Industrial and organizational psychology (I/O
psychology), which is also known as occupational
psychology, organizational psychology, work
and organizational psychology, is an applied
discipline within psychology.
I/O psychology is the science of human behaviour
relating to work and applies psychological
theories and principles to organizations and
individuals in their places of work as well
as the individual's work-life more generally.
I/O psychologists are trained in the scientist–practitioner
model.
They contribute to an organization's success
by improving the performance, motivation,
job satisfaction, and occupational safety
and health as well as the overall health and
well-being of its employees.
An I/O psychologist conducts research on employee
behaviours and attitudes, and how these can
be improved through hiring practices, training
programs, feedback, and management systems.I/O
psychology was ranked the fastest growing
occupation over the next decade according
to the Bureau of Labor Statistics‘ Occupational
Outlook Handbook in 2014.
It is estmated to grow 53% with a mean salary
of $109,030, with those at the top 10 percentile
earning $192,150 for 2018.
As of 2018, I/O psychology is one of the 16
recognized specialties by the American Psychological
Association (APA) in the United States.
It is represented by Division 14 of the APA,
and was formally known as the Society for
Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP).
In the United Kingdom, industrial and organizational
psychologists are referred to as occupational
psychologists.
Occupational psychology in the UK is one of
nine 'protected titles' within the profession
"practitioner psychologist" regulated by the
Health and Care Professions Council.
In the UK, graduate programs in psychology,
including occupational psychology, are accredited
by the British Psychological Society.
In Australia, the title organizational psychologist
is protected by law, and regulated by the
Australian Health Practitioner Regulation
Agency (AHPRA).
Organizational psychology is one of nine areas
of specialist endorsement for psychology practice
in Australia.In Europe someone with a specialist
EuroPsy Certificate in Work and Organisational
Psychology is a fully qualified psychologist
and an expert in the work psychology field.
Industrial and organizational psychologists
reaching the EuroPsy standard are recorded
in the Register of European Psychologists
and industrial and organizational psychology
is one of the three main psychology specializations
in Europe.
In South Africa, industrial psychology is
a registration category for the profession
of psychologist as regulated by the Health
Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA).
== Historical overview ==
The historical development of I/O psychology
was paralleled in the US, the UK, Australia,
Germany, the Netherlands, and eastern European
countries such as Romania.
The roots of I/O psychology trace back nearly
to the beginning of psychology as a science,
when Wilhelm Wundt founded one of the first
psychological laboratories in 1879 in Leipzig,
Germany.
In the mid 1880s, Wundt trained two psychologists,
Hugo Münsterberg and James McKeen Cattell,
who had a major influence on the emergence
of I/O psychology.Instead of viewing performance
differences as human "errors", Cattell was
one of the first to recognize the importance
of differences among individuals as a way
of better understanding work behavior.
Walter Dill Scott, who was a contemporary
of Cattell, was elected President of the American
Psychological Association (APA) in 1919, was
arguably the most prominent I/O psychologist
of his time.
Scott, along with Walter Van Dyke Bingham,
worked at the Carnegie Institute of Technology,
developing methods for selecting and training
sales personnel.The "industrial" side of I/O
psychology originated in research on individual
differences, assessment, and the prediction
of work performance.
Industrial psychology crystallized during
World War I, in response to the need to rapidly
assign new troops to duty.
Scott and Bingham volunteered to help with
the testing and placement of more than a million
army recruits.
In 1917, together with other prominent psychologists,
they adapted a well-known intelligence test
the Stanford–Binet, which was designed for
testing one individual at a time, to make
it suitable for group testing.
The new test was called the Army Alpha.After
the War, the growing industrial base in the
US was a source of momentum for what was then
called industrial psychology.
Private industry set out to emulate the successful
testing of army personnel.
Mental ability testing soon became commonplace
in the work setting.
Elton Mayo found that rest periods improved
morale and reduced turnover in a Philadelphia
textile factory.
He later joined the ongoing Hawthorne studies,
where he became interested in how workers'
emotions and informal relationships affected
productivity.
The results of these studies ushered in the
human relations movement.World War II brought
renewed interest in ability testing (to accurately
place recruits in new technologically advanced
military jobs), the introduction of the assessment
center, and concern with morale and fatigue
in war industry workers.The industrial psychology
division of the former American Association
of Applied Psychology became a division within
APA, becoming Division 14 of APA.
It was initially called the Industrial and
Business Psychology Division.
In 1962, the name was changed to the Industrial
Psychology Division.
In 1973, it was renamed again, this time to
the Division of Industrial and Organizational
Psychology.
In 1982, the unit become more independent
of APA, and its name was changed again, this
time to the Society for Industrial and Organizational
Psychology.The name change of the division
from "industrial psychology" to "industrial
and organizational psychology" reflected the
shift in the work of industrial psychologists
who had originally addressed work behavior
from the individual perspective, examining
performance and attitudes of individual workers.
Their work became broader.
Group behavior in the workplace became a worthy
subject of study.
The emphasis on "organizational" underlined
the fact that when an individual joins an
organization (e.g., the organization that
hired him or her), he or she will be exposed
to a common goal and a common set of operating
procedures.
In the 1970s in the UK, references to occupational
psychology became more common than I/O psychology.According
to Bryan and Vinchur, "while organizational
psychology increased in popularity through
[the 1960s and 1970s], research and practice
in the traditional areas of industrial psychology
continued, primarily driven by employment
legislation and case law" (p. 53).
There was a focus on fairness and validity
in selection efforts as well as in the job
analyses that undergirded selection instruments.
For example, i/o psychology showed increased
interest in behaviorally anchored rating scales.
What critics there were of i/o psychology
accused the discipline of being responsive
only to the concerns of managements.From the
1980 to 2010s other changes in i/o psychology
took place.
Researchers increasingly adopted a multi-level
approach, attempting to understand behavioral
phenomena from both the level of the organization
and the level of the individual worker.
There was also an increased interest in the
needs and expectations of employees as individuals.
For example, an emphasis on organizational
justice and the psychological contract took
root, as well as the more traditional concerns
of selection and training.
Methodological innovations (e.g., meta-analyses,
structural equation modeling) were adopted.
With the passage of the American with Disabilities
Act in 1990 and parallel legislation elsewhere
in the world, i/o psychology saw an increased
emphasis on "fairness in personnel decisions."
Training research relied increasingly on advances
in educational psychology and cognitive science.
== Research methods ==
As described above, I/O psychologists are
trained in the scientist–practitioner model.
I/O psychologists rely on a variety of methods
to conduct organizational research.
Study designs employed by I/O psychologists
include surveys, experiments, quasi-experiments,
and observational studies.
I/O psychologists rely on diverse data sources
including human judgments, historical databases,
objective measures of work performance (e.g.,
sales volume), and questionnaires and surveys.
I/O researchers employ quantitative statistical
methods.
Quantitative methods used in I/O psychology
include correlation, multiple regression,
and analysis of variance.
More advanced statistical methods employed
in I/O research include logistic regression,
structural equation modeling, and hierarchical
linear modeling (HLM; also known as multilevel
modeling).
I/O research has also employed meta-analysis.
I/O psychologists also employ psychometric
methods including methods associated with
classical test theory, generalizability theory,
and item response theory (IRT).I/O psychologists
have also employed qualitative methods, which
largely involve focus groups, interviews,
and case studies.
I/O research on organizational culture research
has employed ethnographic techniques and participant
observation.
A qualitative technique associated with I/O
psychology is Flanagan's Critical Incident
Technique.
I/O psychologists sometimes use quantitative
and qualitative methods in concert.
OHP researchers have also combined and coordinated
quantitative and qualitative methods within
a single study.
== Topics ==
=== Job analysis ===
Job analysis encompasses a number of different
methods including, but not limited to, interviews,
questionnaires, task analysis, and observation.
It primarily involves the systematic collection
of information about a job.
A task-oriented job analysis involves an examination
of the duties, tasks, and/or competencies
required by the job being assessed.
By contrast, a worker-oriented job analysis
involves an examination of the knowledge,
skills, abilities, and other characteristics
(KSAOs) required to successfully perform the
work.
Information obtained from job analyses are
used for many purposes, including the creation
of job-relevant selection procedures, performance
appraisals and the criteria they require,
and the development of training programs.
=== Personnel recruitment and selection ===
I/O psychologists typically work with human
resource specialists to design (a) recruitment
processes and (b) personnel selection systems.
Personnel recruitment is the process of identifying
qualified candidates in the workforce and
getting them to apply for jobs within an organization.
Personnel recruitment processes include developing
job announcements, placing ads, defining key
qualifications for applicants, and screening
out unqualified applicants.
Personnel selection is the systematic process
of hiring and promoting personnel.
Personnel selection systems employ evidence-based
practices to determine the most qualified
candidates.
Personnel selection involves both the newly
hired and individuals who can be promoted
from within the organization.
Common selection tools include ability tests
(e.g., cognitive, physical, or psycho-motor),
knowledge tests, personality tests, structured
interviews, the systematic collection of biographical
data, and work samples.
I/O psychologists must evaluate evidence regarding
the extent to which selection tools predict
job performance.
Personnel selection procedures are usually
validated, i.e., shown to be job relevant
to personnel selection, using one or more
of the following types of validity: content
validity, construct validity, and/or criterion-related
validity.
I/O psychologists must adhere to professional
standards in personnel selection efforts.
SIOP (e.g., Principles for validation and
use of personnel selection procedures) and
APA together with the National Council on
Measurement in Education (e.g., Standards
for educational and psychological testing
are sources of those standards.
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission's
Uniform guidelines are also influential in
guiding personnel selection decisions.
A meta-analysis of selection methods found
that general mental ability was the best overall
predictor of job performance and attainment
in training.
=== Performance appraisal/management ===
Performance appraisal or performance evaluation
is the process in which an individual's or
a group's work behaviors and outcomes are
assessed against managers' and others' expectations
for the job.
Performance appraisal is frequently used in
promotion and compensation decisions, to help
design and validate personnel selection procedures,
and for performance management.
Performance management is the process of providing
performance feedback relative to expectations,
and information relevant to improvement (e.g.,
coaching, mentoring).
Performance management may also include documenting
and tracking performance information for organizational
evaluation purposes.
An I/O psychologist would typically use information
from the job analysis to determine a job's
performance dimensions, and then construct
a rating scale to describe each level of performance
for the job.
Often, the I/O psychologist would be responsible
for training organizational personnel how
to use the performance appraisal instrument,
including ways to minimize bias when using
the rating scale, and how to provide effective
performance feedback.
=== Individual assessment and psychometrics
===
Individual assessment involves the measurement
of individual differences.
I/O psychologists perform individual assessments
in order to evaluate differences among candidates
for employment as well as differences among
employees.
The constructs measured pertain to job performance.
With candidates for employment, individual
assessment is often part of the personnel
selection process.
These assessments can include written tests,
aptitude tests, physical tests, psycho-motor
tests, personality tests, integrity and reliability
tests, work samples, simulations, and assessment
centres.
=== Occupational health and well-being ===
I/O psychologists are concerned with occupational
health and well-being.
Early in the 20th century Arthur Kornhauser
examined the impact on productivity of hiring
mentally unstable workers.
Kornhauser also examined the link between
industrial working conditions and mental health
as well as the spillover into a worker's personal
life of having an unsatisfying job.More recently,
I/O researchers have found that staying vigorous
during working hours is associated with better
work-related behaviour and subjective well-being
as well as more effective functioning in the
family domain.
Trait vigor and recovery experiences after
work were related to vigor at work.
Job satisfaction has also been found to be
associated with life satisfaction, happiness,
well-being and positive affect, and the absence
of negative affect.
Other research indicates that among older
workers activities such as volunteering and
participating in social clubs was related
to a decrease in depressive symptoms over
the next two years.
Research on job changing indicates that mobility
between, but not within, organizations is
associated with burnout.
=== Workplace bullying, aggression and violence
===
I/O psychologists are concerned with the related
topics of workplace bullying, aggression,
and violence.
For example, I/O research found that exposure
to workplace violence elicited ruminative
thinking, and ruminative thinking, in turn,
is associated with poor well-being.
I/O research has found that interpersonal
aggressive behaviours is associated with worse
team performance.
=== Remuneration and compensation ===
Compensation includes wages or salary, bonuses,
pension/retirement contributions, and employee
benefits that can be converted to cash or
replace living expenses.
I/O psychologists may be asked to conduct
a job evaluation for the purpose of determining
compensation levels and ranges.
I/O psychologists may also serve as expert
witnesses in pay discrimination cases, when
disparities in pay for similar work are alleged
by employees.
=== Training and training evaluation ===
Training involves the systematic teaching
of skills, concepts, or attitudes that results
in improved performance in another environment.
Because many people hired for a job are not
already versed in all the tasks the job requires,
training may be needed to help the individual
perform the job effectively.
Evidence indicates that training is often
effective, and that it succeeds in terms of
higher net sales and gross profitability per
employee.Similar to performance management
(see above), an I/O psychologist would employ
a job analysis in concert with the application
of the principles of instructional design
to create an effective training program.
A training program is likely to include a
summative evaluation at its conclusion in
order to ensure that trainees have met the
training objectives and can perform the target
work tasks at an acceptable level.
Training programs often include formative
evaluations to assess the effect of the training
as the training proceeds.
Formative evaluations can be used to locate
problems in training procedures and help I/O
psychologists make corrective adjustments
while training is ongoing.The foundation for
training programs is learning.
Learning outcomes can be organized into three
broad categories: cognitive, skill-based,
and affective outcomes.
Cognitive training is aimed at instilling
declarative knowledge or the knowledge of
rules, facts, and principles (e.g., police
officer training covers laws and court procedures).
Skill-based training aims to impart procedural
knowledge (e.g., skills needed to use a special
tool) or technical skills (e.g., understanding
the workings of software program).
Affective training concerns teaching individuals
to develop specific attitudes or beliefs that
predispose trainees to behave a certain way
(e.g., show commitment to the organization,
appreciate diversity).A needs assessment,
an analysis of corporate and individual goals,
is often undertaken prior to the development
of a training program.
In addition, a careful needs analysis is required
in order to develop a systematic understanding
of where training is needed, what should be
taught, and who will be trained.
A training needs analysis typically involves
a three-step process that includes organizational
analysis, task analysis and person analysis.An
organizational analysis is an examination
of organizational goals and resources as well
as the organizational environment.
The results of an organizational analysis
help to determine where training should be
directed.
The analysis identifies the training needs
of different departments or subunits.
It systematically assesses manager, peer,
and technological support for transfer of
training.
An organizational analysis also takes into
account the climate of the organization and
its subunits.
For example, if a climate for safety is emphasized
throughout the organization or in subunits
of the organization (e.g., production), then
training needs will likely reflect an emphasis
on safety.
A task analysis uses the results of a job
analysis to determine what is needed for successful
job performance, contributing to training
content.
With organizations increasingly trying to
identify "core competencies" that are required
for all jobs, task analysis can also include
an assessment of competencies.
A person analysis identifies which individuals
within an organization should receive training
and what kind of instruction they need.
Employee needs can be assessed using a variety
of methods that identify weaknesses that training
can address.
=== Motivation in the workplace ===
Work motivation reflects the energy an individual
applies "to initiate work-related behavior,
and to determine its form, direction, intensity,
and duration" Understanding what motivates
an organization's employees is central to
I/O psychology.
Motivation is generally thought of as a theoretical
construct that fuels behavior.
An incentive is an anticipated reward that
is thought to incline a person to behave a
certain way.
Motivation varies among individuals.
Studying its influence on behavior, it must
be examined together with ability and environmental
influences.
Because of motivation's role in influencing
workplace behavior and performance, many organizations
structure the work environment to encourage
productive behaviors and discourage unproductive
behaviors.Motivation involves three psychological
processes: arousal, direction, and intensity.
Arousal is what initiates action.
It is often fueled by a person's need or desire
for something that is missing from his or
her life, either totally or partially.
Direction refers to the path employees take
in accomplishing the goals they set for themselves.
Intensity is the amount of energy employees
put into goal-directed work performance.
The level of intensity often reflects the
importance and difficulty of the goal.
These psychological processes involve four
factors.
First, motivation serves to direct attention,
focusing on particular issues, people, tasks,
etc.
Second, it serves to stimulate effort.
Third, motivation influences persistence.
Finally, motivation influences the choice
and application of task-related strategies.
=== Occupational stress ===
I/O psychologists are involved in the research
and the practice of occupational stress and
design of individual and organizational interventions
to manage and reduce the stress levels and
increase productivity, performance, health
and wellbeing.
Occupational stress can have implications
for organizational performance because of
the emotions job stress evokes.
For example, a job stressor such as conflict
with a supervisor can precipitate anger that
in turn motivates counterproductive workplace
behaviors.
I/O research has examined the association
between work stressors and aggression, theft,
substance abuse, and depressive symptoms.
A number of models have been developed to
explain the job stress process, including
the person-environment fit model and the demand-control
model.
Those models became a cornerstone of the emergence,
in the late 1980s and early 1990s, of a new
discipline relevant to research on occupational
stress; the discipline, occupational health
psychology, is an offshoot of i/o psychology,
health psychology, and occupational medicine.Research
has also examined occupational stress in specific
occupations, including police, general practitioners,
and dentists.
Another concern has been the relation of occupational
stress to family life.
Other research has examined gender differences
in leadership style and job stress and strain
in the context of male- and female-dominated
industries, and unemployment-related distress.
I/O psychology is also concerned with the
relation of occupational stress to career
advancement.
=== Occupational safety ===
Accidents and safety in the workplace have
become areas of interest to I/O psychology.
Examples of psychosocial injury hazards of
interest to I/O psychology include fatigue,
workplace violence, workplace bullying, and
working night shifts.
I/O researchers conduct "stress audits" that
can help organizations remain compliant with
various occupational safety regulations.
Psychosocial hazards can affect musculoskeletal
disorders.
A psychosocial factor related to accident
risk is safety climate, which refers to employees'
perceptions of the extent to which their work
organization prioritizes safety.
By contrast, psychosocial safety climate refers
to management's "policies, practices, and
procedures" aimed at protecting workers' psychological
health.
Research on safety leadership is also relevant
to I/O psychology.
Research suggests that safety-oriented transformational
leadership is associated with a positive safety
climate and safe worker practices.
=== Organizational culture ===
Organizational culture has been described
as a set of assumptions shared by individuals
in an organization; the assumptions influence
the interpretation and actions that define
appropriate behavior for various situations.
Organizational culture has been shown to affect
important organizational outcomes such as
performance, attraction, recruitment, retention,
employee satisfaction, and employee well-being.
There are three levels of organizational culture:
artifacts, shared values, and basic beliefs
and assumptions.
Artifacts comprise the physical components
of the organization that relay cultural meaning.
Shared values are individuals' preferences
regarding certain aspects of the organization's
culture (e.g., loyalty, customer service).
Basic beliefs and assumptions include individuals'
impressions about the trustworthiness and
supportiveness of an organization, and are
often deeply ingrained within the organization's
culture.
In addition to an overall culture, organizations
also have subcultures.
Examples of subcultures include corporate
culture, departmental culture, local culture,
and issue-related culture.
While there is no single "type" of organizational
culture, some researchers have developed models
to describe different organizational cultures.
=== Group behavior ===
Group behavior involves the interactions among
individuals in a collective.
The individuals' opinions, attitudes, and
adaptations affect group behavior and group
behavior, in turn, affects those opinions,
etc.
The interactions are thought to fulfill some
need satisfaction in an individual who is
part of the collective.
A specific area of I/O research in group behavior
is the team dynamics and team effectiveness.
==== Team effectiveness ====
Organizations often organize teams because
teams can accomplish a much greater amount
of work in a short period of time than an
individual can accomplish.
I/O research has examined the harm workplace
aggression does to team performance.
==== Team composition ====
Team composition, or the configuration of
team member knowledge, skills, abilities,
and other characteristics, fundamentally influences
teamwork.
Team composition can be considered in the
selection and management of teams to increase
the likelihood of team success.
To achieve high-quality results, teams built
with members having higher skill levels are
more likely to be effective than teams built
around members having lesser skills; teams
that include a members with a diversity of
skills are also likely to show improved team
performance.
Team members should also be compatible in
terms of personality traits, values, and work
styles.
There is substantial evidence that personality
traits and values can shape the nature of
teamwork, and influence team performance.
==== Task design ====
A fundamental question in team task design
is whether or not a task is even appropriate
for a team.
Those tasks that require predominantly independent
work are best left to individuals, and team
tasks should include those tasks that consist
primarily of interdependent work.
When a given task is appropriate for a team,
task design can play a key role in team effectiveness.Job
characteristic theory identifies core job
dimensions that affect motivation, satisfaction,
performance, etc.
These dimensions include skill variety, task
identity, task significance, autonomy and
feedback.
The dimensions map well to the team environment.
Individual contributors who perform team tasks
that are challenging, interesting, and engaging
are more likely to be motivated to exert greater
effort and perform better than team members
who are working on tasks that lack those characteristics.
==== Organizational resources ====
Organizational support systems affect the
team effectiveness and provide resources for
teams operating in the multi-team environment.
During the chartering of new teams, organizational
enabling resources are first identified.
Examples of enabling resources include facilities,
equipment, information, training, and leadership.
Team-specific resources (e.g., budgetary resources,
human resources) are typically made available.
Team-specific human resources represent the
individual contributors who are selected to
be team members.
Intra-team processes (e.g., task design, task
assignment) involve these team-specific resources.Teams
also function in dynamic multi-team environments.
Teams often must respond to shifting organizational
contingencies.
Contingencies affecting teams include constraints
arising from conditions in which organizational
resources are not exclusively earmarked for
certain teams.
When resources are scarce, they must be shared
by multiple teams.
==== Team rewards ====
Organizational reward systems drive the strengthening
and enhancing of individual team member efforts;
such efforts contribute towards reaching team
goals.
In other words, rewards that are given to
individual team members should be contingent
upon the performance of the entire team.Several
design elements are needed to enable organizational
reward systems to operate successfully.
First, for a collective assessment to be appropriate
for individual team members, the group's tasks
must be highly interdependent.
If this is not the case, individual assessment
is more appropriate than team assessment.
Second, individual-level reward systems and
team-level reward systems must be compatible.
For example, it would be unfair to reward
the entire team for a job well done if only
one team member did most of the work.
That team member would most likely view teams
and teamwork negatively, and would not want
to work on a team in the future.
Third, an organizational culture must be created
such that it supports and rewards employees
who believe in the value of teamwork and who
maintain a positive attitude towards team-based
rewards.
==== Team goals ====
Goals potentially motivate team members when
goals contain three elements: difficulty,
acceptance, and specificity.
Under difficult goal conditions, teams with
more committed members tend to outperform
teams with less committed members.
When team members commit to team goals, team
effectiveness is a function of how supportive
members are with each other.
The goals of individual team members and team
goals interact.
Team and individual goals must be coordinated.
Individual goals must be consistent with team
goals in order for a team to be effective.
=== Job satisfaction and commitment ===
Job satisfaction is often thought to reflect
the extent to which a worker likes his or
her job, or individual aspects or facets of
jobs.
It is one of the most heavily researched topics
in I/O psychology.
Job satisfaction has theoretical and practical
utility for the field.
It has been linked to important job outcomes
including attitudinal variables (e.g., job
involvement, organizational commitment), absenteeism,
turnover intentions, actual turnover, job
performance, and tension.
A meta-analyses found job satisfaction to
be related to life satisfaction, happiness,
positive affect, and the absence of negative
affect.
=== Productive behavior ===
Productive behavior is defined as employee
behavior that contributes positively to the
goals and objectives of an organization.
When an employee begins a new job, there is
a transition period during which he or she
may not contribute significantly.
To assist with this transition an employee
typically requires job-related training.
In financial terms, productive behavior represents
the point at which an organization begins
to achieve some return on the investment it
has made in a new employee.
I/O psychologists are ordinarily more focused
on productive behavior than job or task performance,
including in-role and extra-role performance.
In-role performance tells managers how well
an employee performs the required aspects
of the job; extra-role performance includes
behaviors not necessarily required by job
but nonetheless contribute to organizational
effectiveness.
By taking both in-role and extra-role performance
into account, an I/O psychologist is able
to assess employees' effectiveness (how well
they do what they were hired to do), efficiency
(outputs to relative inputs), and productivity
(how much they help the organization reach
its goals).
Three forms of productive behavior that I/O
psychologists often evaluate include job performance,
organizational citizenship behavior (see below),
and innovation.
==== Job performance ====
Job performance represents behaviors employees
engage in while at work which contribute to
organizational goals.
These behaviors are formally evaluated by
an organization as part of an employee's responsibilities.
In order to understand and ultimately predict
job performance, it is important to be precise
when defining the term.
Job performance is about behaviors that are
within the control of the employee and not
about results (effectiveness), the costs involved
in achieving results (productivity), the results
that can be achieved in a period of time (efficiency),
or the value an organization places on a given
level of performance, effectiveness, productivity
or efficiency (utility).To model job performance,
researchers have attempted to define a set
of dimensions that are common to all jobs.
Using a common set of dimensions provides
a consistent basis for assessing performance
and enables the comparison of performance
across jobs.
Performance is commonly broken into two major
categories: in-role (technical aspects of
a job) and extra-role (non-technical abilities
such as communication skills and being a good
team member).
While this distinction in behavior has been
challenged it is commonly made by both employees
and management.
A model of performance by Campbell breaks
performance into in-role and extra-role categories.
Campbell labeled job-specific task proficiency
and non-job-specific task proficiency as in-role
dimensions, while written and oral communication,
demonstrating effort, maintaining personal
discipline, facilitating peer and team performance,
supervision and leadership and management
and administration are labeled as extra-role
dimensions.
Murphy's model of job performance also broke
job performance into in-role and extra-role
categories.
However, task-orientated behaviors composed
the in-role category and the extra-role category
included interpersonally-oriented behaviors,
down-time behaviors and destructive and hazardous
behaviors.
However, it has been challenged as to whether
the measurement of job performance is usually
done through pencil/paper tests, job skills
tests, on-site hands-on tests, off-site hands-on
tests, high-fidelity simulations, symbolic
simulations, task ratings and global ratings.
These various tools are often used to evaluate
performance on specific tasks and overall
job performance.
Van Dyne and LePine developed a measurement
model in which overall job performance was
evaluated using Campbell's in-role and extra-role
categories.
Here, in-role performance was reflected through
how well "employees met their performance
expectations and performed well at the tasks
that made up the employees' job."
Dimensions regarding how well the employee
assists others with their work for the benefit
of the group, if the employee voices new ideas
for projects or changes to procedure and whether
the employee attends functions that help the
group composed the extra-role category.
To assess job performance, reliable and valid
measures must be established.
While there are many sources of error with
performance ratings, error can be reduced
through rater training and through the use
of behaviorally-anchored rating scales.
Such scales can be used to clearly define
the behaviors that constitute poor, average,
and superior performance.
Additional factors that complicate the measurement
of job performance include the instability
of job performance over time due to forces
such as changing performance criteria, the
structure of the job itself and the restriction
of variation in individual performance by
organizational forces.
These factors include errors in job measurement
techniques, acceptance and the justification
of poor performance and lack of importance
of individual performance.
The determinants of job performance consist
of factors having to do with the individual
worker as well as environmental factors in
the workplace.
According to Campbell's Model of The Determinants
of Job Performance, job performance is a result
of the interaction between declarative knowledge
(knowledge of facts or things), procedural
knowledge (knowledge of what needs to be done
and how to do it), and motivation (reflective
of an employee's choices regarding whether
to expend effort, the level of effort to expend,
and whether to persist with the level of effort
chosen).
The interplay between these factors show that
an employee may, for example, have a low level
of declarative knowledge, but may still have
a high level of performance if the employee
has high levels of procedural knowledge and
motivation.
Regardless of the job, three determinants
stand out as predictors of performance: (1)
general mental ability (especially for jobs
higher in complexity); (2) job experience
(although there is a law of diminishing returns);
and (3) the personality trait of conscientiousness
(people who are dependable and achievement-oriented,
who plan well).
These determinants appear to influence performance
largely through the acquisition and usage
of job knowledge and the motivation to do
well.
Further, an expanding area of research in
job performance determinants includes emotional
intelligence.
=== Organizational citizenship behavior ===
Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs)
are another form of workplace behavior that
I/O psychologists are involved with.
OCBs tend to be beneficial to both the organization
and other workers.
Dennis Organ (1988) defines OCBs as "individual
behavior that is discretionary, not directly
or explicitly recognized by the formal reward
system, and that in the aggregate promotes
the effective functioning of the organization."
Behaviors that qualify as OCBs can fall into
one of the following five categories: altruism,
courtesy, sportsmanship, conscientiousness,
and civic virtue.
OCBs have also been categorized in other ways
too, for example, by their intended targets
(individuals, supervisors, and the organization
as a whole.
Other alternative ways of categorizing OCBs
include "compulsory OCBs," which are engaged
in owing to coercive persuasion or peer pressure
rather than out of good will.
The extent to which OCBs are voluntary has
been the subject of some debate.Other research
suggests that some employees perform OCBs
to influence how they are viewed within the
organization.
While these behaviors are not formally part
of the job description, performing them can
influence performance appraisals.
Researchers have advanced the view that employees
engage in OCBs as a form of "impression management,"
a term coined by Erving Goffman.
Goffman defined impression management as "the
way in which the individual ... presents himself
and his activity to others, the ways in which
he guides and controls the impression they
form of him, and the kinds of things he may
and may not do while sustaining his performance
before them.
Some researchers have hypothesized that OCBs
are not performed out of good will, positive
affect, etc., but instead as a way of being
noticed by others, including supervisors.
=== Innovation ===
Four qualities are generally linked to creative
and innovative behaviour by individuals:
Task-relevant skills (general mental ability
and job specific knowledge).
Task specific and subject specific knowledge
is most often gained through higher education;
however, it may also be gained by mentoring
and experience in a given field.
Creativity-relevant skills (ability to concentrate
on a problem for long periods of time, to
abandon unproductive searches, and to temporarily
put aside stubborn problems).
The ability to put aside stubborn problems
is referred to by Jex & Britt as productive
forgetting.
Creativity-relevant skills also require the
individual contributor to evaluate a problem
from multiple vantage points.
One must be able to take on the perspective
of various users.
For example, an Operation Manager analyzing
a reporting issue and developing an innovative
solution would consider the perspective of
a sales person, assistant, finance, compensation,
and compliance officer.
Task motivation (internal desire to perform
task and level of enjoyment).At the organizational
level, a study by Damanpour identified four
specific characteristics that may predict
innovation:
A population with high levels of technical
knowledge
The organization's level of specialization
The level an organization communicates externally
Functional Differentiation.
=== Counterproductive work behavior ===
Counterproductive work behavior (CWB) can
be defined as employee behavior that goes
against the goals of an organization.
These behaviors can be intentional or unintentional
and result from a wide range of underlying
causes and motivations.
Some CWBs have instrumental motivations (e.g.,
theft).
It has been proposed that a person-by-environment
interaction can be utilized to explain a variety
of counterproductive behaviors (Fox and Spector,
1999).
For instance, an employee who sabotages another
employee's work may do so because of lax supervision
(environment) and underlying psychopathology
(person) that work in concert to result in
the counterproductive behavior.
There is evidence that an emotional response
(e.g., anger) to job stress (e.g., unfair
treatment) can motivate CWBs.The forms of
counterproductive behavior with the most empirical
examination are ineffective job performance,
absenteeism, job turnover, and accidents.
Less common but potentially more detrimental
forms of counterproductive behavior have also
been investigated including violence and sexual
harassment.
=== Leadership ===
In I/O psychology, leadership can be defined
as a process of influencing others to agree
on a shared purpose, and to work towards shared
objectives.
A distinction should be made between leadership
and management.
Managers process administrative tasks and
organize work environments.
Although leaders may be required to undertake
managerial duties as well, leaders typically
focus on inspiring followers and creating
a shared organizational culture and values.
Managers deal with complexity, while leaders
deal with initiating and adapting to change.
Managers undertake the tasks of planning,
budgeting, organizing, staffing, controlling
and problem solving.
In contrast, leaders undertake the tasks of
setting a direction or vision, aligning people
to shared goals, communicating, and motivating.Approaches
to studying leadership in I/O psychology can
be broadly classified into three categories:
Leader-focused approaches, contingency-focused
approaches, and follower-focused approaches.
==== Leader-focused approaches ====
Leader-focused approaches look to organizational
leaders to determine the characteristics of
effective leadership.
According to the trait approach, more effective
leaders possess certain traits that less effective
leaders lack.
More recently, this approach is being used
to predict leader emergence.
The following traits have been identified
as those that predict leader emergence when
there is no formal leader: high intelligence,
high needs for dominance, high self-motivation,
and socially perceptive.
Another leader-focused approached is the behavioral
approach which focuses on the behaviors that
distinguish effective from ineffective leaders.
There are two categories of leadership behaviors:
(1) consideration; and (2) initiating structure.
Behaviors associated with the category of
consideration include showing subordinates
they are valued and that the leader cares
about them.
An example of a consideration behavior is
showing compassion when problems arise in
or out of the office.
Behaviors associated with the category of
initiating structure include facilitating
the task performance of groups.
One example of an initiating structure behavior
is meeting one-on-one with subordinates to
explain expectations and goals.
The final leader-focused approach is power
and influence.
To be most effective a leader should be able
to influence others to behave in ways that
are in line with the organization's mission
and goals.
How influential a leader can be depends on
their social power or their potential to influence
their subordinates.
There are six bases of power: coercive power,
reward power, legitimate power, expert power,
referent power, and informational power.
A leader can use several different tactics
to influence others within an organization.
These common tactics include: rational persuasion,
inspirational appeal, consultation, ingratiation,
exchange, personal appeal, coalition, legitimating,
and pressure.
==== Contingency-focused approaches ====
Of the 3 approaches to leadership, contingency-focused
approaches have been the most prevalent over
the past 30 years.
Contingency-focused theories base a leader's
effectiveness on their ability to assess a
situation and adapt their behavior accordingly.
These theories assume that an effective leader
can accurately "read" a situation and skillfully
employ a leadership style that meets the needs
of the individuals involved and the task at
hand.
A brief introduction to the most prominent
contingency-focused theories will follow.
Fiedler's Contingency Theory holds that a
leader's effectiveness depends on the interaction
between their characteristics and the characteristics
of the situation.
Path–Goal Theory asserts that the role of
the leader is to help his or her subordinates
achieve their goals.
To effectively do this, leaders must skillfully
select from four different leadership styles
to meet the situational factors.
The situational factors are a product of the
characteristics of subordinates and the characteristics
of the environment.
The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model focuses
on how leader–subordinate relationships
develop.
Generally speaking, when a subordinate performs
well or when there are positive exchanges
between a leader and a subordinate, their
relationship is strengthened, performance
and job satisfaction are enhanced, and the
subordinate will feel more commitment to the
leader and the organization as a whole.
Vroom-Yetton-Jago Model focuses on decision
making with respect to a feasibility set which
is composed of the situational attributes.
In addition to the contingency-focused approaches
mentioned, there has been a high degree of
interest paid to three novel approaches that
have recently emerged.
The first is transformational leadership,
which posits that there are certain leadership
traits that inspire subordinates to perform
beyond their capabilities.
The second is transactional leadership, which
is most concerned with keeping subordinates
in-line with deadlines and organizational
policy.
This type of leader fills more of a managerial
role and lacks qualities necessary to inspire
subordinates and induce meaningful change.
And the third is authentic leadership which
is centered around empathy and a leader's
values or character.
If the leader understands their followers,
they can inspire subordinates by cultivating
a personal connection and leading them to
share in the vision and goals of the team.
Although there has been a limited amount of
research conducted on these theories, they
are sure to receive continued attention as
the field of I/O psychology matures.
==== Follower-focused approaches ====
Follower-focused approaches look at the processes
by which leaders motivate followers, and lead
teams to achieve shared goals.
Understandably, the area of leadership motivation
draws heavily from the abundant research literature
in the domain of motivation in I/O psychology.
Because leaders are held responsible for their
followers' ability to achieve the organization's
goals, their ability to motivate their followers
is a critical factor of leadership effectiveness.
Similarly, the area of team leadership draws
heavily from the research in teams and team
effectiveness in I/O psychology.
Because organizational employees are frequently
structured in the form of teams, leaders need
to be aware of the potential benefits and
pitfalls of working in teams, how teams develop,
how to satisfy team members' needs, and ultimately
how to bring about team effectiveness and
performance.
An emerging area of I/O research in the area
of team leadership is in leading virtual teams,
where people in the team are geographically-distributed
across various distances and sometimes even
countries.
While technological advances have enabled
the leadership process to take place in such
virtual contexts, they present new challenges
for leaders as well, such as the need to use
technology to build relationships with followers,
and influencing followers when faced with
limited (or no) face-to-face interaction.
==== Organizational development ====
I/O psychologists are also concerned with
organizational change.
This effort, called organizational development
(OD).
Tools used to advance organization development
include the survey feedback technique.
The technique involves the periodic assessment
(with surveys) of employee attitudes and feelings.
The results are conveyed to organizational
stakeholders, who may want to take the organization
in a particular direction.
Another tool is the team building technique.
Because many if not most tasks within the
organization are completed by small groups
and/or teams, team building is important to
organizational success.
In order to enhance a team's morale and problem-solving
skills, I/O psychologists help the groups
to build their self-confidence, group cohesiveness,
and working effectiveness.
=== Relation to organizational behavior ===
The I/O psychology and organizational behavior
have manifested some overlap.
The overlap has led to some confusion regarding
how the two disciplines differ.
There is also much confusion about the differences
between I/O psychology and human resources,
or human resource management
== 
Training ==
The minimum requirement for working as an
I/O psychologist is a master's degree.
Normally, this degree requires about 2–3
years to complete.
Of all the degrees granted in I/O psychology
each year, approximately two thirds are at
the master's level.A comprehensive list of
US and Canadian master's and doctoral programs
can be found at the web site of the Society
for Industrial and Organizational Psychology
(SIOP).
Admission into I/O psychology PhD programs
is highly competitive given that many programs
accept a small number of applicants every
year.
There are graduate degree programs in I/O
psychology outside of the US and Canada.
The SIOP web site also provides a comprehensive
list of I/O programs in many other countries.
In Australia, Organizational Psychologists
must be accredited by the Australia Psychological
Society (APS).
To become an Organizational Psychologist,
one must meet the criteria for a general psychologist's
licence: 3 years studying bachelor's degree
in Psychology, 4th year Honours degree or
Postgraduate Diploma in Psychology, and two-year
full-time supervised practice plus 80 hours
of professional development.
There are other avenues available, such as
a two-year supervised training program after
Honours (i.e. 4+2 pathway), or one year of
postgraduate coursework and practical placements
followed by a one-year supervised training
program (i.e. 5+1 pathway).
After this, psychologists can elect to specialize
as Organizational Psychologists.
=== Competencies ===
There are many different sets of competencies
for different specializations within I/O psychology
and I/O psychologists are versatile behavioral
scientists.
For example, an I/O psychologist specializing
in selection and recruiting should have expertise
in finding the best talent for the organization
and getting everyone on board while he or
she might not need to know much about executive
coaching.
Some I/O psychologists specialize in specific
areas of consulting whereas others tend to
generalize their areas of expertise.
There are basic skills and knowledge an individual
needs in order to be an effective I/O psychologist,
which include being an independent learner,
interpersonal skills (e.g., listening skills),
and general consultation skills (e.g., skills
and knowledge in the problem area).
=== Job outlook ===
According to the United States Department
of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics, I/O
psychology is the fastest growing occupation
in the United States, based on projections
between 2012 and 2022.
In a 2006 salary survey, the median salary
for a PhD in I/O psychology was $98,000; for
a master's level I/O psychologist was $72,000.
The highest paid PhD I/O psychologists in
private industry worked in pharmaceuticals
and averaged approximately $151,000 per year;
the median salary for self-employed consultants
was $150,000; those employed in retail, energy,
and manufacturing followed closely behind,
averaging approximately $133,000.
The lowest earners were found in state and
local government positions, averaging approximately
$77,000.
In 2005, I/O psychologists whose primary responsibility
is teaching at private and public colleges
and universities often earn additional income
from consulting with government and industry.
== Ethics ==
An I/O psychologist, whether an academic,
a consultant, or an employee, must maintain
high ethical standards.
The APA's ethical principles apply to I/O
psychologists.
For example, ethically, the I/O psychologist
should only accept projects for which he or
she is qualified.
With more organizations becoming global, it
is important that when an I/O psychologist
works outside her or his home country, the
psychologist is aware of rules, regulations,
and cultures of the organizations and countries
in which the psychologist works, while adhering
to the ethical standards set at home.
== See also
