Science (from the Latin word scientia, meaning
"knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that
builds and organizes knowledge in the form
of testable explanations and predictions about
the universe.The earliest roots of science
can be traced to Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia
in around 3500 to 3000 BCE. Their contributions
to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine entered
and shaped Greek natural philosophy of classical
antiquity, whereby formal attempts were made
to explain events of the physical world based
on natural causes. After the fall of the Western
Roman Empire, knowledge of Greek conceptions
of the world deteriorated in Western Europe
during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE)
of the Middle Ages but was preserved in the
Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age.
The recovery and assimilation of Greek works
and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe
from the 10th to 13th century revived natural
philosophy, which was later transformed by
the Scientific Revolution that began in the
16th century as new ideas and discoveries
departed from previous Greek conceptions and
traditions. The scientific method soon played
a greater role in knowledge creation and it
was not until the 19th century that many of
the institutional and professional features
of science began to take shape.Modern science
is typically divided into three major branches
that consist of the natural sciences (e.g.,
biology, chemistry, and physics), which study
nature in the broadest sense; the social sciences
(e.g., economics, psychology, and sociology),
which study individuals and societies; and
the formal sciences (e.g., logic, mathematics,
and theoretical computer science), which study
abstract concepts. There is disagreement,
however, on whether the formal sciences actually
constitute a science as they do not rely on
empirical evidence. Disciplines that utilize
existing scientific knowledge for practical
purposes, such as engineering and medicine,
are described as applied sciences.Science
is based on research, which is commonly conducted
in academic and research institutions as well
as in government agencies and companies. The
practical impact of scientific research has
led to the emergence of science policies that
seek to influence the scientific enterprise
by prioritizing the development of commercial
products, armaments, health care, and environmental
protection.
== History ==
Science in a broad sense existed before the
modern era and in many historical civilizations.
Modern science is distinct in its approach
and successful in its results, so it now defines
what science is in the strictest sense of
the term. Science in its original sense was
a word for a type of knowledge, rather than
a specialized word for the pursuit of such
knowledge. In particular, it was the type
of knowledge which people can communicate
to each other and share. For example, knowledge
about the working of natural things was gathered
long before recorded history and led to the
development of complex abstract thought. This
is shown by the construction of complex calendars,
techniques for making poisonous plants edible,
public works at national scale, such as those
which harnessed the floodplain of the Yangtse
with reservoirs, dams, and dikes, and buildings
such as the Pyramids. However, no consistent
conscious distinction was made between knowledge
of such things, which are true in every community,
and other types of communal knowledge, such
as mythologies and legal systems. Metallurgy
was known in prehistory, and the Vinča culture
was the earliest known producer of bronze-like
alloys. It is thought that early experimentation
with heating and mixing of substances over
time developed into alchemy.
=== Early cultures ===
Neither the words nor the concepts "science"
and "nature" were part of the conceptual landscape
in the ancient near east. The ancient Mesopotamians
used knowledge about the properties of various
natural chemicals for manufacturing pottery,
faience, glass, soap, metals, lime plaster,
and waterproofing; they also studied animal
physiology, anatomy, and behavior for divinatory
purposes and made extensive records of the
movements of astronomical objects for their
study of astrology. The Mesopotamians had
intense interest in medicine and the earliest
medical prescriptions appear in Sumerian during
the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2112 BCE – c.
2004 BCE). Nonetheless, the Mesopotamians
seem to have had little interest in gathering
information about the natural world for the
mere sake of gathering information and mainly
only studied scientific subjects which had
obvious practical applications or immediate
relevance to their religious system.
=== Classical antiquity ===
In the classical world, there is no real ancient
analog of a modern scientist. Instead, well-educated,
usually upper-class, and almost universally
male individuals performed various investigations
into nature whenever they could afford the
time. Before the invention or discovery of
the concept of "nature" (ancient Greek phusis)
by the Pre-Socratic philosophers, the same
words tend to be used to describe the natural
"way" in which a plant grows, and the "way"
in which, for example, one tribe worships
a particular god. For this reason, it is claimed
these men were the first philosophers in the
strict sense, and also the first people to
clearly distinguish "nature" and "convention."
Natural philosophy, the precursor of natural
science, was thereby distinguished as the
knowledge of nature and things which are true
for every community, and the name of the specialized
pursuit of such knowledge was philosophy – the
realm of the first philosopher-physicists.
They were mainly speculators or theorists,
particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast,
trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate
nature (artifice or technology, Greek technē)
was seen by classical scientists as a more
appropriate interest for lower class artisans.The
early Greek philosophers of the Milesian school,
which was founded by Thales of Miletus and
later continued by his successors Anaximander
and Anaximenes, were the first to attempt
to explain natural phenomena without relying
on the supernatural. The Pythagoreans developed
a complex number philosophy and contributed
significantly to the development of mathematical
science. The theory of atoms was developed
by the Greek philosopher Leucippus and his
student Democritus. The Greek doctor Hippocrates
established the tradition of systematic medical
science and is known as "The Father of Medicine".
A turning point in the history of early philosophical
science was Socrates' example of applying
philosophy to the study of human matters,
including human nature, the nature of political
communities, and human knowledge itself. The
Socratic method as documented by Plato's dialogues
is a dialectic method of hypothesis elimination:
better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying
and eliminating those that lead to contradictions.
This was a reaction to the Sophist emphasis
on rhetoric. The Socratic method searches
for general, commonly held truths that shape
beliefs and scrutinizes them to determine
their consistency with other beliefs. Socrates
criticized the older type of study of physics
as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism.
Socrates was later, in the words of his Apology,
accused of corrupting the youth of Athens
because he did "not believe in the gods the
state believes in, but in other new spiritual
beings". Socrates refuted these claims, but
was sentenced to death.Aristotle later created
a systematic programme of teleological philosophy:
Motion and change is described as the actualization
of potentials already in things, according
to what types of things they are. In his physics,
the Sun goes around the Earth, and many things
have it as part of their nature that they
are for humans. Each thing has a formal cause,
a final cause, and a role in a cosmic order
with an unmoved mover. The Socratics also
insisted that philosophy should be used to
consider the practical question of the best
way to live for a human being (a study Aristotle
divided into ethics and political philosophy).
Aristotle maintained that man knows a thing
scientifically "when he possesses a conviction
arrived at in a certain way, and when the
first principles on which that conviction
rests are known to him with certainty".The
Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos (310–230
BCE) was the first to propose a heliocentric
model of the universe, with the Sun at the
center and all the planets orbiting it. Aristarchus's
model was widely rejected because it was believed
to violate the laws of physics. The inventor
and mathematician Archimedes of Syracuse made
major contributions to the beginnings of calculus
and has sometimes been credited as its inventor,
although his proto-calculus lacked several
defining features. Pliny the Elder was a Roman
writer and polymath, who wrote the seminal
encyclopedia Natural History, dealing with
history, geography, medicine, astronomy, earth
science, botany, and zoology.
Other scientists or proto-scientists in Antiquity
were Theophrastus, Euclid, Herophilos, Hipparchus,
Ptolemy, and Galen.
During late antiquity, in the Byzantine empire
many Greek classical texts were preserved.
Many Syriac translations were done by groups
such as the Nestorians and Monophysites. They
played a role when they translated Greek classical
texts into Arabic under the Caliphate, during
which many types of classical learning were
preserved and in some cases improved upon.
In addition, the neighboring Sassanid Empire
established the medical Academy of Gondeshapur
where Greek, Syriac and Persian physicians
established the most important medical center
of the ancient world during the 6th and 7th
centuries.
=== Medieval science ===
Because of the collapse of the Western Roman
Empire due to the Migration Period an intellectual
decline took place in the western part of
Europe in the 400s. In contrast, the Byzantine
Empire resisted the attacks from the barbarians,
and preserved and improved upon the learning.
John Philoponus, a Byzantine scholar in the
500s, was the first scholar ever to question
Aristotle's teaching of physics and to note
its flaws. John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian
principles of physics served as an inspiration
to medieval scholars as well as to Galileo
Galilei who ten centuries later, during the
Scientific Revolution, extensively cited Philoponus
in his works while making the case as to why
Aristotelian physics was flawed.During late
antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the Aristotelian
approach to inquiries on natural phenomena
was used. Aristotle's four causes prescribed
that four "why" questions should be answered
in order to explain things scientifically.
Some ancient knowledge was lost, or in some
cases kept in obscurity, during the fall of
the Western Roman Empire and periodic political
struggles. However, the general fields of
science (or "natural philosophy" as it was
called) and much of the general knowledge
from the ancient world remained preserved
through the works of the early Latin encyclopedists
like Isidore of Seville. However, Aristotle's
original texts were eventually lost in Western
Europe, and only one text by Plato was widely
known, the Timaeus, which was the only Platonic
dialogue, and one of the few original works
of classical natural philosophy, available
to Latin readers in the early Middle Ages.
Another original work that gained influence
in this period was Ptolemy's Almagest, which
contains a geocentric description of the solar
system.
In the Byzantine empire, many Greek classical
texts were preserved. Many Syriac translations
were done by groups such as the Nestorians
and Monophysites. They played a role when
they translated Greek classical texts into
Arabic under the Caliphate, during which many
types of classical learning were preserved
and in some cases improved upon.The House
of Wisdom was established in Abbasid-era Baghdad,
Iraq,
where the Islamic study of Aristotelianism
flourished. Al-Kindi (801–873) was the first
of the Muslim Peripatetic philosophers, and
is known for his efforts to introduce Greek
and Hellenistic philosophy to the Arab world.
The Islamic Golden Age flourished from this
time until the Mongol invasions of the 13th
century. Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), as well
as his predecessor Ibn Sahl, was familiar
with Ptolemy's Optics, and used experiments
as a means to gain knowledge. Furthermore,
doctors and alchemists such as the Persians
Avicenna and Al-Razi also greatly developed
the science of Medicine with the former writing
the Canon of Medicine, a medical encyclopedia
used until the 18th century and the latter
discovering multiple compounds like alcohol.
Avicenna's canon is considered to be one of
the most important publications in medicine
and they both contributed significantly to
the practice of experimental medicine, using
clinical trials and experiments to back their
claims.In Classical antiquity, Greek and Roman
taboos had meant that dissection was usually
banned in ancient times, but in Middle Ages
it changed: medical teachers and students
at Bologna began to open human bodies, and
Mondino de Luzzi (c. 1275–1326) produced
the ﬁrst known anatomy textbook based on
human dissection.By the eleventh century most
of Europe had become Christian; stronger monarchies
emerged; borders were restored; technological
developments and agricultural innovations
were made which increased the food supply
and population. In addition, classical Greek
texts started to be translated from Arabic
and Greek into Latin, giving a higher level
of scientific discussion in Western Europe.By
1088, the first university in Europe (the
University of Bologna) had emerged from its
clerical beginnings. Demand for Latin translations
grew (for example, from the Toledo School
of Translators); western Europeans began collecting
texts written not only in Latin, but also
Latin translations from Greek, Arabic, and
Hebrew. Manuscript copies of Alhazen's Book
of Optics also propagated across Europe before
1240, as evidenced by its incorporation into
Vitello's Perspectiva. Avicenna's Canon was
translated into Latin. In particular, the
texts of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Euclid, preserved
in the Houses of Wisdom and also in the Byzantine
Empire, were sought amongst Catholic scholars.
The influx of ancient texts caused the Renaissance
of the 12th century and the flourishing of
a synthesis of Catholicism and Aristotelianism
known as Scholasticism in western Europe,
which became a new geographic center of science.
An experiment in this period would be understood
as a careful process of observing, describing,
and classifying. One prominent scientist in
this era was Roger Bacon. Scholasticism had
a strong focus on revelation and dialectic
reasoning, and gradually fell out of favour
over the next centuries, as alchemy's focus
on experiments that include direct observation
and meticulous documentation slowly increased
in importance.
=== Renaissance and early modern science ===
Alhazen disproved Ptolemy's theory of vision,
but did not make any corresponding changes
to Aristotle's metaphysics. The scientific
revolution ran concurrently to a process where
elements of Aristotle's metaphysics such as
ethics, teleology and formal causality slowly
fell out of favour. Scholars slowly came to
realize that the universe itself might well
be devoid of both purpose and ethical imperatives.
The development from a physics infused with
goals, ethics, and spirit, toward a physics
where these elements do not play an integral
role, took centuries. This development was
enhanced by the Condemnations of 1277, where
Aristotle's books were banned by the Catholic
church. This allowed the theoretical possibility
of vacuum and motion in a vacuum. A direct
result was the emergence of the science of
dynamics.
New developments in optics played a role in
the inception of the Renaissance, both by
challenging long-held metaphysical ideas on
perception, as well as by contributing to
the improvement and development of technology
such as the camera obscura and the telescope.
Before what we now know as the Renaissance
started, Roger Bacon, Vitello, and John Peckham
each built up a scholastic ontology upon a
causal chain beginning with sensation, perception,
and finally apperception of the individual
and universal forms of Aristotle. A model
of vision later known as perspectivism was
exploited and studied by the artists of the
Renaissance. This theory utilizes only three
of Aristotle's four causes: formal, material,
and final.In the sixteenth century, Copernicus
formulated a heliocentric model of the solar
system unlike the geocentric model of Ptolemy's
Almagest. This was based on a theorem that
the orbital periods of the planets are longer
as their orbs are farther from the centre
of motion, which he found not to agree with
Ptolemy's model.Kepler and others challenged
the notion that the only function of the eye
is perception, and shifted the main focus
in optics from the eye to the propagation
of light. Kepler modelled the eye as a water-filled
glass sphere with an aperture in front of
it to model the entrance pupil. He found that
all the light from a single point of the scene
was imaged at a single point at the back of
the glass sphere. The optical chain ends on
the retina at the back of the eye. Kepler
is best known, however, for improving Copernicus'
heliocentric model through the discovery of
Kepler's laws of planetary motion. Kepler
did not reject Aristotelian metaphysics, and
described his work as a search for the Harmony
of the Spheres.
Galileo made innovative use of experiment
and mathematics. However, he became persecuted
after Pope Urban VIII blessed Galileo to write
about the Copernican system. Galileo had used
arguments from the Pope and put them in the
voice of the simpleton in the work "Dialogue
Concerning the Two Chief World Systems", which
greatly offended Urban VIII.In Northern Europe,
the new technology of the printing press was
widely used to publish many arguments, including
some that disagreed widely with contemporary
ideas of nature. René Descartes and Francis
Bacon published philosophical arguments in
favor of a new type of non-Aristotelian science.
Descartes emphasized individual thought and
argued that mathematics rather than geometry
should be used in order to study nature. Bacon
emphasized the importance of experiment over
contemplation. Bacon further questioned the
Aristotelian concepts of formal cause and
final cause, and promoted the idea that science
should study the laws of "simple" natures,
such as heat, rather than assuming that there
is any specific nature, or "formal cause",
of each complex type of thing. This new science
began to see itself as describing "laws of
nature". This updated approach to studies
in nature was seen as mechanistic. Bacon also
argued that science should aim for the first
time at practical inventions for the improvement
of all human life.
=== Age of Enlightenment ===
As a precursor to the Age of Enlightenment,
Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
succeeded in developing a new physics, now
referred to as classical mechanics, which
could be confirmed by experiment and explained
using mathematics. Leibniz also incorporated
terms from Aristotelian physics, but now being
used in a new non-teleological way, for example,
"energy" and "potential" (modern versions
of Aristotelian "energeia and potentia").
This implied a shift in the view of objects:
Where Aristotle had noted that objects have
certain innate goals that can be actualized,
objects were now regarded as devoid of innate
goals. In the style of Francis Bacon, Leibniz
assumed that different types of things all
work according to the same general laws of
nature, with no special formal or final causes
for each type of thing. It is during this
period that the word "science" gradually became
more commonly used to refer to a type of pursuit
of a type of knowledge, especially knowledge
of nature – coming close in meaning to the
old term "natural philosophy."
During this time, the declared purpose and
value of science became producing wealth and
inventions that would improve human lives,
in the materialistic sense of having more
food, clothing, and other things. In Bacon's
words, "the real and legitimate goal of sciences
is the endowment of human life with new inventions
and riches", and he discouraged scientists
from pursuing intangible philosophical or
spiritual ideas, which he believed contributed
little to human happiness beyond "the fume
of subtle, sublime, or pleasing speculation".Science
during the Enlightenment was dominated by
scientific societies and academies, which
had largely replaced universities as centres
of scientific research and development. Societies
and academies were also the backbone of the
maturation of the scientific profession. Another
important development was the popularization
of science among an increasingly literate
population. Philosophes introduced the public
to many scientific theories, most notably
through the Encyclopédie and the popularization
of Newtonianism by Voltaire as well as by
Émilie du Châtelet, the French translator
of Newton's Principia.
Some historians have marked the 18th century
as a drab period in the history of science;
however, the century saw significant advancements
in the practice of medicine, mathematics,
and physics; the development of biological
taxonomy; a new understanding of magnetism
and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry
as a discipline, which established the foundations
of modern chemistry.
Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history
of scientific predecessors – Galileo, Boyle,
and Newton principally – as the guides and
guarantors of their applications of the singular
concept of nature and natural law to every
physical and social field of the day. In this
respect, the lessons of history and the social
structures built upon it could be discarded.
=== 19th century ===
The nineteenth century is a particularly important
period in the history of science since during
this era many distinguishing characteristics
of contemporary modern science began to take
shape such as: transformation of the life
and physical sciences, frequent use of precision
instruments, emergence of terms like "biologist",
"physicist", "scientist"; slowly moving away
from antiquated labels like "natural philosophy"
and "natural history", increased professionalization
of those studying nature lead to reduction
in amateur naturalists, scientists gained
cultural authority over many dimensions of
society, economic expansion and industrialization
of numerous countries, thriving of popular
science writings and emergence of science
journals.Early in the 19th century, John Dalton
suggested the modern atomic theory, based
on Democritus's original idea of individible
particles called atoms.
Both John Herschel and William Whewell systematized
methodology: the latter coined the term scientist.
When Charles Darwin published On the Origin
of Species he established evolution as the
prevailing explanation of biological complexity.
His theory of natural selection provided a
natural explanation of how species originated,
but this only gained wide acceptance a century
later.
The laws of conservation of energy, conservation
of momentum and conservation of mass suggested
a highly stable universe where there could
be little loss of resources. With the advent
of the steam engine and the industrial revolution,
there was, however, an increased understanding
that all forms of energy as defined by Newton
were not equally useful; they did not have
the same energy quality. This realization
led to the development of the laws of thermodynamics,
in which the cumulative energy quality of
the universe is seen as constantly declining:
the entropy of the universe increases over
time.
The electromagnetic theory was also established
in the 19th century, and raised new questions
which could not easily be answered using Newton's
framework. The phenomena that would allow
the deconstruction of the atom were discovered
in the last decade of the 19th century: the
discovery of X-rays inspired the discovery
of radioactivity. In the next year came the
discovery of the first subatomic particle,
the electron.
=== 20th century ===
Einstein's theory of relativity and the development
of quantum mechanics led to the replacement
of classical mechanics with a new physics
which contains two parts that describe different
types of events in nature.
In the first half of the century, the development
of antibiotics and artificial fertilizer made
global human population growth possible. At
the same time, the structure of the atom and
its nucleus was discovered, leading to the
release of "atomic energy" (nuclear power).
In addition, the extensive use of technological
innovation stimulated by the wars of this
century led to revolutions in transportation
(automobiles and aircraft), the development
of ICBMs, a space race, and a nuclear arms
race.
The molecular structure of DNA was discovered
in 1953. The discovery of the cosmic microwave
background radiation in 1964 led to a rejection
of the Steady State theory of the universe
in favour of the Big Bang theory of Georges
Lemaître.
The development of spaceflight in the second
half of the century allowed the first astronomical
measurements done on or near other objects
in space, including manned landings on the
Moon. Space telescopes lead to numerous discoveries
in astronomy and cosmology.
Widespread use of integrated circuits in the
last quarter of the 20th century combined
with communications satellites led to a revolution
in information technology and the rise of
the global internet and mobile computing,
including smartphones. The need for mass systematization
of long, intertwined causal chains and large
amounts of data led to the rise of the fields
of systems theory and computer-assisted scientific
modelling, which are partly based on the Aristotelian
paradigm.Harmful environmental issues such
as ozone depletion, acidification, eutrophication
and climate change came to the public's attention
in the same period, and caused the onset of
environmental science and environmental technology.
In a 1967 article, Lynn Townsend White Jr.
blamed the ecological crisis on the historical
decline of the notion of spirit in nature.
=== 21st century ===
With the 
discovery of the Higgs boson in 2012, the
last particle predicted by the Standard Model
of particle physics was found. In 2015, gravitational
waves, predicted by general relativity a century
before, were first observed.The Human Genome
Project was completed in 2003, determining
the sequence of nucleotide base pairs that
make up human DNA, and identifying and mapping
all of the genes of the human genome. Induced
pluripotent stem cells were developed in 2006,
a technology allowing adult cells to be transformed
into stem cells capable of giving rise to
any cell type found in the body, potentially
of huge importance to the field of regenerative
medicine.
== Branches of science ==
Modern science is commonly divided into three
major branches that consist of the natural
sciences, social sciences, and formal sciences.
Each of these branches comprise various specialized
yet overlapping scientific disciplines that
often possess their own nomenclature and expertise.
Both natural and social sciences are empirical
sciences as their knowledge are based on empirical
observations and are capable of being tested
for its validity by other researchers working
under the same conditions.There are also closely
related disciplines that use science, such
as engineering and medicine.
=== Natural science ===
Natural science is concerned with the description,
prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena
based on empirical evidence from observation
and experimentation. It can be divided into
two main branches: life science (or biological
science) and physical science. Physical science
is subdivided into branches, including physics,
chemistry, astronomy and earth science. These
two branches may be further divided into more
specialized disciplines. Modern natural science
is the successor to the natural philosophy
that began in Ancient Greece. Galileo, Descartes,
Bacon, and Newton debated the benefits of
using approaches which were more mathematical
and more experimental in a methodical way.
Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures,
and presuppositions, often overlooked, remain
necessary in natural science. Systematic data
collection, including discovery science, succeeded
natural history, which emerged in the 16th
century by describing and classifying plants,
animals, minerals, and so on. Today, "natural
history" suggests observational descriptions
aimed at popular audiences.
=== Social science ===
Social science is concerned with society and
the relationships among individuals within
a society. It has many branches that include,
but are not limited to, anthropology, archaeology,
communication studies, economics, history,
human geography, jurisprudence, linguistics,
political science, psychology, public health,
and sociology. Social scientists may adopt
various philosophical theories to study individuals
and society. For example, positivist social
scientists use methods resembling those of
the natural sciences as tools for understanding
society, and so define science in its stricter
modern sense. Interpretivist social scientists,
by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic
interpretation rather than constructing empirically
falsifiable theories, and thus treat science
in its broader sense. In modern academic practice,
researchers are often eclectic, using multiple
methodologies (for instance, by combining
both quantitative and qualitative research).
The term "social research" has also acquired
a degree of autonomy as practitioners from
various disciplines share in its aims and
methods.
=== Formal science ===
Formal science is involved in the study of
formal systems. It includes mathematics, systems
theory, robotics, and theoretical computer
science. The formal sciences share similarities
with the other two branches by relying on
objective, careful, and systematic study of
an area of knowledge. They are, however, different
from the empirical sciences as they rely exclusively
on deductive reasoning, without the need for
empirical evidence, to verify their abstract
concepts. The formal sciences are therefore
a priori disciplines and because of this,
there is disagreement on whether they actually
constitute a science. Nevertheless, the formal
sciences play an important role in the empirical
sciences. Calculus, for example, was initially
invented to understand motion in physics.
Natural and social sciences that rely heavily
on mathematical applications include mathematical
physics, mathematical chemistry, mathematical
biology, mathematical finance, and mathematical
economics.
== Scientific research ==
Scientific research can be labeled as either
basic or applied research. Basic research
is the search for knowledge and applied research
is the search for solutions to practical problems
using this knowledge. Although some scientific
research is applied research into specific
problems, a great deal of our understanding
comes from the curiosity-driven undertaking
of basic research. This leads to options for
technological advance that were not planned
or sometimes even imaginable. This point was
made by Michael Faraday when allegedly in
response to the question "what is the use
of basic research?" he responded: "Sir, what
is the use of a new-born child?". For example,
research into the effects of red light on
the human eye's rod cells did not seem to
have any practical purpose; eventually, the
discovery that our night vision is not troubled
by red light would lead search and rescue
teams (among others) to adopt red light in
the cockpits of jets and helicopters. Finally,
even basic research can take unexpected turns,
and there is some sense in which the scientific
method is built to harness luck.
=== Scientific method ===
Scientific research involves using the scientific
method, which seeks to objectively explain
the events of nature in a reproducible way.
An explanatory thought experiment or hypothesis
is put forward as explanation using principles
such as parsimony (also known as "Occam's
Razor") and are generally expected to seek
consilience – fitting well with other accepted
facts related to the phenomena. This new explanation
is used to make falsifiable predictions that
are testable by experiment or observation.
The predictions are to be posted before a
confirming experiment or observation is sought,
as proof that no tampering has occurred. Disproof
of a prediction is evidence of progress. This
is done partly through observation of natural
phenomena, but also through experimentation
that tries to simulate natural events under
controlled conditions as appropriate to the
discipline (in the observational sciences,
such as astronomy or geology, a predicted
observation might take the place of a controlled
experiment). Experimentation is especially
important in science to help establish causal
relationships (to avoid the correlation fallacy).
When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory, it
is either modified or discarded. If the hypothesis
survived testing, it may become adopted into
the framework of a scientific theory, a logically
reasoned, self-consistent model or framework
for describing the behavior of certain natural
phenomena. A theory typically describes the
behavior of much broader sets of phenomena
than a hypothesis; commonly, a large number
of hypotheses can be logically bound together
by a single theory. Thus a theory is a hypothesis
explaining various other hypotheses. In that
vein, theories are formulated according to
most of the same scientific principles as
hypotheses. In addition to testing hypotheses,
scientists may also generate a model, an attempt
to describe or depict the phenomenon in terms
of a logical, physical or mathematical representation
and to generate new hypotheses that can be
tested, based on observable phenomena.While
performing experiments to test hypotheses,
scientists may have a preference for one outcome
over another, and so it is important to ensure
that science as a whole can eliminate this
bias. This can be achieved by careful experimental
design, transparency, and a thorough peer
review process of the experimental results
as well as any conclusions. After the results
of an experiment are announced or published,
it is normal practice for independent researchers
to double-check how the research was performed,
and to follow up by performing similar experiments
to determine how dependable the results might
be. Taken in its entirety, the scientific
method allows for highly creative problem
solving while minimizing any effects of subjective
bias on the part of its users (especially
the confirmation bias).
==== Role of mathematics ====
Mathematics is essential in the formation
of hypotheses, theories, and laws in the natural
and social sciences. For example, it is used
in quantitative scientific modeling, which
can generate new hypotheses and predictions
to be tested. It is also used extensively
in observing and collecting measurements.
Statistics, a branch of mathematics, is used
to summarize and analyze data, which allow
scientists to assess the reliability and variability
of their experimental results.
Computational science applies computing power
to simulate real-world situations, enabling
a better understanding of scientific problems
than formal mathematics alone can achieve.
According to the Society for Industrial and
Applied Mathematics, computation is now as
important as theory and experiment in advancing
scientific knowledge.
==== Verifiability ====
John Ziman points out that intersubjective
verifiability is fundamental to the creation
of all scientific knowledge. Ziman shows how
scientists can identify patterns to each other
across centuries; he refers to this ability
as "perceptual consensibility." He then makes
consensibility, leading to consensus, the
touchstone of reliable knowledge.
=== Philosophy of science ===
Scientists usually take for granted a set
of basic assumptions that are needed to justify
the scientific method: (1) that there is an
objective reality shared by all rational observers;
(2) that this objective reality is governed
by natural laws; (3) that these laws can be
discovered by means of systematic observation
and experimentation. Philosophy of science
seeks a deep understanding of what these underlying
assumptions mean and whether they are valid.
The belief that scientific theories should
and do represent metaphysical reality is known
as realism. It can be contrasted with anti-realism,
the view that the success of science does
not depend on it being accurate about unobservable
entities such as electrons. One form of anti-realism
is idealism, the belief that the mind or consciousness
is the most basic essence, and that each mind
generates its own reality. In an idealistic
world view, what is true for one mind need
not be true for other minds.
There are different schools of thought in
philosophy of science. The most popular position
is empiricism, which holds that knowledge
is created by a process involving observation
and that scientific theories are the result
of generalizations from such observations.
Empiricism generally encompasses inductivism,
a position that tries to explain the way general
theories can be justified by the finite number
of observations humans can make and hence
the finite amount of empirical evidence available
to confirm scientific theories. This is necessary
because the number of predictions those theories
make is infinite, which means that they cannot
be known from the finite amount of evidence
using deductive logic only. Many versions
of empiricism exist, with the predominant
ones being Bayesianism and the hypothetico-deductive
method.
Empiricism has stood in contrast to rationalism,
the position originally associated with Descartes,
which holds that knowledge is created by the
human intellect, not by observation. Critical
rationalism is a contrasting 20th-century
approach to science, first defined by Austrian-British
philosopher Karl Popper. Popper rejected the
way that empiricism describes the connection
between theory and observation. He claimed
that theories are not generated by observation,
but that observation is made in the light
of theories and that the only way a theory
can be affected by observation is when it
comes in conflict with it. Popper proposed
replacing verifiability with falsifiability
as the landmark of scientific theories and
replacing induction with falsification as
the empirical method. Popper further claimed
that there is actually only one universal
method, not specific to science: the negative
method of criticism, trial and error. It covers
all products of the human mind, including
science, mathematics, philosophy, and art.Another
approach, instrumentalism, colloquially termed
"shut up and multiply," emphasizes the utility
of theories as instruments for explaining
and predicting phenomena. It views scientific
theories as black boxes with only their input
(initial conditions) and output (predictions)
being relevant. Consequences, theoretical
entities, and logical structure are claimed
to be something that should simply be ignored
and that scientists shouldn't make a fuss
about (see interpretations of quantum mechanics).
Close to instrumentalism is constructive empiricism,
according to which the main criterion for
the success of a scientific theory is whether
what it says about observable entities is
true.
Thomas Kuhn argued that the process of observation
and evaluation takes place within a paradigm,
a logically consistent "portrait" of the world
that is consistent with observations made
from its framing. He characterized normal
science as the process of observation and
"puzzle solving" which takes place within
a paradigm, whereas revolutionary science
occurs when one paradigm overtakes another
in a paradigm shift. Each paradigm has its
own distinct questions, aims, and interpretations.
The choice between paradigms involves setting
two or more "portraits" against the world
and deciding which likeness is most promising.
A paradigm shift occurs when a significant
number of observational anomalies arise in
the old paradigm and a new paradigm makes
sense of them. That is, the choice of a new
paradigm is based on observations, even though
those observations are made against the background
of the old paradigm. For Kuhn, acceptance
or rejection of a paradigm is a social process
as much as a logical process. Kuhn's position,
however, is not one of relativism.Finally,
another approach often cited in debates of
scientific skepticism against controversial
movements like "creation science" is methodological
naturalism. Its main point is that a difference
between natural and supernatural explanations
should be made and that science should be
restricted methodologically to natural explanations.
That the restriction is merely methodological
(rather than ontological) means that science
should not consider supernatural explanations
itself, but should not claim them to be wrong
either. Instead, supernatural explanations
should be left a matter of personal belief
outside the scope of science. Methodological
naturalism maintains that proper science requires
strict adherence to empirical study and independent
verification as a process for properly developing
and evaluating explanations for observable
phenomena. The absence of these standards,
arguments from authority, biased observational
studies and other common fallacies are frequently
cited by supporters of methodological naturalism
as characteristic of the non-science they
criticize.
==== Certainty and science ====
A scientific theory is empirical and is always
open to falsification if new evidence is presented.
That is, no theory is ever considered strictly
certain as science accepts the concept of
fallibilism. The philosopher of science Karl
Popper sharply distinguished truth from certainty.
He wrote that scientific knowledge "consists
in the search for truth," but it "is not the
search for certainty ... All human knowledge
is fallible and therefore uncertain."New scientific
knowledge rarely results in vast changes in
our understanding. According to psychologist
Keith Stanovich, it may be the media's overuse
of words like "breakthrough" that leads the
public to imagine that science is constantly
proving everything it thought was true to
be false. While there are such famous cases
as the theory of relativity that required
a complete reconceptualization, these are
extreme exceptions. Knowledge in science is
gained by a gradual synthesis of information
from different experiments by various researchers
across different branches of science; it is
more like a climb than a leap. Theories vary
in the extent to which they have been tested
and verified, as well as their acceptance
in the scientific community. For example,
heliocentric theory, the theory of evolution,
relativity theory, and germ theory still bear
the name "theory" even though, in practice,
they are considered factual.
Philosopher Barry Stroud adds that, although
the best definition for "knowledge" is contested,
being skeptical and entertaining the possibility
that one is incorrect is compatible with being
correct. Therefore, scientists adhering to
proper scientific approaches will doubt themselves
even once they possess the truth. The fallibilist
C. S. Peirce argued that inquiry is the struggle
to resolve actual doubt and that merely quarrelsome,
verbal, or hyperbolic doubt is fruitless – but
also that the inquirer should try to attain
genuine doubt rather than resting uncritically
on common sense. He held that the successful
sciences trust not to any single chain of
inference (no stronger than its weakest link)
but to the cable of multiple and various arguments
intimately connected.Stanovich also asserts
that science avoids searching for a "magic
bullet"; it avoids the single-cause fallacy.
This means a scientist would not ask merely
"What is the cause of ...", but rather "What
are the most significant causes of ...". This
is especially the case in the more macroscopic
fields of science (e.g. psychology, physical
cosmology). Research often analyzes few factors
at once, but these are always added to the
long list of factors that are most important
to consider. For example, knowing the details
of only a person's genetics, or their history
and upbringing, or the current situation may
not explain a behavior, but a deep understanding
of all these variables combined can be very
predictive.
==== Fringe science, pseudoscience, and junk
science ====
An area of study or speculation that masquerades
as science in an attempt to claim a legitimacy
that it would not otherwise be able to achieve
is sometimes referred to as pseudoscience,
fringe science, or junk science. Physicist
Richard Feynman coined the term "cargo cult
science" for cases in which researchers believe
they are doing science because their activities
have the outward appearance of science but
actually lack the "kind of utter honesty"
that allows their results to be rigorously
evaluated. Various types of commercial advertising,
ranging from hype to fraud, may fall into
these categories.
There can also be an element of political
or ideological bias on all sides of scientific
debates. Sometimes, research may be characterized
as "bad science," research that may be well-intended
but is actually incorrect, obsolete, incomplete,
or over-simplified expositions of scientific
ideas. The term "scientific misconduct" refers
to situations such as where researchers have
intentionally misrepresented their published
data or have purposely given credit for a
discovery to the wrong person.
=== Scientific literature ===
Scientific research is published in an enormous
range of scientific literature. Scientific
journals communicate and document the results
of research carried out in universities and
various other research institutions, serving
as an archival record of science. The first
scientific journals, Journal des Sçavans
followed by the Philosophical Transactions,
began publication in 1665. Since that time
the total number of active periodicals has
steadily increased. In 1981, one estimate
for the number of scientific and technical
journals in publication was 11,500. The United
States National Library of Medicine currently
indexes 5,516 journals that contain articles
on topics related to the life sciences. Although
the journals are in 39 languages, 91 percent
of the indexed articles are published in English.Most
scientific journals cover a single scientific
field and publish the research within that
field; the research is normally expressed
in the form of a scientific paper. Science
has become so pervasive in modern societies
that it is generally considered necessary
to communicate the achievements, news, and
ambitions of scientists to a wider populace.
Science magazines such as New Scientist, Science
& Vie, and Scientific American cater to the
needs of a much wider readership and provide
a non-technical summary of popular areas of
research, including notable discoveries and
advances in certain fields of research. Science
books engage the interest of many more people.
Tangentially, the science fiction genre, primarily
fantastic in nature, engages the public imagination
and transmits the ideas, if not the methods,
of science.
Recent efforts to intensify or develop links
between science and non-scientific disciplines
such as literature or more specifically, poetry,
include the Creative Writing Science resource
developed through the Royal Literary Fund.
=== Practical impacts ===
Discoveries in fundamental science can be
world-changing. For example:
== Scientific community ==
The scientific community is a group of all
interacting scientists, along with their respective
societies and institutions.
=== Scientists ===
Scientists are individuals who conduct scientific
research to advance knowledge in an area of
interest. The term scientist was coined by
William Whewell in 1833. In modern times,
many professional scientists are trained in
an academic setting and upon completion, attain
an academic degree, with the highest degree
being a doctorate such as a Doctor of Philosophy
(PhD), Doctor of Medicine (MD), or Doctor
of Engineering (DEng). Many scientists pursue
careers in various sectors of the economy
such as academia, industry, government, and
nonprofit environments.Scientists exhibit
a strong curiosity about reality, with some
scientists having a desire to apply scientific
knowledge for the benefit of health, nations,
environment, or industries. Other motivations
include recognition by their peers and prestige.
The Nobel Prize, a widely regarded prestigious
award, is awarded annually to those who have
achieved scientific advances in the fields
of medicine, physics, chemistry, and economics.
==== Women in science ====
Science has historically been a male-dominated
field, with some notable exceptions. Women
faced considerable discrimination in science,
much as they did in other areas of male-dominated
societies, such as frequently being passed
over for job opportunities and denied credit
for their work. For example, Christine Ladd
(1847–1930) was able to enter a PhD program
as "C. Ladd"; Christine "Kitty" Ladd completed
the requirements in 1882, but was awarded
her degree only in 1926, after a career which
spanned the algebra of logic (see truth table),
color vision, and psychology. Her work preceded
notable researchers like Ludwig Wittgenstein
and Charles Sanders Peirce. The achievements
of women in science have been attributed to
their defiance of their traditional role as
laborers within the domestic sphere.In the
late 20th century, active recruitment of women
and elimination of institutional discrimination
on the basis of sex greatly increased the
number of women scientists, but large gender
disparities remain in some fields; in the
early 21st century over half of new biologists
were female, while 80% of PhDs in physics
are given to men. In the early part of the
21st century, women in the United States earned
50.3% of bachelor's degrees, 45.6% of master's
degrees, and 40.7% of PhDs in science and
engineering fields. They earned more than
half of the degrees in psychology (about 70%),
social sciences (about 50%), and biology (about
50-60%) but earned less than half the degrees
in the physical sciences, earth sciences,
mathematics, engineering, and computer science.
Lifestyle choice also plays a major role in
female engagement in science; women with young
children are 28% less likely to take tenure-track
positions due to work-life balance issues,
and female graduate students' interest in
careers in research declines dramatically
over the course of graduate school, whereas
that of their male colleagues remains unchanged.
=== Learned societies ===
Learned societies for the communication and
promotion of scientific thought and experimentation
have existed since the Renaissance. Many scientists
belong to a learned society that promotes
their respective scientific discipline, profession,
or group of related disciplines. Membership
may be open to all, may require possession
of some qualifications, or may be an honor
conferred by election. Membership often requires
possession of some scientific credentials,
or may be an honor conferred by election.
Most scientific societies are non-profit organizations,
and many are professional associations. Their
activities typically include holding regular
conferences for the presentation and discussion
of new research results and publishing or
sponsoring academic journals in their discipline.
Some also act as professional bodies, regulating
the activities of their members in the public
interest or the collective interest of the
membership. Scholars in the sociology of science
argue that learned societies are of key importance
and their formation assists in the emergence
and development of new disciplines or professions.
The professionalization of science, begun
in the 19th century, was partly enabled by
the creation of distinguished academy of sciences
in a number of countries such as the Italian
Accademia dei Lincei in 1603, the British
Royal Society in 1660, the French Académie
des Sciences in 1666, the American National
Academy of Sciences in 1863, the German Kaiser
Wilhelm Institute in 1911, and the Chinese
Academy of Sciences in 1928. International
scientific organizations, such as the International
Council for Science, have since been formed
to promote cooperation between the scientific
communities of different nations.
== Science and the public ==
=== 
Science policy ===
Science policy is an area of public policy
concerned with the policies that affect the
conduct of the scientific enterprise, including
research funding, often in pursuance of other
national policy goals such as technological
innovation to promote commercial product development,
weapons development, health care and environmental
monitoring. Science policy also refers to
the act of applying scientific knowledge and
consensus to the development of public policies.
Science policy thus deals with the entire
domain of issues that involve the natural
sciences. In accordance with public policy
being concerned about the well-being of its
citizens, science policy's goal is to consider
how science and technology can best serve
the public.
State policy has influenced the funding of
public works and science for thousands of
years, particularly within civilizations with
highly organized governments such as imperial
China and the Roman Empire. Prominent historical
examples include the Great Wall of China,
completed over the course of two millennia
through the state support of several dynasties,
and the Grand Canal of the Yangtze River,
an immense feat of hydraulic engineering begun
by Sunshu Ao (孫叔敖 7th c. BCE), Ximen
Bao (西門豹 5th c.BCE), and Shi Chi (4th
c. BCE). This construction dates from the
6th century BCE under the Sui Dynasty and
is still in use today. In China, such state-supported
infrastructure and scientific research projects
date at least from the time of the Mohists,
who inspired the study of logic during the
period of the Hundred Schools of Thought and
the study of defensive fortifications like
the Great Wall of China during the Warring
States period.
Public policy can directly affect the funding
of capital equipment and intellectual infrastructure
for industrial research by providing tax incentives
to those organizations that fund research.
Vannevar Bush, director of the Office of Scientific
Research and Development for the United States
government, the forerunner of the National
Science Foundation, wrote in July 1945 that
"Science is a proper concern of government."
==== 
Funding of science ====
Scientific research is often funded through
a competitive process in which potential research
projects are evaluated and only the most promising
receive funding. Such processes, which are
run by government, corporations, or foundations,
allocate scarce funds. Total research funding
in most developed countries is between 1.5%
and 3% of GDP. In the OECD, around two-thirds
of research and development in scientific
and technical fields is carried out by industry,
and 20% and 10% respectively by universities
and government. The government funding proportion
in certain industries is higher, and it dominates
research in social science and humanities.
Similarly, with some exceptions (e.g. biotechnology)
government provides the bulk of the funds
for basic scientific research. Many governments
have dedicated agencies to support scientific
research. Prominent scientific organizations
include the National Science Foundation in
the United States, the National Scientific
and Technical Research Council in Argentina,
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organisation (CSIRO) in Australia, Centre
national de la recherche scientifique in France,
the Max Planck Society and Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
in Germany, and CSIC in Spain. In commercial
research and development, all but the most
research-oriented corporations focus more
heavily on near-term commercialisation possibilities
rather than "blue-sky" ideas or technologies
(such as nuclear fusion).
=== Public awareness of science ===
The public awareness of science relates to
the attitudes, behaviors, opinions, and activities
that make up the relations between science
and the general public. it integrates various
themes and activities such as science communication,
science museums, science festivals, science
fairs, citizen science, and science in popular
culture. Social scientists have devised various
metrics to measure the public understanding
of science such as factual knowledge, self-reported
knowledge, and structural knowledge.
=== Science journalism ===
The mass media face a number of pressures
that can prevent them from accurately depicting
competing scientific claims in terms of their
credibility within the scientific community
as a whole. Determining how much weight to
give different sides in a scientific debate
may require considerable expertise regarding
the matter. Few journalists have real scientific
knowledge, and even beat reporters who know
a great deal about certain scientific issues
may be ignorant about other scientific issues
that they are suddenly asked to cover.
=== Politicization of science ===
Politicization of science occurs when government,
business, or advocacy groups use legal or
economic pressure to influence the findings
of scientific research or the way it is disseminated,
reported, or interpreted. Many factors can
act as facets of the politicization of science
such as populist anti-intellectualism, perceived
threats to religious beliefs, postmodernist
subjectivism, and fear for business interests.
Politicization of science is usually accomplished
when scientific information is presented in
a way that emphasizes the uncertainty associated
with the scientific evidence. Tactics such
as shifting conversation, failing to acknowledge
facts, and capitalizing on doubt of scientific
consensus have been used to gain more attention
for views that have been undermined by scientific
evidence. Examples of issues that have involved
the politicization of science include the
global warming controversy, health effects
of pesticides, and health effects of tobacco.
== See also ==
Antiquarian science books
Criticism of science
Human timeline
Index of branches of science
Life timeline
List of scientific occupations
Normative science
Outline of science
Pathological science
Protoscience
Science in popular culture
Science wars
Scientific dissent
Sociology of scientific knowledge
Wissenschaft – all areas of scholarly study,
including both sciences and non-sciences
== Notes
