A counterculture (also written counter-culture)
is a subculture whose values and norms of
behavior differ substantially from those of
mainstream society, often in opposition to
mainstream cultural mores.
A countercultural movement expresses the ethos
and aspirations of a specific population during
a well-defined era.
When oppositional forces reach critical mass,
countercultures can trigger dramatic cultural
changes.
Prominent examples of countercultures in Europe
and North America include Romanticism (1790–1840),
Bohemianism (1850–1910), the more fragmentary
counterculture of the Beat Generation (1944–1964),
followed by the globalized counterculture
of the 1960s (1964–1974), usually associated
with the hippie subculture and the diversified
punk subculture of the 1970s and 1980s.
== Definition and characteristics ==
John Milton Yinger originated the term "contraculture"
in his 1960 article in American Sociological
Review.
Yinger suggested the use of the term contraculture
"wherever the normative system of a group
contains, as a primary element, a theme of
conflict with the values of the total society,
where personality variables are directly involved
in the development and maintenance of the
group's values, and wherever its norms can
be understood only by reference to the relationships
of the group to a surrounding dominant culture."
Some scholars have attributed the counterculture
to Theodore Roszak, author of The Making of
a Counter Culture.
It became prominent in the news media amid
the social revolution that swept the Americas,
Western Europe, Japan, Australia, and New
Zealand during the 1960s.Scholars differ in
the characteristics and specificity they attribute
to "counterculture".
"Mainstream" culture is of course also difficult
to define, and in some ways becomes identified
and understood through contrast with counterculture.
Counterculture might oppose mass culture (or
"media culture"), or middle-class culture
and values.
Counterculture is sometimes conceptualized
in terms of generational conflict and rejection
of older or adult values.Counterculture may
or may not be explicitly political.
It typically involves criticism or rejection
of currently powerful institutions, with accompanying
hope for a better life or a new society.
It does not look favorably on party politics
or authoritarianism.Cultural development can
also be affected by way of counterculture.
Scholars such as Joanne Martin and Caren Siehl,
deem counterculture and cultural development
as "a balancing act, [that] some core values
of a counterculture should present a direct
challenge to the core values of a dominant
culture".
Therefore, a prevalent culture and a counterculture
should coexist in an uneasy symbiosis, holding
opposite positions on valuable issues that
are essentially important to each of them.
According to this theory, a counterculture
can contribute a plethora of useful functions
for the prevalent culture, such as "articulating
the foundations between appropriate and inappropriate
behavior and providing a safe haven for the
development of innovative ideas".Typically,
a "fringe culture" expands and grows into
a counterculture by defining its own values
in opposition to mainstream norms.
Countercultures tend to peak, then go into
decline, leaving a lasting impact on mainstream
cultural values.
Their life cycles include phases of rejection,
growth, partial acceptance and absorption
into the mainstream.
During the late 1960s, hippies became the
largest and most visible countercultural group
in the United States.
The "cultural shadows" left by the Romantics,
Bohemians, Beats and Hippies remain visible
in contemporary Western culture.According
to Sheila Whiteley, "recent developments in
sociological theory complicate and problematize
theories developed in the 1960s, with digital
technology, for example, providing an impetus
for new understandings of counterculture".
Andy Bennett writes that "despite the theoretical
arguments that can be raised against the sociological
value of counterculture as a meaningful term
for categorising social action, like subculture,
the term lives on as a concept in social and
cultural theory… [to] become part of a received,
mediated memory".
However, "this involved not simply the utopian
but also the dystopian and that while festivals
such as those held at Monterey and Woodstock
might appear to embrace the former, the deaths
of such iconic figures as Brian Jones, Jimi
Hendrix, Jim Morrison and Janis Joplin, the
nihilistic mayhem at Altamont, and the shadowy
figure of Charles Manson cast a darker light
on its underlying agenda, one that reminds
us that ‘pathological issues [are] still
very much at large in today's world".
== Literature ==
The counterculture of the 1960s and early
1970s generated its own unique brand of notable
literature, including comics and cartoons,
and sometimes referred to as the underground
press.
In the United States, this includes the work
of Robert Crumb and Gilbert Shelton, and includes
Mr. Natural; Keep on Truckin'; Fritz the Cat;
Fat Freddy's Cat; Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers;
the album cover art for Cheap Thrills; and
in several countries contributions to International
Times, The Village Voice, and Oz magazine.
During the late 1960s and early 1970s, these
comics and magazines were available for purchase
in head shops along with items like beads,
incense, cigarette papers, tie-dye clothing,
Day-Glo posters, books, etc.
During the late 1960s and early 1970s, some
of these shops selling hippie items also became
cafés where hippies could hang out, chat,
smoke marijuana, read books, etc., e.g. Gandalf's
Garden in the King's Road, London, which also
published a magazine of the same name.
Another such hippie/anarchist bookshop was
Mushroom Books, tucked away in the Lace Market
area of Nottingham.
== Media ==
Some genres tend to challenge societies with
their content that is meant to outright question
the norms within cultures and even create
change usually towards a more modern way of
thought.
More often than not, sources of these controversies
can be found in art such as Marcel Duchamp
whose piece Fountain was meant to be "a calculated
attack on the most basic conventions of art"
in 1917.
Contentious artists like Banksy base most
of their works off of mainstream media and
culture to bring pieces that usually shock
viewers into thinking about their piece in
more detail and the themes behind them.
A great example can be found in Dismaland,
the biggest project of "anarchism" to be organised
and exhibited which showcases multiple works
such as an "iconic Disney princess's horse-drawn
pumpkin carriage, [appearing] to re-enact
the death of Princess Diana".
=== Music ===
Counterculture is very much evident in music
particularly on the basis of the separation
of genres into those considered acceptable
and within the status quo and those not.
Since many minorities groups are already considered
counterculture, the music they create and
produce may reflect their sociopolitical realities
and their musical culture may be adopted as
a social expression of their counterculture.
This is reflected in dancehall with the concept
of base frequencies and base culture in Henriques's
"Sonic diaspora", where he expounds that "base
denotes crude, debased, unrefined, vulgar,
and even animal" for the Jamaican middle class
and is associated with the "bottom-end, low
frequencies…basic lower frequencies and
embodied resonances distinctly inferior to
the higher notes" that appear in dancehall.
According to Henriques, "base culture is bottom-up
popular, street culture, generated by an urban
underclass surviving almost entirely outside
the formal economy".
That the music is low frequency sonically
and regarded as reflective of a lower culture
shows the influential connection between counterculture
and the music produced.
It should also be noted that while music may
be considered base and counter culture, it
may actually enjoy a lot of popularity which
can be seen by the labelling of hip hop as
a counter culture genre, despite it being
one of the most commercially successful and
high charting genres.
=== Assimilation ===
Many of these artists though once being taboo,
have been assimilated into culture and are
no longer a source of moral panic since they
don't cross overtly controversial topics or
challenge staples of current culture.
Instead of being a topic to fear, they have
initiated subtle trends that other artists
and sources of media may follow.
== LGBT ==
Gay liberation (considered a precursor of
various modern LGBT social movements) was
known for its links to the counterculture
of the time (e.g. groups like the Radical
Faeries), and for the gay liberationists'
intent to transform or abolish fundamental
institutions of society such as gender and
the nuclear family; in general, the politics
were radical, anti-racist, and anti-capitalist
in nature.
In order to achieve such liberation, consciousness
raising and direct action were employed.At
the outset of the 20th century, homosexual
acts were punishable offenses in these countries.
The prevailing public attitude was that homosexuality
was a moral failing that should be punished,
as exemplified by Oscar Wilde's 1895 trial
and imprisonment for "gross indecency".
But even then, there were dissenting views.
Sigmund Freud publicly expressed his opinion
that homosexuality was "assuredly no advantage,
but it is nothing to be ashamed of, no vice,
no degradation; it cannot be classified as
an illness; we consider it to be a variation
of the sexual function, produced by a certain
arrest of sexual development".
According to Charles Kaiser's The Gay Metropolis,
there were already semi-public gay-themed
gatherings by the mid-1930s in the United
States (such as the annual drag balls held
during the Harlem Renaissance).
There were also bars and bathhouses that catered
to gay clientele and adopted warning procedures
(similar to those used by Prohibition-era
speakeasies) to warn customers of police raids.
But homosexuality was typically subsumed into
bohemian culture, and was not a significant
movement in itself.Eventually, a genuine gay
culture began to take root, albeit very discreetly,
with its own styles, attitudes and behaviors
and industries began catering to this growing
demographic group.
For example, publishing houses cranked out
pulp novels like The Velvet Underground that
were targeted directly at gay people.
By the early 1960s, openly gay political organizations
such as the Mattachine Society were formally
protesting abusive treatment toward gay people,
challenging the entrenched idea that homosexuality
was an aberrant condition, and calling for
the decriminalization of homosexuality.
Despite very limited sympathy, American society
began at least to acknowledge the existence
of a sizable population of gays.
The film The Boys in the Band, for example,
featured negative portrayals of gay men, but
at least recognized that they did in fact
fraternize with each other (as opposed to
being isolated, solitary predators who "victimized"
straight men).Disco music in large part rose
out of the New York gay club scene of the
early 1970s as a reaction to the stigmatization
of gays and other outside groups such as blacks
by the counterculture of that era.
By later in the decade Disco was dominating
the pop charts.
The popular Village People and the critically
acclaimed Sylvester had gay-themed lyrics
and presentation.Another element of LGBT counter-culture
that began in the 1970s—and continues today—is
the lesbian land, landdyke movement, or womyn's
land movement.
Radical feminists inspired by the back-to-the-land
initiative and migrated to rural areas to
create communities that were often female-only
and/or lesbian communes.
"Free Spaces" are defined by Sociologist Francesca
Polletta as "small-scale settings within a
community or movement that are removed from
the direct control of dominant groups, are
voluntarily participated in, and generate
the cultural challenge that precedes or accompanies
political mobilization.
Women came together in Free Spaces like music
festivals, activist groups and collectives
to share ideas with like-minded people and
to explore the idea of the lesbian land movement.
The movement is closely tied to eco-feminism.The
four tenets of the Landdyke Movement are relationship
with the land, liberation and transformation,
living the politics, and bodily Freedoms.
Most importantly, members of these communities
seek to live outside of a patriarchal society
that puts emphasis on "beauty ideals that
discipline the female body, compulsive heterosexuality,
competitiveness with other women, and dependence".
Instead of adhering typical female gender
roles, the women of Landdyke communities value
"self-sufficiency, bodily strength, autonomy
from men and patriarchal systems, and the
development of lesbian-centered community".
Members of the Landdyke movement enjoy bodily
freedoms that have been deemed unacceptable
in the modern Western world—such as the
freedom to expose their breasts, or to go
without any clothing at all.
An awareness of their impact on the Earth,
and connection to nature is essential members
of the Landdyke Movement's way of life.The
watershed event in the American gay rights
movement was the 1969 Stonewall riots in New
York City.
Following this event, gays and lesbians began
to adopt the militant protest tactics used
by anti-war and black power radicals to confront
anti-gay ideology.
Another major turning point was the 1973 decision
by the American Psychiatric Association to
remove homosexuality from the official list
of mental disorders.
Although gay radicals used pressure to force
the decision, Kaiser notes that this had been
an issue of some debate for many years in
the psychiatric community, and that one of
the chief obstacles to normalizing homosexuality
was that therapists were profiting from offering
dubious, unproven "cures".The AIDS epidemic
was initially an unexpected blow to the movement,
especially in North America.
There was speculation that the disease would
permanently drive gay life underground.
Ironically, the tables were turned.
Many of the early victims of the disease had
been openly gay only within the confines of
insular "gay ghettos" such as New York City's
Greenwich Village and San Francisco's Castro;
they remained closeted in their professional
lives and to their families.
Many heterosexuals who thought they didn't
know any gay people were confronted by friends
and loved ones dying of "the gay plague" (which
soon began to infect heterosexual people also).
LGBT communities were increasingly seen not
only as victims of a disease, but as victims
of ostracism and hatred.
Most importantly, the disease became a rallying
point for a previously complacent gay community.
AIDS invigorated the community politically
to fight not only for a medical response to
the disease, but also for wider acceptance
of homosexuality in mainstream America.
Ultimately, coming out became an important
step for many LGBT people.During the early
1980s what was dubbed "New Music", New wave,
"New pop" popularized by MTV and associated
with gender bending Second British Music Invasion
stars such as Boy George and Annie Lennox
became what was described by Newsweek at the
time as an alternate mainstream to the traditional
masculine/heterosexual rock music in the United
States.In 2003, the United States Supreme
Court officially declared all sodomy laws
unconstitutional.
== History ==
Bill Osgerby argues that:
the counterculture's various strands developed
from earlier artistic and political movements.
On both sides of the Atlantic the 1950s "Beat
Generation" had fused existentialist philosophy
with jazz, poetry, literature, Eastern mysticism
and drugs – themes that were all sustained
in the 1960s counterculture.
=== United States ===
In the United States, the counterculture of
the 1960s became identified with the rejection
of conventional social norms of the 1950s.
Counterculture youth rejected the cultural
standards of their parents, especially with
respect to racial segregation and initial
widespread support for the Vietnam War, and,
less directly, the Cold War—with many young
people fearing that America's nuclear arms
race with the Soviet Union, coupled with its
involvement in Vietnam, would lead to a nuclear
holocaust.
In the United States, widespread tensions
developed in the 1960s in American society
that tended to flow along generational lines
regarding the war in Vietnam, race relations,
sexual mores, women's rights, traditional
modes of authority, and a materialist interpretation
of the American Dream.
White, middle class youth—who made up the
bulk of the counterculture in western countries—had
sufficient leisure time, thanks to widespread
economic prosperity, to turn their attention
to social issues.
These social issues included support for civil
rights, women's rights, and gay rights movements,
and a rejection of the Vietnam War.
The counterculture also had access to a media
which was eager to present their concerns
to a wider public.
Demonstrations for social justice created
far-reaching changes affecting many aspects
of society.
Hippies became the largest countercultural
group in the United States.
Rejection of mainstream culture was best embodied
in the new genres of psychedelic rock music,
pop-art and new explorations in spirituality.
Musicians who exemplified this era in the
United Kingdom and United States included
The Beatles, John Lennon, Neil Young, Bob
Dylan, The Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane,
Jimi Hendrix, The Doors, Frank Zappa, The
Rolling Stones, Velvet Underground, Janis
Joplin, The Who, Joni Mitchell, The Kinks,
Sly and the Family Stone and, in their early
years, Chicago.
New forms of musical presentation also played
a key role in spreading the counterculture,
with large outdoor rock festivals being the
most noteworthy.
The climactic live statement on this occurred
from August 15–18, 1969, with the Woodstock
Music Festival held in Bethel, New York—with
32 of rock's and psychedelic rock's most popular
acts performing live outdoors during the sometimes
rainy weekend to an audience of half a million
people.
(Michael Lang stated 400,000 attended, half
of which did not have a ticket.)
It is widely regarded as a pivotal moment
in popular music history—with Rolling Stone
calling it one of the 50 Moments That Changed
the History of Rock and Roll.
According to Bill Mankin, "It seems fitting…
that one of the most enduring labels for the
entire generation of that era was derived
from a rock festival: the ‘Woodstock Generation’."Sentiments
were expressed in song lyrics and popular
sayings of the period, such as "do your own
thing", "turn on, tune in, drop out", "whatever
turns you on", "Eight miles high", "sex, drugs,
and rock 'n' roll", and "light my fire".
Spiritually, the counterculture included interest
in astrology, the term "Age of Aquarius" and
knowing people's astrological signs of the
Zodiac.
This led Theodore Roszak to state "A [sic]
eclectic taste for mystic, occult, and magical
phenomena has been a marked characteristic
of our postwar youth culture since the days
of the beatniks."
In the United States, even actor Charlton
Heston contributed to the movement, with the
statement "Don't trust anyone over thirty"
(a saying coined in 1965 by activist Jack
Weinberg) in the 1968 film Planet of the Apes;
the same year, actress and social activist
Jane Fonda starred in the sexually-themed
Barbarella.
Both actors opposed the Vietnam War during
its duration, and Fonda would eventually become
controversially active in the peace movement.
The counterculture in the United States has
been interpreted as lasting roughly from 1964
to 1972—coincident with America's involvement
in Vietnam—and reached its peak in August
1969 at the Woodstock Festival, New York,
characterized in part by the film Easy Rider
(1969).
Unconventional or psychedelic dress; political
activism; public protests; campus uprisings;
pacifist then loud, defiant music; drugs;
communitarian experiments, and sexual liberation
were hallmarks of the sixties counterculture—most
of whose members were young, white and middle-class.In
the United States, the movement divided the
population.
To some Americans, these attributes reflected
American ideals of free speech, equality,
world peace, and the pursuit of happiness;
to others, they reflected a self-indulgent,
pointlessly rebellious, unpatriotic, and destructive
assault on the country's traditional moral
order.
Authorities banned the psychedelic drug LSD,
restricted political gatherings, and tried
to enforce bans on what they considered obscenity
in books, music, theater, and other media.
The counterculture has been argued to have
diminished in the early 1970s, and some have
attributed two reasons for this.
First, it has been suggested that the most
popular of its political goals—civil rights,
civil liberties, gender equality, environmentalism,
and the end of the Vietnam War—were "accomplished"
(to at least some degree); and also that its
most popular social attributes—particularly
a "live and let live" mentality in personal
lifestyles (the "sexual revolution")—were
co-opted by mainstream society.
Second, a decline of idealism and hedonism
occurred as many notable counterculture figures
died, the rest settled into mainstream society
and started their own families, and the "magic
economy" of the 1960s gave way to the stagflation
of the 1970s—the latter costing many in
the middle-classes the luxury of being able
to live outside conventional social institutions.
The counterculture, however, continues to
influence social movements, art, music, and
society in general, and the post-1973 mainstream
society has been in many ways a hybrid of
the 1960s establishment and counterculture.The
counterculture movement has been said to be
rejuvenated in a way that maintains some similarities
from the Counterculture of the 1960s, but
it is different as well.
Photographer Steve Schapiro investigated and
documented these contemporary hippie communities
from 2012 to 2014.
He traveled the country with his son, attending
festival after festival.
These findings were compiled in Schapiro’s
book Bliss: Transformational Festivals & the
Neo Hippie.
One of his most valued findings was that these
“Neo Hippies” experience and encourage
such a spiritual commitment to the community.
=== Australia ===
Australia's countercultural trend followed
the one burgeoning in the US, and to a lesser
extend the one in Great Britain.
Political scandals in the country, such as
the disappearance of Harold Holt, and the
1975 constitutional crisis, as well as Australia's
involvement in Vietnam War, led to a disillusionment
or disengagement with political figures and
the government.
Large protests were held in the countries
most populated cities such as Sydney and Melbourne,
one prominent march was held in Sydney in
1971 on George Street.
The photographer Roger Scott, who captured
the protest in front of the Queen Victoria
Building, remarked: "I knew I could make a
point with my camera.
It was exciting.
The old conservative world was ending and
a new Australia was beginning.
The demonstration was almost silent.
The atmosphere was electric.
The protesters were committed to making their
presence felt … It was clear they wanted
to show the government that they were mighty
unhappy".Political upheaval made its way into
art in the country: film, music and literature
were shaped by the ongoing changes both within
the country, the Southern Hemisphere and the
rest of the world.
Bands such as The Master’s Apprentices,
The Pink Finks and Normie Rowe & The Playboys,
along with Sydney’s The Easybeats, Billy
Thorpe & The Aztecs and The Missing Links
began to emerge in the 1960s.
One of Australia's most noted literary voices
of the counter-culture movement was Frank
Moorhouse, whose collection of short stories,
Futility and Other Animals, was first published
in Sydney 1969.
Its "discontinuous narrative" was said to
reflect the "ambience of the counter-culture".
Helen Garner's Monkey Grip (1977), released
eight years later, is considered a classic
example of the contemporary Australian novel,
and captured the thriving countercultural
movement in Melbourne's inner-city in the
mid 1970s, specifically open relationships
and recreational drug use.
Years later, Garner revealed it was strongly
autobiographical and based on her own diaries.
Additionally, from the 1960s, surf culture
took rise in Australia given the abundance
of beaches in the country, and this was reflected
in art, from bands such as The Atlantics and
novels like Puberty Blues as well as the film
of the same name.
=== Great Britain ===
Starting in the late 1960s the counterculture
movement spread from the US like a wildfire.
Britain did not experience the intense social
turmoil produced in America by the Vietnam
War and racial tensions.
Nevertheless, British youth readily identified
with their American counterparts' desire to
cast off the older generation's social mores.
The new music was a powerful weapon.
In this case, it took the form of a wholesale
revolt against the class system, which was
now being questioned for the first time in
the nation's history.
Rock music, which had first been introduced
from the US in the 1950s, became a key instrument
in the social uprisings of the young generation
and Britain soon became a groundswell of musical
talent thanks to groups like the Beatles,
Rolling Stones, the Who, Pink Floyd, and more
in coming years.The antiwar movement in Britain
closely collaborated with their American counterparts,
supporting peasant insurgents in the Asian
jungles.
The "Ban the Bomb" protests centered around
opposition to nuclear weaponry; the campaign
gave birth to what was to become the peace
symbol of the 1960s.
=== Russia/Soviet Union ===
Although not exactly equivalent to the English
definition, the term Контркультура
(Kontrkul'tura) became common in Russian to
define a 1990s cultural movement that promoted
acting outside of cultural conventions: the
use of explicit language; graphical descriptions
of sex, violence and illicit activities; and
uncopyrighted use of "safe" characters involved
in such activities.
During the early 1970s, the Soviet government
rigidly promoted optimism in Russian culture.
Divorce and alcohol abuse were viewed as taboo
by the media.
However, Russian society grew weary of the
gap between real life and the creative world,
and underground culture became "forbidden
fruit".
General satisfaction with the quality of existing
works led to parody, such as how the Russian
anecdotal joke tradition turned the setting
of War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy into a grotesque
world of sexual excess.
Another well-known example is black humor
(mostly in the form of short poems) that dealt
exclusively with funny deaths and/or other
mishaps of small, innocent children.
In the mid-1980s, the Glasnost policy permitted
the production of less optimistic works.
As a consequence, Russian cinema during the
late 1980s and the early 1990s was action
movies with explicit (but not necessarily
graphic) scenes of ruthless violence and social
dramas about drug abuse, prostitution and
failing relationships.
Although Russian movies of the time would
be rated "R" in the United States due to violence,
the use of explicit language was much milder
than in American cinema.
In the late 1990s, Russian counterculture
became increasingly popular on the Internet.
Several websites appeared that posted user-created
short stories dealing with sex, drugs and
violence.
The following features are considered the
most popular topics in such works:
Wide use of explicit language;
Deliberate misspelling;
Descriptions of drug use and consequences
of abuse;
Negative portrayals of alcohol use;
Sex and violence: nothing is a taboo – in
general, violence is rarely advocated, while
all types of sex are considered good;
Parody: media advertising, classic movies,
pop culture and children's books are considered
fair game;
Non-conformance; and
Politically incorrect topics, mostly racism,
xenophobia and homophobia.A notable aspect
of counterculture at the time was the influence
of contra-cultural developments on Russian
pop culture.
In addition to traditional Russian styles
of music, such as songs with jail-related
lyrics, new music styles with explicit language
were developed.
=== Asia ===
In the recent past, Dr. Sebastian Kappen,
an Indian theologian, has tried to redefine
counterculture in the Asian context.
In March 1990, at a seminar in Bangalore,
he presented his countercultural perspectives
(Chapter 4 in S. Kappen, Tradition, modernity,
counterculture: an Asian perspective, Visthar,
Bangalore, 1994).
Dr. Kappen envisages counterculture as a new
culture that has to negate the two opposing
cultural phenomena in Asian countries:
invasion by Western capitalist culture, and
the emergence of revivalist movements.Kappen
writes, "Were we to succumb to the first,
we should be losing our identity; if to the
second, ours would be a false, obsolete identity
in a mental universe of dead symbols and delayed
myths".
The most important countercultural movement
in India had taken place in the state of West
Bengal during the 1960s by a group of poets
and artists who called themselves Hungryalists.
== See also ==
== Bibliography ==
Bennett, Andy (2012).
Reappraising "counterculture".
Volume!, n°9-1, Nantes, Éditions Mélanie
Seteun.
Curl, John (2007), Memories of Drop City,
The First Hippie Commune of the 1960s and
the Summer of Love, a memoir, iUniverse.
ISBN 0-595-42343-4.
https://web.archive.org/web/20090413150607/http://red-coral.net/DropCityIndex.html
Freud, S. (1905).
Three essays on the theory of sexuality.
In J. Strachey (Ed. and Trans.), The standard
edition of the complete psychological works
of Sigmund Freud.
(Vol. 7, pp. 123–245).
London: Hogarth Press.
(Original work published 1905)
Gelder, Ken (2007), Subcultures: Cultural
Histories and Social Practice, London: Routledge.
Goffman, Ken (2004), Counterculture through
the ages Villard Books ISBN 0-375-50758-2
Heath, Joseph and Andrew Potter (2004) Nation
of Rebels: Why Counterculture Became Consumer
Culture Collins Books ISBN 0-06-074586-X
Gretchen Lemke-Santangelo (2009), Daughters
of Aquarius: Women of the Sixties Counterculture.
University Press of Kansas.
ISBN 978-0700616336
Hall, Stuart and Tony Jefferson (1991), Resistance
Through Rituals: Youth Subcultures in Post-war
Britain, London: Routledge.
Hazlehurst, Cameron and Kayleen M. Hazlehurst
(1998), Gangs and Youth Subcultures: International
Explorations, New Brunswick & London: Transaction
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Hebdige, Dick (1979), Subculture: the Meaning
of Style, London & New York: Routledge.
Paul Hodkinson and Wolfgang Deicke (2007),
Youth Cultures Scenes, Subcultures and Tribes,
New York: Routledge.
Macfarlane, Scott (2007),The Hippie Narrative:
A Literary Perspective on the Counterculture,
Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co Inc, ISBN 0-7864-2915-1
& ISBN 978-0-7864-2915-8.
McKay, George (1996), Senseless Acts of Beauty:
Cultures of Resistance since the Sixties.
London Verso.
ISBN 1-85984-028-0.
Nelson, Elizabeth (1989), The British Counterculture
1966-73: A Study of the Underground Press.
London: Macmillan.
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