 2002
small businesses in black neighborhoods still
received fewer loans, even after accounting
for businesses density, businesses size, industrial
mix, neighborhood income, and the credit quality
of local businesses. Gregory D. Squires wrote
in 2003 that it is clear that race has long
affected and continues to affect the policies
and practices of the insurance industry. Workers
living in American inner cities have a harder
time finding jobs than suburban workers.The
desire of many whites to avoid having their
children attend integrated schools has been
a factor in white flight to the suburbs. A
2007 study in San Francisco showed that groups
of homeowners of all races tended to self-segregate
in order to be with people of the same education
level and race. By 1990, the legal barriers
enforcing segregation had been mostly replaced
by decentralized racism, where whites pay
more than blacks to live in predominantly
white areas. Today, many whites are willing
to pay a premium to live in a predominantly
white neighborhood. Equivalent housing in
white areas commands a higher rent. These
higher rents are largely attributable to exclusionary
zoning policies that restrict the supply of
housing. Regulations ensure that all housing
units are expensive enough to prevent access
by undesirable groups. By bidding up the price
of housing, many white neighborhoods effectively
shut out blacks, because blacks are unwilling,
or unable, to pay the premium to buy entry
into these expensive neighborhoods. Conversely,
equivalent housing in black neighborhoods
is far more affordable to those who are unable
or unwilling to pay a premium to live in white
neighborhoods. Through the 1990s, residential
segregation remained at its extreme and has
been called "hypersegregation" by some sociologists
or "American Apartheid".In February 2005,
the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Johnson v.
California 543 U.S. 499 (2005) that the California
Department of Corrections' unwritten practice
of racially segregating prisoners in its prison
reception centers—which California claimed
was for inmate safety (gangs in California,
as throughout the U.S., usually organize on
racial lines)—is to be subject to strict
scrutiny, the highest level of constitutional
review.
=== Yemen ===
In Yemen, the Arab elite practices a form
of discrimination against the lower class
Akhdam people based on their racial system.
== See also ==
Amity-Enmity Complex
== Notes ==
== References ==
Dobratz, Betty A. and Shanks-Meile, Stephanie
L, White Power, White Pride: The White Separatist
Movement in the United States, Johns Hopkins
University Press, 2001, 384 pages, ISBN 0-8018-6537-9.
Rural Face of White Supremacy: Beyond Jim
Crow, by Mark Schultz. University of Illinois
Press, 2005, ISBN 0-252-02960-7.
Yin, L. 2009. "The Dynamics of Residential
Segregation in Buffalo: An Agent-Based Simulation"
Urban Studies 46(13), pp2749–2770.
== Further reading ==
Grigoryeva, Angelina and Ruef, Martin, "The
Historical Demography of Racial Segregation,"
American Sociological Review 80 (Aug. 2015),
814–42.
Elliott, Mark (2006). Color-Blind Justice:
Albion Tourgée and the Quest for Racial Equality
from the Civil War to Plessy v. Ferguson.
New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-518139-5.
Tushnet, Mark (2008). I dissent: Great Opposing
Opinions in Landmark Supreme Court Cases.
Boston: Beacon Press. pp. 69–80. ISBN 978-0-8070-0036-6.
Brook, Thomas (1997). Plessy v. Ferguson:
A Brief History with Documents. Boston: Bedford
Books.
Fireside, Harvey (2004). Separate and Unequal:
Homer Plessy and the Supreme Court Decision
That Legalized Racism. New York: Carroll & Graf.
ISBN 0-7867-1293-7.
Lofgren, Charles A. (1987). The Plessy Case:
A Legal-Historical Interpretation.. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Medley, Keith Weldon (2003). We As Freemen:
Plessy v. Ferguson. Gretna, LA: Pelican. ISBN
1-58980-120-2. Review
Chin, Gabriel J. (1996). "The Plessy Myth:
Justice Harlan and the Chinese Cases". Iowa
Law Review. 82: 151. SSRN 1121505.
Nightengale, Carl H. (2012). Segregation:
A Global History of Divided Cities. Chicago,
London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN
978-0-226-58074-6.
== External links ==
A site dedicated to the life of MLK
Encyclopædia Britannica: Article on Racial
Segregation
A study of segregation
Constitutional Law and Race-Conscious Policies
in K–12 Education
US racial segregation of proms continue
South Africa's District Six Museum which examines
forced segregation
