 
#

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# The Digest of Arabs Political Education

# First Edition

# 1434 AH -2013 AD

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# The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

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# Deposit Number at Department of the National Library (4415/12/2012)

(11, 320)

## Al Malki Mubarak Abdullah

An outline of political culture/ Mubarak Abdullah Al Malki & Fahd Abdullah Al Malki, Amman, Author

(283) Pages

Deposit No.: (4415/12/2012)

Description: Politics/ The Arab States

## All rights reserved. This book or any part thereof may not be reproduced, stored for information retrieval purposes, or otherwise copied, unless prior written permission is obtained from the author.

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# The Digest of Arabs Political Education

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# A book by:

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# Mr. FAHAD ABDULLAH AL RABIAH AL MALKI

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# &

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# Dr. MUBARAK ABDULLAH AL RABIAH AL MALKI

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# The Digest of Arabs Political Education

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  * # Section I: Counsel-Based Governance Regime in Islam

* # Section II: Post- Rashidun Caliphate Arab Autocracy
* # Section III: Political Concepts
* # Section IV: THE 2011 ARAB SPRING
* # Section V: The United Nations (UN)

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## "IF YOU SUFFER HARDSHIP, THE ENEMY HAS SUFFERED THE SAME HARDSHIP AS WELL; WE ALTERNATE THE DAYS OF VICTORY AND DEFEAT AMONG THE PEOPLE."

## Al-Emran, Verse No: 140

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# Dedication

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# To

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# The Oppressed, Free Strugglers

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# Have patience! The Promise of Allah shall be honored soon

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## Foreword

Winds of change that blew over the Arab World at the beginning of the second decade of second millennium have, remarkably, influenced the political life, raised the Arab people's awareness politically, and stirred up the state of political inactivity which has dominated the Arab nation for long decades, thus allowing it to wake up from its long dormancy, get rid of the restrictions imposed by the rulers who enforced their will upon the peoples of this nation; which is the best of nations ever raised up for mankind.

As a result, fear vanished away, and the nation's heart; i.e. its young people of all segments and classes, began to palpitate zealously saying...No... to the ruler and the courtiers of their oppressive regimes, who put their hands on and usurped the nation's wealth and moneys, thus causing some of these regimes to fall, while others are on their way to collapse; it is just a matter of time, historic inevitability and impending doom.

In practice, this revolutionary change has brought to light several political expressions, terminology, and concepts, as well as parties defending and others opposing certain types of rule, with politicians artfully wielding over their words and statements.

Our aim is to present this humble work as a source for raising cultural awareness of the reader, who do not have extensive knowledge of politics, particularly in respect of the governance regimes, along with the political expressions, terminology, and concepts they may hear in media and are unable to fully comprehend or look for their respective meanings.

Section One tackles the governance regime of the pre-Islamic Arabia, followed by the governance system of Prophet Muhammad's State (PBUH), and succeeded by the Rashidun "Rightly Guided" Caliphs after his death.

Section Two presents a brief overview of the dictatorial, autocratic, hereditary, Arab governance regime that toppled the governance approach of Rashidun Caliphate; i.e. Shura (counsel), in spite of the heyday witnessed by the Islamic State and Islamic great conquests at that period, followed by a period of political dormancy of the Arabs, while governance regimes prospered at the other nations, giving rise to several political concepts, theories, and ideologies for which we have dedicated Section Three. In the era of revival where the Arab World will build its foundations and bases; i.e. the era of Arab Spring revolutions, Arabic political terminology, revolution-related concepts, and political theories belonging exclusively to the Arabs have emerged, so Section Four addresses that golden era of the Arab peoples' politics. These terminology and concepts are presented in a brief and easy way introduced in a plain language. That Section includes a chapter highlighting the reasons underlying the outbreak of revolutions in the Arab Republics, and a brief overview of the revolutions of Tunisia and Egypt, both of which have inspired the young people of the nation; causing the whole Arab World, from the Gulf to the Ocean, to rise up carrying the lights of freedom that will light up the dark way and have the Arab nation restore back its honor and leading role for being at the lead of the whole world; even after a while.

Section Five presents a brief overview of the United Nations and its structural organization; e.g. General Assembly, Security Council, Secretary General...etc, and the relevant concepts frequently circulated in the various media.

Praise be to Allah, Lord of the Worlds, and Peace and Blessings be upon Prophet Muhammad, his Family and Companions

# Section I

# Counsel-Based Governance Regime in Islam

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  * # Governance regime of the pre-Islamic Arabia;

  * # Prophet Muhammad's State (peace be upon him);

  * # Rashidun Caliphate ( _al-khilāfat ar-Rāshidīyah_ )

  * # Islamic Governance regime Principles

## Table of Contents

## Section I Themes

Theme | Page

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Governance Regime of the pre-Islamic Arabia | 11

Counsel-Based Governance Regime in Islam | 13

First: Prophet Muhammad's State (peace be upon him) | 13

Second: Rashidun Caliphate (al-khilāfat ar-Rāshidīyah) | 17

A. Succession of Abu Bakr Al-Siddiq, May Allah be pleased with him | 17

B. Succession of Umar Ibn Al-Khattab, May Allah be pleased with him | 21

C. Succession of Uthman Ibn Affan, May Allah be pleased with him | 25

D. Succession of Ali Ibn Abi Talib, May Allah glorify his face | 27

Third: Islamic Governance Regime Principles | 29

A. Succession | 29

B. Bay'ah (Pledge of Allegiance) | 31

C. Shura (Counsel) | 32

Conclusion | 35

# Governance Regime of the pre-Islamic Arabia

Several kingdoms had existed in the Arabia Peninsula before the emergence of Islam; the most outstanding of which were the Kingdoms of Ma'in, Sheba, and Qatabin in Yemen, and the Himyarire Kingdom in the northeastern part of the Arab Peninsula, the Ghassanids and Kingdom of Kindah in the northwestern part of the Arabian Peninsula. As reported in history, these kingdoms were ruled by kings who passed the power and authority down to their successors by heredity, and derive their power from the deities. In spite of the one-man rule, the rule was by no means despotic; to the contrary, it was characterized by primitive and tribal counsel. This is embodied in the case of Bilqis, Queen of Sheba, with Prophet Solomon. Allah, the Almighty Lord, revealed that story in the Holy Qur'an, in a way to have Muslims and Prophet Muhammad familiarized with the ancients' habitual practice of the principle of counsel and deliberation. Allah, the Almighty Lord, say in verse 32 of Surat An-Naml "She said, O chiefs! Advise me in (this) case of mine, for that I decide no case till you are present with me." Bilqis, Queen of Sheba, consulted with her peoples concerning the letter received from King Solomon, peace be upon him.

Nevertheless, the widespread governance regime prevailing in the Arabian Peninsula, by that time, was the rule of tribe and clannish regime based on a tribe residing in a single place, being ruled and its affairs are administered by the chieftain who stood at top of the tribal structure, which he had attained thanks to particular attributes that keep him distinguished among the others, or by the council of tribe's clans comprising the clans of a tribe led by the chieftain. It is worth mentioning that the tribe's chieftainship was not hereditary, the son, however, might inherit his deceased father subject to obtaining consent of the tribe's clans, if he had the attributes of his father which qualified him to rule and preside over the tribe. The chieftain had no deputy, but he might charge any of his sons, relatives, or a tribesman to act on his behalf so as to provide protection to those who did not attend the battles, in case of fight or conquest by the tribe under leadership of its chieftain, or in case of the chieftain's travel to somewhere. That case is the same in almost all types of tribal rule all over the world, as counsel was a key principle of the chieftainship and major element of the tribal rule, as the tribe's chieftain used to call the chiefs of clans, who formed the tribe's consultative body, to deliberate the issues pertaining to warfare, peace, conquest, and moving from the tribe's place, and for reconciliation in case of peaceful vengeance to prevent fighting between the tribesmen and other tribesmen, and distribution of booty in case of triumphant conquest. There had been norms and traditions in lieu of the law, thus being the source of legislation in the tribal regime. As such, counsel, in its tribal concept, was prevalent at the pre-Islamic Arabia, even the nomination of a tribe's chieftain was administered through voting and deliberation either by the elderly and persons of reason or the clans of a single tribe. Upon the emergence of Islam in Mecca, Quraysh was the most prominent tribe among all Mecca's tribes in terms of number and organization, as the duty of providing food and drinks to pilgrims was assigned to Banu Hashim.

Bani Omaya had control over the trade and capital, while Mecca was the destination of all people, whether monotheists or atheists, and a hub for trade and civilization, therefore, it was more organized than the other tribes of the Arabian Peninsula. Quraysh had a forum and consultative parliament, namely, Dar Annadwa, in which they used to hold discussions, deliberations, and consideration of the issues of concern to Quraysh, as well as their public and private matters. Dar Annadwa was presided by the eldest Quraysh man, as they had deliberated over their political and commercial issues; e.g. the caravans, conservation of traditions of marriage...etc, and other matters of the Makkan community. All matters, on which decision was made at Dar Annadwa, were limited to the Masters of Quraysh rather than the public, and pertains to Quraysh exclusively, and were not binding upon any persons other than the Quraysh men, except as moral obligation, which some people might see as proper, and thus abide by it, while others might see as improper, and thus avoid it, but none had control over a insurgent, and they had no means to enforce him to obedience; rather, that was regulated within the limits of tribal solidarity.

(Dr. Abd El Hamid Al Ansari: Consultation and its impact on democracy)

To conclude, the tribal governance regime in the pre-Islamic Arabia had applied the primitive counsel approach in respect of ruling the tribe and administering both public and private affairs of it, so the peoples had favorable attitude towards the counsel approach prescribed by Islam.

# Counsel-Based Governance Regime in Islam

## First: Prophet Muhammad's State (PBUH) 10-13 AH

In order to complete the Mohammedan Message after thirteen years, which Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) had spent in Mecca preaching the people to Islam, and under Divine command received from the Heaven, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) immigrated heading for Yathrip (Media) to establish the first Islamic State. From Yathrip, the call to Allah's new religion spread out, the Islamic State expanded and branched out, thus making Islam dominate and prevail all over the world. As is well known, Medina provided the three pillars required to establish a State; namely, the territory, being Median (Yathrip), the people; i.e. al-Aws and al-Khazraj, the Jews, and those who immigrated from Mecca, while the third pillar was Prophet Muhammad's authority (PBUH), governed by the constitution of the Holy Qur'an and Prophet's Muhammad Sunnah, so the religious unity superseded the Arabic tribal esprit de corps. As soon as Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) settled down in Medina, he embarked on an important sociopolitical unification step, as he established sense of brotherhood between the Muhajireen (emigrants) and Ansar (Supporters), established a place for governance; i.e. the Prophet's mosque, to serve as a place for worship and managing the new state's affairs, as well as a center of counsel and Bay'ah (Pledge of Allegiance). As is well known, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) had led the army, administered the state's economy, consulted his companions from both emigrants and supporters, and it was reported that he frequently said the phrase "o People! Give me advice", in respect of the worldly and political issues for which no revelation came down upon him from Heaven. Further, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) took the initiative to organize the affairs of the various groups in Medina, laid down constitution for Medina's people, in which he included general principles to be followed by the people for issues involving warfare, peace, Diyah (blood money), settlement of disputes, inheritance, and providing security for the group. In fact, this organization helped establish a community based on religious and political rules under leadership of the greatest Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), until the Islamic state branched out all over the Arabian Peninsula, taking Medina as its capital. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) created the first pillars of Islamic State, he was the religious and worldly ideal in administering the state's affairs, disseminating fairness and equity among the peoples, consolidated the counsel principle, as he appointed in each territory of the Arabian Peninsula an employee to apply the counsel principle among them. Counsel, in its broadest sense, was the principle upon which Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) established the first Islamic state under Heavenly commands, as reference is made expressly to counsel in two verses of the Holy Qur'an; in the first verse of which, Allah says "And the ones who have responded to their Lord, and kept up the prayer, and their command is counsel between them, and they expend (in charity) of what We have bestowed upon them" Surat As-Shura, verse 38. Allah, the Almighty, linked counsel with obedience of His command and performance of prayer, and made them precede the charitable expenditure, as emphasis for its role in building the Islamic governance system, and to render counsel as a feature of the believers in their public and private lives.

As for the second verse, in which Allah, the Almighty, descried Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) with the mercy Allah bestowed upon him, thus making him tender-hearted and mercy to all mankind, and made counsel one of the features of the Mohammedan Message, as Allah, the Almighty, say in Surat Al-Emran, verse No. 159 "It was a mercy from God that you were soft towards them; had you been harsh and mean hearted, they would have dispersed from you; so pardon them and ask forgiveness for them, and consult them in the matter; but when you are convinced, then put your trust in God; for God loves those who put their trust". Thus, Allah, the Almighty, describes the Islamic leader and ruler as forgiving the subjects, praying Allah to forgive them, tender-hearted, and makes use of counsel, as counsel is a trait of the leader and ruler.

As is well known, Islam has prescribed the counsel principle so as to consolidate the pre-Islam tribal counsel, to be unique peculiarity of the governance system in Islam, so that the Islamic nation be aware that Muhammad (PBUH), although upon him revelation comes down from Heaven, this does not preclude him from consulting with his companions and following their views in his worldly policies. In practice, Muhammad (PBUH) had applied counsel through deliberation in an a strict practical way, and this application has become a landmark of the unique Islamic regime, thus resulting in wide interpretation of the Quran text in terms of legislation and its counsel-related practices. In fact, this application of counsel helped settled the disputes arising out among the Muslims, overcome the difficult situations, and achieve unrivalled triumphs for Islam. Counsel has become a fundamental element of Islam's political approach in the lives of Muslims, thus giving them an opportunity, in all ages and eras, to establish their constitutional live on unique basis, most solid foundations, and noblest principles (Ezzeldin Al Tamimi: Alshoura bin ala'salah walma'asrah)

### The most important practices of counsel during the reign of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) were:

1. He sought counsel on the Battle of Badr: having received news that Quraysh's army marched towards Medina, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) consulted with the Muslims to have fight against them, and also deliberated with for deciding on somewhere at Bard to be their camp, so Al Habab Ibn Al Mondhir advised him to change the place of their troops' camp, and Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) put his advice into effect. In addition, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) deliberated with his companions on the slaves of Badr Battle.

2. He sought counsel before the battle of Uhud;

3. He sought counsel on excavating a trench, and following the advice given by Salman Al Farsi;

4. Counsel on reconciliation with the enemies;

5. Counsel on the call for prayer;

6. Counsel on the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah;

7. Counsel on using the pulpit;

8. Counsel on proceeding forward to the north of Tabuk;

And many other counsel-based practices, and any person looking forward to being acquainted with counsel-based practices, he should refer to Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) biography and its numberless references.

After a life full of great events, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) emitted his last breath after ten years since he embarked on establishing the Islamic State, which ultimately branched out beyond the boundaries of the Arabian Peninsula, as Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was able, for the first time ever in the history of the Arabian Peninsula, to have the Arabian tribes united under a single banner and one state, taking Medina as its capital from which the Islamic counsel-based approach and the first Islamic State emerged.

## Second: Rashidun Caliphate (al-khilāfat ar-Rāshidīyah)

### A. Succession of Abu Bakr Al-Siddiq, May Allah be pleased with him, (10-13 AH)

## His lineage

Abu Bakr's full name was 'Abd Allah ibn Othman ibn Aamir ibn Amr ibn Ka'ab ibn Sa'ad ibn Taym ibn Murrah ibn Ka'ab ibn Lu'ai ibn Ghalib al-Quraishi Al Taymi, and was called Abu Bakr; which is derived from the word Bikr "firstborn"; a male camel, the plural of which is "Bikara" and "Abkar", and the Arabs have named their sons "Bakr". Abu Bakr ad many titles, foremost of which was "Al-Siddiq' (the truthful'), which was named by Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). He was called Al-Siddiq as he always believes what Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) had said, and the whole nation calls him Al-Siddiq because he took the initiative to believe Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and kept telling him truth throughout his live. Abu Bakr was born three years following the year of the elephant, yet some people say he was born only two years and six months following the year of the elephant, while others allege that they were two years and some months, yet they did not name a specific number. (Majdi Fathi Al-Sayed, a book entitled biography and life of Abu Bakr, quoting Ezzeldin Al Tamimi, alshoura bin ala'salah walma'asrah book), and he was also called ibn Abi Quhafa.

## His Succession

He was the first Muslim caliph (successor), and the first to carry this title, as he succeeded Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) in ruling the state and being the imam of Muslims. In his reign, Bay'ah, in its private and public sense, was employed. After Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) had passed away, the Medinan Muslims; Al-ansar, of al-Aws and al-Khazraj met at Saqīfah banī Sāˤidat to nominate a successor to Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) from among them, yet when Omar Ibn Al-Khattab, Abu Bakr, and Obaidah ibn Al Jarrah knew about this gathering, they hastened to the Saqīfah, and Abu Bakr addressed the attendees, emphasizing the eligibility of Muhajireen (emigrants) to take over leadership, the favor of the Medinan Muslims; Al-ansar, and their status in Islam. he was reported to say in his speech "...It was unacceptable for the Arabs to abandon the religion of ancestors, so Allah, the Almighty, bestowed upon the first emigrants of the nation of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) the favor of believing in and trusting him, and they bravely endured with him the severe harm and wrong inflicted upon him by the Mecceans, and alleging that he was telling lies, as almost all the Mecceans were against them, but depression had no way to their hearts for being few in number or regarded as enemies by their people, as they were the first persons ever to worship Allah, the Almighty Lord, on land, believed in both Allah and His Prophet, thus they were his Companions and people, and most eligible to take over leadership after his death. Only wrongdoers may raise doubts about this definite fact, and you, the Medinan Muslims; Al-Ansar, none can deny your favor in Islam and your unprecedented support provided to Islam, as Allah admitted you as supporters of His religion and Prophet, and make your whereabouts a destination to which Prophet Muhammad had migrated, and left in you his dearest wives and companions, as in our heats none enjoys your great stature but the early migrants; we are the Princes, and you are the ministers, as we never give up deliberation with you on whatever matter or decide upon it apart from you. Al-Aws objected to al-Khazraj's delay, so it joined the emigrants, thus giving Umar an opportunity to seize Abu Bakr's hand and loudly swore the Bay'ah to him saying to him: "Did not Prophet Muhammad command that you Abu Bakr lead the Muslims in their prayer?...You are his successor, and here we swore the oath of allegiance to you, swear the oath to the dearest person loved by Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) among us. Al Tabari says, Umar was reported to have said: "The gathering became loud and unruly, so when I felt a sense of fear of dissension, I said to Abu Bakr, give me your hand to swear the oath of allegiance to you, so he and I did, and then both Medinan and Makkan Muslims swore the oath of allegiance to him, and by Allah, the Almighty, we had not found a matter more intense than swearing an oath of allegiance to Abu Bakr, lest the people swear the oath of allegiance to a person if we leave them with no Bay'ah made, thus giving us an option to follow their Bay'ah if we are satisfied, or disagree with them, and then dissension would arise. (Al Tabari, Part III, page 203).

## Bay'ah (Pledge of Allegiance)

This was a private Bay'ah, currently known as indirect election, which is a pledge of allegiance for leadership, as stated by the scholars, as where those charged with authority and consultation persons select a leader and swear the pledge of allegiance to him, as they are the representatives of the nation and followed by the other people.

On the second day, the public Bay'ah was made to Abu Bakr, May Allah be pleased with him, in Prophet Muhammad's mosque, so Muslims toke the pledge of allegiance to him, which is termed direct voting in the modern age. As such, both cases were applied in respect of Abu Bakr's succession, so he toke over leadership through the Bay'ah taken by the elite; i.e. senior companions of both emigrants and Ansar, and then the public swore the pledge of allegiance to him at the Prophet's mosque in person. For the provinces, the people of Mecca and Taif swore the pledge of allegiance to him through the caliph's representatives. Abu Bakr did not take over his duties as the caliph of Muslims until the public Bay'ah was made to him at the mosque of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). (Dr. Hassan Ibrahim, Dr. Ali Ibrahim: The Islamic Regimes).

## Rectification and Dismissal of the Caliph

Abu Bakr had acknowledged the people's right to dismiss the caliph and set his acts right, they must not obey him if he acts in violation of the Qur'an and Sunnah, the caliph is the people's representative they choose to exercise power and authority of their behalf, as where he acts beyond the limits of this representation, the people will have a right to dismiss him and appoint somebody else in lieu of him, and the people who have chosen him are entitled to dismiss him as well, only where Sharia-based justification. The speech delivered by Abu Bakr at the Prophet's mosque, upon the administration of public Bay'ah, revealed this, as he is reported to have said "O People... I have been given the authority over you, and I am not the best of you. If I do well, help me; and if I do wrong, set me right. Sincere regard for truth is loyalty and disregard for truth is treachery. The weak amongst you shall be strong with me until I have secured his rights, if God wills; and the strong amongst you shall be weak with me until I have wrested from him the rights of others, if God wills. Obey me so long as I obey God and His Messenger. But if I disobey God and His Messenger, you owe me no obedience" Al Tabari, part III, page 203

## Counsel

The caliph Abu Bakr kept the counsel-based governance regime adopted by Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), so he followed the path of his companion and teacher, as he used to seek advice and recommend deliberation before deciding on the crucial matters. It is reported that he addressed a letter to Khalid Ibn Al Waleeed, when directed by him to fight the renegade tribes saying "Seek advice of the Prophet's senior companions accompanying you, as Allah, the Almighty, will guide you to the right path by their advice".

Among the practices of counsel in Abu Bakr's reign:

1. Counsel on making Usamah the army's leader;

2. Counsel on making Umar his successor;

3. Counsel on adjudication of disputes;

Abu Bakr was used, when disputants come to him, to review the Holy Qur'an, so if he finds the judgment revealed in it, he puts it into effect, but if not revealed in it, he adjudges the dispute as prescribed by Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), but if he was not able to decide on a matter, he used to deliberate with the Muslims saying: such and such has come to me, do you know that Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) had ever adjudicated on this matter, so the people may probably report to him a judgment passed by Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), but if not available, he used to call the elite persons and consults with them (Rules of Governance System in Islam, Dr. Mahmoud Abdul Majid Al Khalid, citing Ezzeldin Al Tamimi: alshoura bin ala'salah walma'asrah). Abu Bakr had advised the people to advice before deciding on a matter, as is reported that he addressed a letter to Khalid Ibn Al Waleeed, when directed by him to fight the renegade tribes saying "Seek advice of the Prophet's senior companions accompanying you, as Allah, the Almighty, will guide you to the right path by their advice (Ed).

4. Counsel upon appointing the governors: Abu Bakr used to consult with his companions before appointing the governors.

5. Counsel on fighting the renegade tribes: He consulted with the Muslims on fighting the renegade tribes, some of them were of the opinion that he waits until Usama and his army are back to fight them, until he obtained consensus opinion to fight them, and his own view was the soundest in this regard.

## B. Succession of Umar Ibn Al-Khattab, May Allah be pleased with him (12-23 AH)

## His lineage

He is Umar ibn al-khattab ibn Nufayl ibn Abd al-`Uzza ibn Rayyah ibn Abdullah ibn Qart ibn Razah ibn Adi ibn Ka'b ibn Louay ibn Ghliab Al Qurashi Al Adawi, he shares with Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) the title of Ka'b ibn Louay ibn Ghliab. He was called Abu Hafs and had the title of Al Faruq (the one who distinguishes between right and wrong), because he embraced Islam in Mecca, so Allah made him the separator between belief and disbelief. Umar was born three years following the Year of the Elephant (Caliphs History by Al Siouti, page 133).

## His Succession

In Jumada Al-Thani 13 AH, Caliph Abu Bakr had severe sickness, and while he was on his death bed, he looked at the companions to nominate a successor, and already he decided on Umar ibn al-khattab, as called a number of senior companions and deliberated the matter with them. He first called Abdul Rahman ibn Awf, and said to him: tell me about Umar ibn al-khattab? Abdul Rahman said you always ask me about a particular matter of which you have greater knowledge than me, Abu Bakr said" and if..., Abdul Rahman said: by Allah, he is far better than your opinion on him. Next, he called Uthman ibn Affan, who agreed on Umar saying: I know that what he hides is better than what he reveals, and none among us is better than him. Thereafter, Abu bakr called Usaid ibn Hudair, who said: I believe that he is the best one after you, he becomes pleased when Islam has pleasant event, and becomes upset when Islam has unpleasant event, what he hides is better than what he reveals,, and none but him has the sufficient power over the affairs of rule. Also, Abu Bakr consulted with Saeed Ibn Zaid and a number of Muhajireen (emigrants) and Ansar (Supporters), and almost all of them had the same opinion on Umar, except for Talha Ibn Obaid Allah, who expressed fear of his powerful personality (Dr. Al Salabi, biographies encyclopedia). Afterwards, Caliph Abu Bakr wrote a testament to be publicized at Medina and the Islamic provinces which reads as follows: "In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the most Merciful. This is the last will and testament of Abu Bakr bin Abu Quhafa, when he is in the last hour of the world, and the first of the next; an hour in which the infidel must believe, the wicked be convinced of their evil ways, I nominate Umar ibn al Khattab as my successor. Therefore, hear to him and obey him. If he acts right, confirm his actions. My intentions are good, but I cannot see the future results. However, those who do ill shall render themselves liable to severe account hereafter. Fare you well. May you be ever attended by the Divine favor of blessing" "Those who oppress shall be overthrown".

## Bay'ah (Pledge of Allegiance)

Bay'ah was administered in favor of Umar before the death of Abu Bakr, May Allah be pleased with him, and Abu Bakr's nomination of Umar was based on investigating the nation's opinions represented by the elite, after that had authorized Abu Bakr to nominate his successor, and made his representative on their behalf in this regard, after he had asked the people to look for his successor, yet they assigned to task to him saying: our opinion is the same as yours. In fact, the procedures followed by Abu Bakr Al Siddiq for nominating his successor are by no means violative of the principle of counsel, and Umar, May Allah be pleased with him, took over power both by counsel and consensus (Dr. Al Salabi, biographies encyclopedia), and the pledge of allegiance was made to him publicly at the Prophet's mosque.

## Counsel

The reign of Umar ibn al-khattab was characterized by counsel; he had used to address letters to his leaders in Iraq commanding them to take counsel with with Amr ibn Ma'd Yakrib and Talha al-Asadi. Umar, may Allah be pleased with him, had exercised counsel in his government; he never made any decision on a particular matter with deliberating and consulting with Muslims, and discussing critical issues with them. It is reported that h said "no benefit is expected from any matter on which decision is made without deliberation". As reported, the approach adopted by Al Faruq was unique; he used to first take counsel with the public and hear their opinion, and then calls the senior Companions of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and the persons of reason and asks them to provide him to the soundest opinion, and any they matter upon which they decided he put into effect. In Umar's reign, Counsel was administered in various areas, including the administrative and political areas, e.g. appointing the workers and marital issues, in purely Sharia and judicial issues, as the boundaries of Islamic State expended out in his reign, giving rise to new issues that required extensive reason-based interpretation. Umar, may Allah be pleased with him, was accustomed to calling the greatest possible number of senior companions, with special standing given to those who battled at the Battle of Badr, thanks to their grace, knowledge, and precedence in embracing Islam, yet Umar made the youth have a say in the matters raised, as they were about to pass away, give up the ghost, and move to their Lord's mercy, while the State had to renew its men. Being fully aware of this fact, Umar, the genius, had chosen the nation's youth who were known for their knowledge and piety; foremost of whom was Abdullah Ibn Abaas, and Umar kept on nominating advisors from among the nation's youth, relying upon the Holy Qur'an as the decisive criterion for his nomination, until Abdullah Ibn Abaas, may Allah be pleased with them both, said "The Holy Qur'an's reciters were present on Umar's sitting, whether old aged or youth. (Dr.  Akram Diaa El Emary: The Era of Rightly Guided Caliphs)

  * He sought counsel on recording the books, as each companion gave his opinion on recording the books;

  * He sought counsel on dividing the lands of Iraq and Levant bestowed by Allah upon the Muslims, so he took counsel with the early emigrants, yet they were is disagreement, and then he called ten of Al-Ansar; five of the nobility of Al-Aws and five of the nobility Al-Khajraj, and consulted with them, until he found evidence in the Holy Qur'an of which he interpreted that the lands may not be divided (Ezzeldin Al Tamimi: alshoura bin ala'salah walma'asrah book)

  * He also sought the opinion of his companions on proceeding to the Kingdom of Jerusalem in person, and ultimately accepted the advice of Ali ibn abi Talib, may Allah be pleased with him, and proceeded in person.

  * He took counsel on appointing the rulers

  * He took counsel on adopting the Hijri calendar, which was put into practice in his reign.

## C. Succession of Uthman ibn Affan, May Allah be pleased with him (23-35 AH)

## His Lineage

Hi is Uthman ibn Affan ibn Abi'l-'Aas ibn Umayyah ibn 'Abd Shams ibn 'Abd Manaf ibn Qusayy ibn Kilab. His lineage matches with Prophet Muhammad's lineage in the title ibn 'Abd Manaf. He was called Zunnorain, as he got married to two daughters of Prophet Muhammad. He first married Ruqayyah bint Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), and after she died, he married her sister  Umm Khulthum.

## His Succession

When Umar ibn Al-khattab was stabbed, Muslims asked him to nominate a successor, while being on death bed, so Umar nominated six of Prophet Muhammad's Companions, and determined the election method and duration, being three days in which they must decide upon one of them. Those six nominees were: Ali ibn Abi Talib, Uthman ibn Affan, abdel rahman ibn awf, Saad ibn Abi Wakas, Al Zobair ibn El awam, and Talha ibn Obead allah, may Allah be pleased with them all, and among them was Abdullah ibn Omar to attend only as advisor, as he has no right to contend for succession. Umar commanded that they come together at a house of one of them and deliberate the matter. He further ordered Miqdad ibn Aswad and  abu talha al ansari to watch the course of election, and advised them that counsel would not be limited to the six persons; rather, they should seek the opinion of the people in Medina on the person they see as fit to take over succession, thus Umar had formed a political body and entrusted it with the task of electing the caliph. No sooner had the people buried Umar ibn Al-khattab, may Allah be pleased with him, than the consultative body and members of the new council went to a meeting. Abdel rahman ibn awf addressed them saying: decide upon three of you, so Al Zobair said: I cast my vote to Ali, Talha said: I cast my vote to Uthman, while Saad said: I cast my vote to Abdel Rahman ibn awf. Thus, the nominees had become only three, and ended up with two nominees; i.e. Ali ibn Abi Talib and Uthman ibn Affan. Next, Abdel Rahman ibn Awf administered deliberations and communications immediately upon the end of the six nominees' meeting, and his consultation took up three days, as he took counsel with the Companions, all persons whom he met in Medina, commanders of the army, and all those coming to Medina, even the women at their boudoirs. His counsel also included both young boys and servants at Medina. Ultimately, the outcome of his consultations was that the majority of Muslims spoke favorably about Uthman, while some of them preferred Ali. (Al-Bukhari: Al'Ahkam Book: citing Dr. Al Salabi, biographies encyclopedia)

## Bay'ah (Pledge of Allegiance)

Following the Morning Prayer on Bay'ah day; being the last day of Dhu al-Ḥijjah 23 AH,  Sohaib El Roumi was the Imam, Abdel Rahman ibn Awf came. When the people performed the Prayer, those persons came together beside the pulpit, and then he called the present persons of Ansar and emigrants, along with the commanders of the army, who had performed the rites of pilgrimage with Umar ibn Al-khattab. When they banded together, Abdel Rahman uttered "there is no god but Allah", and said: O Ali, I have investigated the people's opinion, and I found out that they prefer Uthman, so do not make yourself be dissatisfied, and then said (i.e. Abdel Rahman addressing Uthman): I pledge allegiance to you as per the approach prescribed by Allah, His Messenger, and the succeeding caliphs. Accordingly, the public pledged allegiance to Uthman; Abdel Rahman ibn Awf was the first to pledge allegiance to him followed by Ali ibn Abi Talib (Al-Bukhari: Al'Ahkam Book).

## Counsel

Uthman ibn Affan formed a consultative council comprising the senior Companions of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) of both emigrants and Ansar. On assuming office, Uthman ordered the officials and commanders saying: O People! "Hold fast to the ruled on which Umar left you, and make no deviation from them; whatever the case which matters you might be, refer it to us, so that we would secure consensus of the nation on it, and then put it forward to you" (Military administration in the Islamic State, citing Al-Tabari History).

His leaders abided by his commands, so that when they were ready to go on battle and progress in the Islamic conquests, they asked for his permission and sought the opinion of him, and, in turn, he had used to call the Companions to take counsel with them on the arrangement, approval, and execution, and setting up the appropriate plans, and give them permission. Likewise, Uthman sought the opinion of the Companions on collecting the Holy Qur'an and formation of the judiciary, and sought the opinion of the public on unifying the recitation of the Holy Qur'an, and they reached consensus (Dr. Al Salabi, biographies encyclopedia).

## D. Succession of Ali ibn Abi Talib, may Allah glorify his face (18/12/35 – 21/09/40 AH)

## His Lineage

He is Ali ibn Abi Talib (Abu Talib's name is Ibn Abd Manaf) Ibn Abdul Mutalib (shiba el hamd) Ibn Hashem, Ibn Abd Manaf Ibn Kusay, Ibn Kilab, Ibn Murra, Ibn Kaab, Ibn Louay, Ibn Ghaleb, Ibn Fihr, Ibn Malek, Ibn El nader, Ibn kennah,  Ibn khuzaima, Ibn Madreka, Ibn Ilyas Ibn Muzar, Ibn Nizar, Ibn Ma'd, Ibn Adnan. He was the cousin of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and shares with him the name of his first father; Abdul Mutalib Ibn Hashem. His father was Abi Talib, the brother of Abd Allah, who was the father of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). He was called Abu Al Hassan and Abu Turab, and his title was Amir al-Mu'minin. Ali was born ten years before Prophet Muhammad's mission. (Al Tabrani: Al-Mu'jam al-Kabeer)

## His Succession and Bay'ah

Following the martyrdom of Uthman ibn Affan, may Allah be pleased with him, Prophet Muhammad's Companions in Medina swore the pledge of allegiance to Ali ibn Abi Talib for succession, yet he only accepted such nomination after fierce insistence of the senior Companions and Muslims by that time, and for being afraid of the spread of discrord. Ali refused the private Bay'ah, and made it open public Bay'ah by direct poll, so he moved to the mosque, and the people took the pledge of allegiance to him openly, except for  Moaweya Ibn abi Sufyan, who refused to take the pledge of allegiance under the pretense that it was time to first take revenge for the murder of late caliph Uthman, thus being the spark of discord.

## Counsel

Amir al-Mu'minin, may Allah glorify his face, was greatly committed to the principle of counsel in his rule and decisions, so he sought the advice and opinion of his companions on several issues. In this regard, it is reported that he recommended counsel saying "counsel is the way for sound judgment, and, he who relies upon his own opinion, is risking his decision". (Adb Al Donia Wil Din by Al-Mawardi, citing Dr. Al-Salabi). Ali ibn Abi Talib had recommended his employees to take counsel and not to rely merely on their own opinions on all issues.

# Third: Islamic Governance Regime Principles

## A. Succession

Succession means supreme leadership in both religious and worldly affairs, by way of succeeding and acting on behalf of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Ibn khaldoun said in his introduction, on page 166: "Succession is a state of enforcing upon the public the dictations of Sharia in their religious and worldly interests attributable to them, since all the worldly affairs are judged by Sharia in relation to the relevant interests of the Hereafter; in fact, it is representation of the Sharia Maker for safeguarding religion and making life consistent with it. In Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) era, succession had the meaning of representing him in Medina to protect the women, incapacitated persons, and those tarrying behind (in battle time) in Medina, and preserve its security at time of battles in which Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was the leader of the army. The word 'successor' is stated in the Holy Qur'an, Surat al-Baqarah "The Lord said to the angels, I will create a successor on earth, They said: "Wilt Thou place therein one who will make mischief therein and shed blood... Verse 30

More clearly, succession in rule is apparent in the speech delivered by Allah to His Prophet David (peace be upon him) "David, We put thee successor in the earth, so judge between the people the right to not follow the passion not to misguide you away from the Lord's way". Surat Sad, verse 26.

Nevertheless, succession, in its worldly sense, emerged after the death of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), and meant succeeding him (PBUH) on the administering worldly affairs and governance, enforcing the religious dictations upon the nation, and not a successor of Allah. In fact, succession was not based on a former political regime; rather, it had emerged as dictated by the prevailing circumstances after the death of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), while Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) had given no express command or statement on the matter of succeeding him to administer the Islamic State, as he left that issue to be determined by his Companions, but when Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) experienced severe sickness, he recommended that Abu Bakr succeed him for leading the people in prayer.

As a matter of fact, succession was the approach adopted by the Islamic State since its very beginning, under leadership of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), and upon which the nation had unanimous consent as both approach and way of governance for administering its affairs. Emergence of succession had been dictated by the nation's need, so it was necessary to expeditiously nominate the successor of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Succession relied on and drew its governance principles from both the Holy Qur'an and Prophet Muhammad's Sunnah.

## Caliph Nomination Approaches

The caliph was nominated under the counsel-based Regime in Islam through a couple of approaches:

  1. Election

Election went through two phases:

  1. Nomination of the caliph by the influential persons as a private Bay'ah to be followed by public Bay'ah that takes place in the mosque, as in the case of Abu Bakr Al-Siddiq, May Allah be pleased with him, he was elected at Bani Sa'ada penthouse by the senior Companions, and, on the following day, public Bay'ah was administered for him at the prophet's mosque.

  2. Single time: as in the case of Ali Ibn Abi Talib, May Allah glorify his face, public Bay'ah was administered for him at the prophet's mosque after being nominated by the Companions.

  2. Recommendation

This is administered by the caliph's recommendation of his successor and consulting with the others in this regard, as was the case in succession of Umar Ibn Al-Khattab, May Allah be pleased with him, as Caliph Abu Bakr recommended that Umar be his successor not due to kinship or affinity, while he relied upon counsel and deliberation before recommending Umar as his successor. Likewise, Caliph Umar Ibn Al-Khattab, May Allah be pleased with him, recommended six of the Companions to choose the caliph from among them, and further set the election approach and duration, while the succession of Caliph Uthman was most near to counsel.

## B. Bay'ah (Pledge of Allegiance)

The succession practice gave rise to the election process; one of the key pillars of the people's rule; namely, Bay'ah. Ibn khaldoun defined Bay'ah in Ibn Khaldun's Prolegomena as "Pledge of obedience, as the covenanter takes the oath before the Emir to obey him in all matters of personal concern as well as of public concern to the Muslims, not to oppose him in whatever matter, and always obey him in all matters assigned to him, whether he is satisfied or dissatisfied with them. Upon swearing the pledge of allegiance before the Emir, they had been used to hold their hands together as a way for confirmation of the pledge". Ibn Khaldun's Prolegomena, page 309

Bay'ah, in its special meaning, is to swear the pledge of allegiance, obedience, and loyalty to the ruler for administering the people's affairs as dictated by Allah, the Almighty Lord. Bay'ah, in its essence and origin, is a contract and covenant between two parties; the ruler as the first party, and the subjects as the second party. The ruler takes the oath to rule as dictated by the Book (Holy Qur'an), Prophet's Sunnah, and fully abide by Sharia as faith, law, and life approach, while the subjects take the swear of allegiance to obey, yield, and submit to the ruler within the limits of Sharia. This indicates that both the ruler and subjects are governed by the provisions of Sharia dictated by Islam, and neither party of them; i.e. the ruler and subjects represented by the influential people, violate the provisions of Sharia (Dr. Ali Al Salabi, biographies encyclopedia)

Bay'ah is compulsory for each Muslim, as Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) is reported to have said that" Whoever dies without having pledged allegiance [to him], then has died the death of ignorance" Reported by Muslim

This Hadith (prophet's saying) urges the swearing of pledge of allegiance, and poses a threat to anybody who gives it up. The pledge of allegiance will be invalid if the ruler violates the Bay'ah contract; i.e. the Holy Qur'an and Prophet's Sunnah.

Types of Bay'ah

  1. Private Bay'ah, which is limited to the influential persons being the senior Companions and rulers of dominions and provinces falling under the rule of the caliph, as representative of the people.

  2. Public Bay'ah which is taken at the mosque by all the Muslims by their consent. The scholars have unanimous agreement that it is sufficient to take the public bay'ah at the metropolis, as they represent the majority of the subjects, and, as such, their acceptance will serve as acceptance in lieu of all the other people.

## C. Counsel (Shura)

Counsel emerged in Islam in connection with the faith and directed for pure monotheism of Allah, the Almighty Lord, and ruling as dictated by Him, Prophet's Sunnah, and personal interpretation of the companions and followers by way of juristic reasoning (deduction) in a way consistent with the faith. As a matter of fact, the counsel has outstanding position in the Islamic life of all aspects, which is a key feature of the whole group. As a political level, it serves as a political tool for the State's success in administering the affairs of the people, stability of the State, and provides protection to it against breakup and weakness. Counsel is, in fact, the fundamental rule of the Islamic governance approach.

As defined by linguists, counsel is a noun derived from consultation; i.e. we say consult the matter with him; e.g. sought his opinion on that matter, consulted the object; i.e. presented it to highlight its advantages, and give him counsel to do a particular act; i.e. advised him to do so and it based on the righteous aspect of it. Counsel means not to take unilateral course of action before being fully aware of the pros and cons of a particular matter upon deliberating it with others. As such, counsel requires holding discussion, dialogue, and exchange of opinions on the matter, along with deliberation before embarking on it, so that the favorable interest can be inferred through dialogue (Ezzeldin Al Tamimi: alshoura bin ala'salah walma'asrah). Thaalbi said that counsel is a machine used to administer the politics, while politics is the system of state through which the State survives and continues, so where the machine is broken down or malfunctioned, this leads to weakness and ruin of the State (Thaalbi: The Minister's gift).

Given that counsel is the base of Islamic approach for administration of the public affairs as well as economic affairs, in both wartime and peacetime, it is necessary to highlight its significance in Prophet Muhammad's State (PBUH) and the reigns of the rightly guided caliphs, as counsel was the foundations based on which the Islamic governance approach was based.

Counsel had been adopted by the rulers, until it became a source of inspiration not only to them, but also the Muslim scholars, over the ages since the foundation of first Islamic state by Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and the rightly guided caliphs after his death, and emphasizing the fact that counsel had been a fundamental principle since the very beginning of the Islamic nation's rule. The scholars gave preponderance to the opinion that counsel is obligatory, and the approach of administering it is not limited to a particular form. Speaking on counsel, Ibn Al Arabi said "affinity for the gathering, beacon for the minds, and a guide to the right way, and Allah praised seeking counsel on the matters by praising the group who seek counsel and apply it in their attitude). (Dr. Jacob Meligi citing Hassan Alsaid Bassiouni: The State and Governance regime in Islam)

Counsel is based on two elements for protecting and properly applying it faultlessly; justice and equality, as counsel has no existence without fairness and no justice is engendered without equality.

  1. Justice

It means the optimum justice among all the people, irrespective of their religion or race, and is not affected by kinship, high rank, hatred, animosity, or by any other factor. The inevitability of applying justice in Islam is embodied in the verse "If you judge between people, you shall judge with justice". Surat An-Nisa', verse 58

In addition, many verses of the Holy Qur'an and saying of the prophet call for justice, which is a firm basis and principle of the Islamic governance approach. It is also among the important principles upon which the Islamic system is based, with countless witnesses in the biographies of prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and the rightly guided caliphs after his death. Among the advantages of justice, it guarantees safe and decent life for the person, and Allah, the Almighty Lord, commanded his servants to give practical effect to justice, fairness, and equity, prohibited injustice and made it forbidden upon His Majesty, and created severe torture and punishment to the wrongdoing servants. In practice, justice is based on equity among the people in treatment, and abstention from discrimination or prejudice for any reason whatsoever. In his book entitled "The wise ways in Sharia politics", Ibn Al-Qayyim Al-Jawzi states that "Everybody, who is in charge of a particular matter, must seek assistance of the persons of truth, justice, and the like". It also means making judgments among the people in a way which pleases Allah, the Almighty, and treating the people with justice ensure that every rightful person is given his right, with no discrimination or prejudice. Justice is the contrary of injustice, and to ensure that justice is in place, every person who is charged with the authority over Muslims; i.e. ruler, leader, or director, must abide by it, so do all the people (Hassan El Basyoni: The State and Governance Regime in Islam)

  2. Equality

Equality is the guarantee for the prevalence of justice; as no justice is in place without full equality in the rights and duties; as preference is given among the people in Islam only based on God-Fearing, all the people are equal before Allah, the Almighty Lord, no social, economic, or religious privileges are awarded to a particular segment apart from the other Muslims. Further, Islam has enjoined equality among all the people; no discrimination is given based on a class, race, gender, color, kinship, and the only factor of preference is fearing of and belief in Allah. Allah say in His Holy Book " **O** Mankind, I have created you from a male and a female, and made you into nations and tribes, so that you may know one another. Verily, the most honorable of you with Allah is that (believer) who has piety." Surat Al-Hujurat, verse 13

There are many verses of the Holy Qur'an and sayings of Prophet Muhammad that call for equality, in addition to countless situations of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and the rightly guided caliphs after him on equality among Muslims. Further, Islam has introduced a new idea to the governance system that has never been known in the pre-Islam era, or at the Persian or Roman People, as Islam has made the ruler and subjects equal in terms of all rights, by commands from Allah, the Almighty Lord, who has equated between all the mankind. Equality is based on that all the people are equal before the Law in terms of rights and duties; no discrimination between a ruler and subject, rich or poor; they have equal right to assume public position, along with the social duties and obligations and public burdens. (Hassan El Basyoni: The State and Governance regime in Islam).

# Conclusion

We conclude from the principles of counsel-based governance approach in Islam that counsel and the command to apply it are prescribed by Allah, the Almighty Lord, in the form of divine commands stated in the Holy Qur'an and were put into practice by Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), and this application has become the beacon that has lighten up the counsel-based life, interpreted the dimensions of the legislative provisions of the Holy Qur'an, and illuminated their general aspects and principles. The counsel-related practices of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) have served as a tool from which the scholars and rulers deduce very important constitutional laws and counsel-based rules, and through which they found out how counsel, which was adopted be Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), has became a new approach that provides respect to the human being and his opinion, acknowledge his humanity, stature, and reason, and how counsel has become a fundamental part of the political way of Islam in the lives of Muslims, thus allowing Muslims at all eras to establish their constitutional life on the best principles, most durable foundations, and noblest rules (Ezzeldin Al Tamimi: alshoura bin ala'salah walma'asrah)

As is well known, the four rightly guided caliphs have followed in the steps of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) on counsel, and the rightly guided succession of Muslims was based on the principles of counsel derived from the Holy Qur'an and Prophet Muhammad's Sunnah. The people of counsel had formed a quasi-council comprising the senior companions, from whom the ruler sought counsel and advice on all public matters, and they performed the key role on nominating the caliph. Succession had emerged after the death of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) based on the legally-prescribed counsel, which is inevitable for the succession system. Further, private and public Bay'ah has come to light, and is regarded as a must for establishing the succession, which are the same as election in our era. Counsel is directly related to justice and equality; the counsel-based system will not be right without justice and equality, while Muslims are free to select, provide control over, and dismiss the ruler subject to certain conditions; namely, his application of Sharia provisions, so where the ruler violates these provisions, he must be overthrown.

# SECTION I

#

# Post- Rashidun Caliphate Arab Autocracy

#

#

  * # First: The Umayyad state

  * # Second: The Abbasid state

  * # Third: Period of Arab Political Recession

## Index of Section II Themes

Page | Theme

---|---

39 | Autocracy and Dictatorship

40 | First: The Umayyad Caliphate

40 | Governance Regime

41 | The Demise of Umayyad Caliphate

43 | Names of The Umayyad Caliphs

44 | Pedigree of The Umayyad Rulers

45 | Second: The Abbasid Caliphate

46 | Governance Regime

47 | The Demise of Abbasid Caliphate

49 | Names of the Abbasid Caliphs

50 | Pedigree of Abbasid Rulers

52 | The Caliphates existing during the time of Abbasid Caliphate

52 | First: The Fatimid caliphate

54 | Names of the Fatimid Caliphs

55 | Pedigree of Fatimids

56 | Second: the Second Umayyad Caliphate in Andalusia

57 | Revival of the Abbasid Caliphate in Egypt during the Mamluk Reign

58 | Third: The Arab Political Recession

60 | The Demise of Ottoman Caliphate

61 | Brief Overview of the Ottomans

# Autocracy and Dictatorship

Autocracy is a term used to describe a regime in which one person, a group or a party, takes full control of the governance, without being subject to a constitution or law. This is a tyrannical regime as it allows a person or party to possess unlimited power. Autocracy exists in the fascist parties or other of similar kinds. In Latin, autocracy means the divine rule i.e. someone has a divine right to become a ruler. Autocrat is the one whose power is uncontrolled and who decides the policy without allowing the community to take part in making this policy. What makes autocracy different from dictatorship is that whilst in autocracy the power is gained by the loyalty of subjects, the power in dictatorship is acquired only through their fear.

Dictatorship is derived from Latin origin. From the very beginning, Dictatorship appeared alongside human communities. Politically the word refers to a policy in which all powers are concentrated in the hands of one person who acts freely without the need of a prior consent of his people and they have to accept his decisions because of the fear. Autocracy and dictatorship have been practiced by the Arabian regimes since the beginning of the Umayyad Caliphate 41 AH to date with different ways and degrees and under different names. it started with one person then one family then one tribe until it became autocracy of a republic, a party, a kingdom, a princedom or a sheikhdom. This chapter summarizes the long totalitarian rule starting from the Umayyad Caliphate then Abbasid Caliphate; and after that the Arab political recession then the counsel-based Islamic rule, without mentioning the administrative systems or the history of the golden era during the Islamic conquests or expansions, unfortunately ending in the breakup and dispersion these Arab regimes and countries.

# First: The Umayyad Caliphate 41 -132 AH / 661-750 AD

## Governance Regime:

The Umayyad State was established after the death of Ali; the fourth rightly guided caliph, may Allah glorify his face, when his son Al-Hasan ibn 'Alī ibn Abī Tālib waived the caliphate for Muawiya Ibn Abi Swfyan Ibn Harb, who started his reign by transferring the caliphate headquarters to Damascus then took an unusual step that weakened the whole Islamic regime and took it from the counsel-based and prosperous era to another that is characterized by Totalitarianism and power bequeathing; He assigned his son, Yazid, as his successor and the next caliph after him by advising the dominions' rulers to pave the way to his son to acquire the pledge of loyalty whilst Mu'awiya was still alive. He himself went to Medina to have the pledge of loyalty for his son after inviting the delegations to attend a meeting held for the purpose of performing the pledge of loyalty. During that meeting his orator stepped forward and said: this is Amir Al muminin (the commander of the believers), pointing to Mu'awiya, when he dies that man, pointing to his son Yazid, would be his successor, and if anybody objects he will face this, pointing to his sword. Then Mu'awiya said: sit down for that you are the best orator (Hassan Alsaid El Basyoni, The State and Governance regime in Islam). Thus the rule bequeathing was not only the worst stabbing ever in the heart of the Muslim State and regime, but also a confiscation of the right of the people to choose their ruler, a condition that has continued to date. It didn't stopped so far, instead the caliphate turned to become an inheritance that was assigned to sons by caliphs or to the one who is chosen also by the caliph without the prior pledge of loyalty. Even the pledge became compulsory; after the death of the caliph the rule moved to the new caliph, his son. In the era of Abdul Malik _bin Marwan_ the luxury life of kings started to appear in an obvious way as he and his successor followed the example of the kings; the caliph used to sit on the throne with princes on his left and key statesmen and men of the court on his right while standing before him any of the messengers that had been sent by king, poets, writers, scholars and others (Dr. Hassan and Ali Ibrahim: The Islamic regimes)

It is also worth mentioning that the Umayyad Caliphate witnessed the Islamic conquests and large-scale expansions, and the Islamic nation acquired great prestige. Nevertheless at the political aspect Muslim people were deprived from participating in the ruling affairs neither did they make public decision nor choose their ruler and this was the starting point that severely detached the nation's people and scholars from the member and families of the ruling class. Therefore members of the state with soldiers took a side away from the side of the nations and its affairs. There was not any real linkage between them but taxes, few administrative affairs, and the judiciary (Dr. Al Ansari. Quoted from Hussein Mo'nes: The Islam world).

Except the caliph Omar Ibn Abd El Aziz as his state was based on Al shurra (consultation), justice and equality to the extent that he was described by many historian as the fifth caliph of Al Rashedden Caliphs ( the Righteous Caliphs) mercy upon them all.

## The Demise of Umayyad Caliphate

During the era of caliph Marwan ibn Muhammed (744- 749 AD), sedition and turbulences spread out and princes indulged themselves in a life that is full of luxury and splendor taking the example of the Byzantine court. Shi'ite became active in their call and a new creed appeared that was one of the main reasons behind the fall of the Umayyad state. not only that but the kwarij became stronger and managed to spread across the Arab peninsula, Palestine, Ḥaḍramawt and Yemen. at the time when Marwan ibn Muhammed was near to finish the khwarij war a new call appeared; it was a call for Bani _Al Abbas_ ("The children of _El_ - _abbas_ ") who chose The land of Khorasan as a home for their call because of the long distance between it and Damascus, the capital of the Umayyad state. Abu Muslim Khorasani was able to separate the Arab tribes and convinced them to take sides with the Abbasids in Khorasan where the Arab united to support Nasr Bin Sayyar who fought and defeat the Umayyad prince. then Abu Muslim walked to Iraq and entered Kufa where he called for making Abe Abbas assassin the caliph. After that Abe Abbas assassin assigned his uncle Abdullah bin Ali to fight Marwan Bin Mohammed. Marwan escaped and Saleh Ibn Ali Abdallah's brother went after him to Village Bossar in El Fayoumm Egypt whereMarwaan was beheaded by Saleh who sent his head to the assassin in Kufa. The defeat of Marwan Bin Mohammed allowed the black flags of the Abbasid state to flutter over Damascus Forts (summary of Islamic regimes book) no one of the Umayyad was able to survive except the grandson of caliph Hisham, Abdul Rahman bin Muawiya, who escaped to Andalusia where he established a new Umayyad state (will be mentioned in the Abbasid Caliphate).

##

##

## Names of Umayyad Caliphs 14 AH - 132 AH (661 AD \- 750 AD

 | Caliph's Name | Hijri year from- to | Calendar year from – to

---|---|---|---

1 | Muʿāwiyah ibn ʾAbī Sufyān | 41 | 661

2 | Yazid Ibn Muʿāwiyah ibn ʾAbī Sufyān | 60 | 680

3 | Muʿāwiyah Ibn Yazid II | 64 | 683

4 | Marawan Ibn Al Hakim | 64 | 683

5 | Abdul Malik Ibn Marawan | 65 | 685

6 | Walid bin Abdul Malik | 86 | 705

7 | Suliman bin Abdul Malik | 96 | 715

8 | Omar Ibn Abdul Aziz | 99 | 717

9 | Yazid II | 101 | 720

10 | Hisham bin Abdul Malik | 105 | 724

11 | Walid II bin Abdul Malik | 125 | 743

12 | Yazid III | 126 | 744

13 | Ibrahim ibn al-Walid II | 126 | 744

14 | Marwan II Bin Mohammed | 127-132 | 744-750

## Pedigree of Umayyad Rulers

### Umayah

Al A'as Harab

Abu Swfyan Al Hakam

**Mu'awiya I (1)** **(4** ) **Marwan ibn al-Hakam**

Abdul Aziz

Abdul Al Malik (5)

Muhammad

Yazid I (2)

Mu'awiya II (3)

Marawan II (14)

Omar (8)

Yazid II (9)

Hisham (10)

Souliman (7)

Al Waild (6)

    Mu'awiya

Yazid III(12)

Abdul Rahman Dakhil

Al walid II(11)

Ibrahim (13)

# Second: The Abbasid Caliphate 123 – 656 AH (750-1278 AD)

Mohammed bin Ali bin Abdullah Abbas bin Abdul Muttalib is considered the first symbol of the Abbasid secret call, while his son Ibrahim was the detonator of that call, as he transferred it from a secret call to a public call, yet he was killed before the Abbasid were able to get triumph over the Umayyads. As a result, his brother Muhammad was crowned with the leadership before being killed as well. The Abbasid call endured tirelessly, until his son Abdullah bin Mohammed bin Ali bin Abdullah Abbas was named as the first Abbasid caliph, and called himself the "Assassin" on his crowning speech, so his title was the assassin. In 136 AH, the pledge of allegiance was given to Abu Abbas as the leader and caliph of Muslims, to be succeeded by his brother Abu Ja'far, known as Al-Mansur Billah, to be succeeded by the son of his brother Isa bin Musa bin Mohammed bin Ali, yet Al-Mansur Billah ousted him; i.e. Isa bin Musa, and named his son al Mahdi as the heir apparent.

In practice, the Abbasid caliphate was administered by the same system adopted by the Persian Sassanid Empire, as the caliphs exercised autocracy in power, the caliph secluded himself away from the subjects, and appointed the ministers and headsman. The Persian wear fashion came into light, and the people celebrated the Nowruz, RAM, and Mehregan. In fact, the Abbasid State was founded under the Persian influence, so they were overwhelmed by the Persian opinions, and the minister presiding over the government was of a Persian origin, while the Abbasid caliph was named as Imam, thus putting emphasis on the Abbasid caliphate as being the imams of the people, although that title was bestowed, during the era of rightly guided caliphs and Umayyad State, upon the person leading the people in prayer, yet the Shiites given that title to the members of the Alawite family. As a result, caliphate was based on the divine right doctrine "autocracy", and many political assassinations took place at their time, the signs of rule or caliphate were represented by Prophet Muhammad's mantle (PBUH), rod, and caliph's ring, there slogan was to wear dark colored clothes, used a black banner, got the caliphate back to Iraq, and establish Baghdad during the reign of Al-Mansur Billah (summary extract from Dr. Nabilah Hassan Mohammed's Book: The Abbasid State)

## Governance Regime

The Abbasid caliphate pursued the same course as did the Umayyads in respect of heritance, and after the early period of that era, the sense of caliphate vanished away; only its name remained, even the nominal Bay'ah (pledge of allegiance) no longer existed, and the people were deprived of their right to take part in the rule affairs. The Abbasids were known for their cruelty in the political arena, so it is no wonder that we find that Al-Mansur Billah harshly penalizes the people for a mere suspicion of any matter involving the king. During that Abbasid era, senior religious leaders and some scholars of the Islamic jurisprudence were severely persecuted and offended. To name but a few, Al-Mansur had tortured Imam Malik bin Anas for a political fatwa (legal opinion), and persecuted Imam Abu Hanifa and many others for their refusal to occupy the office of judges (Dr. Abd El Hamid Al Ansari: Consultation and its impact on democracy).

As for the nomination of a heir apparent, the Abbasid Caliphate named more than a heir apparent, as the Assassin" named his brother Abu Jafar al-Mansur as the caliph, and also named the son of his brother Isa bin Musa bin Mohammed bin Ali to be his successor. However, when the caliphate was taken over by al-Mansur, his son Al Mahdi grew older, so he ousted bin Musa and nominated Al Mahdi as heir apparent, and nominated Isa as his successor. Upon assuming his office as the caliph, Al Mahdi ousted the heir apparent Isa bin Musa and nominated his sons Al Hadi and Harun al-Rashid respectively as the heir apparent. Likewise, Al Hadi ousted his brother Harun al-Rashid and commanded that the pledge of allegiance be given to his son Jafar. In 170 AH, Harun al-Rashid nominated three of his sons as heir apparent; namely, Al Amin, Al mamoun, and Al motamen, and divided the State among them (Dr. Hassan and Ali Ibrahim: The Islamic regimes).

## The Demise of Abbasid Caliphate (The Abbasid State)

The fall of Abbasid State began at the early Abbasid Era II, which extended from 232 up to 656 AH, the date that witnessed the fall of Abbasid State. Upon the death of the Abbasid Caliph El Waseq, El Motawakel (232-247) took over as caliph, and was the first among all Abbasid caliphs to enjoy a life of luxury. Before his death, Caliph El Motawakel passed down the rule to his sons Al Montaser, Al Moataz, and Almoayad respectively. However, he plotted to give precedence to his son Al Moataz motivated by his affection to Al Moataz's mother, yet when Al Montaser know of this plot, he agreed with the Turks to murder his father, and, in practice, the Turks entered to his place and murdered him and his minister Al-Fath ibn Khaqan. When Al Montaser took over a caliph, he ousted his brothers Al Moataz's and Almoayad as heir apparent, but he died sooner, and was succeeded by Ahmed bin Mohammed Al Mutasim, he was named Al-Musta'in Billah (248-251 AH), but the Turks deposed him shortly, and swore the pledge of allegiance to Al Moataz Billah (252-255 AH), expelled the deposed caliph to Waset where he was murdered. In the year 255 -256 AH, Al-Muhtadi ibn El Waseq took over as caliph following Al Moataz. Al-Muhtadi was one of the most reputable, pious, and worshipping caliphs, yet, shortly, the Turks decided unanimously to murder him due to his killing of some servants, so they had revolted against him, and then captured, ousted, and ultimately murdered him. The pledge of allegiance was given to Al-Mu'tamid Ibn Al Motawkel as caliph from 252-279 AH. During his reign, his brother **Al-Mowaffaq** got the better ho him, and upon **Al-Mowaffaq's death, the Turkish commanders assembled together and nominated his son as the heir apparent following** Al Mofawad Ibn Al-Mu'tamid **and named his as** Al-Mu'tadid **Billah (279-289 AH), who was also known as the second assassin, as he revived the supreme authority of the Abbasids.**

**During the reign of** Al-Muqtadir 295-320 AH, the state of Abbasid State witnesses a state of internal and external disorder, which was attributable mainly to the increasing influence of the Turks and army's intervention in the State's affairs, which went so far as being a decision maker in respect of the appointment and dismissal of the caliph. The Abbasid caliphs appointed the Turkish servants as their security guards, and the latter, soon, wiped out the Persian influence, became the Masters, thus the power was in the hand of the Turkish commander of the princes. For instance, Tuzun, the Turkish commander of princess, had a dispute with the caliph Al Motaki (329-333 AH), he arrested the caliph, took from him Prophet Muhammad's mantle (PBUH), rod, and caliph's ring, and handed them in to  El mostakfi billah, and jailed Al Motaki who remained in jail for 25 years, until he died in jail in 357 AH. The weakness of Abbasid caliph increased since the beginning of the fourth Hijri century (10th Georgian Century), owing mainly to the rising influence of the Turkish commanders, and intensification of the danger of independent states; the influence and power of ali ibn buyeh in Persia increased, while his brother Al Hassan ibn buyeh assumed full control over Al Rai, isafahan, and Mount Lands, and Banu Hamdan assumed independent ruler over Mosul, Diyarbakır, DiyarRabi`ah, and DiyarMadar. Egypt and the Levant were under the sole rule of Mohammed bin Tgj Akhshid,  Nasr Ibn ahmed al samani assuned the rule over Khorasan. As for Andalusia, Abd-ar-Rahman III (300-350 Ah) took over as caliph and named himself as Amir al-Mu'minin, (commander of the believers), as well as Al-Nasir li-Din Allah (the Defender of Religion). As such, three caliphates took place in the Islamic world at the same time; namely, the Abbasid caliphate ruled in Baghdad, the Fatimid caliphate ruled in the Maghreb, and moved to Egypt, in addition to the Umayyad caliphate in Andalusia. We will present a brief overview of some caliphates that emerged during the Abbasid reign.

The year 656 AH witness the fall of the Abbasid State at the hands of Hulagu Khan, who proceeded towards Baghdad with massive troops, captured the caliph Al-Musta'sim, put him and his family in a camp, and eventually murdered them. Hulagu settled at Al Mamounia Palace, to the east of Baghdad. Thus, the caliphate system, represented in the Abbasid and Umayyad dynasties, came to an end, so that every powerful prince, who defeated an Islamic dominion, named himself as the caliph, and did not see a need to seek official authorization from the Abbasid or Umayyad caliphs to assume caliphate.

## Names of The Abbasid Caliphs

##

Name and title | Hijri Year | Calendar year | Title | Hijri Year | Calendar year

---|---|---|---|---|---

(Assassin) abu al abaas abdullah ibn muhammad | 132 | 751 | Al Motaqi | 329 | 940

Al Mansour " Abu Ja'far" | 136 | 754 | Al mostakfi | 333 | 944

Al Mahdi | 158 | 775 | Al-Muti | 334 | 946

Al Hadi | 169 | 785 | At-Ta'i | 363 | 974

Al Rashid (Harun al-Rashid) | 180 | 786 | Al kader | 381 | 991

Al Amin | 193 | 809 | Al-Qa'im | 322 | 1031

Al mamoun | 198 | 813 | Al-Muqtadi | 467 | 1075

Mutasim (Abu Ishaq Mohammed Mu'tasim) | 218 | 833 | Al-Mustazhir | 487 | 1094

Al wasek | 227 | 832 | Al-Mustarshid | 512 | 1118

Mutawakil | 232 | 847 | Al Rashid | 529 | 1135

Al Montaser | 247 | 861 | Al- Muqtafi | 530 | 1136

Al-Musta'in | 248 | 864 | Al-Mustanjid | 555 | 1160

Al Moataz | 252 | 866 | Al-Mustadi | 566 | 1170

Al Mohtadi | 255 | 869 | Al Nasser | 575 | 1180

Al-Mu'tamid | 256 | 870 | Al Zaher | 622 | 1225

Al-Mu'tadid | 279 | 892 | Al-Mustansir | 623 | 1226

Al Moktafi | 289 | 902 | Al Musta'sim | 640-656 | 1242-1658

Al-Muqtadir | 295 | 908 | |

|

Al Kaher | 320 | 932 | |

|

Al Radi | 322 | 934 | |

|

Pedigree of Abbasid Rulers

_Al Abass (_ Uncle of Prophet Muhammad PBUH _)_

Abdullah

Ali

Muhammad

Ibrahim

  1. **Al Safaah (Assassin)**

Al Mansour (2)

Al Mahdi (3)

Al Hadi (4)

Harun Al Rashid (5)

0 (3)

Al Mansour

Ibrahim

Al Amin (6)

Al Kasim

**Al-Mu'tasim (8** _)_

Al Mamoun (7)

Al Motawkel (10)

Al Waseq (9)

Muhammad

**Al-Musta'in** **Billah**

Al Muhtadi (14)

**Al-Mountaser (11)**

Al Moataz Billah (13)

Al-Mu'tamid (15)

Al Mowaffaq

Al-Mu'tadid Billah **(16)**

**Al-Kaher** **(19)**

Al-Muqtadir (18)

Al-Muktafi **(17)**

**Al-Musktafi** **(22)**

**Al-Muti** **(23)**

Al-Radi **(20)**

**Al-Muttaqi** **(21)**

**Al Kader** **(25)**

**At-Ta'i** **(24)**

Al-Qa'im (26)

(26)

**Al-Muqtadi** **(27)**

**Al-Mustazhir** **(28)**

**Al- Muqtafi** **(31)**

**Al-Mustarshid** **(29)**

**Al-Mustanjid** **(32)**

Al-Rashid (30)

Al-Mustadi (33)

**Al-Nasser** **(34)**

**Al-Zaher** **(35)**

**Al-Mustanser** **(36)**

**Al-Musta'sim** **(37)**

# The Caliphates existing during the time of the Abbasid Caliphate:

# (297-567 AH)

## First: The Fatimid Caliphate 909- 1171 AD

The Fatimid Caliphate was established during the reign of the _Abbasid Caliph al-Moktader_ (295 AH). It was established in The Maghreb in 297 AH by El Mahdy ibn Muhammad Ibn Isma'il l Ibn Jaʿfar al-Sādiq Ibn Muhammad Al Baqir Ibn Ali El Sagaad Ibn El Hussein Ibn Ali Ibn Abi Talib, Mercy upon them all. Then moved to Egypt during the reign of Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah Al Fatimid 362AH who was the fourth Fatimid caliph. neither El Mahdy, his son Al-Qa'im nor his grandson Al-Mansur was able to seize Egypt; all their forays failed as the Abbasid Caliphate was still strong enough to repel the Fatimid from entering Egypt.

The Fatimids were named after Fatimah El Zahraa, Prophet Muhammed's daughter (Peace be upon him),and were of the same dynasty of _Ismaili Shia_. they built Cairo and Al-Azhar Mosque.

The Fatimids followed the example of the Umayyad and the Abbasid in bequeathing the caliphate to their sons; feeling that he was going to die the caliph would assign one of his son then the pledge would be renewed after his death. It happened a lot that the new caliph concealed his father's death on felling that his throne might be jeopardized, for example: caliph Al-Qa'im concealed his father's death, caliph Adballah El Mahdy, and so did Al-Mansur upon the death of his father Al-Qa'im until he managed to eliminate Abu Yazeid revolution in 226 AH. Later, choosing the caliph became in the hands of the leaders and other key statesmen, who weren't very keen on assigning the older son, for example when Caliph Al-Mustansir chose his elder son,Nizar, to be his successor, Minister Al Afdal Ibn Badr Al Gamaly temporizes the Caliph decision and assigned Abi AlQasem Ahmed and gave him the title of _Al_ Musta' _ly_ Billah. accordingly Nizar walked to Alexandria where he got killed after gaining the pledge of loyalty from its people. As a result a conflict erupted among pro-Fatimid _Ismaili_ in Egypt; some of them called for _Al_ Musta' _ly_ 's right to the caliphate, for that they were called Mustaali, others called for Nizar's right to be the caliph because of his being the older son, for that they were called The Nizāriyyah. The Nizāriyyah fought the Seljuq and the Crusaders and were called Assassin (Ḥashshāshīn or Bāteniān).

Abbasid Caliphate competed against and defeated by the Fatimid caliphate which prevailed from the Atlantic at west reaching to the Euphrates river and from Asia Minor at north to Nubian lands at south, the caliphate also prevailed over Sicily and Hijjaz lands. Also Yemen, Al Mosul and the country beyond the river acknowledged the spiritual influence of the Fatimid caliphate and the Fatimid caliph was being called for upon all the platforms all over these countries.

In 567 AH (1171 AD), the Fatimid caliphate became weak and corrupted thus fallen by the Ayyubid State. Just then Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb appeared on the political stage and orated on behalf of the Abbasid caliph Al-Mustadi (56-575). He gave out two ruling authorizations; one for his uncle, NourAldin, to rule Yemen and another to one of the kings of the slaves who made Delhi the capital of his kingdom and was granted the title of sultan. Thus he engraved the name of Abbasid caliph on his coins. (Source Dr. Hassan and Dr. Ali Ibrahim Hassan: The Islamic Regimes).

## Names of the Fatimid Caliphs

##

S.N | Caliph's Name | Hijri year | Calendar year

---|---|---|---

1. | Al- Mahdi Abu Mohammed Obaidullah | 298 | 909

2. | Al-Qa'im Abu al-Qasim Muhammad | 322 | 934

3. | Al -Mansour Abu Taher Ismail | 332 | 945

4. | Al- Moez Abu Tamim Mo'ad | 341 | 952

5. | Al -Aziz Abu Mansur Nizar | 365 | 975

6. | Al -Hakim Abu Ali Al -Mansour | 386 | 996

7. | Al -Taher Abu al-Hasan Ali | 411 | 1020

8. | Al-Mustansir Abu Tamim Massad | 427 | 1035

9. | Al-Musta'li Abu Al-Qa'im Ahmad | 487 | 1094

10. | Al- Amir Abu Ali Al-Mansour | 495 | 1101

11. | Al -Hafiz Abu Maimoun Abdul Majeed | 524 | 1130

12. | Al -Zafer Abu Al-Mansour Ismail | 544 | 1149

13. | Al Fayez Abu Al Qasim Eisa | 549 | 1154

14. | Al-'Āḍid Abu Muhammad Abdulllah | 555 to 567 | 1160 to 1171

## Pedigree of The Fatimids

Ali Ibn Abi Talib (may Allah glorify his face)

Al Husayan Ibn Abi Talib

Ali Ibn Al Husayan (Al Sajaad)

Muhammad Ibn Ali Al Husayan (Al Baqer)

Ja'far Ibn Muhammas ( Al Sadeq)

Ismail Musa Al Khadim

(Shi'a Ismaili) (Athnā'ashariyyah Shi'a)

Muhammad (1)

Al- Mahdi (2)

**A  l-Qa'im** **(3)**

Al- Mansour (4)

Al-Mu'izz (5)

Al- Aziz (6)

Al- Hakim (7)

Al- Zaher (8)

**A  l-Mustansir** **(9)**

M

Al- Amir (10)

usta'li **Muhammad (11)**

Al Hafiz (12)

Al – Zafer (13)

Al-'Āḍid (14)

Al fayez (15)

## Second: The Second Umayyad Caliphate in Andalusia

As mentioned earlier at the end of the Umayyad Caliphate, the Abbasid killed all the Umayyad Caliphate offspring, except caliph Hisham's grandson whose name was Abdul Rahman bin Muawiya. He escaped to Andalusia where he established a new Umayyad State. Princes of this state used to give themselves many titles such as prince, sultan and son of the caliphs until Abdul Rahman III acceded to the throne in 300 AH. They believed that the Abbasid caliphate is the true caliphate as he was controlling Al Hejaz, the land of the revelation; Muslims used to think that the true caliph is the one who was controlling the two holy mosques, a belief which made Abdul Rahman realize the danger his country was going to face from the Shia Fatimid caliph in Morocco. Therefore, he thought that he couldn't be less than Abbasids and Fatimids in protecting the Islamic world against Christian Europe. Thus he erased the idea that said that a true caliph must control the two holy shrines. and called himself Amir al-Mu'minin; Commander of the Believers, a title which spread all over the platforms of the countries.

Abdul Rahman attached his name with the name of Allah like the Abbasid and Fatimid to be "Al-Nasir li-Din Allah" thus he invented a new tradition which was later followed by his sons. The Umayyad Caliphate retained its strength in Andalusia during the era of Al-Mustansir Bellah during which northern Christians felt the power of the Fatimid caliphate. Even the platforms of Morocco sounded with speeches about him hence he eliminated the influence of Idrisids in the country.

The Umayyads followed the example of their predecessors, the first Umayyad state, and bequeathed the throne to their sons, but their rule didn't last long; their caliphate lost its strength during the era of Caliph Hisham _Almoayad_ the grandson of Abdul Rahman Al-Naser as his mother "Sobh" had an unlimited power over the state.

Later, the ministry was under the responsibility of Ibn Abi Aamir who became the de facto ruler of the state instead of the caliph who receded in his palace with nothing but his title. When Ibn Abi Aamir died (393 AH) his son Abd Almalak took over the complete rule from the caliph and was known as Al Mozfer then his brother Abdul Rahman took over and was known as Al Naser but he soon was unseated. In 399 AH Mohamed Ibn Hisham Ibn Abdelgabbar Ibn Abdul Rahman Al Naser ruled off his cousin Hisham _Almoayad_ and was called El Mahdy. In 403 AH Hisham Ibn soliman Ibn Abdul Rahman El Naser (Al-Musta'in) succeeded in entering Cordoba and killing his cousin to seize the throne which had already been falling for nearly four years (403-407 AH).

# In 407 AH, bin Hamud; the descendants of Idris ibn Abdullah Al Alawy ( the founder of Idrisid state in Morocco), were able to enter Cordoba when they killed the Umayyad Caliph Al-Musta'in Billah, thus totally eradicated the Umayyad caliphate in Andalusia.

## Revival of the Abbasid Caliphate in Egypt during Mamluk Reign

Before the emergence of the State of Mamluk, who formed the overwhelming majority of the army of her husband Al-Malik as-Salih Ayyub, Shajar al-Durr had been seeking to establish good relations with the Emirs (commanders) of the State, granted them territories, and reduced the public taxes. She got married to Izz al-Din Aybak al-Turkmani; the commander in chief, yet she soon plotted for killing him as he got engaged to a princess from Mosul, so his son Nour Ed-Din, who acceded to the throne after the death of his father, took revenge for him by instructing the housemaids to kill Shajar al-Durr.

When the news came that the Mongols attached savagely Baghdad and killed Al-Musta'sim Billah in 656 Ah, the commanders held a meeting and decided to depose Nour Ed-Din, and made Qutuz the Sultan of Egypt. Immediately after his accession to the throne, Qutuz began to defend Egypt against the Mongols' raids, led a great army and defeated Hulagu Khan in the Battle of Ain Jalut; a place situated between Beisan and Nablus in Plaestine. This triumph was attained thanks to the commander Baibars; one of the commanders of Mamluk who influence increased shortly after the battle and eventually acceded to the throne. During his reign, Baibars transferred the nominal caliphate from Baghdad to Egypt, summoned the prince Ahmed Ibn El Imam Al–Zaher; a man belonging to the Abbasid State who escaped from the Mongols, and called him Al-Mustansir Billah. However, Baibars decided to get the caliphate back to Baghdad and enthrone Al-Mustansir Billah, so he moved with the caliph to Damascus, yet he changed his opinion lest the caliphate in Baghdad would pose a threat to his state. Therefore, he got back to Egypt and left the caliph in Damascus accompanied by some of his followers. As a result, Al-Mustansir tried to reach Baghdad, yet the Mongols captured and killed him. When Baibars heard the news of his murder, he was filled with sadness, and then summoned a new Abbasid Emir, so the Emir Abu Al-Abbas came to him in 661 AH, Baibars received him and gave to him the title of Amir al-Mu'minin; Commander of the Believers. Thus, the nominal caliphate was transferred from Baghdad to Cairo, yet their authority was limited purely religious matters. The Sultans of Mamluk, who succeeded Baibars, followed in the steps of him r towards the Caliph, and, as such, the most important task of the caliph was to give a religious trend to the Sultans in order to consolidate the pillars of their rule. The nominal Abbasid caliphate in Egypt lasted for two and a half centuries.

## Third: Period of Arab Political Recession

The large-scale prevalence of autocratic rule, abandonment of the counsel-based Islamic governance approach with its noble principles, and consolidation of the hereditary succession concept have eventually led to the demise of both Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates, along with the caliphate that emerged at time of the Abbasid rule and petty states which followed the Abbasid caliphate. As a result, it appeared as if time had retraced its steps; belonging to a powerful and influential tribe had granted the right for managing the rule affairs and control over the destiny of people, while the people became weaker before their rulers who took exclusive possession of wealth and rule, so that rather than setting the rulers right, the people surrounded them with a state of glorification and sanctification. For their part, the rulers made unilateral decisions, thus giving up the counsel principle and regarded their decisions as decrees that must be put into effect once made. Hence, hatred, animosity, envy, and sedition became widespread all over the State, until the Arab rule vanished away, paving the way to the Turks Mamluk and Turkestan Ottomans to seize power and rule. Upon seizing power, they paved the way for the totalitarian one-man rule, caused and contributed largely to the state of political dormancy of the Arab nation, as the latter followed the steps of the Ottoman governance model for reigning over the nation for centuries in which both the Arab rulers and subjects were under the control of Ottoman Court, even those, who showed mutiny and insubordination to the Ottoman State, established dictatorial, totalitarian hereditary regimes in spite of crowning their rule with an Islamic appellation; as they adopted the title Amir al-Mu'minin, Sharif, or Sharif Imam. Eventually, the Ottomans were able to defeat and destroy the Turks in Egypt, as the Egyptian army was then under the command of Sultan Qansouh Ghouri who encountered the Ottoman Sultan Selim in the battle of Marj Dābiq near Aleppo; Sultan Qansouh Ghouri was killed in that battle and the Mamluks were defeated. By that time, The Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakkil was present in the Mamluk's camp, when Sultan Selim I had news of this and that his original place is Baghdad, he treated him kindly, provided him with money, and allowed him to get back to Aleppo. By the end of September of the same year, Selim entered Damascus and was followed by the caliphate. In December 1516 AD, Sultan Selim kept on proceeding towards Egypt, defeated the Egyptian garrison in Gaza, and on January 25, 1517 AH, fight broke out in the streets of Cairo between the Egyptian troops and Ottomans, and Sultan Selim was eventually able to expel the Mamluk out of Cairo. Sultan Selim granted Caliph Al-Mutawakkil some powers and allowed him to share the rule of State, to such an extent that his palace was full of the aggrieved persons who hastened to him seeking mediation with Sultan Sleim for their own affairs. In fact, Sultan Selim adopted this policy as a way to make intimate relation between the people of Cairo and the new government, thus paving the way to the transfer of power to the Ottomans. By that time, the Islamic World had realized the mighty power of the Ottomans, as Sultan Selim established his rule in dependence on the power of sword and artillery, and had become the greatest Islamic ruler at his time, particularly due to the great triumphs and victories he attained over the Persians, eradication of the Mamluk State in Egypt, standing in the face of the Christians in Europe, and then seizing power over the Two Holy Mosques, so that he was named Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques in the speech delivered in his honor at Cairo Mosque in 1517 AD.

## The Demise of Ottoman Caliphate

Sultan Abdul Hamid acceded to the throne at a time of decline and decadence of the Ottoman Caliphate, as the Christian States exercised great pressure, revolutions and sedition broke out in the Christian dominions falling under its control, Russia declared war against the Ottoman State in 1877, Romania, the Arabs, and Montenegro had obtained full independence, Bulgaria became an independent State under the control of the Ottoman State. The Ottoman ruler was of the view that he ought to resort to the Islamic World, hoping to obtain assistance of the Muslims, especially those falling under the European occupation. However, Sultan Abdul Hamid's policy proved unsuccessful, as the majority of Islamic and Arab States were under western influence, so they entered into alliance with the Allies, until the Turkish people stirred up against that Sultan in 1908, deposed him due mainly to his consolidation of the totalitarian rule in the State by way of repealing the constitution, and putting impediments along the way of reform. Consequently, the Ottoman State went through decline and decadence, the Allies occupied the coasts of Marmara Sea and Istanbul, and on 11/10/1922, Truce of Modanie was made, and provided that the Allies would abandon Turkey, and then the Turkish National Supreme Council declared abolishment of the Ottoman Sultanate, the Turkish Republic was declared on 29 October 1923, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk was elected as the first Turkish president. Upon assuming the power, Ataturk separated the religious authority from the political rule, and abolished the Islamic Caliphate on 02 March 1924.

Thus, the Arabs got rid of the Ottoman State, which adopted the "Islamic Caliphate" appellation as a mask to consolidate its power and rule. During the collapse of the Turkish State, the liberal movements began to come to light in the Arab World. (Source Dr. Hassan and Dr. Ali Ibrahim Hassan: The Islamic Regimes).

## Brief Overview of the Ottomans

In 1220 AD, the two most powerful Mongol commanders under the leadership of Genghis Khan crossed Turkistan, began to approach Iran; Jbanuyan and Subedaa Noyan. By that time, in the southern part of Garakorm Desert, to the south of Khorasan, about 70,000 nomad tents were occupied by around half a million persons of the Turkish Muslims. Among those persons, there had been a small clan known as Qay Clan, who migrated from southwest of Turkistan to the east of Anatolia over ten years. The clan (4,000 persons) was chieftained by a Turkish man called Kondz Alp, succeeded in chieftainship of the clan by his son Ertugrul; the father of prince Ottoman, who was the founder of Ottoman Empire. At that period, the battle of yasi Jmn took place in Erzincan, in the northeastern region of Turkey, between the Seljuk Sultan in Konya and Jalaluddin Khorezm Shah Khaqan Turkistan, Seljuk Sultan in Konya would have been defeated had not the Qay Clan, to which we referred above, intervened in the battle on the side of the weaker party, turning its defeat into great victory. Being the cause of his triumph, Sultan Konya knew that this clan was seeking a shelter, so he granted then a fortified borderline piece of land located near the borders of his Sultanate and the Byzantine Empire, at a current place serving as assembly point of Askicher, Bilecik, and Kutahya States in Turkey. In 1253 AD, Kondz Alp died, and was succeeded by his son Ertugrul, yet the Sultan of Konya issued a decree to appoint Prince Ottoman in lieu of his father. Upon the death of Ottoman, he passed the fortified borderline piece of land down to his son Orkhan. The area of this land had become 16,000 kilometers, as he was able to expand his rule towards Marmara Sea, thus posing a threat to the two most important Byzantine cities at that time; namely, Iznik and Boursa. Thus, Qay Clan was able to lead the Ottoman Empire to become the most long-lived State ever in the Arab Islamic history. (Dr. Mohammed Harb: The Ottomans in History and Civilization)

# Section III

# Modern Political Concepts

  * # Definition of the State and its Types

  * # Definition of the Government and its Types

  * # Types of Rule

  * # Types of Regimes

  * # Authorities of Rule

  * # The Arab Regimes

  * # Political Ideologies

  * # Political Classifications

  * # Political Organizations

  * # Political Freedoms

  * # Elections

  * # Constitution

## Index of Section III Themes

Theme | Page No. | Theme | Page No. | Theme | Page No.

---|---|---|---|---|---

The State and its Types | 69 | 15. Appease State | 73 | 15. De facto Government | 79

1. Full Sovereign State | 69 | 16. Civil state with Islamic reference | 73 | 16. Quotas Government | 79

2. Incomplete Sovereignty State | 69 | 17. Citizenship State | 73 | 17. business men government | 79

A. Vassal State | 69 | 18. National-state | 74 | 18.National consensus government | 79

b. Protected State | 69 | 19. Police state | 74 | 19. Sectarian government | 80

c. Mandated Territory | 69 | Types of Government | 75 | 20. left- wing government | 80

d. Trust Territory | 70 | 1.Coalition Government | 75 | 21.right – wing government | 80

E. Occupied State | 70 | 2. Government by the wealthy (plutocracy) | 75 | 22. Security government | 81

3.Civil State | 70 | 3.Government by the few (Aristocracy) | 75 | 23. crisis government | 81

4.Federal state( combined state) | 70 | 4.Autocratic government | 76 | Types of Rule | 82

5.Welfare state | 70 | 5.Despotic government | 76 | 1. Islamic rule | 82

6.City- state | 71 | 6.Legal government (monocracy) | 76 | 2. Rule by the Competent Persons | 82

7.State with Permanent Neutrality | 71 | 7.Government of national competencies | 76 | 3. Rule by the Ideologists | 82

8.Buffer state | 71 | 8.technocrat Government (experts government) | 76 | 4. One-man rule | 82

9.Unified state | 71 | 9. shadow government | 77 | 5. Bilateral rule | 83

10.Political institution | 72 | 10.parliamentary government | 77 | 6. Self-Rule | 83

11.State of institutions and law; Rechtsstaat | 72 | 11.military government | 77 | 7. Bad Rule | 83

12. Liberal state | 72 | 12. Exile Government | 78 | 8. absolute rule | 83

13.Occupation State | 72 | 13.national unity Government | 78 | 9. Totalitarian Rule | 84

14.Reluctant State | 73 | 14.Caretaker government (transitional government) | 78 | 10.Dictatorial rule | 84

11. Civil rule | 85 | Fifth: Parliamentary regime | 94 | b. Marxist communism | 104

12. Military rule | 85 | Sixth :The Islamic regime | 96 | c. National Communism | 105

Types of Regimes | 87 | Authorities of Governance | 98 | 2.Capitalism | 105

First: Democratic Regime | 87 | 1. Legislative authority | 98 | a. State Capitalism | 105

Types of democracy | 88 | 2. Executive authority | 98 | b. Public Capitalism | 106

1. Direct democracy | 88 | 3. The Judiciary | 99 | c. Restricted Capitalism | 106

2.Indirect democracy | 88 | "Separation of Powers" Doctrine | 99 | 3. Socialism | 106

3.semi-direct democracy | 89 | Other types of authorities | 100 | a. Humanitarian socialism | 106

4.Industrial democracy | 89 | 1. The Fourth power | 100 | b. State socialism | 107

5. Guided democracy | 89 | 2. Advisory authority | 100 | c. Democratic socialism | 107

6.Socialist democracy | 89 | 3. General authorities | 100 | d. Arab socialism | 107

Second: Royal/ Sultanic/Emiri regime | 90 | 4. Military authority | 100 | e. Fabian Socialism | 108

Types of Royal Regimes | 91 | 5. Full Powers Act | 100 | f. Union Socialism | 108

1. absolute Royalty | 91 | The Arab Regimes | 101 | g. revolutionary socialism | 108

2. restricted Royalty | 91 | 1. Progressive bloc | 102 | 4. Marxism | 109

3. constitutional Royalty | 91 | 2. Reactionary bloc | 102 | a. New Marxism | 109

4. Autocratic Royalty | 92 | 3. The new representative bloc | 103 | b. Western Marxism | 109

Third :The Republican regime | 92 | Political Ideologies | 104 | Political Classifications | 110

Republican Disposition | 93 | 1. Communism | 104 | 1. Progressivism | 110

Fourth: presidential regime | 93 | a. Primitive communism | 104 | 2. Reactionism | 110

a. Reactionary movement | 111 | Armed opposition | 118 | leading Party | 123

---|---|---|---|---|---

b. Retroactive Regime | 111 | The Cell | 118 | Ideological Party | 123

Social Fascism | 111 | Underground Associations | 119 | Gathering Party | 123

4. Secularism | 112 | Underground Movement | 119 | Party Hierarchy | 124

5. Sectarianism | 112 | Classification of political organizations | 119 | Nationalist Party | 124

6. Radicalism | 113 | 1. Left-wing or right-wing | 119 | National party | 124

7. Imperialism | 113 | 2. Moderate left-wing | 120 | Civil parties | 124

8. Nationalism | 114 | 3. extremist left-wing | 120 | Liberal parties | 125

9. liberalism | 114 | 4. Moderate right-wing | 120 | License by Notification | 125

10. Salafism (Salafi Movement) | 115 | 5. extremist right-wing | 120 | Dissolution of Parties | 125

11. Defeatism | 115 | 6. Islamic left-wing | 121 | Multiplicity of parties (party pluralism) | 125

12. Opportunism | 116 | 7. The New left | 121 | Party committee | 126

13.Globalization | 116 | Some types of political organizations | 121 | Party cadre | 126

Political organizations | 117 | 1.Movement | 121 | Popular base | 126

Definition of political organization | 117 | 2. Dynamism | 121 | Territorial Leadership | 126

Categories of political organization | 117 | 3. Union | 122 | Nationalist leadership | 126

1. Open Political Organization | 117 | 4. Bloc | 122 | Political activity | 127

Advocacy organizations – overt opposition organizations | 117 | 5. Association | 122 | Regulatory body of a party | 127

2. Underground Political Organization | 118 | 6. political party | 122 | Party discipline | 127

Non -violent underground opposition | 118 | Party-Related Concepts | 123 | One- party control | 127

 |

---|---

 | Secretive peaceful |

---|---

Political Unity | 127 | 6.Quota Representation | 133 | 26. Electoral quota | 137

---|---|---|---|---|---

Political freedoms : | 128 | 7. Relative majority system | 133 | 27. Cumulative voting | 137

1. Freedom of speech | 128 | 8. Absolute majority | 134 | 28. Abstention from voting | 137

2. Freedom of Organization | 128 | 9.Public suffrage Doctrine | 134 | 29. Pre-Determined Elections | 138

3. Freedom of peaceful gathering | 128 | 10. restricted ballot | 134 | 30. Democratic elections | 138

4. Right of Non-Violent Demonstration | 129 | 11. Advisory Ballot | 134 | The Constitution | 139

5. Non-Violent Marches | 129 | 12. Secret ballot | 134 | 1.definitionof Constitution | 139

6. Non-violent Protests | 130 | 13. Simulated ballot | 135 | 2. A rigid constitution | 139

7. Sit – down strike | 130 | 14. Ballot in absentia | 135 | 3. Flexible constitution | 139

8. union freedom | 130 | 15. Electoral Campaign | 135 | 4.Customary constitution | 139

9. strike | 131 | 16. Constituency | 135 | 5. Written constitution | 140

10. open strike | 131 | 17. voting tables | 135 | 6.Provisional constitution | 140

11.Overall (Comprehensive) Strike | 131 | 18. Electoral bloc | 136 | 7.Constitutionality of laws | 140

12. Civil disobedience | 131 | 19. Voting cards | 136 | 8. Social constitution | 140

Elections : | 132 | 20. Representative (Parliamentary ballot) | 136 | 9. Constitution Issuance Approaches | 140

1. Election – Ballot | 132 | 21.Winning by Acclamation | 136 | a. Democratic Approach | 140

2. Direct election | 132 | 22. Voting | 136 | b. Non-democratic Approach | 141

3. Indirect election | 132 | 23. Vote of confidence | 137 | 10. Constitutional crisis | 141

4. Individual election | 133 | 24. Tactical voting | 137 | 11. Constitutional reforms | 141

5. Election List | 133 | 25. bloc Voting | 137 | 12. Constitutional constraints | 142

##

13. non- Constitutional | 142 | 19.Constitutionality Cycle | 143 | 25. Constitution Gang | 145

---|---|---|---|---|---

14. Constitutional control | 142 | 20. Supreme Constitutional court | 143 | 26. Constitutional declaration | 145

15. Supremacy of the Constitution | 142 | 21. Constitutional confusion | 144 | 27. Constituent Assembly | 145

16. Constitutional jurisprudence | 143 | 22. Constitutional legitimacy | 144 | 28. Constitutional Referendum | 146

17. Constitutional equality | 143 | 23. Abolishment of Constitution | 144 | 29. Democratic Constitution | 146

18.Open-door Constitutional Discussions | 143 | 24. review of Constitution | 144 | |

# The State and its Types (18/02/2013)

The State: there is no consensus among the political experts on a unified definition of the State; however, it is based on three elements: The People, Territory, and Regime. Thus, it refers to a group of people coming together over a specific territory or land, and they have ability to rule themselves through a regime to be elected by them.

## Types of State:

  1. Full Sovereign State

It is a State having both internal and external sovereignty and independence, and does not yield to any control or command by another State.

  2. Incomplete Sovereignty State

It is a State having no full control over whole or part of its internal and external sovereignty, for being subordinate to and dependent upon a foreign State or an international organization. This definition applies to the following States:

  1. Vassal State: it is a State subordinate to another State and falling under its control, as the Vassal State retains a part of its internal sovereignty and leaves the foreign affairs to be managed by the Superior State.

  2. Protected State: it is a State which puts itself, either voluntarily or obligatorily, under the protection of a more powerful State. This Protected State does not give up its international sovereignty, and it manages its internal affairs by a domestic government.

  3. Mandated Territory: it is a legal rule introduced by the United Nations following the World War I, as the territories which had been seized from Turkey and German Colonies, after the defeat of Germany, were subject to international control. The Mandated Territory has no control over the administration of its internal and foreign affairs.

  4. Trust Territory: it is an advanced approach of Mandate developed by the United Nations to be a substitute for Mandate over the Mandate Territories.

  5. Occupied State: it is a State falling under foreign occupation by force and coercion, battle for liberty, while both internal and external control lies in the hand of the occupying State. As such, the occupying State has duties recognized by the United Nations as well as international conventions; e.g. providing source of life and security to the Occupied State.

  3. Civil State

it is an expression that came out to light following the popular revolution of Egypt, which broke out on 25 January 2011, motivated by fear raised by the secular parties that the Islamic parties; inter alia Muslim Brotherhood, seize the legislative and executive powers. This means to make the political and administrative secular, depending on the secular democratic doctrine, while religion serves only as reference not a constitution.

  4. Federal State (Combined State)

The Federal State is a federation comprising a number of countries under the umbrella of a central federation, known as Federal State. The Federal State takes over all the foreign affairs and some internal affairs of the Federal State. The Federal State has international sovereignty; a matter which empowers it to have absolute control over the foreign affairs, an gives it a right to take over some internal affairs of the member states in conformity with well-established conditions. As is well known, the Federal States have multiple constitutions, aspects of sovereignty is divided between the Federation and Member States, with multiple legislative, executive, and judicial authorities.

  5. ## Welfare State

A welfare state is a concept of government in which the state provides and promotes social well-being for its citizens, provides all the services which help achieve welfare of the community, high living standards for community members. These services include education, health, equal job opportunities, and high income level.

  6. City State

A city-state is an independent or autonomous State, is not under the control of greater political authority. The City State has authority that goes beyond the city to encompass smaller cities, villages, or rural areas located at the places surrounding the city. These cities emerged largely in the ancient Roman and Greek history, given these civilizations had cities serving as the hub of political, intellectual, religious, and commercial activities.

  7. ### State with Permanent Neutrality

It is a State undertaking to use force only for defending itself against all matters which undermine its autonomy and pose a threat to its territory. This State undertakes to keep itself away from the warfare and armed conflicts in return for the other states' abstention from assaulting it.

  8. ### Buffer State

It is a state established under international conventions and treaties, lying between two rival or potentially hostile greater states, which, by its existence, is thought to prevent direct conflict between them.

  9. ### Unified State (Simple State)

It is a State of unified sovereignty, having one constitution, and the rule is concentrated in a single government, so that the scope of its public authority covers all parts of the State's territory, thus allowing the State to achieve its political unity (i.e. unity of legislation and constitution).

  10. Political Institution

A live set of ideas, beliefs, and habits which are embodies in an organization from among the organizations existing inside the society. as such, the political organization and State, in this sense, is a political institution.

  11. State of institutions and law; Rechtsstaat

It is an institutional civil state giving predominance to the rule of law, democratic governance, and social justice, civil institutions and laws prevail, and the relevant human rights and international conventions are respected, is characterized by tolerance and equality of citizens before the law. In this type of a state, the rule is of a democratic, non-hereditary nature; as the hereditary succession doctrine runs counter with the rule of people, which is the basis of democracy.

  12. Liberal State

It is an open capitalist state that employs transparency in dealing with its people, depends on free economy policy and liberal approach in respect of the administration of State affairs, which is based on multi-party doctrine, election, liberties of all types with no discrimination based on race, religion, or sex; all the people are equal before law. This state is governed by civil democratic institutions.

  13. Occupation State

It is a state occupying another state, which overthrows its ruling regime by the military force, and appoint a ruling regime owing allegiance to the occupier. This state is under legal obligation before the United Nations to provide living and security requirements to the people of the occupied state. The best example is the Israeli occupation state which has occupied the West Bank and Palestinian territories, the American occupation of Iraq which overthrew Saddam Hussein's regime and named the US diplomat Paul Bremer as the ruler of Iraq at the beginning of military invasion.

  14. Reluctant State

It is an appellation portraying the Arab States which refused to enter into peace treaties with the Zionist State of Israel, and preferred to proceed with the war policy against the Zionist enemy to get back the Arab occupied territories, and gave effect to the Arab boycott of Israel.

  15. Appease State

It is an appellation portraying the Arab States which entered into peace treaties and truce with the Zionist State of Israel, giving effect to normalization of their commercial or sporting relations, repealed the Arab boycott of Israel, and became opened with the Zionist State in terms of cultural and media.

  16. Civil State with Islamic Reference

It is a State having constitution the articles and provisions of which are respected, legitimacy is maintained, and any disagreement or controversy is referred to the Constitutional Court. The government of this state is elected, respects human rights, a state of constitutional institutions giving predominance to the rule of law, democratic, non-hereditary succession state. The Islamic objects and ends for protecting the rights, souls, property, honor, and other Islamic ends are serve as reference for their constitutional provisions, does not violate Sharia rules, respect is maintained for all people of different religions, who are allowed to freely practice their religious ceremonies depending on their own religious references. Some Egyptian personage, Islamic and civil parties have stood up for of that type of state after the success of 2011 popular revolution. This meaning has been interpreted and explained by those speaking favorably for that type of state.

  17. Citizenship State

It is a democratic, multi-party state, is not dominated by a single family, party, or individual. In this type of state, the citizen enjoys his citizenship and sense of patriotism, being a part of the homeland and state, and rather owes absolute allegiance to the homeland than to the ruler or party. The citizen is provided by all means of citizenship and political rights, feels no sense of estrangement in his homeland, and is not obligated to owe allegiance to the regime. Further, the ruler should rather be a servant of both the homeland and people than a master who has absolute control and ownership of the State and all that's lies over its land; is held liable for his acts, and, too, the people are held liable for their acts. The government serves the people and not vice versa.

  18. National State

It is both a state and nation; containing a single nation over a specific piece of land, and representing national identity encompassing a sense of allegiance to mutual nationalism and culture.

  19. Police State

It is an appellation portraying a state in which the regime exercises police and security repression against the people, giving large-scale powers and authority to security apparatus to detain, exercise torture and administrative arrest of the people with no trials, under a consent of the ruling regime. Further, the police and security apparatuses intervene in the political, economic, and social life.

# Government and its Types

Government is the ruling body, which administers the State's affairs over its territory, directs the people on administering their own affairs and efforts, and restrains the conduct of individuals and groups through the laws laid down. The term encompasses the three authorities; legislative, executive, and judicial bodies of the state. In less broad sense, it refers to the executive body. The state's legal personality is not affected by the form of government in office.

## Types of Government

  1. Coalition Government

It is a type of governments widely known in the multi-party parliamentary systems. It is a term denting that the political parties combine together in a single government, to secure majority of the representative bodies.

  2. Government by the Wealthy; plutocracy

In this government, the supreme power lies in the hands of wealthy classes of community, motivated by the wealth they own; the exercise of political rights is limited to persons owning a specified amount of wealth. This type of government is prevalent in the systems which adopt an election system based on monetary quota, as this right is limited to minority, as was the case in 1918 in the English Constitution.

  3. Government by the Few; Oligarchy or Aristocracy

In this government, all power is vested in a few clique of the community based on royalty, knowledge, or wealth. Oligarchy means the rule of a few group with no responsibility vis-à-vis the majority, yet it is marred by corruption, thus it is strongly hated. Government by the few is an intermediate level between the autocracy; i.e. one-man government, and democratic government; most often, this government represents a transitional stage from the first government to the second type. For example, the regime in Britain, which moved from an autocrat government to aristocratic government, and ultimately to a democratic government.

  4. Autocratic Government

It is a type of government in which the supreme political power is concentrated in the hands of one person; is characterized by absolute rule. This type of government is contrary with the democratic regime which dictates the separation of powers.

  5. Despotic Government

It is a government which does not comply with law, makes acts, resolutions, and work in violation of the law, and sees that its own will is the only law. This government exercised totalitarianism against the people, and tightens the grip around their rights and liberties.

  6. Legal Government; Monocracy

It is a government which conforms strictly to law and its provisions, rules, and procedures, and seeks to maintain the rights and liberties of the people.

  7. Government of National Competencies

It is a government made up of specialized, independent competencies; does not rely upon political programs; rather, it is a service-based government. This term was employed following the Palestinian reconciliation between Fateh and Hamas Movements in May 2011; so that a government of the independents from Gaza and West Bank would be formed by professional experts in every ministerial position.

  8. Technocrat Government (Experts Government)

It is a government made up of ministers from the scientists, technicians, and specialized experts. The Technocrats Movement began in the United States in 1932, comprising engineers and scientists, which was established as a result of technological progress. The term was introduced in 1919 at the hands of William Henry Smith, who called for giving power and authority to scientific experts in the virtuous community.

  9. Shadow Government

It is a government-in-waiting formed by an opposing party (parties) looking forward to accede to power through the elections. This type of government has no powers at all, and is ready to take over formal duties in case its opposing party wins the election. In practice, this government has electoral programs encompassing all the ministries that make up the government.

  10. Parliamentary Government

It is a government subject to supervision and control by the Parliament, and is held liable before it. The Parliament has a right to withdraw confidence from the government and make the people have a say in this regard. This type of governance is characterized by discrimination between the President of State and Head of Government (Prime Minister), as the latter has the power de facto based on his responsibility before the people.

  11. Military Government

It is a government controlled and administered by the army; there are two types of military governments:

The first of which is the military occupation government; a transitional government that administers an occupied territory by its armed forces, exercise the legislative, executive, and judicial authorities. Most often, these armed forces are foreign forces and occupy a territory located outside its jurisdiction, as is the case with Paul Bremer Government after the American occupation of Iraq in 2003. The second type is an emergency military government; a type of government that exercises the legislative, executive, and judicial authorities through deploying the armed forces instead of the civil forces, and is typically formed at time of military coup (d'état), in the event of political unrest after declaring the state of emergency and suspension of the constitution.

  12. Exile Government

It is a government based outside the State in a territory of a foreign state which accepts to host it and exercise its functions on its land. This government seeks to please the original people who makes their advocacy, admission, and authorization of that government to exercise political and military functions contingent upon the liberation of their territory (occupied land), getting back its original personality. In practice, the exile government does not exercise any powers over its people; rather, the occupation authorities exercise sovereignty powers. Given that the exile government is based outside the State's territory, and is unable to enter that territory, it appears powerless, and the exile government is typically temporary until the foreign occupation is removed from its occupied territory, yet, in the same time, it is a political authority that enters into negotiation in the name of its people, and may end up with signing agreements and treaties in the name of State. The formation of exile government provides a political umbrella to the oppressed people through which it can achieve liberation and independence.

  13. National Unity Government

It is a type of government formed or elected from the opposing parties and regime-advocate parties, in order to avoid a crisis in the State; typically resulting from political crises.

  14. Caretaker Government (Transitional Government)

It is an interim government normally formed without election after the occurrence of a crisis in the State, resignation of the former government, due to a popular rebellion or a severe crisis which brings the government down. Most often, this government is formed for a temporary period pending the formation of a new permanent government. The same government during the tenure of which the State has experienced a crisis may be charged to remain in office pending the formation of a new elected government. Among the most recent examples, the case of Egyptian government after the success of popular rebellion which broke out on 25 January 2011, and the Tunisian government after the success of the 2011 popular rebellion of Tunis.

  15. De Facto Government

It is a government based on revolutionary basis, having all elements of official government, yet it is not recognized at the international level, or is not recognized by some states which oppose that revolution. However, the international law entitles the de facto government to institute legal proceedings against the states which do not recognize them.

  16. Quotas Government

It is a government formed on sectarian or factional basis; a number of ministerial positions and ministries is allocated in that government to every faction or party with no regard to the principle of competence. In this government, the competent yet independent persons are excluded.

  17. Businessmen Government

It is a government made up of capital and business holders, the criterion on its management depends on the capital, in line with the economic interests of capitalists and takes advantage of their being in power. In the tenure of this government, the national economy and public benefit services are privatized, thus rendering both the state and its people under the mercy of capital and capitalist government; the inflation and unemployment level goes up, financial and administrative corruption, bribery, and favoritism are widespread. Most often, this government ends up with a popular rebellion that brings it down along with the whole ruling regime, as was the case with Egypt in 2011.

  18. National Consensus Government

It is a type of government appointed not elected; as consensus is reached for its formation between the opposition and ruling regime with a view to taking the State out of political stagnancy and decline having disastrous consequences on the State. Most often, this government is interim government pending the election of a president of state and elected government be appointed. The Yemeni opposition called for the formation of this type of government after meeting the Vice President of Yemen at time of the 2011 popular rebellion of Yemen.

  19. Sectarian Government

It is a government made up of multiple religious sects, based on sectarian quota encompassing all sects of the community. Alternatively, it may be a government comprising a singly sect which aims at marginalization of the other religious sects, as well as the other factional coalitions.

  20. Left- Wing Government

It is a government comprising left-wing parties with progressive disposition. This type of government looks forward to making a change, acceptance of the other, eradication of racism, and calls for equality of patriotism; patriotism is based on allegiance to the ruling party, and is called upon the socialist governments or those governments with socialist approach in governance. Although it has radical disposition, it is called radical left-wing government, or if its political approach is a moderate one, it is described as moderate left-wing government; e.g. labor parties comprising the labor party government in Britain.

21. Right–Wing Government

It is a government the prime minister or ministers of which belong to right-wing parties, which calls for getting back to tradition, a religious government the members of which belong to religious parties, a conservative government which seeks to use conservative and traditional approach on its political and cultural disposition. Alternatively, it may be a radical right-wing government, thus inclining to the radical right-wing or may be a moderate government. The governments comprising national parties are described as right-wing government as being a racial government, which do not accept the other, it is described as radical government, if it is religiously conservative. The best examples are the Likud Government in the Zionist State and Conservatives Government in Britain.

22. Security Government

It is a government comprising elected members from the commanders of armed forces and security bodies. This type of government is formed with a view to dealing with security-related trouble faced by the regime or overcome internal or external security threat. The Zionist occupation made use of this type of government to confront the Palestinian Uprising and humanitarian trips aiming to break the blockade of Gaza Strip.

23. Crisis Government

It is a form of interim or national consensus governments. Most often, this government is rather appointed than elected to be formed at time of political crisis experienced by the State, after the fall of government by coup d'état or overthrow of the ruling regime. This term was used to describe the government formed after the fall of Gaddafi Regime in Libya at the time of Arab Spring.

# Types of rule

  1. Islamic Rule

It is a political regime that conforms strictly to Sharia embodied in the Holy Qur'an and Prophet's Sunnah in respect of the Hudud "punishments for crimes" as well as administration of State affairs. This type of rule depends on counsel, succession, and Bay'ah (pledge of allegiance). This type of political systems has been distorted, as religion was kept isolated from the State, thus the Islamic rule has become limited to the penalties and worshipping; the economic and political life was disregarded under the pretense of financial and institutional systems, and civil state.

  2. Rule by the Competent Persons

It is a political regime which gives priority and eligibility to the persons of high competence to enjoy special privileges and high leadership position in the state which is not available to the ordinary people, as the educational and cultural level of an individual is the main criterion of this competence.

  3. Rule by the Ideologists

Absolute correspondence between the ideology of the ruling party and State's ideology, everything centers on that official ideology of which the ruling regime is the legal representative, while the State is considered as property of the party. The best example is the Ba'ath Party in Syria up to the present day.

  4. One-Man Rule

It is a political regime similar to the royal rule, yet it is non hereditary. The power is vested in one person or a single body, or a unified and well-knit ruling group. This governance approach may be royal, presidential, or dictatorial regime.

  5. Bilateral rule

It is a form of rule where two persons exercise de facto power and represent the scale of power in the state. This type of rule is an intermediate way between the one-man rule and collective leadership, the purpose of which is to undermine the autocratic and absolute rule. This term is used in the democratic regimes in reference to constitutional distribution of rule duties between the Head of State and Prime Minister. It is also used in cases where two states share the rule over a single territory or colony.

  6. Self-Rule

It is the self governance of the people related to the land, giving them the right to administer their internal affairs; i.e. to establish a state with internal sovereignty, yet has no control over the foreign or defense affairs, either because it is unable to bear all international commitments, or due to being involved in unequal treaties with other states depriving them from exercising all its powers as a full sovereign and autonomous state. The self-rule system also describes the ethnic minorities that reside in a broad area of a single state; as is the case in Northern Iraq who enjoy self rule within the homeland; i.e. Iraq.

  7. Bad Rule

It is a political regime in which evil persons take over power, the relationships among people get worse, and the government body falls under the control of ignorant troublemaking rulers who get votes in return for money, as well as unprincipled swindlers and crook.

  8. Absolute Rule

It is a form of rule where the supreme power lies in the hands of a king or small faction with or without constitution, and is characterized by unlimited power and totalitarianism.

  9. Totalitarian Rule (Totalitarianism)

It is a form of rule opposed to democracy, in which the people yield completely to the ruling regime without being involved in dialogue or initiatives. In this type of rule, the official standpoint expressed by the regime or supreme authority; i.e. the ruler of president, is strictly abided by the people. Totalitarianism is based on a belief that the ruler is in no need for consultation and deliberation, either due to the belief that the ruler has supernatural abilities that makes no need for the representative bodies which cannot keep pace with his skills, or due to the ruler's ability to completely seize power, so the people should abide by and conform strictly to the ruler's orders.

  10. Dictatorial Rule

The word dictatorship is of a Greek origin which accompanied the human communities since their beginning. In recent politics, the word refers to a policy in which all powers and authorities lie in the hands of one person who exercises them without being subject to the people's approval of the decisions he makes. Dr. Youssef Obaidan briefly defines the dictator rule in that the ruler has absolute control over the reins of power in the State, for the purpose of achieving absolute dominance, which, in turn, enables him to safeguard the public interest at the account of private rights and liberties. The ruler is supported by his party or a movement that embraces his principles, stands by the side of his approach, and follows the pace of his disposition, in an attempt to derive fruitful benefit from his greed. The dictatorial rule has the following characteristics:

  * Public interest of the community takes priority in the ruler's mind, and it has preference to the interests of individuals and their rights, hence, all doors are closed in the face of every person criticizing or opposing the ruling regime.

  * The dictator's personality is the center of dependence in this form of rule, from which the government derives its power and standing.

  * Dictatorial rule does not hesitate the means of power, violence, and terrorism to seize full control over the State's resources, dominate all institutions of the State, and direct them in a way which serves their ends.

  * A singly party is the mainstay and tool of dictatorship for achieving its ends, no matter whether that party was founded before or after the emergence of dictatorial rule, as such, that party is the only party standing in support of the government (Dr. Youssef Obaidan: Book entitled "studies in Politics"...first edition, Beirut).

  11. Civil Rule

It is a governance regime based on the rule of law through civil legislation having no relation to religion; the private law and civil code govern the relationships among community members, and there is no authority for Sharia or religious laws on the administration of state affairs. The civil rule is based on a principle of separation between religion and politics, or in other words, separation between religion and the State. This form of rule is a secular regime which emerged amidst a community the majority of which has religious dispositions. The use of this term emerged motivated by fears of the secular states' people that religious parties take the reins of power, after the success of revolutions of Tunisia and Egypt in the second millennium; or rather, in January 2011.

  11. Military Rule

It is an army-based type of rule that follows the overthrow of a ruling regime. This rule depends on the declaration of emergency law, which sets aside all civil laws, courts of law, and civil state, imposes the martial courts and law. The police force and all security forces fall under the control of the military rule, which is embodied in the Military Council or Revolutionary Command Council. Under this type of rule, the state of emergency is declared, armed forces are deployed at the sensitive places to safeguard security and properties, and curfew law is put into effect. The legislative, executive, and judicial authorities fall under the control of military ruler, the constitution is suspended, in whole or in part, in order to avoid the internal perils that may befall the State, or to overcome a threat of foreign invasion.

# Types of Regimes

Definition of Political Regime:

It is a term portraying a group of institutions and forces that make up any political bloc, and are firmly correlated to give freedom and tenacity to the Regime. It is the regime which determines the shape of governance in the territory where the nation lives.

# First: Democratic Regime

The democratic regime is a means to consolidate and apply the "justice on rights" doctrine, which is rated among the key functions of a temporary state. Linguistically, democracy is a term made up of two parts; the first part is "demo" which means the people, and the second part is "cracy" which means the rule or power. Thus, the term means the rule of people or governance by the people. In its broad sense, democracy is socio-political approach in which supremacy is vested in all people, who are provided with free participation in making the legislation that govern public life. As a political system, democracy is based on the people's rule either by themselves or through representatives who are freely elected. In addition, it may be social democracy; i.e. a lifestyle based on equality, free thinking and opinion, or it may also be of an economic nature that organizes production, maintains the personnel's rights, and brings social justice into effect. The multiple aspects of general meaning of democracy, various theories on democracy, as well as the uniqueness of its types and multiplicity of systems, and disagreements on its ends, and the attempt to apply democracy within communities having different social and historic values and formations, makes it scientifically unreasonable to specify accurate and stable democratic pattern; the democratic regime, however, is made up of three key pillars:

  1. Rule of the people;

  2. Equality and justice;

  3. Intellectual freedom and human dignity;

Those three pillars are of an integral nature; no equality is achieved without freedom, no freedom is achieved without equality, and no rule of the people can be achieved unless all persons are free.

## Types of Democracy:

  1. Direct Democracy

It means that the people, being vested with the highest authority and power, must, themselves, exercise all authorities of the State, on the basis that the sovereign authority may not be delegated to or vested in representatives. In this case, the people, themselves, take over the authority of laying down and enactment of laws. In this type of democracy, there are no parliaments, given that the legislative authority must rather be exercised by the people themselves than through representatives. It is possible to give effect to this form of democracy only in the small closed communities.

2. Indirect democracy (Democracy by representation)

It is a political system in which the people exercise power through representatives elected by them to exercise power on their behalf; the people's role is limited to electing a number of representatives who assume power and authority on their behalf for a specified time period. Thus, parliament is the representative of people's sovereign authority, enacts laws and legislation, and the parliament, as a whole, represents the nation in its entirety. The representative democratic system makes distinction between three key functions of a democratic state; namely, a legislative function meaning the enactment of laws and legislation, an executive function which means safeguarding the workflow in the State, and a judicial function, which aims to adjudicating upon disputes, lawsuits, and legal proceedings based on the legislation enacted by the legislative body, represented by the representative council, and the regulations issued by the executive body; i.e. the government.

3. Semi- Direct Democracy

It is an intermediate way between the direct democracy and representative democracy. In the semi-democratic system, the people elect their representatives to exercise power and authority, while the people reserve the right to intervene sometimes in exercising the authority; as such, the people rule in respect of particular matters and exercise control over the parliament.

4. Industrial Democracy

It is building the industry on democratic principles to allow both management and personnel to take part in planning and controlling the industrial operations, through establishing joint committees, which leads to prevention of disputes and controversies between the employers, personnel, and management.

5. Guided Democracy

It is the control by State's central management over the political life, as the management directs and limits the scope of public political life. In this type of democracy, the regime restricts the freedom of forming political parties, issuance of newspapers, and dominates the representative bodies and media.

6. Socialist Democracy

It is a political term portraying the parties that call for prevalence of socialism through the Parliament, and differs from communist parties in the idea of class warfare and the way to achieve socialism. The democratic governance regime has become a key pillar in modern governance regimes which depends on the rule of people. In addition, the democratic ideas have become widespread, thus making democracy a sign of modernity and civilization. On the contrary, the term has become a tool artfully exploited by the totalitarian regime, as alleging to be a democratic regime, while, in fact, they are dictatorial hereditary, totalitarian regimes, so eventually democracy has become a favor endowed by the head of authority upon the people, and not a well-established right of their human rights.

# Second: Royal/Sultanic/Emiri Regime

The royal regime is one of the oldest governance regimes in the world. In this type of governance, the head of authority either is a King, Sultan, Emir, or Sheikh as per the title of riyal regime under the umbrella of which the Sheikhdoms, Emirates, and Sultanates fall. In practice, this regime is based on hereditary succession principle within the ruling dynasty; in some types, the brothers of king and sultans assume power and authority in succession, as the eldest brother takes over rule or power, while, in some other regimes, the rule is passed down from a father to his eldest son. As such, this type of State is known as Kingdom, Emirate, or Sultanate; the ruler of which has the title of a King, his wife is a Queen, his sons are princes, his daughters are princesses, the King's brothers and sisters are royalty. If it is a Sultanate, the ruler has the title of a Sultan, while if it is an Emirate or State, its ruler is an Emir, his wife has the title of Sheikha, his sons and family members are Sheikhs and Sheikhas. If it a state comprising a number of emirates united together under federal rule, the ruler of which is a President having the title of Sheikh, the ruler of emirates are Sheikhs, their family members are Sheikhs and Sheikhas.

As for the titles, the King is addressed "His Majesty the King" or the Majestic King, while the princes are addressed "His Royal Highness" or His Highness. The Sultan has the title "His Majesty the Sultan" and His Highness the Sultan. In the emirates and Sheikhdoms, the ruler of a State has the title of His Royal Highness, the heir apparent is addressed His Highness, the ministers are preceded by His Excellency. In the royal regimes, the constitutions govern the mechanism of taking over rule by succession, while the Kings vest in themselves unlimited, exclusive privileges which they see as absolute rights to which they are entitled and not a right to the people, who are regarded as subjects. The person of a King and his family members, the Emir and his family members, as well as the Sultan and his family members are well-protected and safeguarded, showing respect to them is a duty, and blemishing their person is a crime penalized by law for imprisonment. In addition, the King or Emir of the State may not be called to account for his acts or decisions, even if of a criminal nature, while all resources and wealth found above, and even under the ground, are the property of the King and his dynasty; what he gives to the people is a generous gift and grant (this does not apply to the European Kingdoms).

## Types of Royalty

1. Absolute Royalty

In this type of royalty, the absolute power is vested in the hands of a King and his family; as such, he and his family administer the rule affairs, and they conform to law, yet there is no impediments that preclude him from either repealing or amending the legislation at his sole discretion and will, he is not responsible for any government authority or body, the sovereign power and authority lie in his own hands, with no participation from the people, while he shares authority with some person whom he nominates; e.g. the heir apparent

2. Restricted Royalty

In this form of royalty, the sovereign authority lies in the hands of a King, and the power is divided between the King and People; the King appoints whom he chooses, from among the people, for administration of the State affairs; e.g. the appointment of a ruler of the State, and establishes parliament of limited powers.

3. Constitutional Royalty

In this form of royalty, the King and his family are a symbol of the State. The sovereign authority lies in the hand of royal family, yet the authority de facto is vested in the people, as represented by an elected parliament or government, as is the case with the United Kingdom at present; it is an advanced model of royalty, as the peoples governed by royal, Emiri, or Sultanic regimes demanded that the ruling family becomes a symbol of the State; i.e. it owns rather than rules, and that the authority is vested in the people, as demanded by some peoples of the Kingdoms and Sheikhdoms in the Arab popular rebellions that broke out in the beginning of second decade of the second millennium.

4. Autocratic Royalty

It is one of the most dictatorial and despotic regimes. In this type of governance, the power and authority are in hands of the king and the royal family, their will takes dominance over the laws, they are not accountable before any one, yet the people are held responsible and accountable for all deeds and acts, whether trivial or considerable. The authority and wealth are in the hands of the kings and royal family, and their rule is marked by absolute dictatorship. These regimes are found in the States dominated by hereditary rule; as the power is an exclusive right of the ruler, his royal family, and tribe as well. In addition, what the ruler gives to the State is regarded as grant and endowment by the ruler or dictatorial king, and the people are the servant of this despotic regime.

# Third: The Republican Regime

As is well known, the republican regime came to light as a revolution against the autocracy, slavery, and despotism exercised by the royal regimes on their peoples; both public and military revolutions and coup d'état broke out against those despotic regimes, but those revolutions which were limited to the Arab World, and succeeded by the assistance of western colonialism which consolidated the despotic royal regimes, along with the revolutionary shift to the republican regime give account of the disadvantages and faults found in the royal regime, made the peoples to flee and replace it by a republican regime. In this case, the State is termed a republic, the ruler of it is the president of republic, he has the title of His Majesty or Highness the President, and no other titles belong to him or the royal family. The republican governance regime is based on equality of all individuals, giving them the right to nominate themselves to this position in accordance with the non-discriminatory conditions, and any citizen has a right to assume authority and acceded to presidency. In a republican regime, the constitutions govern the mechanism of electing a president, his term of office, and number of renewal times. In addition, the president of state has no privileges other than those provided for in the constitution, his person is not protected against criticism, and he is called to account for his acts and criminal offenses, or in case of his violation of the constitution and laws. In a republican regime, the State has complete sovereignty and administers its own internal and foreign affairs singlehandedly, is presided by an elected president, whether elected directly by the people, parliament, or any other public body. The republican regime is based on a principle that the people govern themselves, and the president of state is elected on periodic bases; thus it is most close to the democratic governance system, given that the people are the main factor for electing a president of state.

Republican Disposition: It is a group of political and philosophical movements that prefers the republican regime for representing the people to all other governance regimes. Further, these groups have different attitudes in respect of the values associated with freedom and justice.

# Fourth: Presidential Regime

In a presidential regime, the president is the highest authority; there is no prime minister, as the president takes over both presidency and premiership. A president of state has the titles "His Highness the President" or "His Majesty the President", and no one else has a title. Further, the presidential regime is a constitutional, political mode of governance, as harmonization is achieved between the democratic doctrine on the one hand, which is fulfilled through electing both executive and legislative bodies, and the personal rule which requires power or stability on the other hand. In other words, the elected president exercises broad powers that renders his rule as personal mode of governance, and is subject only to the constitution. A president's office is assumed by direct election by the people, thus endowing him with the capacity of democratic ruler in respect of assuming power. The president is both the head of state and government at the same time, the government is directly accountable before him; he chooses, nominates, and dismisses the ministers, given that, in this regime, assume a role of assistant president, so the government is not held accountable before the parliament. In addition, this regime is based on separation-of-powers doctrine; i.e. the legislative, executive, and judicial powers, so that each power freely exercises its functions in isolation from the other power. The president does not have the authority to call the parliament for convention or adjourn its sessions, postpone the convention of its sessions, or disband it. Also, the right to draft legislation and laws is a core function and task of the parliament without having the president involved. The government's ministers may not be members of the parliament or attend its meetings as visitors; and they are relieved from accountability before the parliament. The judiciary performs its functions independently, the judges are elected by way of election, and they are granted official immunity. This mode of governance is not suitable for the royal governance. As is well know, the United States successfully adopted the presidential regime as a democratic representative mode of governance, while the other States failed, as, in these States, the president and his party turned into totalitarian, despotic regime; a president is the head of the ruling party, which wins 99.9% of votes, and, as such, it controls the parliament and legislative power, and even introduces upon the judiciary, as is the case with the Arab presidential republics the presidents of which assumed power through military coup d'état against the royal and colonial regimes that had been in power, so that they have become far more totalitarian than the autocratic absolute royalty, to such an extent that some presidents passed the rule down to their sons, and his party has held sway over and dominated the rule for decades, thus making the people wish if the autocratic royalty had come back instead of the presidential regime.

# Fifth: Parliamentary Regime

Globally, this mode of governance is considered among the most preferred and best-liked regimes, thanks to its characteristics and qualities that make it stand unique and unparalleled among the other modes of governance. This regime employs a rule of equality and balance between the executive and legislative bodies without being totally separated from each other, as contrary to the presidential regime. That's to say that each body has constitutional rights vis-à-vis the other body as per the constitution. The legislative body refers to the parliament, which lays down legislation, and this right is shared by the executive body for being endowed with a constitutional right to propose laws and have them approved. Furthermore, the president of state has the sovereign authority, yet he does not rule, while the head of government or prime minister is the de facto ruler through his government that is called to account before the parliament and represents the people, yet the president nominates and dismisses the ministers. In addition, a president of state is relieved from accountability, given that the prime ministers and his government are called to account before the parliament. However, a president is subject to criminal charge for his acts, and may be sentenced in case of committing criminal offenses or any crimes associated with the core functions of his office. On the other hand, the government is called to account before the parliament, and it is required to wins the parliament's overwhelming majority to remain in office, but if the parliament opposes to its policy, it may withdraw confidence and remove it from office, or withdraw confidence from some ministers, thus compelling those ministers to resign. Furthermore, the parliament has a right to interrogate the prime minister and all ministers on issues associated with the government's responsibilities, while a president of state has the right to share the legislative authority with the parliament; e.g. proposing and approving the laws. Also, the parliament has a right to get involved in directing the state affairs with the president, while the president "state president" has a right to convoke the parliament, adjourn the legislative session, disband the parliament and call for new election. This regime is held good for the constitutional royalty.

# Sixth: The Islamic Regime

The Islamic mode of governance is based on scientific principles; i.e. counsel, justice, equality, bay'ah (pledge of allegiance), and succession. The head of ruling regime is known as the "caliph" or "Amir Al-Mu'minin". Legislatively, the Islamic mode of governance is based on the provisions revealed by Allah, the Almighty Lord, both in the Holy Qur'an and Prophet's Sunnah in respect of establishing the punishments and administration of the State affairs. In practice, the principles upon which the Islamic regime relies are largely associated with religion; Islam is the foundation and guide of the state, the Holy Qur'an as well as the Prophet's Sunnah are its constitution, and for matters not stipulated in either the Holy Qur'an or the Prophet's Sunnah, the consensus (of Muslim legal scholars) and juristic reasoning (deduction) are employed. In an Islamic regime, politics and religion stick firmly together; Islamic is both a faith and legislation, while the ruling authority of an Islamic regime exercises both political and religious functions. In addition, presidency of state is rather civil than religious office, yet the president of state takes over religious functions; e.g. protection of the religion, spread of Islamic faith and holy warfare (Jihad), Zakat, prayers, pilgrimage, laying down and putting into effect the punishments (for crime). The Islamic regime preserves the liberties and rights not only for its people, but for all citizens residing over the land of an Islamic State as well, keeps the community and nation protected against tyranny and transgression, and provides all people with decent, dignified, and seemly life. A best example of the Islamic regime and counsel-based governance is the life of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and the rightly guided caliphs after his death. In a broader sense, the Islamic regime is a religion, legislation, worship and politics; it makes no distinction or separation between the political and religious authorities, and does now endow upon the religious men any exclusive privileges, even Islam does not recognize a religious men class or any other social classes; to the contrary, all people are equal, no privilege is vested in a ruler over its subjects, and the caliph does not have any exclusive privileges; rather, the caliph is regarded as a servant of the people, and apply the legislation of Allah, the Almighty Lord, and His Prophet's Sunnah on earth. Furthermore, the Islamic mode of governance denies the succession of power and rule, and the office of caliph is Islam is rather a mandate than bestowal of honor. The Islamic State is a law-governed one; both the ruler and subjects are governed by the provisions of Sharia, there is no legislation other than that ordained by Allah, the Almighty Lord, criminal or civil laws inconsistent with Sharia and its provisions are not found in the Islamic regime, which remedies and provides punishments and solutions for all criminal and civil cases in the modern regimes.

# Authorities of Governance

In all regimes, the authorities are divided into three categories: 1. Legislative authority; 2. Executive authority; and 3. The Judiciary. However, these authorities differ from one regime to the other regime; the autocratic regimes take full control of and combine all authorities in a single authority, while the democratic parliamentary regimes make separation between the three authorities, and are based on "Separation Of Powers" doctrine.

1. Legislative authority

It is an authority which enacts, deliberates over, and monitors the application of laws. This authority is represented by the Council of Representatives. There are two systems for the legislative authority:

A. bicameral System: the legislative authority is vested wholly in a single legislative body; e.g. the parliament.

B. bicameral System: in this system, the legislative authority is vested in two councils. This system paves a way for representation of the interests of minority and provinces in the Federal Regimes. The legislative authority is considered the source of all laws in the State. For instance, the parliament and Shura Council in Egypt, Yemen and many other Islamic States, the House of Lords and House of Commons in the United Kingdom, the United States Senate and United States House of Representatives in the US Congress.

  2. Executive Authority

it is an authority in charge of putting into effect all laws to be enacted by the legislature. This authority comprises the head of state, municipal councils, government executives, prime minister, ministers...etc.

Functions of the Executive Authority is associated with achieving internal security and stability, defense, and foreign relations with the other states, providing public services to its citizens, promoting the national economy along with other similar services and responsibilities entrusted to the Executive Authority.

3. The Judiciary

It is an authority responsible for interpreting and putting into effect all laws to be enacted by the Legislature in respect of all matters presented to its judicial bodies. The higher/supreme court has the final decision on all issues submitted to it in case of disputes arising between the other authorities, and on the interpretation and application of law, thus, the judiciary serves as a last resort for settling and deciding on such dispute. As such, the judiciary must be independent and does not undergo influence by the Executive Authority.

"Separation of Powers" Doctrine:

This doctrine means that the three authorities of a State; i.e. the Legislature, the Executive, and the Judiciary are kept separate from each other; considering that this separation acts as guarantee for the democratic process and limits the dictatorial absolute rule. Also, separation of powers preserves the rights and prevents absolute totalitarianism, in a way which does not adversely affect the benefits of balance and cooperation of powers doctrine.

Benefits of "separation of powers" doctrine: By Dr. Youssef Zidan

1. Enables optimal use of the authority;

2. Guarantees the respect to and proper application of laws fairly and soundly;

3. Distributes the State's various functions to independent bodies, thus allowing those bodies to master and properly perform their assignments, in line with the specialization in work doctrine.

## Other types of authorities

1. The Fourth Power

Some people classify the press and media as the fourth power in rule; yet this reflects gross prejudice to the right of press and media, given that restricting the press and media through classifying them as government authority makes them associated with the ruling regimes and opposes the essential liberties of individuals on expression of opinion.

2. Advisory authority

The advisory authority is a body providing assistance to the Executive, through giving opinion, proposals, recommendations, or advice. If these proposals or recommendations are approved, they are issued in the name of the Executive.

3. General Authorities

These authorities have powers derived from the key functions in a State, and they exist mainly at the administrative and political levels for setting up the public constitution, selection of employees, and providing control over the administration, without limiting the functional competence in a particular authority.

4. Military Authority (Military Council)

It is a military authority that administers the State's affairs following the declaration of State of Emergency or a military coup d'état, as the army becomes in charge of safeguarding the internal security, while the police forces are put under the control of that authority.

5. Full Powers Act

Full powers vested in a government by the parliament, to enable it to enact regulatory laws in areas, which typically fall within the jurisdiction and competence of the legislative authority, in a way which shows respect to the constitutional principles laid down by the parliament.

# The Arab Regimes

It goes without saying that the Arab regimes are remarkably characterized by their weakness and retardation in almost all areas of life; and the political area is no better than the other areas. The autocratic and authority-loving nature of the Arabs is a key feature of all the ruling regimes, with no exception. Earlier in time, the foreign colonialism found out this authoritarian Disposition, so they handed over the rule to ruling families that administer the state affairs and seizes their hands on their wealth. This played a key role in breaking up the Arab World into small states and provinces ruled by families after the demise of Ottoman Empire. However, the political wakefulness, emergence of liberal movements, and fall of colonial empires were a direct result of the World War II, so the rebellions and military coup d'état broke out against the royal regimes affiliated to the colonial rule. As a result, some kingdoms fell in the hands of officers of the army, and Arab presidential republics were established under leadership of the officers who took over the military coup d'état. On the other hand, the kingdoms and emirates which did not have a share in the military coup d'état, due to absence of the appropriate circumstances for being overthrown, remain in power, supported by the fear of anti-Islam liberal, ideological thinking, as the people of these kingdoms are religiously conservative. At the beginning of the second decade of the second millennium, the peoples of Arab Republics stirred up and established a new coalition that is embodied in the democratic, representative system of rule:

As a result, the Arab governance regimes can be divided into three blocs:

1. Liberal, Progressive Bloc; 2. Authoritarian Reactionary Bloc; and 3. Democratic, Representative Block

## 1. The Progressive Bloc

This bloc raised the slogan of socialism, social justice, eradication of feudalism and capitalism associated with the corrupt royal regimes, and sought to attain public rule, a mixed republican regime emerged comprising all forms of regimes; the president of state owns and administers all authorities, a head of government with no authority or powers, was appointed and removed by the state president. Further, the parliament was in the hands of a president, who directed it at his own will and discretion by overwhelming majority of his party or the parliament members appointed by him, as well as a Shura Council appointed to delude the people that the republic adheres to Islam and the Islamic regime. Eventually, the republican regimes have become autocratic regimes, dominated by the ruling regime for several and several decades, under the pretense that they won the elections at 99.9%, and contends against the opposition by seeking the electors' opinion. As for the electors, they stood powerless in front of the manipulation and forgery of votes for being the remarkable feature of election. The opposition parties had public minority and were powerless. As a result, the republican regime has become dictatorial, hereditary regime, and the Syrian Republican Regime was able to pass the rule down from a father to his son. Likewise, the other regimes which were preparing their sons to take over power by way of succession following the ruling president, the most powerful regimes of which collapsed in both Egypt and Tunisia upon the fall of Hosni Mubarak and Zein Al Abdein Bin Ali due to the non-violent popular revolutions at the early 2011, and now it is the turn of the rest of Arab autocratic regimes.

## 2. The Reactionary (Conservative) Bloc

It is a bloc encompassing the kingdoms, sultanates, and royal states which succeeded thanks to the military coup d'état made by the Free Officers Movement led by Former President Jamal Abdul Nasser, who provided support and advocacy to them, and was preparing the atmosphere for military coup d'état culturally and financially, until the revolution reached the borders of the Sultanate of Oman in the 1970 Dhofar Rebellion yet the revolutionary expansion stopped after the death of late president Jamal Abdul Nasser, may God have mercy upon him. In practice, this block witnessed relative political stability, although a number of wars broke out in the Arabian Gulf apart from the upheavals made within the dynasties themselves, yet the regime did not change. Further, the good economic conditions of these states helped stabilize the regimes, some of which developed, so that we find some kingdoms having a parliament the majority of its members are elected, in addition to Shura Council, through simulated, they represent public participation. An opposing movement emerged that calls for applying the constitutional royalty in the regimes of that bloc.

## 3. The New Representative Bloc

Among the surprises coming out of the revolution of technology, social networking, Facebook, Twitter, and Blackberry is the revolutionary protests and public sit-ins that stirred up for overthrowing the autocratic and dictatorial regimes. The first spark of these revolutionary protests and rebellions was the Tunisian martyr Mohamed Bouazizi, whose life ended by burning himself as a way for protesting against the injustice, tyranny, and poverty, thus stirring up the Tunisian youth and martyrs fall, until Bin Ali and his autocratic regime fell down and was overthrown. Likewise, the Egyptian youth flamed up with rage, and the Tunisian revolutionary acts came to Egypt, so following the fall of tens of martyrs, Hosni Mubarak's regime fell down, although it had never sprang to their mind that they would fall down in such an easy way, particularly as they hold the grip of all resources and wealth through the class associated with the ruling party (National Democratic Party), and, eventually, two of the most powerful and highhanded regimes had fallen down, and were replaced by a multi-party parliamentary regime the formation of which has not yet emerged, yet, definitely, it will not be affiliated to the former regime. Up to the present day, the peaceful popular rebellions still in their zenith from a republic to the other republic, to form democratic coalition and a new reality that will inspire the other regimes; even after a while.

Definition of Bloc: It is a term portraying a combination of organized group within a political party or ruling body, with a view to taking over power whether by lawful or unlawful means. It also refers to a group of countries that combine with each other due to similarity of their goals or their respective ruling regimes.

# Political Ideologies

1. Communism

Communism is a political ideology that opposes nationalisms and religions, in particular Islam, and advocates atheism. Its members are fully loyal to the communist ideology and leaders. Communism aims at eradicating capitalism and private property, and advocates establishment of society where members are equal in rights using the principle of power and armed forces to impose this reality. Communism opposes moderate socialism and democracies that support capitalism. Communism collapsed in its country of origin and the communist regime declined after collapse of the Soviet Union, and the communist regimes have become capitalist or worse, after capitalism prevailed over communism that has fallen into utter oblivion.

## Types of Communism:

  1. Primitive Communism: Term used in anthropology to describe the economic system based on self-sufficiency and dominates the primitive communities which members participate in the ownership of using production media and commodities. Due to the harsh conditions that require them to do this, as in the communities that live on hunting with primitive common lifestyle that doesn't know private ownership.

  2. Marxist Communism: This type of communism is named after Carl Marx. Marxist communism advocates the inevitability and necessity of communism based on scientific analysis of the real movement and internal contradictions of Marxist society that lead this society to death, and struggle of proletariat which is the only class able to transcend these contradictions and build social relations-based communist system.

  3. National Communism: This type of communism appeared after the World War II. The first to adopt this communism was the Yugoslavia President (Tito). This type calls the communist parties to adopt the socialist system that fits them, taking into account the national characteristics of these countries, considering that communism applied in the Soviet Union at the time is not valid for every time and place. This type of communism caused fuss in the Soviet Union under the ruling of Stalin, since this type of communism is deviation and distortion of true communism.

2. Capitalism

It is a socio-economic system where freedom is given to individuals in the political community, to look for the economic and financial interest, to achieve the highest possible personal profit, by different means that are often in conflict with the vast majority interest. In other words, man in the capitalist system enjoys abundant freedom to choose the investment economic works that he finds suitable in the way that he determines to secure his desires and satisfy his greed. Consequently, the capitalist system is associated with economic freedom, or the so-called laissez-faire system. The field is sometimes left for competition and endeavors of people to collect fortunes by abuse of freedom that the capitalist system endowed to them. This system managed to defeat the other opposing political ideologies, and the unipolar system- or the so-called economic globalization- has come to dominate.

## Types of Capitalism:

  1. State Capitalism: Economic system where the state increases and expands its intervention in the economic life in the capitalist countries. It is a trend that imposes the state control on economic activities and retains the ownership of production tools. The state capitalist assets include increase of the state control of consumption and production activities, and leaves ownership to capitalists while retaining the private enterprises. And application of planning in some important economic sectors and establishment of public enterprises. Some economists suggest that state capitalism can, in the developing countries, be transitional phase between capitalism and communism.

  2. Public Capitalism: it is a set of views that attempt to prove that capitalism lost its sense, represented by the control of capitalists. It has become a public or semi-public system hardly different from communism itself. Among the arguments raised by the advocates of this view is the spread of joint-stock companies with their capital divided into thousands of relatively cheap shares, which means spread of ownership among the different social classes.

Restricted Capitalism: Type of capitalism characterized by capitalism efficiency. It appears in private ownership and economic freedom, but advocates eradication of evils and disadvantages attached to the capitalist system.

3. Socialism

Socialism is derived from the word society, or often the concept of social dimension, in reference to the basic conflict between the individual Disposition and social Disposition, to assure the social meaning of human rights. Socialism is an integrated set of concepts and methodologies that aim at eradicating the capitalist community and believes in the inevitable progress of social like and establishment of more efficient and more just society, and achieve equality between all members through the social work to achieve equality between all people and all nations. In addition, it is based on granting the fair share to every member according to his effort.

## Types of Socialism:

  1. Humanitarian Socialism: The human socialism theory considers that social revolution is not merely change of structures out of man. Socialism shall change man himself. The advocates of this ideology stress the importance of role of intellectuals, not proletariat. They suggest that intellectuals are the means of historical revolutionary initiative in this phase of technology development. In addition, they state that there is no way to have one form of socialism; there are several forms of socialism that agree with the country conditions.

  2. State Socialism: Economic political ideology based on optimum justice and special idea of the state and community. This ideology requires state intervention and supervision of the industries of permanent or public nature that require consolidated means of supervision that they fear to be monopolized by individuals. State socialism believes in graduation, and finds that it is the natural means, and believes in moral solidarity among the social classes and categories. It rejects the idea of class struggle and considers revolution and means for progress and calls for state intervention or expansion of the scope of its activities in the fields of economy. In addition, it assures the importance to breed and educate the group to raise their level of thinking, and to be able to exploit its capabilities. It depends on the state ownership of the major means of production and public utilities to achieve its goals.

  3. Democratic Socialism: International movement that began in the nineteenth century in the aftermath of the industrial revolution for political expression in defense of labor rights against capitalism. Since it emerged, it was characterized by conceptual conflict for social change. There is concept that carries the Marxist line that tries to topple the political and social institutions in the capitalist system, to reach socialist society, and another concept that calls to follow long way of change by negotiations to declare the usurped labor rights. Democratic socialism is now called revolutionary in terms of end, and rejects to recourse to violence to achieve its objectives, and finds that socialist society can be built by political and democratic struggle without recourse to violence.

  4. Arab Socialism: Social economic system characterized by its practices through the applications of the 1952 Nasserist Revolution that eradicated the control of capital and feudalism, and the colonial claims in the Arab Nation, established the private enterprises within the general development plans, raised the exploitation on capital, and turned thereby to public sector that controls most means of production in the Arab Community. The socialism process was pushed by encounter of violence and control of imperialism as well as supporting the so-called liberalization movements and socialist powers in the world.

  5. Fabian Socialism: This is more an idea than a theory based on the gradual application of socialism by the parliamentary regime. It is not party in the meaning of the word, but group of moderate intellectuals. Its effect failed because it emerged in a period of strong colonial expansion where ideas of this type were not feasible and violence was the feasible and more decisive method. Its name was derived from its form based on graduation and patient of Leader Fabius who was famous for his policy based on abatement of the resistance effect by tactic approach, not direct attack. It rejects the idea of class struggle and proletariat dictatorship, and believes that, by election, socialist parties and organizations can increasingly participate in rule, and can get the capacities and legislations that lead to change with no need to violence or revolution.

  6. Union Socialism: Moderate socialism movement that emerged in the proletariat in the United Kingdom in the early decades of the twentieth century. It tried to match the general union and royal principles of production media and found that achievement of socialism can be made by unions' control of the different industries management and ownership and adopted opposing situation to the parliamentary regime, and asked to minimize the state intervention in general life as much as possible.

G-Revolutionary Socialism: it is a socialist, ideology movement that advocates eradication of private ownership, and depends on the building of cooperatives of all types. It fights imperialism and its capitalist system, and denounces exploitation of all types, and advocates freedom without racial or ethnic discrimination and condemns class system. This ideology emerged in the Caesarian Russia in 1901 AD, when the Revolutionary Socialist Party was created. In the beginning, they aimed at removing the class discrimination among peasants and deny the leading role of proletariat in the revolution. Their program required eradication of private ownership of lands, and the revolutionary socialist ideology developed in different phases, and its ideology is still active between the Arab leftists and the Latin America Socialisms (proletariat is the lowest labor class).

4. Marxism

Marxism is a socialist ideology of Karl Marx, aiming to eradicate the capitalist system, do away with private ownership of land, nationalize the means of transport and banks, repeal inheritance, and make the public ownership of production means prevalent. Marxism is opposed to the ruling regimes in the capitalist states and western democratic nations, under the pretense that they are based on exploitative economic system. The Marxist regime is based on a pyramidal order, which begins with a broad base and end with a high top, and, in a Marxist regime, the State holds full control over the life of both individuals and community.

## Types of Marxism

A. New Marxism: The New Marxism came to light during the period 1920-1955, and is different from the classical Marxist ideas in terms of the possibility of peaceful coexistence between the socialism and capitalism, giving up the proletarian dictatorship before the triumph of communism, and accepting the idea of cooperation between the communist parties with other political parties, and viewing the parliamentary way to socialism as inevitable matter.

B. Western Marxism: It is a term portraying the Marxist movements that developed in Western Europe, which had frequently been in contradiction with the Soviet Marxist ideology, with considerable focus on philosophy rather than economy and politics.

# Political Classifications

Political classifications refer to ideas, concepts, and names portraying the political inclinations of individuals, groups, parties, or governments.

1. Progressivism

It is a concept that came to light and developed with the emergence of industrial revolution in both the 17th and 18th centuries, at time of the battles of eradication of feudal system, and emergence of rising nationalist and capitalist theories. From a linguistic sense, it means shift from a particular state to some other state, and the community's shift to a higher level. It is a term which the socialist, leftist, liberal, and radical parties call upon themselves, given that they view themselves as advocates of change, renewal, and increasing the public participation in making political, economic, and social decisions, and allege that the progressive parties and movements struggle for the spread of democratic justice. As is well known, Progressivism is the opposite of Reactionism. At the Arab level, the Arab Republics raised that slogan after the fall down of royal regimes, yet after several decades had elapsed, the people of these states found out that have become worse than ever, and that the concept of Progressivism does not apply to them as people or despotic governments.

2. Reactionism

It is a socio-political concept portraying the movements that stand in resistance to the modern progressive concepts, through adhering to the inherited traditions. This concept is associated with the extremist rightist trend that opposes the social, political, and economic developments, either from class positions or for deluded adherence to traditions. Further, it is a movement striving to cleave to the past, given that it guarantees the interests of special sectors of the people at the expense of public interest. For their part, the Arabs call the name upon the royal and Emiri regimes that have not yet turned into republics. Colonel Muammar Gaddafi employed this term to describe the Libyan opponents and rebels who stirred up against his regime during the revolution of 17 February 2011. It was also used by the President of Yemen to describe his opponents and protestors who congregated in the liberty square to overthrow his regime. The Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad, too, used the same term to describe the Salafist opponents or Islamists who formed a majority of the peaceful revolution that broke out against his regime.

A. Reactionary Movement: It is a term portraying the movements standing in advocacy of the radical, political, social, and economic changes, in a way which takes them back to the former conservative regime. The Reactionists believe that the majority of social problems arise out of exaggerated democracy that takes dies with the people who own nothing, and they, frequently, uphold the minority government. In fact, the Reactionists are far extremist in their views than the conservatists

b. Retroactive Regime: It is a regime which based the rule upon hereditary doctrine, and becomes hostile to popular rebellions, lest the people whom it rules may be inspired by the revolutionary ideas, and, as such, it adopts all means and techniques to suppress popular rebellions, even if that goal makes it enter into alliance with the colonial states. Similarly, this term is used to describe the theocratic regimes that adopt a part of the religion as an approach to administer the power.

3. Fascism

Fascism is a racial, intellectual ideological system that glorifies the race at the expense of collective persecution of the nations. Fascism is embodied by dominance of a weak dictatorial group over all resources and wealth of a nation, through relying upon the way of violence, bloodshed, and showing animosity against the people's freedom and liberty. Fascism was derived from the Italian word Fascismo which means a bundle of sticks containing a hatchet, carried by Roman magistrates, symbolizing strength, unity and power. It also refers to the group that disassociated itself from the Italian Socialist Party led by Benito Mussolini, who was the first person to give credit to fascism as a political ideology.

Social Fascism: It is a term that became widespread during the period intervening the two World Wars. It was used by the Communists to describe the socialist and democratic parties in the capitalist states, and further alleged that these parties had not followed the sound socialism, and their principle and views were in contradiction with the communist principles and ideologies.

4. Secularism

It is a socio-political concept that calls for making separation between religion and the politics, and regarding religion as personal practice that regulates the relationship between an individual and his God, and that political practices are social practices in which religion does not interfere. In practice, this concept spread out in the Arab Republics after taking over rule in the Arab-Islamic World.

5. Sectarianism

It is a socio-political ideology that deals with an individual as a part of religious sect that acts on their behalf in respect of the political situations. Sectarianism controls and governs the personal life of individuals in accordance with its religious laws and legislation, in which a religious man is both mediator and judge at the same time. In addition, the sectarian ideology is based on discriminating between the citizens and granting privileges to a particular sect other than the other sects as per the order of sectarian priority, in a way which stirs up fanaticism, spite, and animosity among the people, and may, eventually, give rise to sectarian warfare between the different sects in a single state. The most apparent example on sectarian ideology is the Lebanese regime.

6. Radicalism

In linguistics, Radicalism is derived from the Latin radix meaning "the root". As a concept, it means an approach adopted by political parties and movements to bring comprehensive and profound change in the structure of community. As is well known, Radicalism intersects with the reform liberalism; as the approach of the latter regards it is sufficient to create some reforms in the real status of community. Further, radicalism is a progressive Disposition that gives a comprehensive look to the problems, impediments, and obstacles of a community, which addresses all its political, constitutional, economic, intellectual, and social areas, with the purpose of creating a radical, fundamental change in its structure, to move its from a state of retardation and congealment into a state of progress and development. This term also refers to the groups having extremist, fanatic principles, which calls for return to the fundamental principles, or what is now called "Fundamentalism" that describes the extremist Islamic groups.

7. Imperialism

It is a military, political, colonial phenomenon embodied in the attempts made by industrial capitalist states to come into of the other nations, with a view to making them yield to their dominance and usurp their wealth and resources, most often through the military force. This phenomenon emanated from the feudal system and commercial capitalism. In practice, the imperial powerful states in Europe encourages migration and settlement of the citizens of colonial states, which, in turn, requires the building of military and commercial fleets, thus giving rise to fierce competition between the capitalist states and expulsion of the competitors introduced by military occupation, and imposing full dominance through the employees, soldiers, and companies preoccupied by racial thoughts that established imperial centers. Following the demise of traditional imperialism phase, which was accompanied by direct occupation, colonial rule, or mandate, a new imperial phenomenon came to light led by the United States of America, which attempted to overcome the factors leading to the emergence of traditional imperialism, so it kept the centralization of production, dominance by banks of industry, and capital investment at a global level, yet it introduced some amendments. Imperialism, as a colonial phenomenon, is viewed in the framework of its consequential suffering and agony, given that the imperial ideology is a racial, exploitative approach aiming to enslave, strip the people of their freedom and dignity, and, as such, it is regarded as permanent and renewable attempt to assume dominance over the nations, plotted schemes against their liberation, and usurp their wealth and resources by the monopolistic companies, or stir up well-knit disputes and conflicts. Historically, imperialism overpowered the communist and socialist systems in the 1990s, thus paving the way for the emergence of unipolar system, which represents the symbol of imperialism; i.e. imperial globalization.

8. Nationalism

It is a set of elements and factors that connect a human nation in the framework of a well-established bond. Its factors include unity of language, traditions, custom, and belonging to the same historic roots. Love of one's country is viewed as the essential value of the individuals of that group. Further, nationalism involves joint destiny and goals for all citizens, irrespective of unity of religion. Historically, nationalist movements emerged in the modern history with the purpose of stirring up a sense of patriotic spirit in the peoples striving for independence or looking forward to being united in a single bond. An apparent example of the nationalism ideology was the 1950s and 1960s during the reign of late President Jamal Abdul Nasser, who raised the slogan of Arab Nationalism in the past century.

## 9. Liberalism

It is a capitalist ideology the emergence of which was associated with the industrial revolution, and the rise of Bourgeoisie Middle Class in European communities. Liberalism represents the struggle of industrial and commercial class, which came out to light with the industrial revolution, against the traditional feudal forces, which had combined between the autocratic royalty and church. In politics, Liberalism means the formation of parliamentary government in which the right of political representation is granted to all citizens, along with freedom of speech and religion, abolishment of class-based privileges, freedom of foreign trade, and the government's abstention from intervening in the economic affairs, unless this intervention secures the minimum limit of economic freedom to all citizens.

### 10. Salafism (Salafi Movement)

It is a term broadly used to stir up people's horror from the Islamic movements and Sunnis who call for putting the provisions of Sharia into effect and practice. In general, Salafism refers to the movements, organizations, and individuals seeking to thoroughly follow the example of rightly guided Islamic Caliphs and the Early Muslims in terms of form and purport, glorifying their deeds, and regarding these examples as the one to be followed and put into practice for the purpose of reformation and development of society. Further, they believe that it is necessary to tread in the steps of the spirit of Early Muslims as well as the core aspects of their experience rather than its shape or outward aspects. Salafism is categorized into scholarly Salafism and Salafist jihadism; the latter raises the slogan of fight for the sake of Allah (jihad) of all types.

## 11. Defeatism

It is a public state where the passive spirit spreads over all people, and it takes place where aggregate elements of weakness in a particular nation are higher in number than aggregate elements of strength, thus undermining the morale of the group or nation in its struggle against opposing parties. This state of weakness emerges as a result of the accumulation of a number of factors; foremost of which is the intellectual retardation, loss of self-confidence, low productivity, military weakness, and failure to adopt consensus attitude towards particular matters and situations. These factors, among others, demoralize and weaken the morale of people, thus compelling them to prefer easy solutions, yield to defeat, and give up struggle on the grounds that it is difficult to keep on striving.

## 12. Opportunism

It is a term meaning to avail oneself of the immediate opportunities rather than the later opportunities. An opportunist is that type of person who has short-term goals to be attained in the short run, takes advantage of the available opportunities, and does not look ahead. As such, an opportunist often offers up the public goals for the sake of personal gains. From a practical perspective, opportunism secures the achievement of goals at the expense of principles, adopting the approach of bargaining and procrastination. This term is held true for the self-seekers and persons who negotiate political goals for the sake of acquiring secondary gains, which, most often, serve their personal interest.

## 13. Globalization

It is an economic, political, and cultural theory that came out to light after the decline of communism, fall of the socialist coalition, and triumph acquired by the United Stated-led capitalist alliance in the Cold War against the communist the alliance led by Former Soviet Union. From a political perspective, globalization refers to the United States' full dominance and hegemony over the global economy and policy through a capitalist system that dominates the world economies, and makes the whole world a single economic village dominated by the unipolar system and overwhelmed by the Western- American ideology with its culture, policy, ideas, and economy, thus reshaping the global economic system and converting it into market economy, and rendering the whole world a small village managed and controlled by the United States of America. Globalization has multiple definitions, and the academics have not reached consensus as to a unified definition of it, yet they agree that globalization is a state of "Americanization" of the world, which compels it to walk behind the Western-American capitalist procession.

# Political Organizations

Definition of political organization: it is a group of individuals sharing common trends, ideologies, and goals, and are engaged in a unified organization based on organizational rules and principles, being acceptable in their views, which govern their relations in work, and the technique adopted to achieve their goals. In practice, the political organization has several forms:

A. Opportunist political organization: it is a type of political organization founded only to take the reins of power;

B. A political organization that is established due to particular historic circumstances and ends upon the end of these circumstances; e.g. the national parties seeking to achieve independence.

C. A political organization seeking to achieve long-term ideology and goals; e.g. socialist, communist, and religious parties;

Political organizations are categorized into two types:

  1. Open Political Organization

It is an organization having a legitimate right to establish political organizations, parties, blocs, movements, and group openly as permitted by the constitution. As such, these organizations and groups engage in the political life openly and in public, have open programs, and get national and public support. These political organizations are categorized into two groups:

A. Advocacy Organizations: they are political organizations advocating the ruling party or a group of parties in power, and seek to give political justifications to the acts of a government that is headed by a party belonging to these organizations. These organizations, often, enter into alliance in elections to form a coalition government, and turn into opposition in case the opposing party wins the elections.

B. Overt Opposition Organizations: They are political organizations, parties, coalitions, movements, and groups opposing the ruling party or regime. These organizations are legalized by the constitution, and they seek to engage in elections to take the reins of power, announce an alternative policy, or overthrow the existing government politically. In general, these organizations are the outcome of a democratic regime, which legalizes the establishment of opposition, permits it to practice its activities in public. These opposition organizations are always ready to take over power if it wins a majority in elections.

  2. Underground Political Organization

This term refers to political organizations, blocs, parties, movements, and groups standing in opposition to the regime, but as they are not permitted to engage in the political life openly, they practice their activities secretly, and adopt the secret activity as their approach. These organizations persistently and strongly seek to overthrow the ruling regime and calumniate its reputation both within and outside the State. This type of underground organizations is divided into two categories:

A. Non-violent Underground Opposition: it is a political organization, which adopts the peaceful approach, either through peaceful demonstrations, protests, or sit-down strikes, and has a peaceful opposition ideology, responds to armed attacks by peaceful means, seeks to gain public support, and defames the ruling regime both within and outside the State, without disclosing the leaders of its underground organizations.

B. Armed Opposition: it is a political organization, which adopts the armed struggle approach to overthrow the ruling regime and take the reins of power, and its armed operations target the leaders of the regime and its security forces. Its formations include the following:

1. The Cell

It is a small group specifically formed in the workplace. It is smaller in number than a faction, and combines the individuals belonging to a particular party in their common workplace. In some parties, the cell may be made up of members not working at a same workplace. The cell was first introduced by communism, and it was imposed by the Communist Party of Russia, in the course of its third conference, on all communist parties all over the world on 24 January 1924. In practice, the cell was the key mainstay of the Communist Party. The cell, typically, resorts to underground activities and makes its decision by majority. It comprises a small number of individuals with a review to keeping the organization harmless if detected by the regime. Cells are used in the revolutionary underground organizations, adopts a pyramidal leadership structure, and the cells cannot be differentiated from each other.

2. Underground Associations:

They are groups comprising a number of individuals, and have no license to engage in the political activities from the government, and, as such, they operate in secrecy away from the regime's eyes, for the purpose of achieving their goals, spreading out their principles, and protecting their members. In some instances, they may employ violence and assassinations for attaining their goals.

3. Underground Movement

It is a movement, which practice its activities in secrecy without being licensed by the State, and, most often, they are declared outlaw. Globally, the underground movements are widespread all over the world and take various forms as per the nature of their activities, seeking to spread out religious or political ideologies or to acquire economic gains.

## Classification of Political Organizations

The organizations, which form parties, movements, and groups are classified as follows:

1. Left-wing or right-wing

Left-wing and right-wing are terms employed by the British Parliament; the pro-regime members were sitting on the right side, while the anti-regime members used to sit on the left side, and, eventually, those opposing the ruling regime have been called the leftists. Over the years, both terms developed motivated by the development of political circumstances in the world countries, as the word rightists is used to describe those individuals calling for conserving the existing circumstances; i.e. the Conservatives, while the word leftists is used to the persons calling for making radical changes; e.g. workers and the proletariats. Eventually, the terms evolved, so that the word "leftists" is used to refer to revolutionary and socialist trends, while the word "rightists" to denote the conservative trends and those trends of religious nature.

2. Moderate Left-Wing

It is a term denoting those individuals having moderate revolutionary trends which does not call for violence as an approach to change the political conditions, and follows a peaceful means for achieving its goals. Most often, this term is used to refer to democratic and socialist parties.

3. Extremist Left-wing

It is a term referring to the left-wing trends which seek to bring radical change to the prevailing political circumstances, and do not accept to give up their goals, and they may resort to violence as a means to achieve their goals.

4. Moderate Right-Wing

It is a trend seeking to conserve the prevailing conditions, yet they are not extremist in achieving their goals, and tend to be moderate and flexible. This trend includes the moderate and temperate religious parties.

5. Extremist Right-wing

It is a term portraying the trends seeking to conserve the classical traditions, customs, and values, and are, by no means, willing to give up their attitudes; they hold strictly fast to their attitudes, and may resort to violence to achieve their goals. This category includes the extremist parties religiously and ideologically.

6. Islamist Left-wing

It is an ideological trend that came out to light in the 1980s, and is viewed as extension of the Nasserite thoughts, and describes the Nasserite Islamists who keep the Islamic ceremonies and conform strictly to the principles of Islam, yet at a political level, they embrace the Arab Socialism with its Nasserite principles. (Arab socialism: refer to Section III)

7. The New Left

It is an ideological trend that came out to light at time of 2011 Popular Revolution amid the Egyptian revolutionary socialist youth. They called for eradicating exploitation of all types, and prevalence of justice, equality, and liberty without discrimination based on the sect, race, religion, or gender, and they welcomed the individuals of different ideologies in their groups; e.g. the Islamists and Christians, and other segments of the society (refer to Revolutionary Socialism in Section III).

## Some types of political organizations

1. Movement

It is a term used in politics to an organization made up of a social class or a particular segment with a view to upgrading their political, economic, and social conditions through making unified deeds. However, the movement is not a regular organization, and it is not necessary to abide by the ideological and a regular principle, as is the case with the political parties, yet it is a more comprehensive trend.

2. Dynamism

It is a political ideology that gives priority to work to the ideological and sectarian contemplation, calls for bring change to the existing status by way of work and resorts to violence to establish a new political regime.

3. Union

It is a group of individuals, organizations, or institutions sharing common interests and ideas they seek to achieve. It also refers to each voluntary gathering comprising a number of individuals to attain common and pre-agreed goals.

4. Bloc

It is a non-government political organization made up of a number of parties, movements, or groups sharing the same trend and political ideology, and strive to achieve main goals, even if having different secondary goals. As such, a bloc is more comprehensive than the parties, movements, and groups (e.g. national liberation blocs).

5. Association

It is a type of political organizations, which comprise a number of individuals sharing the same ideology and trend, and having leadership organization and hierarchy in charge of its management. From a political perspective, an association is less organizational than a political party, yet a political party may emanate from the association, having a little bit different political ideology than its mother association (e.g. Muslim Brotherhood, which formed a civil political party with Islamic reference, without prejudice to the association itself).

6. Political Party

It is a group of individuals sharing common political and ideological goals, and organizing themselves with a view to achieving political demands and particular goals. Most often, the most outstanding goal of political parties is to take the reins of power in a State. The political party is a voluntary gathering of individuals established as per the will and election of its members, and it may come to power through adopting the peaceful way through taking part in the elections, but if an organization adopts violence, insubordination, and insurrection as a means to come to power, it will not be named a political party; rather, it will be classified as terroristic militia, the political party is more organized and disciplined, and loyalty is absolute to the party.

## Party-Related Concepts

Leading Party:

It is a party leading the politics of a state and is able to lead itself, and it has guiding revolutionary ideologies that understand the political, economic, and social status of the state, through apprehending the civilizational and historic formation of the nation. The leading role assumed by the party is based on conviction of the people as well as other national groups and parties involved under an umbrella of a national bloc with the leading party, so as to support the party to achieve the national goals of the people. In practice, the emergence of this type of parties has resulted in autocratic rule led by the national party, consolidated the concept of dictatorship, and created hereditary republics with totalitarian rule, as happened case in Iraq, and is now happening in Syria, Yemen, and all national party-led Arab States.

Ideological Party

It is a party having an ideology that draws up its strategy and work mechanisms, and aims to bring change to the community in accordance with the ideology set through the means selected.

Gathering Party

It aims to bring the mass together at one level, and it operates in a Pragmatic way to win the electors' votes, yet it does not have a stable ideology or comprehensive vision; rather, it carries a number of interim projects to administer the public affairs in particular circumstances of the time.

Party hierarchy

It is a political term portraying the various party ranks in a party's hierarchy which comprises ascending leadership positions, while any communication or assignment must be carried out, in ordinary circumstances, through the organizational sequence of the party, so as to preserve the party's discipline, and consolidate the objectives issues within the party.

Nationalist Party

The nationalist parties have left-wing progressive ideologies, discard violence, and believe that belonging is limited to the individuals affiliated to the party's nationalism, even if from a different state, and every individual having the state's nationality is regarded as a citizen and enjoys citizenship based on which the nationality is granted.

National Party

It is a right-wing party based on a racial ideology stating that the homeland belongs to the native persons, while the foreign persons of different races and naturalized individuals do not belong to the homeland, and, as such, they must be expelled to their original countries. This description applies to the European national parties described as extremist, right-wing fascist parties, and the majority of their members are the white, bald-headed racial individuals. As for the national party in the Arab World, it is the party of president and its advocates, after it had combined, in the past, the nationalists whose stirred up against the foreign colonialism during the colonial period.

Civil Parties

It is a term portraying the non-religious or non-Islamic parties, such as the liberal, left-wing, socialist, communist, progressive, and capitalist parties, as well as other parties where the programmes of which do not contain any religious trends and Sharia principles, but this does not, however, preclude the members of these parties to be religiously committed and properly perform their religious ceremonies, whether Muslims, Christians, or embracing other religions.

Liberal Parties

These are civil parties adopting liberalism which call for freedom of thought, religion, and speech, the individual freedom, as well as liberation from the restrictions of community that may be imposed on these freedoms, and abolishment of sectarianism. Economically, these parties adopt the free trade approach and the state is not permitted to interfere in the economy other than within the limits of securing economic freedom for all citizens.

License by Notification

It means obtaining a license to found and establish the political groups, parties, and organizations by merely notifying the competent government bodies of the registration and licensing of parties, in accordance with the parties regulation law. This procedure is a positive outcome of the revolutions of Tunisia and Egypt, and the bureaucratic and security procedures have been abolished in both countries, which formed a large obstacle for the establishment of political parties and organizations in the past.

Dissolution of Political Parties

It is a ban decision imposed on the political parties to suspend both open and underground activities, prevent the convention of their general meetings, and prevent any form of support or aid that may be provided to them. The dissolution decision is issued by the government.

Multiplicity of parties (party pluralism)

It is a term referring to the political regimes that permits multiple parties to engage in the political life, which enables all political forces in the State to express their respective opinions and goals. Coalition governments, which are characterized by ministerial instability, often impose a multi-party system. In fact, multiplicity of parties is one of the advantages of a democratic regime to create noble competition between a large segment of the people, and it is the civilizational frontage of any political regime, given that without multiplicity of parties, democracy is incomplete.

Party Committee

It is a committee to be formed within a party to administer the election process of party's leaders, and nominate some members to draw up the party's plans and organize its affairs.

Party Cadre

It is the members affiliated to a party, and are subject to the principles, rules, and organization of that party.

Popular Base

It is a public, socialist political organization based on pyramidal structure, as any popular political organization begins with a popular base represented by the members of organization or union, and its members are from the mass institutions.

Territorial Leadership

It is a term frequently used by Ba'ath Party, as the powers of leadership of institutions are limited within the boundaries of a single country, and thus the territorial leadership directs the activities and members of a party as per the party's principles and political plan.

Nationalist Leadership

It is the highest leadership in the party or political institutions which extend beyond the boundaries of a single country to include other countries. In practice, this term is used by Ba'ath Party, as the nationalist leadership is regarded the highest leadership authority in the party.

Political Activity

It means the effort made by political parties to take the reins of power through public elections, to be able to put into programmes into effect.

Regulatory Body of a Party

It is a body comprising prominent personages dedicating their full-time to administer and serve the party's activities, and they are considered a point of contact between the general leadership of a party and the acting members of it.

Party Discipline

It is the open compliance of a party member with all attitudes of its party, and strict conformity to all orders to be issued by the party's leadership. The party discipline is associated with the right of competition granted to each member as per the military principle stating that "implement and then discuss". The purpose of this discipline is to determine the relationship between the members and his party, while that discipline has a political level by which the party cadre conform strictly to the party and its political attitudes, apart from an organizational level through which the member abides by all internal regulations and all orders issued by the party.

One- Party Control

It is a minority of individuals; i.e. the leaders of a party, who dominate that party. The larger the party's jurisdiction becomes, the stronger is the power of that minority; yet there are parties controlled by a single person.

Political Unity

It is the base on which the pyramidal formation of public political organizations is established; inter alia, the nomination of leadership committee of the organization.

# POLITICAL FREEDOMS

## 1. Freedom of Speech

It is one of the essential human rights declared by democratic constitutions. This encompasses freedom of thinking, and freedom of opinion and expression in press and audio- visual mass media, issuance of newspapers, printouts, books, freedom of criticizing the ruling regime. This freedom doesn't entail breach of public order or infringement of public morals, in virtue of the principal that every man has the right to express his opinion in the available public means, without being criminalized or subjected to imprisonment and penalty. This distinguishes the democratic regimes from the oppressive authoritarian regimes where prisons are full of public opinion detainees, because these regimes regard freedom of expression as threat to their national security. The limits of this freedom vary from a country to the other according to the threat of the existing regime or community values.

## 2. Freedom of Organization (establishment of parties...etc)

It is the freedom to establish political bodies and organizations, including the parties, agencies, and political, economic, or social movements without intervention or supervision of government authorities. However, this freedom has limits when it constitutes danger to the national security of the country, such that the charity organizations that advocate and support violent dissident movements or establish armed movements or terrorist parties. Composition of political parties is approved by agreement or notification. Notification is the optimum means of democracy, since giving notification to government authorities is sufficient to compose the political organization.

## 3. Freedom of Peaceful Gathering (non-violent congregation)

It is a freedom of peaceful gathering of people with no restriction on the practice of this freedom as per law. It doesn't lie in conflict with the interest of national security and public order.

This means meeting of gathering of citizens and people who agree with each other to exchange opinion and defend certain ideas or interests in public places. Democratic regimes authorize the freedom of public meetings so long as they don't affect public security. These gatherings come in different forms, including the processions, demonstrations and marches.

## 4. Right of Non-Violent Demonstration

It is gathering of a number of people sharing the same demands, and raising the same slogans to satisfy these demands. These demands may be political, economic or social. Peaceful demonstration is a right safeguarded by constitutions of democratic countries. This right is part of the human right to peacefully express his opinion. The regime shall not have the right to break it rather than in case demonstrations turn to violence and sabotage. Break up shall be executed by non-killing means. The regime shall not have the right to detain, arrest, or criminalize the peaceful protesters. Some regimes provide that prior license shall be get authorization of peaceful demonstrations from the authorities. The demonstration demands are usually political.

## 5. Non-Violent Marches (peaceful processions)

It is a right safeguarded by the constitutions democratic countries as main political freedoms to the community members. This is gathering or congregation of number people who move in defined areas during which slogans of the demands are shown. Rally ends in certain time and may return in another time or from a place to the other. Security may not break up the peaceful marches, but they may be escorted to keep the security of rally and not to transform it to violence and sabotage. Some regimes require prior permissions to hold marches. The marches may be political, economic or social, or against certain conditions or situations that may be with or against the ruling regime.

## 6. Non-violent Protests

It is a constitutional right safeguarded by the democratic constitutions. It is rates among the essential rights of individuals, as a number of individuals organize protest demonstrations by gathering in one specific place to express their protests against certain conditions or show protest briefs to the authorities. Protests may have political, economic, functional or social nature. The phenomenon of protest signifies the ruling regime's democracy. Peaceful protesters shall not be criminalized in courts

## 7. Sit – Down strike

It is the protest of a group of people stirred up against the policy of a certain authority, by staying in the place or headquarters of the authority that practices the policy causing the sit-down. Protesters present their demands and keep the public opinion informed of them to propagate the reason for their sit-down. Sit-down may be held in certain squares or fields, and protesters don't like the sit-down places rather than for short periods and return to the stay-in place till their demands are fulfilled.

## 8. Union Freedom

It is the freedom of establishing labor and trade unions to defend the trade interests. These unions are independent in their composition, management and pursuit of its activity and entitlement of every member in this profession to join these unions and withdraw from, or join, it whenever he desires.

Labor constitutions and statutes in the democratic countries provide the union freedom to assure their importance for creation of democratic climates. In addition, the activity of those unions appears in political work, as parties usually consist of trade unions that have labor demands that develop to become political demands upon which political parts are composed such as the labor party.

## 9. Strike

A means used by workers against employers whether persons or governments. Strike means that workers and employees object to carry out work to get some demands in work conditions, or to achieve political target, as in the strike of factory labor in Egypt: to express their advocacy of the people's peaceful revolution that toppled the regime of Egypt's former president Mubarak in 2011

## 10. Open Strike

Suspension of work for the same reasons mentioned in the sit-down strike, but the period is indefinite. Most often a strike continues till the strikers' demands are fulfilled.

  11. ## Overall (Comprehensive) Strike

It in a comprehensive strike in which all workers and employees of the various sectors take part, throughout the country to exercise pressure on the government and obstruct the economic system of the country. General strike is illegitimate work in most countries, but it is a political right of individual freedom. General strike ousted some Arab governments at this time.

## 12. Civil Disobedience

It is a radical protest movement of the negative resistance methods that don't adopt violence as means to achieve its goals. The aim of this movement is to cripple and obstruct public order and public life to achieve political gains to press the ruling authority, as all stores, schools, public and private businesses. Employees object to go to public or private work, and only hospitals and main catering outlets work. Preparation for civil disobedience begins with the citizens' storage of foods. Disobedience may be partial, as some commercial agencies and public works stop. Disobedience may be comprehensive, and may encompass all public and private life services and schools, except for hospitals and clinics, which exercises pressures on the ruling regime to step down. Civil disobedience was used in the Arab revolutions in 2011 AD, in Egypt, Tunisia, Yemen and Syria.

# Elections

1. Election – Ballot

It is a type of procedures dictated by particular organization or governance rules, through which some or all members elect one person or number of persons to assume authority or presidency. The democratic regime decides the importance of this procedure, and rejects the idea that dictates that election can be expressed by group work. Political regimes believe that election is a right that considers every citizen as part of the people sovereignty. Therefore, the citizen shall have the right to participate in public affairs. Election is the means for choosing the authorities and means for protection of freedoms and rights against despotism, restricting, controlling and keeping freedom of deviation. It is a personal right that the lawmaker may not deny it to any of citizens. The holder of freedom shall be entitled to take action and can't bind the citizen to use this right, and may not assign it to third parties.

2. Direct election

The election where the elector elects representatives directly with no intermediation. It is also called one-phase election. It expresses more popular participation that indirect election

3. Indirect election

In this type of election, the elector elects delegates and the delegates choose the representatives. Election proceeds on two or more phases as applicable in the United States.

4. Individual election

This process divides the state into small constituencies. Each constituency is represented by one representative who is chosen out of group of candidates. The elector votes for one candidate only.

5. Election List

The state is divided into big constituency. Each constituency is represented by certain number of electors in the lists. The elector votes for certain number of candidates or chooses list out of several lists. Each list contains number of candidates. List election is the only type that matches the proportional representation regime that safeguards balanced representation of political minorities.

6. Quota Representation

According to this system, the state is divided into number of wide constituencies. To each constituency, number of representatives is defined. Those representatives are elected based on the list method. Seats are distributed between all lists that participate in the elections by percentage of votes of each constituency. If we supposed that there are three lists that contest over ten seats in certain constituency, and the first list got 12000 votes, the second 6000 votes, and the third 4000 votes, the ten seats will be distributed by the percentage of votes that each list got. The first list shall be the one that wins by scoring six seats, the second three seats and the third one seat. This is just, because it gives each list number of seats proportional to the number of votes, in addition to the majority election system that assigns all seats to the list that gets majority of votes (Dr. Youssef Obaidan, Studies in Politics, quoting Dr. Bassiouni).

7. Relative majority system

The system whereby the candidate gets the largest number of votes for others, even if the number of votes that other candidates got are more than the votes that the candidate obtained. For example, if the winning candidate got 400 votes and opposition candidate scored 260 votes and the other opposition candidate 240 votes; the total votes of opposition candidates will be 500, while the winning candidate is the one who himself gets 400 votes (Dr. Youssef Obaidan, Studies in Politics.

8. Absolute Majority

It is a system where the candidate gets, by individual election or list election, half the true votes plus at least one.

9. Public Suffrage Doctrine

Public election or public ballot is the one that achieves democracy, as every citizen in the age of political maturity is given one election vote, with no condition of origin, wealth, efficiency, education or sex. (Dr. Abdel Hamid El Ansary, Shura and its effect on democracy).

10. Restricted Ballot

The ballot where each citizen in the age of political maturity gives election vote on conditions related to the origin, wealth, competence, education or sex; that is, conditional ballot.

11. Advisory Ballot

It is a ballot or referendum the results of which are not binding, yet it aims at identifying the elector's attitude towards their representatives.

12. Secret ballot

This term is used in politics as synonym to voting, to signify the method by which electors are chosen. It is usually referred to as printed paper (ballot paper) that contains the names of candidates to office or to the statement referred to the electors to express their opinion whether negatively or positively. When candidates don't score the number of legal votes, the result is described as negative, so re-election shall be conducted.

13. Simulated ballot (public opinion polls)

Trial ballot that takes place before real ballot that aims at reporting the results of public elections if occurred. In this ballot, specialized institutions conduct referendum on sample of people to estimate the attitude of public opinion from certain person or problem, or from the different political parties that stand for the elections. This type of ballot affects the results of election, or the so-called public opinion poll, and the mostly used method in the United States to indicate the chances of winning the presidential elections.

14. Ballot in absentia

Ballot that takes place by correspondence or authorization of some persons when the elector can't, for certain reasons, reach the ballot centers.

15. Electoral Campaign

It is the period during which candidates provide their programs to the electors. This period precedes the time of elections under the law of elections. During the election campaign, the state secures the facilities of electoral campaign to all candidates to safeguard the principle of equality for all electors. In addition, the authorities adopt unbiased attitude in the elections and do not take the side of any candidate.

16. Constituency

The state is divided into constituencies, as each constituency is independent by itself. Majority of votes represented in the parliament is defined. The State is usually divided into several or equal constituencies in the number of population. The number of these constituencies is defined by law that safeguards this equality based on certain proportion of numbers of people that differs by the method of election prescribed by the constitution.

17. Voting Tables

They are lists stating the names of electors who are entitled to vote on elections, and these tables are drawn up before the election's date.

18. Electoral Bloc

It is an agreement made by a number of candidates to elect a body, board of directors, assembly, a municipal council, political or representative parliament, or a regional entity. In this type of coalition, these persons agree to unify their efforts and electoral programmes, and enter into alliance based on a consolidated policy and basis, as a means to secure winning the elections in a way which guarantees their winning of a majority or influential votes in the elections against opposing bloc or blocs. Each bloc represents a particular party, group, organization, trend, or a group of various trends.

19. Voting Cards

They are identification cards of the electors to be delivered to each voter before the start of voting process. The purpose of these cards is to introduce the elector and his eligibility to vote on elections, determine his electoral district, and to prepare the voting tables.

20. Representative ballot (Parliamentary Ballot)

It is a ballot for electing the representatives who represent the electors in the representative councils, parliament, or people's assembly.

21. Winning by Acclamation

It is a case where a candidate wins an election upon the withdrawal of his opponents in the electoral district, or where there is no opposing candidate in his electoral district, so he wins without ballot.

22. Voting

It is a term meaning to give one's opinion on the candidates desiring to represent the people or a party. Votes are the criterion which makes a party wins against opposing party, or the affirmative or negative approval of a draft resolution, or electing someone to a political position.

23. Vote of confidence

It is a voting process made to express confidence in a government after the majority has voted in its favor.

24. Tactical Voting

It means making a decision to vote in favor of a particular candidate or party in the elections for the purpose of ensuring a more favorable result than the result expected from selecting the favorite candidate or party. In other words, it means ensuring a better result in voting.

25. Bloc Voting

It is a voting system through which the representatives give their votes on behalf of a group they represent by voting non based on different votes, and the votes are calculated based on relative volume of the number of members of a group represented by the representatives.

26. Electoral quota

It is the minimum number of votes to be secured by a candidate with a view to taking part in the elections, whether in an electoral district or for being a candidate in the party's list.

27. Cumulative Voting

It is a ballot system by virtue of which the electors are granted more than one vote for each elector, and these granted votes may be given to a single candidate or more than one candidate.

28. Abstention from Voting

It is a passive attitude adopted by an elector of his own will or as instructed by either his state or party, to abstain from giving opinion, not to take part in the elections, and refrain from voting for intended ends and goals.

29. Pre-Determined Elections

It is an election the result of which is known in advance with the system of each party, and its results are determined in advance due to lack of a powerful candidate.

30. Democratic (Impartial) Elections

The impartial elections is regarded as the climax of democracy, and it may be summarized as comprising six conditions as defined by David Patler and others, namely:

1. The public suffrage for all adult citizens (ballot right);

2. Regularity and periodicity of elections;

3. Not depriving any group to establish a political party and stand as candidates for political positions;

4. The right to compete for all seats of the parliamentary bodies;

5. The right to organize electoral campaigns

6. Enabling the electors to give their opinions in an atmosphere of secret freedom, counting the votes and announcing the winners in a transparent, impartial way, and enabling the winners to take over their political positions;

The core factors of democratic elections center around two criteria as follows:

1. Freedom of elections, respect of individuals and their essential rights;

2. Impartial elections process

# The Constitution

  1. Definition of Constitution

It is a word of Persian origin, was introduced to the Turkish language, and them came and became widespread in the Arabic Language, having a number of meanings that developed over ages. In the present time, it means a set of legal rules that regulate the form and system of governance in a state. Further, the constitution demonstrates the nature of political regime, the authorities and functions of government bodies, their relationships, their competencies with each other, and their relationships with the citizens, their rights and duties. In addition, the constitution is regarded as the guarantor of freedoms and rights of the individuals and groups, and it may not be amended or otherwise altered unless there is great necessity to do so, yet the amendment or alteration of constitution depends on the extent of flexibility or solidity of the constitution.

2. Rigid constitution

It is a type of constitutions the amendment of which requires complicated procedures; e.g. public referendum, along with several deliberations between the government and parliament.

3. Flexible constitution

It is a constitution that may be amended by way of enacting an Act by either the legislative body or government's executive body with no need to take special procedures or administer public referendum.

4. Customary constitution

It is a constitution based on the norms and principles adopted by way of custom or habit, so that, over the time; it acquires the force and effect of law. A customary constitution undertakes the task of interpreting and clarifying the ambiguity of written legislations, yet this type of constitutions is no longer existing due to political changes; and this is best embodies in the English Constitution.

5. Written constitution

It is a constitution drawn up in writing in the form of provisions and articles, and is drafted by a constituent assembly, on the basis that the people are the source of all governmental powers. This method is the most widespread for drafting written constitutions.

6. Provisional constitution

It is a constitution drafted for a specified time period and the State conforms to its provisions temporarily, pending the promulgation of permanent constitution that governs the State. Most often, provisional constitutions are issued following political or military coup d'état or great changes in a state.

7. Constitutionality of Laws

It is the extent to which the laws enacted by the legislative bodies are consistent with the provisions of written constitution, which has supreme authority over all laws and powers of a State, so any law enacted in breach of that constitution will be considered non- constitutional legislation. Likewise, a law will be regarded as non- constitutional if it fails to fulfill the conditions dictated by the constitution.

8. Social Constitution

It is a statute containing the social laws and functions necessary for survival of the community.

9. Constitution Issuance Approaches

A. Democratic Approach: it is embodied in two means:

Constituent Assembly: It is a body elected to draft and have the constitution approved, as it discussed the constitution on behalf of the people, and if the committee approves it, the constitution becomes in full force and effect and is marked by public, legal legitimacy. Globally, this approach is the most common way for drafting constitutions.

Constitutional Referendum: It is one of the democratic approaches through which the people exercise their powers directly. In this approach, a committee, either elected or appointed, is charged with drafting a constitution, and then the draft constitution is presented to the people to cast their affirmative or negative votes.

B. Non-Democratic Approach: it is embodied in two means:

The contract approach: It is an approach where the constitution is the outcome of concurrence between two wills; namely, the ruler's and people's will. Thus, the constitution is introduced as a result of that concurrence.

The Grant Approach: it in an approach where the ruler, unilaterally, issues a constitution in the form of a gift for the people. In practice, it is the ruler, unilaterally, who issues this type of constitution, and the people have no role in drafting the constitution.

10. Constitutional Crisis

It is a crisis brought about by the political situation in the State as a result of contradiction of the constitution's provisions upon application, or in case of absence of a reference dictated by the constitution where the state's institutions and authorities dispute over a particular political, social, or economic issue. At a public level, the constitutional crisis poses a great threat to the State, as it gives rise to disorder in exercising the powers, thus creating a state of confusion among the people.

11. Constitutional Reforms

They are procedures involving amendments and changes in the constitutional provisions of a particular state to be more appropriate to the new situations, most often, following particular events or as a result of the deterioration of conditions in a particular state; where the existing laws are unable to resolve all disputes, so it becomes a necessity to draft new laws, or amend the existing laws by way of deletion or addition to be more competent to deal with the people's affairs.

12. Constitutional Constraints

They are constraints set forth in a constitution, which the government cannot exceed in any way whatsoever.

13. Non-Constitutional

It is a term portraying the laws enacted by the legislature or parliament yet inconsistent and contradictory with the constitution, or any acts contradictory with the laws set out in the constitution.

14. Constitutional Control

It is a form of control exercised over the constitutionality of laws, with a view to ensuring that the law enacted by either the Parliament or Executive Body is compatible with the constitution. Through this approach, it is possible to ensure that the laws do not contradict with or otherwise breach the rules and principles of a constitution. In some states, constitutional control is administered by judicial bodies, while some constitutions establish constitutional bodies to undertake this task.

15. Supremacy of the Constitution

It is a doctrine indicating that the constitution has supremacy over the ordinary laws and all powers of a state, so no laws contradictory with the provisions of constitution may be enacted. Thus, the constitution is regarded as the principal law and reference in a state; so that any and all laws enacted by the legislative body and are incompatible with the provisions of constitution will be regarded as illegitimate, while any acts made by the Executive Body in breach of the provisions of a constitution will also be illegitimate. Supremacy of constitution is achieved through providing constitutional control over the laws.

16. Constitutional Jurisprudence

It means studies and researches related to the contemplation of provisions of a Constitution made by the legal experts and law makers. These researches highlight the weaknesses, defects, and imperfect items in both legislation and judiciary to be remedied. These studies and researches are not binding, yet they may give effect to effects in the Constitutional structure. A Constitutional Jurist is a legal expert specialized in setting up the constitution and serves as a reference for drafting a Constitution.

17. Constitutional Equality

It is the equality before law, which includes all people; e.g. the payment of taxes, litigation, public offices, social and political rights, and providing protection of law to all community members without discrimination, and providing equal freedom for them.

18. Open-door Constitutional Discussions

It is a democratic constitutional rule by virtue of which the people have a right to attend the sessions of parliament and hear the discussions, or that the discussions and parliament's minutes be published in the official gazette.

19. Constitutionality cycle

It refers to periodic changes brought to the constitution that is instable in a particular state due to constitutional instability.

20. Supreme Constitutional Court

It is a high court that provides judicial control over the constitutionality of laws enacted by the legislative body, as well as the constitutionality of resolutions to be issued by the Executive Body. It also ruled upon the laws involving constitutional discrepancy.

21. Constitutional Confusion

It is description of an aggravated political state experienced by the Executive Body as a result of political vacuum. This term was used when the President of Yemen went on a treatment journey abroad when he was exposed to assassination on June 3rd, 2011 at time of Yemen's popular Revolution, yet the political status of governance was not evidently known; whether it was a declaration of his stepping aside from power or a temporary period as he would return to power after receiving treatment.

22. Constitutional Legitimacy

It means that legitimacy belongs to the rebel people, as the constitution provides that the people are the rulers, and, as such, the ruling regime and its government are stripped off legitimacy if they stand against the people's political will to administer the affairs of rule, so the people's legitimacy abolishes the president's legitimacy for being elected by the people. In practice, Yemen's rebels used this legitimacy in 2011 to oust the regime of former president Ali Abdullah Saleh.

23. Abolishment of Constitution

The constitution is abated and becomes inactive in the event of a military coup or a revolution that overthrows the constitution-based regime before being abolished, and after the success of revolution, a new constitution is drawn up.

24. Review of Constitution

Articles of the constitution in force are reviewed by a committee appointed by the ruling regime. This committee considers and reviews all articles of the constitution with the assistance of constitutional experts and jurists. If the review recommends a change of the constitution, it is often changed, or if the reviewed articles encompasses the majority of constitution, or where it recommends that the reviewed articles be changed in accordance with the general instructions of the ruling regime. Most often, the ruling regimes administer review of the constitution in case they are afraid of public wrath or where there is a threat of imminent peaceful public revolt, as was the case in the Kingdom of Morocco at time of the 2011 Arab rebellions, as a committee was formed to review the constitution after the King of Morocco decided to create political reforms in the Kingdom to avoid the outbreak of a peaceful popular Revolution against his regime, following the example of rebellions of Tunisia and Libya.

25. Constitution Gang

It is a term portraying the persons seeking to manipulate the articles of constitutional amendments through being elected or otherwise appointed in the constituent assembly charged with drawing up the new constitution following the success of Tunisia's popular Revolution and abolishment of the old constitution, for the sake of achieving public interests.

26. Constitutional Declaration

It is a call for public referendum on constitutional amendments. It also includes the articles amended and put into effect pending the formation of a constituent assembly to draw up a new constitution for the State. This is held good for the events taking place in Egypt following the 25th January 2011 revolution.

27. Constituent Assembly

It is an assembly elected by the segments of people and various parties, and is charged with drawing up and drafting a new constitution of the State, in addition to other political assignments. In this case, the constitution has legal force and effect bestowed upon it by the people's will represented by the elected assembly. Tunisia put this model into effect, as it is elected a constituent assembly on October 23rd, 2011 to draw up a new constitution of the state following the success of the revolution and fall of Bin Ali's regime.

## 28. Constitutional Referendum

It is a public referendum administered by an elected or appointed committee charged with drawing up and preparing a draft constitution, and then that draft constitution is made available to the people to give their affirmative or negative opinions on the draft constitution through public referendum. The people's consent is the most important aspect to give effect to and put a constitution into practice.

## 29. Democratic Constitution

A democratic constitution has multiple and varying definitions from a particular perspective to a different perspective, yet all agree that a democratic constitution is a type of constitution which demonstrates the philosophy of governance that gives effect to democracy, political multiplicity, national and political diversity, peaceful circulation of power, transparency between the ruler and his people, doctrine of equality among the citizens, respect of citizenship rights, activating the citizens' role in the administration of state affairs, respect and observance of the social structure of the people and political components, and takes into due consideration the aspirations of all people regardless of national, political, and religious affiliations, enhances the freedom of expression and all types of freedom, the right of litigation and defending a defendant, the rights set out in the international conventions and documents, the respect and rule of law, doctrine of calling a ruler to account and penalizing him, abstention from taking exclusive possession of power and wealth, and attaining political positions by way of polls.

##

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# Section IV

# THE ARAB SPRING

#

# Revolutionary and Political Concepts and Terminology

# &

# Terminology introduced by the Arab Revolutions

#

##

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## Index of Section IV Themes

Theme | Page No. | Theme | Page No. | Theme | Page No.

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First: Revolutionary & Political Concepts | 153 | Coup against legitimacy | 158 | Revolutionary majority | 163

Martial Law | 153 | Abortive Coup d'état | 158 | The Arab Spring | 163

Double standards | 153 | Ideology | 158 | Revolution squares | 163

People's Will | 153 | Zionist Terrorism | 158 | Revolution youth | 163

Strategy | 153 | Ideological Terrorism | 159 | Types of Revolution | 164

Revolution strategy | 154 | Resistance economy | 159 | Revolution of Institutions | 164

Push-to-the-wall strategy | 154 | Political terrorism | 159 | Social revolution | 164

Anarchy strategy | 154 | Tunnel economy | 159 | Administrative revolution | 165

Lying strategy | 155 | Pragmatism | 160 | Islamic Revolution | 165

Snowball strategy | 155 | Freezing funds | 160 | Socialist revolution | 165

Islamophobia | 155 | Ethnic cleansing | 160 | Ideological revolution | 166

Market bankruptcy | 156 | Mass mobilization | 161 | The Cedar Revolution | 166

Power economy | 156 | Public mobilization | 161 | The Orange Revolution | 166

Uprising | 156 | Political mobilization | 161 | Velvet (Gentle) Revolution | 166

Armed uprising | 157 | Singing out of the flock | 161 | Green Revolution | 167

Security breakdown | 157 | Insurgence | 162 | Green Revolution | 167

Coup d'état | 157 | Military insurgence | 162 | Bourgeois Revolution | 167

Bloodless Coup d'état | 157 | Disloyalty culture | 162 | Bloodless Revolution | 167

Bloody Coup d'état | 158 | Revolution | 162 | Cultural Revolution | 167

Non-violent Revolution | 167 | Speech of Hatred | 172 | Popular Movement | 178

Popular Revolution | 168 | Proactive war | 173 | National freedoms | 178

Industrial Revolution | 168 | war of attrition | 173 | Curfew | 178

Counter Revolution | 168 | War of nerves | 174 | Dialogue between religions | 178

Hero of the Revolution | 169 | Media warfare | 174 | Consensus dialogue | 179

Revolutionary statements | 169 | People's war | 174 | Cultural dialogue | 179

Revolutionary escalation | 169 | Computer warfare | 174 | Democratic dialogue | 179

Revolutionary Watershed | 169 | Civil war | 175 | Armed dialogue | 179

Revolution drawbacks | 169 | Cold war | 175 | National dialogue | 179

Revolutionary legitimacy | 170 | War of spies | 175 | Dissent and you will be known | 179

Revolutionary Command Council | 170 | Street war | 175 | Degeneracy | 180

Revolution court | 170 | accidental war | 176 | Bread democracy | 180

Revolutionary expansion | 170 | Guerrilla warfare | 176 | Trumpet democracy | 180

Purgation committees | 170 | Doctrinal warfare | 176 | Public opinion | 181

Revolutionary committees | 171 | War of words | 176 | Types of Public opinion | 181

Revolution elites | 171 | Limited war | 176 | Public right prisoner | 181

Revolution army | 171 | Psychological war | 176 | Prisoner of conscience | 181

The people's army | 171 | Strategic Psychological war | 177 | Political prisoner | 182

Mercenary army | 172 | Tactical Psychological war | 177 | Rule of law | 182

National army | 172 | Preventive war | 177 | Popular sovereignty | 182

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Burnt land policy | 182 | "Break-the-bone" policy | 187 | Political polarization | 193

---|---|---|---|---|---

Political exclusion policy | 183 | Gagging policy | 188 | Political aggression | 193

Status quo policy | 183 | Balance of terror policy | 188 | Political immorality | 194

Open door policy | 183 | International policy | 188 | Political action | 194

Political marketing policy | 183 | Tug-of-war Policy | 188 | Political vacuum | 194

Gratuitous waiver policy | 183 | General Policy | 189 | Political refugee | 194

Appeasement policy | 184 | Non-concessions Policy | 189 | Political disease | 195

Step-by-step policy | 184 | Finger-biting Policy | 189 | Political drought season | 195

Dollar policy | 184 | Racial policy | 189 | Political struggle | 195

Back-to-Square-one policy | 184 | divide and rule Policy | 190 | Political hypocrisy | 195

Hawks and doves policy | 184 | Arm-twisting policy | 190 | Political despair | 196

jiggery – pokery policy | 185 | Axes Policy | 190 | Political coalitions | 196

Countdown policy | 185 | Realpolitik | 191 | Political crisis | 196

Carrot and stick policy | 185 | Political confusion | 191 | Political blocs | 196

Collective punishment policy | 185 | Political reform | 191 | Political Crime | 197

Double standard policy | 186 | Political assassination | 192 | Political legitimacy | 197

Forward Escape Policy | 186 | Political bankruptcy | 192 | Political bondage | 197

Security policy | 186 | Political Recruitment | 192 | Political booty | 198

Revolutions cooling policy | 187 | Political purgation | 193 | Political scandal | 198

Blunder policy | 187 | Political tactic | 193 | Conflict | 198

Fear export policy | 187 | Political Exploitation | 193 | Will Conflict | 198

Class conflict | 199 | Democracy Complex | 203 | Military law | 208

Struggle of power | 199 | Security doctrine | 203 | Civil law | 208

tribal conflict | 199 | Religious doctrine | 204 | "Where did you get that from" Law | 208

Sectarian conflict | 199 | Political doctrine | 204 | Occupancy law | 208

The Fifth column | 199 | Military doctrine | 204 | State Law | 209

Class-based system | 200 | Racism | 204 | Police suppression | 209

Class privilege | 200 | Sectarian violence | 204 | Bloody suppression | 209

Class consciousness | 200 | Bottle neck | 205 | Suppression by the Regime | 209

Social justice | 200 | Mob | 205 | Political suppression | 210

Terrorist aggression | 201 | Transitional period | 205 | Intellectual suppression | 210

Transitional justice | 201 | Islamic law | 205 | Reserve forces | 210

Legal justice | 201 | Parties Act | 205 | International Emergency forces (UNIFIL) | 210

Political justice | 201 | Family law | 206 | NATO forces | 210

Foreign aggression | 201 | Law of war | 206 | International coalition forces | 211

Psychopathic Aggression | 202 | Law of National Safety | 206 | Peacekeeping forces | 211

Military disobedience | 202 | Law of silence | 206 | Special Operations Forces | 211

Civil disobedience | 202 | Emergency Law | 207 | Logistic support forces | 212

Presidential pardon | 202 | The law of political isolation | 207 | Peninsula Shield Forces | 212

Amnesty | 202 | Treachery Law | 207 | Paramilitary forces | 212

Royal/ Emiri pardon | 203 | Elections Crime Act | 207 | Popular forces | 212

Royal/Emiri Grant | 203 | consuetudinary law | 208 | Riot control forces | 213

Mercenary forces | 213 | Passive resistance | 219 | Security Theory | 224

Regular forces | 213 | Political resistance | 219 | "The Hungry Dog Always Follows you" Policy | 225

Tribal society | 213 | Legitimate resistance | 219 | Armed struggle | 225

Civil society | 214 | Civil resistance | 220 | Abortive Country | 225

Transitional council | 214 | Armed resistance | 220 | Election Silence | 225

Velvety society | 214 | National resistance | 220 | Second: Days circulate among the people | 226

Velvet Class | 214 | Consultative conference | 220 | The Inspirer & First Spark of Arab revolutions | 229

Military Junta | 215 | National Dialogue Conference | 220 | Factors that led to outbreak of revolutions in the Arab republics | 229

Tribal quotas | 215 | National Salvation Conference | 221 | The reasons for the success of the revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt | 232

Military courts | 215 | Green area | 221 | Different reactions of the armed forces towards Arab Republics Revolutions | 238

State security courts | 216 | No-fly zone | 221 | Tunisia's 14 January Revolution | 244

Islamic court | 216 | Unmanned Aerial Vehicle | 222 | Egypt's 25 January Revolution | 248

Political court | 216 | Buffer zone | 222 | Lessons learned from the Arab Spring Revolutions | 252

War crimes | 217 | Underground Struggle | 222 |   
 |

Civil crimes | 217 | The Domino theory | 223 |   
 |

Mercenaries | 217 | creative chaos Theory | 223 |   
 |

Media mercenaries | 218 | Congestion chaos theory | 223 |   
 |

Islamic resistance | 218 | Security grip theory | 224 |   
 |

Underground resistance | 219 | Conspiracy Theory | 224 |   
 |

##

# First: Revolutionary and Political Concepts

## Martial Law

Exceptional regulations that are empowered to the military forces when countries goes under a state of emergency (national safety is a term used in Bahrain in 2011 AD). These regulations authorize interruption of some constitution provisions to avoid the dangers that the country may encounter, like eruption of home revolution, homeland security instability or foreign invasion. In this case, the Executive Body applies the emergency laws that vest in them broad exceptional powers.

Media Double Standards

It is a practice made by video and read mass media and satellite TVs to conceal the domestic affairs of their country, and calumniate the other countries and opposing regimes. In a broader sense, highlight the evils of these opposing countries, and this is best exemplified by Al Jazeera TV and Al Arabia TV.

People's Will

It is a set of desires, objectives and options in the citizens expressed, embodied or transferred by one person or group of persons who belong to party or political league or popular organizational entity.

Strategy

It is English word that has several meanings according to the context, and definitions according to use. In political terminology, it means the plans and tactics set by the state, political organization or international organizations, to achieve these objectives, and general and crucial policies and objectives, and indicates how these objectives and policies will be achieved in the short and long runs. It is more inclusive in meaning than general policy. In addition, the term is used with other words to highlight a political concept or common term in politics and state.

Revolution Strategy

It is the plans set up by rebels to achieve the objectives of their revolution and the policies that will be adopted after the revolution succeeds, and the programs that will be applied on the long and short runs.

Push-to-the-wall strategy

It is a term portraying the policy or procedures that the regime of Egypt's Ousted President Mohamed Hosni Mubarak adopted with the Muslim Brotherhood and Salafis. He tightened the grip on the two groups and pushed them to blocked path, by political detentions and security and disturbance investigations. The legitimacy of these two groups as political organizations were not acknowledged, and brought charges and litigated its fellows for charges of belonging to unauthorized organizations. The groups managed to reach parliament, and the Muslim Brotherhood constituted parliamentary majority, followed by Salafis in the first parliament after the popular revolution.

## Anarchy Strategy

It is the creation of vehement anarchy in the country by the ruling regime as attempt to launch civil war and breaking up armed struggles with the opposition groups to achieve military control of the regime in case he suffers failure or to get rid of internal threat in general.

The term was used to signify the establishment of ruling regime in Yemen presided by Ali Abdullah Saleh by breaking up fight and combat between the tribe of Abnaa Al Ahmer, chief sheikh of Hashed Tribe and the Yemen Security Forces in 2011 AD (May) to horrify, terrify and deter those who stay in the change yards throughout Yemen, especially Capital Sana'a, to end their sit-in on the pretext of deterioration of security conditions and return to their houses and protect their families.

Lying Strategy

It is a strategy frequently employed by governments or leaders of governments or political parties to conceal issues or matters that may harm the interests of country or party. They tell lies to the public and public opinion. This is a strategy usually used by the intelligence agencies throughout the world, and the oppressive autocratic regimes to conceal the fact and to tell lies to the people and deceive public opinion.

Snowball Strategy

It was a strategy used by rebels in Egypt on 25 January 2011 AD to gather the largest numbers of protests in the revolution squares. Rallies to revolution squares began with certain numbers and increased in their way, as people in alleys and areas by which the rally passes join rally till they gather in the stay in arena. Their numbers increase or multiply as compared to the beginning, it is like the rolling snowball the volume of which increases while moving down.

Islamophobia

The word "Fobios" is a Greek word meaning unconscious or unjustified fear. Phobia is a term in psychiatry that means psychological disease because of excessive yet unjustified fear.

Islamophobia means fear and horror of Islam, Muslims and Islamic civilization. This fear led to hatred to Islam and Muslims in Western Countries and the United States. The term emerged in the nineties of the last century after collapse of the Soviet Union and the Communist Block. The Western and American strategy politicians in particular assured that Islam is the rival and enemy to Western capitalism after decline of communism. This was parallel to emergence of Islamic liberalization and jihadist movements. However, after September 2001 attacks and London attacks on July 21st, 2005, and after Al Qaeda Organization assumed responsibility for these attacks, fear aggravated and hatred against everything Islamic increased. International Zionist and crusade hatred has increased, and the use of Islamophobia has become formal in all Western countries and the United States, and the obsession of Islamic superiority and fear on national identity from Islamic civilization and increasing numbers of Muslims in these countries increased. The anti-Islam and anti-Muslim feeling nourished the Western extremist Right-wing parties that calls for expelling foreign Muslims from their countries.

Market Bankruptcy

It is a term describing the failure of economic system in a certain country where unemployment spreads and prices rise, inflation rate increases, and social classes vary as the rich grow richer and the poor grow poorer, and percentage of those under poverty line increases. The Egyptian condition was described as such before the eruption of January 25 Revolution, and the term was to express the bad social and economic conditions of Egypt under the regime of the ousted Mohamed Hosni Mubarak's regime.

Power Economy

It is a term that came to light during the rule of the US President Barrack Obama in January 2012 to signify the downsizing of American forces, and depending on the fight efficiency, high training and military technology, and focus on planned attacks by limited forces in the dispute areas instead of using large forces. The step aims at minimizing the budget allocated for American military operations.

Uprising

It is a large-scale popular movement for resistance of occupying forces or a ruling regime, by means of protests and demonstrations. Palestinian popular movements to resist the Israeli occupation were termed as uprising (Intifada), which is lesser than revolution and unarmed. It uses negative resistance and may use stones and Molotov bombs to challenge the military occupation forces.

Armed Uprising

It is an armed popular movement that resists the military occupation, with its arms and launches different operations, like suicide bombing and explodes the interests of the occupant to disturb the occupant's forces and press them to withdraw from the occupied places. It is similar to armed revolution against foreign occupation.

Security Breakdown

It is a condition of breakdown of security and stability by groups to achieve political objectives to press the ruling authorities and show their security bankruptcy and inability to control the control the country's security, and ask to oust it or force it to suppress the security breakdown to be used for ousting it, or may be intentional act by the ruling authorities to abort or suppress any attempt for peaceful rebellion or peaceful protests on the pretext of keeping the broken security. In addition, it may be form of counter revolution to prepare chances for restoring the former regime to rule, as in the case of Tunisia in the 2011 youth-led Revolution, as the guerrillas of the ousted Bin Ali regime destabilized security by the former security men and militias as counter revolution action. However, the Tunisian people aborted it by synergy and insistence on the success of its great revolution that moved to Egypt and ousted Hosni Mubarak's Regime.

Coup d'état

Work executed by insider elements to oust the ruling regime in a certain country and seizure of power. Foreign elements or national opposition may be employed. There are private western security companies and institutions that were hired to carry out coups in the third work countries as occurred in Comoros last century.

Bloodless Coup d'état

It is an act committed by a group to oust the ruling regime and take over power in a peaceful and non-violent manner, without bloodshed. Most often, in the dictatorial regimes, the president, emir, or king is either jailed or expelled from the state, and following his fall, the ruling regime falls.

Bloody Coup

Overthrow of the ruling regime by military force, bloodshed and seizure of power by coupers by weapon and killing of the key figures of a ruling regime.

Coup against legitimacy

It is a term portraying the attempts of opposition movements or procedures that people follow or popular revolution that tries to oust the ruling regime based on legitimacy of elections and polls. It is a term that was used by the Yemeni President, Ali Abdullah Saleh, to describe the peaceful popular revolution that broke down to overthrow him in the Arab Spring on the pretext that he came to power by the polls.

Abortive Coup d'état

Coup aborted and failed before beginning or during planning, or failed after eruption. It is a coup made by domestic elements or by foreign aids.

Ideology

Thought that results from general ideological paradigm that interprets the nature, society and individual, and determines certain intellectual situation that connects ideas in the different fields of ideology, politics, morals and philosophy.

Zionist Terrorism

Bodily, political, ideological and cultural terrorism that was practiced by Zionist guerrillas before and after establishment of Israel beginning with the Haganah Guerrillas in the beginning of the last century to the strike of Gaza and establishment of settlements and Judaization of Jerusalem, usurpation of territories, detention and imprisonment of women, children, sheikhs and youth in camps without trials because of resistance of Zionist occupation, and limited the Palestinian cause to the borders of 1967 to impart legitimacy to the occupation of 1948 territories and all Palestine.

Ideological Terrorism

It is the terrorism that fights political beliefs and ideology as the ruling regime restricts the freedom of expression and encounters any ideology that contravenes the system directions to law; it criminalizes everything that ideologically contravenes the regime, and all security agencies are tailored to serve the political regime and fight any ideology or culture that opposes the regime.

Resistance economy

It is a term used by the Iranian Supreme Spiritual Leader, Ayat Allah Al al-Khomeini, in 2012 to describe the procedures taken by the Islamic Republic of Iran to encounter the economic embargo and the economic sanctions imposed by the UN Security Council and the Western Countries because of the Iranian nuclear program.

Political Terrorism

It is a state where a regime, state, or certain party exercises political pressures on any other regime, state or parties to force it to take steps which achieve the pressing demands of the party. The Zionist State used this term in November 2012 to describe the move of the Palestinian Authority President, Mahmud Abbas, to the United Nations to get the "Observer Country", instead of observer member, status in the General Assembly. The Palestinian Authority acquired an "observer country" status after voting of 138 countries for yes, 9 for no, and 40 abstained.

Tunnel Economy

Underground tunnels dug by the smugglers of foods, arms and catering materials between the Egypt-Gaza borders during the Israeli embargo on Gaza, closure of the border crossing and imposition of famine against the people of Gaza. This created the tunnel economy that has become, in spite of its danger, the main source of Palestinian economy in Gaza, and source for resistance armament. The tunnel economy has become public economic culture. That is, smuggling has come to be enforced publicly and gained human legitimacy. Egypt can't stop digging of tunnels and Israel is not able to demolish them.

Pragmatism

Pragmatism is a name derived from the Greek word Pragma meaning work. It is a political philosophical ideology that expresses the success of work which is the key standard of reality. The pragmatic politician always claims that he doesn't make decision by revelation of previous or ideological political idea, but from the expected result of his work. Pragmatic politicians claims that he acts and works by considering the fruitful practical results that his decision may lead, and he doesn't take decision by revelation of prior political idea or ideology, but through the expected output of his work. Pragmatists don't acknowledge existence of ideal democratic regimes; however, they advocate concealed ideal ideology based on absolute freedom and opposition of all totalitarian theories.

Freezing Funds

Political economic term that denotes the procedure taken by States to forfeit the money and balances of certain country or certain regime, or political figures and leaders who infringe human rights in their country or kill civilians and usurp the citizens' rights. This is usually made by the United Nations or Interpol resolution, or decision of a country where the targets' investments exist.

Ethnic cleansing (genocide)

Description of the procedures against ethnicity that lives within the state borders by physical liquidation and forced immigration by propagating the policy of group assault and rape and mass killing and mass tombs and condemnations of murder without trial or genocide during the wars, and strike of civilians and murder of innocents whether by the ruling regime or foreign authorities that target certain ethnicity or certain tribe as in Rwanda between Tutsis and Hutus, and other examples.

Mass Mobilization

It is the preparation of individuals and group in society and enhancement of their political awareness to participate in the community life, and moving them to the conventional social organization to the modern social organization. It is a type of civil society as it pushes society to change in the mental composition, and enhances the feeling of national belongingness, as social mobilization plays a key role in decline of the old tribal ties, and based on the individuals' involvement in society.

Public Mobilization

Mobilization of recruits and those able to weapon and paramilitary forces, and merging them in the regular armed forces, and compose popular army, popular resistance and armed militias to defend the nation against foreign enemy who tends to invade the national before eruption or after break up of water.

Political Mobilization

Mobilization of political situations of political organization and alliance with other political organizations to achieve common political targets and collect the largest number of votes to affect the results of popular referendum to be made to investigate and survey of public opinion in political issue that concerns society.

Singing out of the flock

Establishment of regime similar to other political regimes by adopting policy in the political issues different from the approach of the regimes similar to it and adopts another path different from its own path, and takes steps that don't match the quality of its political regime, so it becomes irregular between his political system.

Insurgence

Insurgence is a non-organized revolutionary act that aims at separation or toppling of the ruling regime. The different between Insurgence and revolution is that Insurgence is a negative condition based on expedite and unplanned bases, while revolution is based on planning and takes longer and more comprehensive time of Insurgence. Insurgence usually turns to revolution over time.

Military Insurgence

It is an insurgence made against the military command or ruling regime by military personnel or units to overthrow the regime or object to the military orders made by the military command.

Disloyalty Culture

Description given to the culture adopted by some people, politicians and ruling regimes to charge some segments of people of treason, disloyalty and betrayal for foreign

Revolution

Sociologists differ in the determination of standard meaning of revolution, because of the different schools, phases and conditions of each revolution. However, it can be said that revolution is a sudden radical change in political and social aspects in certain country as a result of economic conditions and social and political oppression that may be violent, so it would be armed revolution and may be peaceful as a result of meetings, sit-down strike and civil disobedience. However, it doesn't occur suddenly and takes time, and it is previously organized, or organization occurs after sudden Insurgence that develops into organized revolution.

Revolutionary Majority

It is the numerical majority that carries the same political demands in the groups organized after eruption of Insurgence that resulted in popular revolution. The majority controls the progress of revolution during and after its success. The revolutionary majority may be unorganized and may impose the progress of revolution by ruling of number majority.

The Arab Spring

It is a term assigned to the Arab popular revolutions that broke out in the beginning of 2011 AD, and haphazard Insurgence of few groups against the regime by demonstrations that turned to sit-down strike and gathering where educated youth of the middle class used computer technologies; e.g. email, Google, Facebook, Twitter and Youtube and cell phones for communication. These gatherings have become organized youth revolutions that overthrew the strongest authoritarian Arab regimes of Bin Ali in Tunisia followed by Mubarak Regime in Egypt in a record time that didn't exceed one month. Revolution also spread to Libya and turned into armed revolution that overthrew the Gaddafi Regime, then to Yemen and Syria and other Arab countries.

Revolution Arenas (Squares)

They are places of sit-down strike and demonstrations in the cities of the republics where revolutions broke out in the Arab Spring, 2011 AD. These fields and arenas were administratively and securely organized by rebels and have become symbol of revolution and place for gathering to claim the rights for which the revolution erupted.

Revolution Youth

It is a term given to the youth who participate in the demonstrations, sit-down strikes, and rallies that overthrew the mass dictator ruling regimes. Youth managed to compose non-partisan youth and people's organizational committees to manage the demonstrations and sit-down strikes and provide committees to protect the demonstration, mobilization and sit-down strike arenas, and medical committees to hospitalize the protesters and committees to supply food and services to the sit-in strikers. In addition, the work of youth security committees extended to include protection of public and private properties and residential districts against the attacks of thugs and government-loyal guerrillas in civil uniform, which aimed at spreading anarchy and horror among the rebels to return to their districts to protect them and their families. However, the youth determination for congregation and haphazard good organization aborted these attempts. Youth and rebels have stood firm and steadfast till they attained triumph, and accomplished the Arab dream of dignity, freedom, and democracy.

Types of Revolutions

  1. Revolution of Institutions:

It is a term portraying protests and demonstrations calling for the replacement of leadership figures and personages at the government institutions, for being associated with a regime against which the people have revolted. In practice, this term was broadly used in Yemen at time of the popular Revolution against the regime of Yemen's former president Ali Abdullah Saleh in January 2012, where the employee of some government institutions demonstrated to oust and remove the relatives of Saleh from the management of these institutions. Likewise, units of Yemen's air forces demonstrated in streets to force out the commander of air forces, who was a stepbrother of Yemen's former president Ali Abdullah Saleh.

  2. Social Revolution

It is a large-scale change process in community associated with the relationships that govern its individuals, as well as values, controls, and criteria prevailing in that community. This revolutionary state reflects itself on the relationship between production, social centralization and institutions, thus paving a way for progress in the political areas.

  3. Administrative Revolution

It is a series of changes brought to the approach of managing institutions in the capitalist system, by virtue of which the decision-making powers and control move from the capital owners to managers and professionals. Administrative revolution has emerged and become a necessity due to the growth of companies and their large-scale capitals, and their complicated management processes. It is also concerned with the radical change of administrative system in the government and educational institutions, as well as administrative institutions by way of adopting a modern approach and modern administrative development.

  4. Islamic Revolution

It is an organized popular Revolution led and administered by religious men, and motivated by Islamic religious basis. This type of revolutions is best exemplified by the Islamic revolution in Iran, which was able to overthrow the autocratic Shah's regime, and a gave a practical proof of the development of Islamic regime, thus being able to lead the people at all times.

  5. Socialist Revolution

It is a radical transformation brought to a community, giving rise to abolishment of all forms of human's exploitation, destruction of production relationships that are characterized by oppression and mastery, and liberation of human relations through giving effect to moral and financial equality, abolishment of the sole ownership of the means of production, and equal distribution of wealth. Practically, there is a number of key socialist doctrines, which have different views on the socialist revolution, yet they share the belief that the socialist revolution makes the humanity get rid of exploitation of humans. Further, a socialist revolution is regarded as a radical shift of the community from capitalism into socialism.

  6. Ideological revolution

It is the development and prevalence of ideological thought among community members, with a view to keeping the civil or religious political ideology of that community, and fighting all ideas that stand in opposition to the public ideology. As a result, this approach may lead to fierce repression of the opposition, as exemplified by the regimes of ruling Ba'ath Party in both Iraq and Syria, as well as in the regimes of socialist states that repressed any and all principles and ideas that were incompatible with their socialist ideology.

  7. The Cedar Revolution

It is a term given by former U.S President George W. Bush to the 4 March fight in Lebanon, which was triggered by  the assassination of former  Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Hariri by a terrorist act.

  8. The Orange Revolutions

It is a term describing Ukraine's presidential elections contended by the representatives of financial and economic events, after it was contended by the regime and left-wing opposition, and ultimately won by the West's ally Viktor Yushchenko, and his supporters were wearing orange-colored clothes and scarfs and carrying orange flags.

  9. The Velvet (Gentle) Revolution

It was a peaceful revolution that adopted non-violent demonstrations and sit-down strikes to overthrow the then ruling regime. It was termed a velvet revolution given that it did not use the revolutionary violence and was nor stained by bloodshed, while aiming to create a peaceful radical change that fulfills the public demands. Likewise, this term was employed in the 1990s when the European community in East-Central Europe was able to go on non-violent sit-down strike that overthrew the totalitarian regimes.

  10. Green Velvet Revolution

It is a term describing the demonstrations and sit-down strikes taking place in Tehran following the presidential elections by the supporters of Hashemi Rafsanjani, as his electoral campaign was marked by the green color. When Rafsanjani lost the elections, his supporters went out on demonstrations and rallies against the ruling regime, wearing and holding green-colored clothes and slogans.

  11. Bourgeois Revolution

It was a revolution aiming to eliminate the contradictions of production forces and political feudal or semi-feudal system. Goals of the Bourgeois Revolution were to eliminate and smooth away the problems and obstacles precluding capitalist development; it does not deal with the Bourgeois community; rather, it dealt with the private ownership of production means.

  12. Bloodless Revolution

It is an expression referring to the political coup, overthrow of the ruling regime, achievement of the goals to take over the reins of power and removal of the regime from power in a non-violent way, without resorting to force or bloodshed.

  13. Cultural Revolution

It is a large-scale transformation process involving the elements of intellectual and material culture, as these elements become more compatible with the developments, updates, and requirements in a particular community. Also, new educational, economic, and social plans are set up. This type is best exemplified by China's Cultural Revolution in the past century.

  14. Non-violent Revolution

It is a public youth-led revolution aiming to overthrow the ruling regime by peaceful means and non-violent resistance, by means of demonstrations, protest marches, sit-down strikes, and civil disobedience, in order to cripple the day-to-day life. Thus, this revolution never resorts to violence as a tool to achieve its goals; rather, the rebels face the security forces with undressed chests, and weapon with flower. In practice, non-violent revolutions of the Arab Spring Countries have been able to overthrow and force out autocratic regimes without weapon or violence, although the fall of a great number of martyrs among the rebels.

  15. Popular Revolution

It is a state-wide popular revolution made by the people of all political, gender, and age segments, aiming to overthrow the ruling regime by both peaceful and military means. Most often, a revolution represents all or the majority of society segments, and it usually has a pre-set plan to take over power following the fall of ruling regime.

  16. Industrial Revolution

It is a radical change brought to the production method in Europe; it began in the mid-eighteenth century and produced scientific breakthroughs that transformed the human communities from the hand feudal production phase to industrial capitalist societies that depend on machine production. It is one of the main revolutions that introduced machine in production, which by itself increased production and dropped cost. The industrial revolution affected the political life, and feudalism turned to capitalism creating the ruling bourgeoisie and proletariat. However, capital competition that arose out of industrial revolution led to eruption of the devastating World War that tailored science to serve fatal weapons.

  17. Counter Revolution

It is a term portraying the political groups and former regime groups that tend to eradicate the revolution and destroy its achievements as well as reviving the political institutions that existed before revolution using weapon or beneficiaries of the former regime to restore the social benefits that the ruling class enjoyed, and to restore the power again.

Hero of the Revolution

It is a term assigned by the Yemen Rebels Committees in 2011 to the person who can arrest the Yemeni President Ali Abdullah Saleh.

Revolution Statements

The statements delivered by the Revolutionary Command Council to the people to highlight the revolutionary procedures and actions that the Revolution command will follow after the success attained by the revolution. These statements come to an end upon the end of their reasons and by the rebels' success to take over power.

Revolutionary Escalation

It refers to raising the ceiling of revolutionary actions, aiming to compel the ruling regime to yield to the popular demands. If the revolution is peaceful, escalation is carried out by expanding the rallies, protests, meetings, stay-ins to comprehensive civil disobedience. If the revolution is armed, military escalation shall be carried by multiplying the battle fronts and striking the strategic interests on which the authority and regime pillars are based, to topple the regime by the force of weapon.

Revolutionary Watershed

The final phase of revolution where the revolution decides its situation whether peacefully or by combat till the revolutionary escalation reaches its climax. It is a term used by Yemen's Rebels in 2011 AD four months after peaceful demonstrations that failed to overthrow the ruling regime.

Revolution Drawbacks

The negative consequences of the revolution after eruption, including decline of security condition, loss of security control, revenge of the former regime figures, the impact of deliberate economic sabotage on the national economy that the former regime caused before and during the overthrow.

Revolutionary Legitimacy

The revolution's right to take the suitable procedures to accomplish the revolution goals. Some of these procedures may be merely exceptions imposed by security requirements for success of the revolution. These procedures are usually temporary.

Revolutionary Command Council

It is a council founded after successful military coup or popular revolution and overthrow of the former regime. The council members are usually leaders of the coup. The Revolution Command Council issues set of decisions and orders to be signed by all its members. These decisions and orders are related to the ruling regime and pattern that will be followed by the new regime till the new government is composed.

Revolution Court

Courts composed on wide range after eruption of revolution to adjudicate the fellows and key figures of the former regime or those who oppose the revolution. This trial is described as bodily liquidation, and the accused is not given time for pleading.

Revolution Expansion

Transmission of the revolution contagion from area to the other in the same region, or from country to the other, by taking and deriving the ideas and methods of revolution and revolutionary work that sparked in the first country, as in the Arab Spring of 2011 AD.

Purgation Committees

Provisional committees composed after new regime comes to power. These committees investigate the crimes and administrative violations that occurred in the ousted regime, and are usually given some capacities endowed to public prosecution. The work of these committees ends by the end of their mission.

Revolutionary Committees

Committees composed after eruption of revolutions to detain, interrogate and pursue the fellows of the former regime, and to fight the dominant corruption in the former regime as well as maintaining the objectives and achievements of the revolution.

Revolution Elites

These are elites from all classes of society, who participate in popular revolution to overthrow the ruling regime, such as the sheikhs of tribes, senior armed forces and security officers, intellectuals, professors, school and university students, theologians and politicians, and participations in different feminist activities to advocate and support the revolution....etc.

The Revolution Army

It is an appellation given to the armed forces of all corpses and units when the armed forces launch coup or revolution against the established regime, and given to the armed forces after supporting popular revolution that toppled former regime. The Egyptian armed forces were named the revolution army after overthrow of Hosni Mubarak, and the Armed Forces didn't intervene in favor of the regime, yet they supported the rebels after fall of the regime.

The People's Army

A term given to the army composed during the revolution, which relies on military democracy and assumes the control that results from raising the level of political awareness. The popular army represents the people and defends their rights and interests, and applies the principle of military democracy. In addition, some countries form popular armies to help the armed forces in the wartimes. Military democracy means election of the leaders of military units and supreme commands within the armed forces according to the military competence and qualifications.

This is exemplified by the popular army, which is the popular army of the Libyan revolution that was formed to fight the Gaddafi government and overthrow it by military force in 2011 AD, the Arab Revolutions Spring.

Mercenary Army

It refers to the armed forces that admit within their numbers foreigners of the same nationality or other nationalities who are trained for fighting with the ruling regime, if needed. They are naturalized after a period of military service, and their loyalty to the salary and job, and their loyalty to their countries of origin from which they came. In addition, their children born in that country are recruited. This description applies to some Gulf and Arab countries, as in the case of Gaddafi in Libya.

National Army

It is an appellation given to the armed forces with absolute loyalty to the nation, not the president, king or emir. This army doesn't oppose the will of people and doesn't in the political life until affairs between the ruling authority and the people aggravate, so the armed forced advocate the people and the nation, and take the oath for the nation and defend with no involvement of president, emir, or ruling regime, and only admit within them the mercenary and foreigners rather than as experts who follow their countries.

Speech of Hatred

The acts or statements made by the official or unofficial authorities towards certain class, party or certain political system to create public opinion that opposes these authorities, and may result from religious or class division that leads at the end to creation of atmosphere of hatred and enmity between the same community members. This is one of the means followed by the fifth rank to strike national unity.

Proactive war

The country launches of proactive war against another country to destroy its attacking military and defense capabilities, to prevent war or combat operations that this country may launch against the attacking country, or to change an established ruling regime against the attacking country. These are war launched by the United States after the September 11 explosions in the United States against the Taliban Movement in Afghanistan to eradicate Al-Qaeda Organization and Iraq to overthrow the Saddam Regime based on false information that Iraq owns nuclear arsenal (nuclear weapons) may be used against Israel and the United States, and the United States accomplished its targets in both countries.

War of Attrition

It is a long-term strategic plan that the armed forces follow for a country that can't secure rapid victory in war, so it resorts to weakening the army and its leadership by causing human and military losses on the long run. This type of wars is launched by the countries that don't have huge sources, reserves and supporting public opinion.

President Jamal Abdel Nasser, Leader of the Arab Nation, May Allah be Merciful to Him, resorted to this type of wars after the June 1967 Defeat, after the Israeli troops, on 01/07/1967, entered the Egyptian territories and were blocked and crushed by the Egyptian commandos troops in the Ras El Esh Battle. Military escalation led by the Egyptian forces continued between parties, and the Egyptian forces caused losses to the Israeli aviation using the Soviet air defense systems. The war lasted three years till President Jamal Abdel Nasser and King Hussein accepted the Roger Ceasefire Initiative between the confrontation countries and the Zionist enemy on 07/08/1970, and the military atmosphere was dominated by the no-peace no-war condition between Arabs and Israel, till the armed forces and confrontation countries surprised the Zionist enemy in the 1973 War.

War of Nerves

It is a type of psychological warfare that targets the enemy or political opponent; while, at the international level, this war is launched by aggravating the international relations and affecting the enemy by launching military maneuvers or military and nuclear researches. On the political level, it highlights the power of ruling or opposition party for media and human mobilization before the war to overthrow the ruling party and peacefully bring opposition to power.

Media Warfare

It is a type of oriented psychological warfare used by the state against its political opponents or against other countries or political rivals against each other. In this warfare, all read, audio and video mass media, satellite channels and well-versed media men to negatively affect the opponent morale and divide its ranks and national unity. This may cause or precede military war between the countries.

People's War

It is the mobilization of people from all segments to confront a large opponent, and aims at achieving the national objectives of people. The national liberation movements and anti-colonization revolutions are usually given this description.

Computer (electronic) warfare

it is a term used by the United States in November 2011 to signify its intention to fight its enemies by internet and computer systems and programs, by blocking the enemy's computer systems using complicated viruses that attack the opposing computer systems. The US administration acknowledged this type of wars to encounter the Iranian nuclear program and the Iran missile capabilities that depend on computer systems for launching and steering.

Civil War

It is an armed conflict between two or more parties in the same country as a result of sectarian, ethnic, tribal, political or regional differences. This applies to the conflict between countries and states combined by federal union. Civil warfare weakens the state sovereignty and interrelation. Because of this war, society needs long period of time to restore its stability.

Cold War

It is unarmed conflict that creates tension between parties. Each party tries to weaken the other without using the armed force. This conflict uses propaganda of all types, sabotage, espionage, armament race, and encourages the separatist movements and threat of actual war through the different political, economic and cultural means. The cold war between the Eastern and Western camps that ended by decline of communism and collapse of the Eastern camp and victory of the capitalist camp and emergence of the unipolar power and capitalist globalization.

War of Spies

It is the arrest of mutual spy networks by countries that are politically or ideologically in opposition with each other, or dismissal of diplomats who work in the embassies on charges of espionage. It is a means of cold war and aggravation of the relation between the conflicting countries.

Street (City) Warfare

Combat taking place in the residential areas and cities where hit and run is used, ambushes and explosions are used to inflict huge losses to the enemy and its machinery.

Accidental War

It is a war that breaks out without predetermination or arrangements because of conditions and variables misinterpretation of the other party's intention.

Guerilla Warfare

War launching by small trained fighting group to strike the enemy's regular forces in the forests, jungles, cities and mountains, by setting ambushes, abrupt attack and temporary occupation of the enemy's sites to inflict the largest losses to the enemy and cripple him. The example of this war is that of Taliban Afghanistan Movement that launches guerrilla war against the pro-West foreign and Afghani forces.

Doctrinal War

It is a religion warfare where one of its parties is religiously or doctrinally conflicting in the same religion or from different religions. The religious doctrine may be the reason for the outbreak of that warfare.

War of Words

It is polemic debates and arguments between the conflict parties through media and press conferences, bringing charges and mobilizing feelings against each other without using power. Internationally, it may lead to tension of relations that ends by diplomatic boycott and mutual expulsion of ambassadors. Polemic war is used to achieve non-declared political goals.

Limited War

War limited in geographic territory in a certain area by certain type of weapons. This may be traditional war or limited nuclear war.

Psychological warfare

It is one of the means of psychological treatment in the authority-citizen relation through the communication functions of the state. This war is defined by four levels, each of which has distinctive feature. These levels are media and propaganda and call and psychological warfare. Therefore, it is a type of psychological combat against the enemy, and tries to devastate the enemy's morals by all means to remove any means of self-confidence that may generate resistance.

Strategic Psychological War

Psychological warfare is characterized by totality and expansion because it is launched against the large public on wide unlimited range or place. This war is usually launched against the enemy and its military forces, and the areas under his control to undermine its morals. The main goal of the war is to affect the opinions, views and behavior to help the foreign policy achieve its goals.

Tactical Psychological War

This warfare is usually launched against the enemy armies in the battlefields or bases of combat. The psychological operations in this case aim at undermining the enemy forces for defeat and surrender.

Preventive War (preventive attacks)

It is a war in which the forces of enemy country or enemy armed organizations in their headquarters to cripple their attack capabilities, like the strike of training bases of the armed groups or strike the launching pads and nuclear station facilities and military manufacturing, fearing that the state use of military technology by the state against the attacking country. Israel used, and still uses, this type of war to devastate the capabilities and powers of Hezbollah in Lebanon, and devastation of the Iraqi nuclear reactor in the early 1980s and destruction of a building and facility though to be allocated for nuclear researches in Syria in the second millennium.

Popular Movement

Any spontaneous unplanned approach adopted on a large-scale basis by a large number of community members to achieve common goals. This is exemplified by the religious or political public movements that gain spontaneous public support as in the Islamic Revolution in Iran and the Arabs Revolutions in the 2011 ARAB SPRING.

National Freedoms

These mean that freedom is not a gift of the ruler or ruling regime, and the meaning of political, social and cultural freedom with no prejudice to religion and its rules. These freedoms are given to all citizens of all religious sects and political ideologies, and it is not limited to groups nation, but freedom for all and nation for all.

Curfew

It is a despotic procedure to which some governments resort to restrict the freedom of opposition by imposing curfew in the streets and stay at homes in certain hours defined by the authority, especially under the martial law, to facilitate the arrest of opposition. Curfew may be used by some countries in case of disasters, earthquakes, popular revolutions, intifadas, sabotage, hold up or embezzlement.

Dialogue between Religions

Dialogue that gathers theologians and religious intellectuals from the different heavenly and non-heavenly religions for the sake of peaceful coexistence and determination of the meeting points, avoidance of differences and dissemination of religious tolerance, religious culture, respect of religions and religious figures, and prevent calumniation of religions and freedom of worship.

Consensus Dialogue

It is a dialogue for consensus on solutions offered by the political parties or government to agree on negotiation in their respect.

Cultural Dialogue

It is a discussion of ideological and cultural topics, and offering solutions to cultural and ideological differences and problems that encounter the parties.

Democratic Dialogue

Exchange of views, solutions and proposals on common issues democratically where all opinions are respected, and ensure to the parties that their opinions are presented and discussed without restrictions, pressures or intimidation.

Armed Dialogue (forced dialogue)

It is a dialogue in which a party is forced, coerced, or taken to dialogue, whether for achieving political purposes or to prevent political crisis, civil or international war, or pacification and reconciliation by power of weapon and intimidation. It may mean dialogue that combines strong and weak intimated to dialogue, and therefore reject the results of dialogue by forced negotiations or agreements.

National Dialogue

It is a dialogue that gathers the government, opposition and social classes to discuss the means of finding solutions to political problems that encounter the nation and launch dialogue in respect without expulsion or selection of conferees.

Dissent and you will be known

In Politics, it is a deliberate act made by the ruling regime for the purpose of coming to view at the international political level, and for self-assurance, inferiority and political complex that encounter the ruling regime using space media and creating problems, or by financial temptations and facilities. This applies to the political figures and parties.

Degeneracy

It is a Latin term that has several meanings. Politically, it means (degen: moral degeneration, and cracy: rule); that is, degeneracy that means that certain ruling regime follows the moral and sexual degeneration approach to control people by propagating moral and social corruption, and deterioration of values, traditions and religion on the hypothesis that democracy and equality between genders and sexual freedom and liberation of all restrictions of society and religion.

Bread Democracy

It is a term given to the rich individual autocracy that provides prosperity to its people and, in return, the people abandon their political rights and participation in ruling. This is unannounced agreement between ruling regime and ruled people who acquiesce to the silencing policy and political embargo, provided that they have the generous living and socioeconomic prosperity. This term was devised to describe the democracies announced by the ruling regimes in the wealthy Arab countries.

Trumpet Democracy

It is an appellation given to the individual autocratic regimes that provide limited deal of media freedom against the third parties and sets the stage for degradation on the pretext of individual freedom provided that this freedom is not political. It claims democracy and blows its trumpets on the international pulpits and in its biased media while the state doesn't allow establishment of advocacy parties or opposition parties, and there is no parliamentary system and, if any, it would be appointed by the government controlled by the hierarchy of authority.

Public Opinion

Common points of view and feeling between people in certain time towards a certain situation or problem. Public opinion takes its form from society from which it derives, and is affected by the interactions occurring in it. Public opinion is entitled to advocate or resent certain suggestion or case. The tools that affect public opinion include the unity of culture, media and public relations.

Types of Public Opinion

  1. Fixed public opinion that is derived from the habits, and is either based on organized campaign of promotion, which is the apparent public opinion that means expression of direction and views of certain group of people towards a certain problem or case publicly and apparently, as freedom is available and people don't fear their explicit opinion.

  2. Hidden, non-disclosed public opinion, the public opinion that is not publicly expressed, because people fear expression of their opinion and direction since they are against the situations of recognized social law, standards or authority. Latent public opinion is identified by intelligence reporting and intelligence operations of information collection among the social classes.

Prisoner of Public Right

He/she is a prisoner in civil lawsuits related to the violation of civil and penal laws and legislation.

Prisoner of Conscience

Prisoner sentenced in state security lawsuit that violates the authoritarian regime and its expression of opinion by say or act. This category includes all those who work in the field of journalism and independent politicians. These are among the characteristics of totalitarian and authoritarian regimes where every opposition to the regime by say or act is deprived and may be administratively imprisoned without trial.

Political prisoner (political detainee)

Every prisoner or detainee sentenced or non-sentenced in lawsuit against the ruling authority whether military or civil. They are usually tried in the state security courts or military courts or administratively detained without trials or with civil trials by political verdicts.

Rule of law

It is an appellation meaning that authorities in the state practice their respective authorities and influence in strict conformity with the written laws made according to the constitution and procedures agreed in the constitution. It means rule of law against the abusive verdicts and procedures that may be practiced by the ruling regimes against the individuals of society.

Popular Sovereignty

It is the legitimacy that the state acquires based on the management and agreement of people that represents all political powers in the state, and that powers are derived from and to the people. It is a key principle of democracy that says that ruling is given for people.

Burnt land Policy

It is, in origin, a military term that means destruction of the enemy area and removing it from the map. In politics, it means the use of armed force to suppress the insurgency, protest movement or peaceful demonstrations to strike houses and areas of rebels by planes and tanks, and to eradicate the energy and water sources and agricultural crops to suppress the revolution or demonstrations and to dry the sources of popular uprising against the regime. This term may be used in case a ruling regime that tends to collapse devastates the national economic and spreads anarchy and instability before stepping down from power.

Political Exclusion Policy

It is a policy adopted by the ruling regimes to exclude and dismiss the political parties and independents, and holders of political ideology, and ignores them to exclude them from the political arena, and not to participate in offering solution to the crises that encounter the country and causes crisis of mistrust between the ruling regime and them.

Status Quo policy

It is a policy that depends on illegitimate change of positions and imposition of other situations to force the other party to adhere to this policy. This policy depends on initiative, tight planning, ability and implicit threat by force.

Open Door Policy

It is to grant freedom of trade and equality of commercial transactions among all countries with no discrimination. In other words, it is a policy to eradicate the international monopolies. In addition, this term means that some countries don't close the means that don't cut the relation between a country and the other to full boycott. Therefore, it sets the stage before continuous relation to certain extent without interruption.

Political Marketing Policy

It is a policy aiming at improving the situation of a certain political party by joining the largest number of members and improving the party's financial conditions. This policy uses all necessary and available means to reach previously determined goals.

Gratuitous waiver policy

It is a passive policy overwhelmed by the spirit of defeatist through waiving national goals to achieve some timely gains.

Appeasement Policy

It is a policy adopted by either of the conflicting parties to undermine and minimize the means that can aggravate the situation with the other party. For example, this party may alleviate his media attack and criticism of the other party and leave any work that may provide the spheres. A third party may assume pacification by paying the mediator role.

Step by step (graduation) policy

Means followed by the ruling regime to conceptualize cultural, social and political changes in society step by step according to time plan like mixing between sexes or dissemination of English in education. The term was used by Henry Kissinger in the Egyptian-Israeli Peace Agreement, and described it as a first step to be followed by steps for normalization with Israel. His policy managed to eradicate the Arab-Israeli boycott till commercial normalization was accomplished on the pretext of free trade, and cultural normalization on the pretext of interfaith, intercultural and sports dialogue on the pretext of international championships, and media normalization on the pretext of respecting the other's opinion.

Dollar Policy

It is a term describing the American economic policy against China, third world countries, and Russia. This is managed by economists in the US Congress, as these countries depend on the US dollar in all their economic transactions and therefore practice pressure on the policy of these countries.

Back-to-square-one policy

It is a term portraying the policy adopted in procrastination and insistence on primary situations, and return to the starting point, and not providing assignments and bid on the time and return factor instead of moving forward by imposing new political reality.

Hawks and Doves policy

It is a term commonly used when the US Congress members were divided into two groups on the Vietnamese issue during the Vietnam War; those who were calling for the settlement of dispute by the armed force were called the hawks. The advocates of peaceful solution and compromise were called the doves. This term is given to the policies similar to this concept.

Jiggery – pokery policy

This policy is characterized by foolishness, lying, false promises, procrastination and unclear vision, in addition to passing unannounced policies, underestimating others and double standards.

Countdown Policy

The policy by which certain objectives are achieved within a specific time period, including the use of notice or threat using retaliatory procedures unless the party notified responds to provide certain assignments or to enforce certain conditions in a specified timeframe.

Carrot and Stick Policy

It is an American policy that adopts the reward approach symbolized by carrot, and punishment approach symbolized by represented by stick. The carrot is the economic and technological assistances to a certain country. If that country didn't obey the United States and adopted negative situations against its policies and situations, the United States would approach of economic monopoly and economic sanctions according to the aids. The same approach is used in some countries, as the people deal in the same method of stick and carrot in supporting the regime or not, even the patriotism is measured by the citizen's adherence to the non-elected ruler.

Collective punishment policy

It is when the ruling regime punishes people or group of people for the acts of the individuals of these political groups or opposition. Punishment includes all groups or most members of society like interruption of water, electricity and fuel, and detention of the relatives and people wanted, and criminalizing them for works that individuals committed. In addition, it applies to the policy adopted by some countries in imposing economic penalties and economic embargo on another state that opposes its ruling regime, so damages are generally caused to people because of minority that holds authority.

Double-standard Policy

It is the employment of double standards in a state's dealing with the international community; it adopts the flexible and smooth policy with the state on political cases, while the violence approach is adopted with other countries in the same case. This is exemplified the case of the United States' relation with Israel and the US advocacy of Israel against the Arab countries, and dealing in double standards; a special standard for Israel and standard that supports Israel against Arabs.

Forward Escape Policy

It is a description of the procedures and actions that the politician, ruling regime, or political party adopts for escalation and disagreement on solutions offered for political crisis that the country suffers. Instead of dialogue and finding solutions, escalating disagreed reality is imposed. It is a description given to the Syrian government in confrontation of demonstrations and protests by armed forces in the 2011 ARAB SPRING.

Security Policy

It is a set of security plans and schemes adopted by a state to safeguard and maintain its security and stability. Most often, this policy comes out to practice in case the state experiences security crises, in the event of political and security anarchy in the state; or in case of reforming the government bodies following the outbreak of popular revolution to take over power.

Revolution-Cooling Policy

It is a term portraying the tranquil policy adopted by the Russian Federation in its dealing with the Arab Spring revolutions and ruling regimes with which it has strategic and long-standing relations. It recommends both parties to have patience and deliberateness, sit on dialogue table to find peaceful solutions, and have the issues resolved by way of reason rather than using the force.

Blunder policy

It is a policy in which political steps are taken with pre-set planning and without considering the consequences of such steps and the potential aftermath. It is also described as impetuous policy taken without considering the political outcome and aftermath.

Fear export policy

It is a term meaning use of menace and fear through taking procedures that aim at inflicting harm upon the target party; whether an individual or a state, to frighten or preclude him from taking particular steps. The Palestinians used this term to describe the U.S.A policy that stood in opposition to the declaration of Palestine State in the United Nations in September 2011, through frightening the Palestinians that it would stop the US aid and support provided to them if they insist on establishing the State of Palestine. This term also describes the procedures which Israel threatened to take against the Palestinian Authority.

Break-the-bones Policy

It is a repressive policy adopted by the ruling regime against any party that intends to oppose the regime within the State, whether by word or deed. This is made through putting the opponents and their families in prisons and jails, thus compelling them to yield to the regime's policy.

Gagging Policy

It is a term referring to the penal and punitive procedures adopted by the repressive regimes to penalize any party that opposes its policy by word, whether in public or secretly, arrest any persons who criticize the ruling regime and have them criminalized in the regime-affiliated courts. Alternatively, a person may be detailed for expressing his opinion, to be an example for the others and spreading fear against the utterance of truth and constructive criticism beyond the limits set by the ruling regime.

Balance of terror policy

It is a term denoting the reactions of similar effect against violent repressive procedures, as terror is responded to by terror and force by force, thus making balance between the conflicting powers or between a ruling regime and armed opposition.

International Policy

It is the plans and policies which regulate the work of international organizations and institutions as well as international non-governmental and private associations, explain their respective objectives, and set up their policies.

Tug-of-war Policy

It is a state where each of the disputing parties intensifies its political demands against the other party and accepts no compromise, until the other party yields to the demands of the other unyielding party, even if partly. In practice, this policy was announced following the constitutional amendments referendum that took place on July 1st, 2011 in the Kingdom of Morocco, to describe the political state existing between the ruling regime and Morocco's 20 of February Opposition Movement.

General Policy

It is the general principles of policy adopted by a State, government body, or party; demonstrating the policies and trends adopted by these States or organizations on both announced and non-announced events and situations.

No-Concessions Policy

It is a term describing the condition where the opposing political parties adopt unyielding attitudes towards each other, and refuse to give up any of their demands, so that each party is uncompromising in its attitudes and demands. Most often, this policy gives rise to fierce confrontation between the political parties, which engender a state of political instability inside the State. In practice, this policy was attributed to Yemen's state at time of the popular revolution that broke out in June 2011, as Yemen's government refused to make any concessions to the rebels or the opposition other than having recourse to the constitution, while the rebels persisted in their unyielding demands. (This took place before the fall of Ali Abdullah Saleh)

Finger-Biting Policy

It is an appellation describing two conflicting political groups which propose different solutions and demands, yet each group adheres to its own political demands, solutions, and proposals to the farthest extent possible, and exercises pressure on the other group in order to concede and yield, depending on the time factor. As such, it is a term likens the conflicting groups as two persons each of whom is biting the fingers of the other persons' hand until one of them yields and concedes, although both persons suffer from pain. This term was widely used at time of the 2011 Arab Spring Revolutions.

Racial Policy

It is a policy adopted by the ruling regime or political parties against their opponents who have different races or political parties based on racism and discrimination based on religion, language, race, sex, or political ideology and thought.

Divide and Rule Policy

It is a political term derived from the Latin language, and means weakening the opponents and enemies both internally and externally through piercing through their lines and stirring up discord among them, and making them in permanent dispute against each other, so as to prevent their unity. This policy was adopted by the colonial countries, particularly in the Arab World and Third World Countries. Likewise, some governments seek to use this policy within its State to weaken its political opponents and stir them up against each other.

Arm-Twisting Policy

It is a term portraying the pressure exercised on a political figure or organization, so as to force him/it that they are steps and acts that fulfill the demands of the pressure-exercising group, whether a government, people, or opposition. This term was widely used when the charge d'affaires in Yemen Mr. Al Sayed Abd Rabu threatened that he would resign due to the arm-twisting policy which was exercised against him on the issue of taking over power in lieu of former president Ali Abdullah Saleh who was, by that time, present in the Saudi Arabia for treatment after being assassinated on June 3, 2011, and his disappearance from the political scene.

Axes Policy

It is an appellation portraying a policy adopted by some countries which compose a political coalition against opposing international coalitions, and these countries are biased in favor of their coalition against the other coalition, thus creating tense international relations. This policy was initially used by the United States of America, which classified the whole world into two axis; the Axis of Good, being those countries standing in alliance with the KSA, and the Axis of Evil, which refers to the countries not in alliance with the KSA, as stated by the Father George W. Bush: "Either with or against us".

Realpolitik

It is an approach adopted by the states in explanation of their policies against any other country. This policy is based on realistic facts, gradual transformation, and yielding to the status quo. In practice, this policy was used by the Russian Federation to explain its policy with Libya's ex-president Muammar Gaddafi when the people stirred up against him; at first, they believes that the legitimacy lies in the hand of Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, yet amid the acceleration of events and recognition of Libya's Transitional Council by some states, President Medvedev stated in the G8 Conference, held in France in May 2011, that Libya's ruling regime lost its legitimacy, and that he would send a representative from Libya to Benghazi to make coordination with Libya's Transitional Council, describing that policy as "realpolitik".

Political Confusion

It is a term portraying the state of disagreement prevailing among the political parties, both pro-regime and anti-regime, on the settlement of an important national issue, pending other domestic or foreign political forces to create agreement and consensus on the solution. This term was broadly used during the period that took place upon the formation of Lebanon's new government in June 2011, when the then acting president Najib Mikati failed to reach consensus on the formation of government for several months.

Political Reform

It is a term describing a set of reforms involving the political atmosphere and governance regime in a particular state, removal of the corrupt pro-regime politicians, eradication of the financial, administrative, and political corruption. Sometimes, these reforms take place as a result of agreement made between the ruling regime and the opposition as well as political forces, due to non-violent revolution that overthrows the ruling regime and its prominent figures, thus paving a way for a new regime which remedies the aspects of defect made by the former regime, or a government or any of its members may be replaced to create political reforms in the State in conformity with the popular and parliamentary demands.

Political Assassination

It is the murder of political personage or for political considerations. Most often, assassinations are handled by special trained groups. Further, assassination may be plotted to get rid of a political opponent of the State's ruling regime, or the killing of a person standing in opposition to the ruling regime whether inside or outside the homeland. This is exemplified by the practices made by Israel's Institute for Intelligence and Special Operations (Mossad), in respect of assassinating prominent figures opposing the Israeli occupation both within and outside the occupied territory of Palestine.

Political Bankruptcy

It is a term portraying a state of inability to find solutions for political problems that face the ruling regime, government, political organization, or independent political figures, and locking the door in front of the solutions provided by the opposition.

Political Recruitment

The politicians in democratic regimes and leaders of political parties undertake the task of nominating the candidates for political positions, preparing political programmes to overcome the general challenges and problems experienced by their communities, in addition to preparing, training, and qualifying the politicians and leaders for higher positions; a matter which contributes to reviving the community and secures the participation of new persons. Political Recruitment is a description of these procedures.

Political Purgation

It is a term portraying the act of removing the followers of the former regime or any segments through to pose threats to the new regime and stripping them off all capabilities, powers, positions, and influential ranks within a community, which may help them pose menace to the new regime. Most often, political purgation takes place following the outbreak of a revolution, coup against the former regime, or after a military or political defeat.

Political Tactic

Tactic is an English word meaning a way to manage the battle. In politics, it means the approach and way adopted to manage the political work with utmost accuracy and firmness in strict conformity with a preset plan, in order to achieve the objectives sought from that policy or political activity.

Political Exploitation

It is a term which portrays taking advantage of patriotic situations and feelings, as well as political crises for serving the objectives of political organization or the ruling regime, or for a personal of an independent figure seeking to come to power, and administering this situation administratively and functionally.

State of Political Polarization

It is a state predominant in the political life within a particular political period, where the political groups and parties are polarized to form a party coalition, so as to win an election, or enter the elections with a large number of persons to create an electoral majority that defeats any opponents.

Political Aggression

It is a term describing non-violent, political aggressive acts made by a particular state against some other state, through employing the international occasions and media warfare to achieve political goals.

Political Immorality

It is a term depicting the abandonment of political principles and ideas of a political regime, giving up the general principles in return for achieving special individual interests, and yielding to demands and policies that oppose the ideology and policy of a political organization.

Political Action

It is a term describing the efforts made by political parties to take the reins of power, through the public elections, in order to achieve their respective programmes.

Political Vacuum

It is a term used by the United States of America to describe a state which was prevalent in the Middle East following the expulsion of French and British occupation from the region, thus leaving a vacuum that should be filled by the American presence. At present, this term is used to denote that a state is lacking the head of Executive Body, due to sickness, disability, or forced removal from power, thus giving rise to political vacuum in the Executive Body. This term was widely used when Yemen's former president Ali Abdullah Saleh head for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia on a treatment journey, after being injured on an assassination attempt on June 3, 2011, at time of Yemen's popular revolution which broke out against his regime. Upon his departure, the presidency was not determined, yet the charge d'affaires took over as a president. Likewise, This term was also used during the period following the overthrow of Lebanon's government in 2010, and charging the then acting president Najib Mikati to form a government which took several months of discussions. This period was termed a political vacuum period, until the government was ultimately formed in June 2010.

Political Refugee

The political refugee is a person who has left, fled, or been expelled from his homeland based on political, racial, or ideological reasons, and sought shelter at some other state asking for protection and decent living, due to being deprived of the return, or motivated by fear to return to his homeland.

Political Disease

It is a term portraying psychological diseases, delusions, and misgivings befalling the politician or dictatorial ruler; e.g. the megalomania and superiority over all persons. Many dictatorial rulers, inter alia, Pharaoh and Hitler, were afflicted by this disease.

Political Drought Season

It is a term portraying a period of time marked by political party recession, as the homeland-based political activities and actions of parties are suspended in a deliberate and systematic way, so that the parties would not take place in any political decisions or views that concerns the homeland. In practice, this term was given by the Egyptian press to the reign of Egypt's ousted president Hosni Mubarak following the success of 25 January 2011 popular revolution.

Political Struggle

It is a term describing the efforts exerted in opposition to and resistance of the occupation troops and ruling regime, as well as the attempts made to overthrow the regime by way of peaceful and political activities through passive resistance, demonstrations, and peaceful gatherings, standing in front of the security forces with naked chests, and steadfastness against security and political suppression, spreading the issues both within and outside the state, and making use of all mass media and available non-violent means to escalate political situations against the ruling regime.

Political Hypocrisy

It is an approach adopted by a repressive dictatorial regime to delude the international community, foreign states, and the United Nations that it is a democratic regime which respects the human rights, and seeks all means to be depicted in that image, through financial aid, foreign investments, using satellite media and propaganda to achieve this end, while the people are suffering from political deprivation, violation of human rights, and degradation of their dignity through the autocratic rule of a ruler and his family, or the president and his party.

Political Despair

It is a state of depression befalling the people of states which prevent the formation of political groups and organization in public, criminalize and penalize any attempt to establish party groups on the grounds of violation of the constitution. In addition, these repressive states use the people's incomplete political awareness as a pretext to ban the freedom of political organization. In practice, only a few number of states prevents the establishment of public political, party groups, and, unfortunately, they call themselves as democratic regimes.

Political Coalitions

Political alliances made between different parties, or between independent figures and political associations, motivated by electoral or political reasons that cause them to form alliance to constitute revolutionary, parliamentary majority, or a consensual coalition government.

Political Crisis

It is a political crisis facing the ruling regime, and often requires national agreement to have it resolved. In addition, this crisis may take place due to lack of legal reference provided by the constitution, or for being contradictory with the constitution's articles, or when the government and its bodies are in disagreement on a political issue.

Political Blocs

It is a term describing the alliance and combination of organized groups within a single party or government, or within the political groups and organizations, with a view to forming a majority in the same party, government, or among the revolution's organizations.

Political Crime

It is a term used to express crimes motivated by political purposes. This term may be given to all crimes which pose a threat to the state's internal or external security, and the political crimes which are typically associated with political disorders, and may be executed by ordinary means; e.g. assassination and violent destruction.

Political Legitimacy

It is a political legitimacy vested in the elected government in power, which operates in the framework of democratic principles, and is subject to the people's will through competitive and periodic election mechanism.

Political Bondage

It is a coerced affiliation to a particular political or party group, either due to working under the umbrella of one-party system or autocratic, despotic rule, or due to voluntary affiliation to and advocacy of the party and regime, for the purpose of achieving social, financial, personal goals, until the individual affiliating to the party or ruling regime is engaged in bondage relationship, to the extent that he cannot oppose or otherwise leave the party or regime motivated by fear and dread. In the event of fall of the ruling regime or party, the person affiliated to them is free just as when a slave is set free by his master.

Political Complex

It is a complex which comes over the despotic ruler and makes him see his regime as a democratic regime enjoying security stability, although the dictatorship, one-man rule, and iron security force are the prominent features of his regime. Alternatively, a ruler may be afflicted with a complex of low population, which makes him grant citizenship to foreign individuals or persons from the same nationalism to increase population, and that he is overwhelmed by a complex of power of and conceit with his military force, which he mobilizes for threatening or invading other countries, or he may see himself as a fair ruler, even through injustice preponderates his rule and regime.

Political Booty

Political gains acquired upon the ruling authority's waiver of them, or overthrow of the ruling regime and unintentional acquisition of free gains by the independent political organizations and political figures.

Political Scandal

Political and moral scandals committed by politicians in contravention of constitution and provisions of law, and taking steps and actions that infringe the directions of the political regime that he represents, committing immoral acts that lead to political scandal, like bribery or funding election campaigns by dirty money, receiving or paying bribe to persons or countries to pass policies that contravene the applicable policy in the regime represented by the politician. Examples of political scandals abound, and such scandals usually oust their culprit be it individual or government.

Conflict

Competition or clash between two persons, two classes, two countries or many parties where each party tries to realise its goals and targets by different means and methods. Conflict may be peaceful, armed, direct or indirect.

Will Conflict

Conflict between disputing political parties where each party presses the other for long periods till situations aggravate and pressure increases on both parties till the will of one party is defeated because of non-endurance, so it surrenders to the demands of the winning party that has strong will. This description was given to conflict between revolts in Yemen and the ruling authority after stay-ins passed their fourth month.

Class Conflict

Dispute that occurs among the social classes and categories based on economic and social factors on the unequal distribution of authority, wealth and privileges among the social classes.

Struggle for Power

Competition and dispute that occurs in the leadership of the state political regime, in partisan organizations or between the ruling family to displace the other party. Power struggle usually culminates in coup by the disputing parties.

Tribal Conflict

It is an armed dispute or fight that occurs between the tribal community tribes fed by tribal disputes and fuelled by revenge and reiteration, or for political reasons related to wealth and dispute over properties and lands.

Sectarian conflict

It is uncreative dispute and competition in the religious and doctrinal sectarian societies where inequality among sects prevail, which creates conflict that may be bloody between the different sects and doctrines in society.

The Fifth Column

It is a segment of society that works to disseminate rumours, promote destructive propaganda, and cause instability in society or conduct sabotage operations for the favour of foreign authorities. The term is also given to the armed militias and tribes created by the authoritarian regimes to put off any revolution that may erupt against the regime. In addition, it is used in the ruling party elections to collect the largest number of votes for the party. This scenario failed in Libya and Yemen where clans and tribes rose with the public movements that aimed at overthrowing these oppressive regimes, and the plot backfired.

Class-Based System

It is a social status where classes exist in society and each class has common features among its members to make it distinguished society from the entire society. These classes arise due to the economic conditions, inequality of opportunities and unequal distribution of resources or religious beliefs and social customs and traditions.

Class privileges

Privileges provided by the ruling regime to those close to authority or the family members of the ruler or king. By these privileges, public funds are embezzled and chaos and inequality among the community members spread. It is one of the key reasons for eruption of popular revolutions, as oppression and injustice prevailed and multiplicity of classes in society emerged.

Class consciousness

It is a Marxist political concept that denotes the social class consciousness because of existence as class, and therefore feeling the unity of all its members through the unity of its social status and unified position in the production cycle. Class consciousness is closely related to the objective location that the concerned class occupies in the production pattern.

Social Justice

Term given to the society that provides its people with equal opportunity, generous living and social justice for man from birth, including health, education, talent development and provision of job opportunities and fair distribution of national resources as well as non-discrimination between citizens on tribal, ethnic or sectarian basis.

Terrorist aggression

Terrorist acts committed by opposition organizations or groups that take armed struggle as approach to oust the standing ruling regime, and the regime describes these as terrorist acts and terrorist organizations, while they believe that they are legitimate resistance that aims at ousting the ruling regime by power of weapon.

Transitional justice

This means the trial of former officials of the ousted regime by popular fight and non-coup revolution as in Egypt and Tunisia where people demanded application of transitional justice to the former regime members who are involved in political, financial and legal corruption, and not to waive any legal claims or rights on them.

Legal justice

It is the application of law to all social classes and the rule of law over all, rule of law, legal equality and compliance with the constitution provisions and laws.

Political justice

It is equality between citizens in voting in the presidential and parliamentary elections with no restrictions on ballot, and access to power by ballot boxes and free elections.

Foreign Aggression

It describes military aggressive action done by country against another non in preparation for military invasion or preventive and warning attacks against that country. It is also given to the sabotage and terrorist acts done by countries against other countries.

Psychopathic Aggression

Aggressive act committed by individual or group against civil innocents by random gunshot and explosion of the places to which people go, or murder of school children, and causing largest number of casualties. The culprit of attack is described as psychopathic or insane who suffers psychological complexes that call him to revenge from the innocent community members, and there are no political grounds for his action rather than the tales that he creates as part of his psychopathy.

Military disobedience

It is a rebellion made by a group of military members or armed attack on military authority. Although military disobedience may lead to military and bloody clash and violence, it can't be classified as revolution. In addition, it is different from military coups.

Civil Disobedience

Refer to item No. 12 of the political freedoms, section III of this Book

Presidential Pardon

It is a pardon of prisoners and detainees in political and public right issues made by the president. Constitution provides the president's right to issue this pardon, and this pardon is usually issued in the national events and commemoration of coming to power or presidency, or on the Independence Day and national days.

Amnesty

General amnesty that includes all those accused of political crimes whether before charge of condemnation or after condemnation. General amnesty usually includes group or sector of people who conspire against the ruling regime and conspiracy ends by failure. The general amnesty is a right of the state president as provided in most constitutions.

Royal/Emiri Pardon

It is a pardon awarded by King for the prisoners sentenced in political or criminal cases or public right crimes, for which a royal decree is issued as Royal or Emiri grant.

Royal/Emiri Grant

The privileges, gratuities, gifts or rights given by the King or Amir to the people under his rule, and Emiri decree or royal or Emiri instructions are issued for this purpose. It is a means of absolute ownership that considers rights as gift of the ruler and Amir, and that people belong to the King and ruling family.

Democracy Complex

It is a complex that befalls the rulers of one-party autocratic, authoritarian regimes. The ruler thinks that his regime is democratic, due to the ruler's provision of media freedom that doesn't examine him or his regime, and provides parliament with most members appointed by him and minority of his fellows, and imposes disintegration, sin and degradation of traditions and customs on the pretext of individual freedom, and focuses on the moral freedom while he suppresses political freedom and thinks of democracy as grant of him whereby hypocrites haul and praise him so he reaches psychological phase where he thinks that his regime is democratic, like the ugly who looks at mirror and doesn't see his ugliness.

Security doctrine

The strategic security plans based on the security organization of the state and its agencies and security leaders, and how to take action in the security and political crises that encounter the country, and the methods for preparation of national security leaders and centers.

Religious Doctrine

It is a doctrine in which the individual believes, adopts as religion, follows its instructions, avoids its prohibitions, and sanctify its rules and establishes them as reference for better and worse.

Political Doctrine (Political Ideology)

It is the ideological political principles on which the political party is based, which drives its ideological policies and sets the general principles and ideological approach.

Military Doctrine

It is the method of composition and organization of armed forces and method of its different mobilization combat, openness, armament and tactics. There are two military doctrines:

  1. Eastern doctrine adopted by Chinese, Russian Federation and countries that use the same Eastern mobilization and weapons. It depends on human density in combat, and its field training is different from the Western doctrine.

  2. Western Doctrine produced by the US forces and western system and their allies. It depends on the fire density of combat and different from the eastern doctrine in training, weapon, combat method and combat mobilization.

Racism

This is based on other sublime ethnicities that live in the same nation or outside it, and it is based on racial bases and ethnic discrimination. It is a description of the Zionist apartheid policy followed against Palestinians in the occupied territories based on ethnic persecution.

Sectarian violence

It is a term describing an armed violence and conflict among different religious sects that live in one nation and under one political regime, but they embrace different are doctrines and religions. This violence is fostered by foreign parties or government support for political reasons.

Bottle neck

This signifies the hard or deadlocked path and crucial phase as progress is impeded and the crisis arises. Political movement forward and return backward is difficult, so control is loss and the situation explodes. The Yemen revolts used this term to denote that, after four months of peaceful stay-ins, the revolution reach bottleneck; that is, a phase where the situation may explode and becomes armed revolution that lead the country to civil war.

Mob

It is a gathering of group of persons under certain effects with no specific goals, and practice violence, riot and spread of horror and embezzlement.

Transitional Period

The period of time where the ruling regime is based on interim basis till permanent constitution is set for ruling. The transitional period usually occurs after eruption of popular revolution or military or political coup to change the political situation of the country.

Islamic Law

Law derived from Islamic Sharia with sources from the Holy Koran and Prophet Muhammad's Sunnah, which are an integral law of the most sublime laws that humanity learnt. It organizes the civil life on Islamic tolerant Sharia grounds that don't afford error and can't be prejudiced or changed regardless of the progress of time to the Last Day.

Parties Act

It is a set of rules, systems and controls on which basis partisan political life is organized and political parties, groups and organizations are established, and methods of getting the establishment licenses and restrictions imposed on political organizations.

Family Law

It is a set of legal rules derived from Islamic Sharia and Islamic jurisprudence that organize the family affairs concerning marriage, divorce and marital rights, affiliation, inheritance and other topics related to the Muslim family, and it can apply to non-Muslims in case the litigant parties so required.

Law of War

Laws of war and armed disputes provide the principles and rules to be followed during the war and in the battles, and not to involve civilians in combat, detention, torture, or used as human armours, and respect of Geneva Conventions in dealing with the prisoners of war. The United Nations criminalizes everything that violates these rules by the crime of war criminal.

Law of National Safety

It is a law that imposes a state of emergency. This term was used in the Kingdom of Bahrain when emergency was imposed during the riots and demonstrations organized by opposition parties and Shiite groups in 2011 AD. In this law, the martial laws and rules are applied. It is another nomination of the emergency law.

Law of Silence

Description given to the muzzling policy and living under suppressive authoritarian ruling regimes, so politically silent generations arise and are not allowed to criticise the ruler and his regime. This law punishes every person who violates or opposes the ruling authority, so fear of punishment turns into fear of expression, thus silence automatically prevails, and silence rules are followed.

Emergency Law (National Safety Law)

Law that authorizes the military authorities to infringe the constitution and impose emergency, curfew, martial law, interrupt civil laws and assign broad capacities to the military authorities, like detention, torture and use of armed force without being subject to the civil criminal provisions without legal accountability so long as the ruling regime survives, and martial courts and state security courts established for political crimes committed against the regime that exists under emergency law.

The law of Political Isolation

It is a procedure whereby the remaining individuals of ousted regime are prevented from and denied political exercise or participation in political life and state political institutions for a period of time. The January 25 revolts in Egypt demanded application of this law to the remnants and fellows of the pre-revolution ruling National Democratic Party for no less than ten years, and prohibiting and isolating them of participation in parliament or government till the previous party power disperses.

Treachery Law

It refers to a set of rules applicable to those individuals accused of treachery of nation and corruption of political life, waste of public funds, damage of nation and its dignity. The public of the Egyptian January 25 Revolution demanded to apply this law to the Former President Hosni Mubarak and members of his regime, and to put them to political trial based on this law and prevent them from the right to exercise political activity.

Elections Crime Act

Legal articles that apply to every person who counterfeits or forges elections, or contributes to the counterfeit, forgery and falsification of the results of elections in terms of the sources of finance, looting of votes and other violations criminalized by law.

Consuetudinary Law (Emergency Law)

Military rules applied to civilians in case emergency condition is imposed during the wars or the state exposure to security conditions or foreign aggression that requires intervention of military forces in the detention and trial of civilians in military courts in non-compliance with civil laws, and imposition of curfew and other rules that violate the civil laws.

Military law

Set of legal articles, rules, regulations and provisions that apply to the military and police corpus related to penalties and sanctions and organization of the retirement affairs and referral to the military courts committed by personnel in the military and police forces.

Civil Law

It is a legislature-enacted law to organize civil life of all social classes. The legislative source of this law is the provisions, articles and rules enacted by law makers. This law is subject to alteration and change, and may be true or false. It doesn't work on religious bases. This law is advocated by liberals, leftists and those who oppose the application of Islamic law and Islamic Sharia.

"Where did you get that from?" law

It is a set of procedures whereby the rich must state and prove the sources of their fortunes to judge the beneficiaries of the former regime and its members.

Occupancy law

It is a term given to procedures that authorized ownership of public undeveloped lands by occupancy; that is, by fencing them and fixing border marks on them, and claiming their ownership, then getting official documents to acknowledge its ownership and agreement of the head of ruling authority. This law was applied to most Arab Gulf countries in the early twentieth century.

State Law

It is a term that means legal terms of reference in case a guest in host country commits felony or crime sentenced by the law of host country. It is generally given to the legal terms of reference in the trial of American soldiers in the country where American forces exist, and lifting legal immunity of them in case they commit crimes or felonies penalized by civil law in the host country. The term emerged after announcement of withdrawal of US forces from Iraq by the end of 2011 and stay of US forces to train the Iraqi forces.

Police Suppression

It is an approach that depends on security suppression, political detentions, state security courts and administrative attachment in solving the political problems that encounter the ruling regime in the country. The security forces and detective police or intelligence forces are supported by the ruling regime.

Bloody suppression

Suppression of peaceful rebellion movement, demonstrations or protests by security forces, armed forces and government militias by armed forces and bloodshed to spread horror among rebels or protesters.

Suppression by the Regime

It is the suppression committed by the ruling authority against opposition or class of people to punish them because of opposing the ruling regime. Suppression varies from physical to ideological, doctrinal and social, like denial of civil service, political marginalization and suppression of political freedoms, detentions, torture, and other means of suppression exercised by the ruling authority.

Political Suppression

Prevention or restriction on establishment of political parties and organizations, prohibition of political work of individuals and groups on the pretext of political immaturity or control of political party or political government or ruler on all political matters in the country, and taking crucial decisions for the nation without returning to the people and imposing the dictator and autocratic will on the political life and ruling regime.

Intellectual Suppression

It is a set of restrictions imposed on the freedom of expression and thinking, and prohibition of every ideology that opposes the ruling political regime, criminalization and trial of the ideological and doctrinal opposition to the ruling regime.

Reserve Forces

They are troops of retired armed forces officers and personnel and recruited students to carry weapon, compulsory recruitment personnel and offices. They are called when needed and form support forces and arrear forces for the frontlines in battles.

International Emergency Forces (UNIFIL)

Troops that wear blue hats, logo of the UN Security Council Peacekeeping Forces deployed based on UN Resolution. These are neutral troops that separate fighting forces. Their deployment is renewed every year. They are usually deployed upon request or conflicting two or more countries, and are usually composed of several donor countries. Its personnel receive their salaries from the United Nations.

NATO Forces

Forces affiliated to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Organization that arose out of strategy treaty policy in the last century between the United States and Soviet Union. It was established by the United States and most Western Europe countries to encounter the Warsaw Treaty. NATO excluded its management and force. Some former Warsaw Treaty countries joined the NATO Treaty. These forces are highly trained and have their own command, and equipped with modern, developed military capabilities.

International Coalition Forces

Forces assigned in cooperation with several countries to go in war against another country or ruling regime where such countries enter into alliance to overthrow the regime or protect civilians against the regime violence. Their composition is usually approved by the UN Security Council. The best example for this is NATO forces in Afghanistan that overthrew the Taliban Regime, and the NATO forces that stroke Colonel Gaddafi forces and battalions in Libya in the 2011 Revolution, approach followed by the NATO Organization to strike its enemies for protection of civilians or by authorization of the United Nations.

Peacekeeping Forces

They are military forces deployed in disputed border areas between two countries or regional parties. It is a task that a country donates to undertake, and its task is peacekeeping and control of any party that violates ceasefire, and safeguarding the security of the regions where these forces are positioned till the border dispute, or the dispute between disputing parties is resolved. These forces don't intervene in combat if battles erupted between the disputing parties. However, they have the right to self-defense if they are attacked, and receive their pay from the donor countries.

Special Operations Forces

They are military forces highly trained to perform risky, unconventional tasks under different circumstances in the enemy's back lines; e.g. setting traps, liberating captives, protecting official figures and processions. They forces are military units such as the commandos and strike force, or belong to Ministry of Interior's forces; e.g. special security forces, and has many other names.

Logistic Support Forces (Supporting Forces)

These forces are non- combatant forces, yet they carry arms to defend themselves, and exist in the back lines of an army. The task of these forces is to provide administrative and logistic support; e.g. providing food, medication, field hospitals, and field workshops to repair the machinery. They forces are non-neutral and carry arms to defend themselves if encountered with at attack.

Peninsula Shield Forces

These are forces formed from military units of the six Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Member States, having their command and annual training, and the task assigned to them is to defend the GCC Member States against foreign attack or threat.

Paramilitary Forces

These are forces of the armed militias and tribes, and they are trained and prepared to be supporting forces to the armed forces. These forces are deployed in cities to protect the properties and engage in the urban warfare if so commanded by the armed forces. These forces receive their pay from the State's government, and respond to the call whenever summoned, and they have their own command.

Popular Forces

These are forced formed from the public and all individuals capable of carrying arms in the event of public mobilization. The usual task of these forces is to provide support and assistance to the armed forces, operate in the back lines providing logistic and medical support, and giving assistance to internal security forces maintain peace. Engagement in these forces is voluntary for the purpose of defending the homeland against foreign invasion.

Riot Control Forces

These are forces receiving training to deal with riots, disperse demonstrations as well as violent and non-violent protests, using non-killing tools; e.g. water pumps, tear gases, and using physical body to create human walls, and rubber bullets with no intention to kill anybody an without exaggerated use of force.

Mercenary Forces

They are forces hired in return for to engage in fight, either by integration into the armed forces in a state-against-state fight, or hired to fight on the side of a ruling regime against the people, or to make coup. This description applies to foreign troops integrated in security forces and armed forces in return for monthly salaries.

Regular Forces

It is a term describing the armed forces with all its units, which fight as per a particular military doctrine. Members of the regular forces are professional and trained persons to perform their assignments, and receive monthly remunerations to perform such assignments. These forces are national forces that protect and defend the people against any foreign aggression.

Tribal (Clannish) Society

It is the people of a particular State governed by the tribal and clannish traditions as well as norms, and the tribe plays a role in acknowledging legitimacy of the standing regime, which, in turn, depends on tribal and clannish force for overcoming the political and national crises, and uses them as the fifth column to provide assistance and support to the ruling dynasty or regime, and, as the majority of tribes' people's form the security forces, military and security ranks in power. In addition, a tribe is the criterion in citizenship and privileges, whether in employment or occupying leadership positions in the ruling regime. A fight breaking out between the tribes is regarded as civil war. As a matter of fact, these communities have reinforced the authoritarian Arab Regimes to remain in power for decades, yet the recent political and technological revolution has changed this situation upside down, so that we find the clans taking the initiative to defend popular revolutions of the Arab Spring; in Yemen, Libya, and Syria to name a few.

Civil Society

It is the society of a civil state based on civil institutions, rule of law, and human rights, where the people have allegiance and loyalty to the homeland rather than to the president, emir, king, tribe, or clan. In this society, a president is viewed as an officer charged with a particular task, and he is elected both publicly and constitutionally, the legitimacy of constitution and laws prevail, civil rights are respected, freedom of foundation of political parties are preserved, and the same is true for freedom of speech, freedom of media of all types, and freedom of worship. Also, the political, social, cultural, and economic democratic principles are consolidated, and the social norms widely recognized are respected.

Velvety Society

It is the society of a welfare state, which is characterized by prevalence of peace and reconciliation with the ruling regime, lest they may lose social and economic gains as well as position provided by that regime.

Velvet Class

It is an aristocratic wealthy class having special social privileges, and live is a class-based society.

Transitional Council

It is a council comprising prominent figures of the rebels, who are appointed but not elected after the fall of the ruling regime or at time of mutiny and revolution against that regime. This council takes over the tasks and functions of state's president, government, and parliament in accordance with the approach adopted by the rebels for ruling a state. This is exemplified by Libya's National Transitional Council presided by the rebels in eastern Libya.

Military Junta

It is a council, comprising the highest military leaders, which takes over the highest power in State upon fall of the ruling regime due to either popular revolution or military coup. The military junta performs the role of State President pending the enactment of laws and constitution governing the election of state president as well as the other political organizations, as exemplified by the military council at time of Egypt's 25 January 2011 youth revolution.

Tribal Quotas

It is a system based on which each tribe is assigned a quota and number of government positions and roles, with no regard paid to competence and qualification. Also, ownership of lands is governed by tribal basis, and the tribes are permitted to carry weapons to support the ruling regime. As for the citizens having no tribes, they are a weak segment that is deprived of privileges.

Courts-Martial

Courts-martial are classified into two categories: The first of which is a court that applies military law and penalties to the military personnel; it is a regular court which draws its legitimacy from the military laws and penalties. In these courts, both the judges and defense are military personnel, and, most often, the judgments passed by these courts is non-appealable for being disciplinary punishment dictated by military laws. The second type is Courts-martial, which are presided by military personnel, and conduct the trial of civilians who commit political crimes which endanger the state security. This second type involves violation of the human rights principles, as the court's panel is, often, biased against the defendant rather than neutral. Usually, these courts are applied in the event of emergency law and martial laws imposed in a state, with the exception of USA's trial of Al Qaeda militants, who are kept in prison at Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp, by courts-martial, although it is against civil and human rights.

State Security Courts

They are courts made up of security and military personnel to be appointed by a ruling regime to conduct the trial of the individuals charged with state security' crimes and politicians. Most often, judgments passed by these courts are arbitrary, unfair, and violate the human rights. These courts are dedicated to political crimes and opponents of the ruling regime, and their judgments become null and void in the event of fall of the ruling regime by either revolution or coup d'état.

Islamic Court

It is a type of court dedicated to passing judgments in conformity to Islamic Law; e.g. punishments, Ta'zir, vengeance, family status matter, and all other civil crimes involving violation of Islamic Law. These courts are assigned to Muslims only, or in lawsuits a party of which, at least, is Muslim, and their judgments are non-appealable, as they pass judgments only on the grounds of cogent evidence, confession with no coercion or pressure, or testimony given by a competent witness. The reference for judgments of these courts is the Holy Qur'an, Prophet Muhammad's Sunnah, and early Muslims' independent opinion or judgment in respect of matters for which no punishment is prescribed by the Holy Qur'an and Prophet Muhammad's Sunnah.

Political Court

It is a term portraying politicized court that passed judgments described as political judgments against the opponents of a ruling regime or particular political regime, with a view to penalizing the political organization or party, whether this court is a domestic court within the State or a UN Court such as the International Criminal Court. Most often, judgments passed by these courts are denied and legitimacy of which is not recognized by the losing party.

War Crimes (Crimes against Humanity)

It is a trial set for the leaders of a ruling regime, presidents of states, military personnel, and civilians who commit massacres and crimes against the humanity; e.g. suppression, murder, rape, and systematic torture against unarmed civilians, detainees opposing the ruling regime, war prisoners, and persons charged with political assassination crimes. This court is held by the International Criminal Court after receiving reports that crimes against humanity have been committed, so that it embarks on investigation, and then issues a warrant of arrest of the defendants, and put them to trial in Hague, the Netherlands.

Civil Crimes

It is a court in which litigation is administered on civil, non-religious grounds; e.g. personal status laws and other criminal lawsuits and judgments, as well as civil, non-religious judgments. Judgments passed by these courts are appealable, and the defendants must be represented by defense on the matters brought before the court, and their judgments are contestable. Further, judgments passed by these courts are divergent as per the judge's discretionary power and understanding of the issue or case brought before him. The reference for these crimes is the Civil and Criminal Procedure Law and other civil codes prescribed by the constitution and judiciary. This type of court is a feature of the civil state.

Mercenaries (Mercenary)

the mercenary is a term describing each person who defends, with his principles and spirit, a country of which he is not a national citizen, and a ruling regime to which he does not belong, whether through working in the various mass media, or being a part of security, police, and military forces and militants of that country, in return for a monthly pay or financial reward at peace and war times.

Media Mercenaries

They are media and press personnel working in TV channels, government or semi-government newspapers of a state to which they do not belongs, and receive pay in return for performing their assigned duties; e.g. falsifying the facts, defending the ruling regime and authorities which pay them generously, praising and strongly lauding the practices made by the ruling regime, paying no regard to the internal affairs taking place at that state, while they focus their media activity against other states and regimes, highlights their bad acts and practices, and they frequently repeat that their allegiance is dedicated to the entity and channel employing them. Media mercenaries are different from a mercenary who works in the media of a hosting state other than his own state, and receives his pay in consideration of political or non-political media job, yet he/she shows no hypocrisy or defends the ruling regime of the hosting state, brings the real facts into view, and his loyalty is dedicated to his homeland.

Islamic Resistance

It is an opposition movement that adopts Islam and its principles in its struggle against an enemy occupying its land. This resistance is comprehensive and defends all Islamic lands under occupation, and its leaders and personnel are individuals having Islamic thought and belong to the Islamic groups, depending on the Holy Qur'an and Prophet Muhammad's Sunnah on its concept of jihad, martyrdom, fighting the enemy at wartime, and permanent readiness to fight the enemy.

Underground Resistance

It is an underground fighting movement that depends on the approach of guerrilla warfare and destructive operations against a land-occupying enemy. This movement operates secretly, no one knows its members, and employs all techniques on attacking the troops of occupying enemy without announcing itself or names of its leaders, and embraces the doctrine "Attack and Run Away".

Passive Resistance

It is a non-violent resistance approach adopted by individuals struggling against an occupying power or ruling regime, in order to achieve their goals by non-violent means, through sit-down strikes, hunger strike, and work strike, facing the security suppression by peaceful means, and refusing to respond to physical assaults. This approach was adopted by Mahatma Gandhi in his struggle against the British occupation of India.

Political Resistance

It is a type of political resistance, which depends on the establishment of political parties, groups, and organizations, and adopts political non-violent means against an occupying enemy or a political regime. This resistance may be underground or public resistance that struggles by peaceful means to oust the regime or force out the land-occupying enemy.

Legitimate Resistance

It is a resistance drawing its legitimacy in the struggle against a land-occupying enemy, and adopts all non-violent and military means to get back the occupied territory and force the enemy out. This resistance is recognized as legitimate by all religions and UN organizations, and it is regarded as a right of the occupied nation, so its leaders are not penalized, so long as they do not commit war crimes, and the fostering or financing countries are not penalized.

Civil Resistance

It is a non-violent a resistance against the ruling regime or land-occupying enemy, where peaceful means are adopted rather than violence. This resistance comprises secular, left-wing, and independent figures and other parties and groups which embrace public and underground peaceful approach on their political struggle in a civilized manner.

Armed Resistance

It is a resistance which adopts armed struggle to overthrow a ruling regime or force out a land-occupying enemy, through all types of fight operations against that enemy, e.g. destruction operations, suicide operations, and attacking the strategic targets, vital and military interests of the enemy.

National Resistance

It is a resistance made up of all segments of a community, based by national motives, and aims to overthrow a ruling regime or force out a land-occupying enemy.

Consultative Conference

It is a conference held by all party and independent political groups for the purpose of deliberating over a dialogue which addresses solutions for political problems faced by the homeland and political crisis that encounters the ruling regime. This term came to light when the opposition and different political groups in Syria called for convening a conference in Damascus on 27 June, 2011 to discuss the dialogue, without inviting the ruling regime and being represented in that conference.

National Dialogue Conference

It is a conference called for by a ruling regime to sit with the leaders of party and independent political opposition as well as all segments of the people, for the purpose of deliberating opinions on solutions for all problems faced by the homeland. The findings of this conference take the form of non-binding recommendations to be submitted to the highest executive body, yet it may not be construed as negotiation with the regime following which binding decisions are typically issued based on the negotiations.

National Salvation Conference

It is a conference attended by the opposition, as representative of the overwrought people, with official non-government entities, with a view to finding solutions to save the State from civil war, protecting the people, and preventing bloodshed. Often, this conference is non-ideological and non-sectarian, and is held to bridge the gap between the people and ruling regime. Some reform groups in Syria's civil society has called for the convention of this conference during the disorders of Arab Spring Revolutions which have ruined Syria, in order prevent the bloodshed of Syrian nationals. They called for convening that conference in Damascus, taking into consideration abstention from discrimination and exclusion, and the findings of which would involve the formation of a constituent assembly to draw up a new constitution for Syria.

Green Area

It is a term used to refer to protected and safe residential areas, which are away from the armed attacks and suicide operations in a State of security instability. This term came to light following the US invasion of Iraq and Afghanistan, where security broke down. Thus, this term portrays the protected areas surrounded by security forces, which are a home for the ministries, government departments, foreign embassies, housing of senior officials, hotels...etc.

No-Fly Zone

It is a zone where the enemy's flights are banned, and any violation of that ban is responded to by attacking the aircrafts flying over this zone or the command of which outside the no-fly area if it a civil. This zone is pinpointed as per specific coordinates, and the air ban is inclusive of the sky of the whole area.

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

It is an aircraft being an outcome of the electronic warfare; the takeoff, landing, fighting and explorative functions of which are administered by specialists headquartered in a ground base or aircraft carrier directed by computer and satellite-based remote control. This drone was used by the US troops in their war against the so-called terrorism, and the Zionist enemy also used it to attack Palestinian and Lebanese targets. This vehicle is characterized by accurate hitting of targets, low cost, and short training period, along with the element surprise, and deceiving ground radars. There is another type of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle used for intelligence purposes, photographing the military sites, and exploration.

Buffer Zone

It is a geographic region that separates the borders of two countries each of which claims ownership of that zone, often it is guarded by neutral troops, and no military troops of either country of them are permitted to exist in that zone. It also means allocation of a geographic area over the land of a country which represses its civilian citizens by the armed forces, and this area is located at the borders of a neighboring state that is advocate of the civilians, so it safeguards that area, protects the civilians, imposes air ban over it, and prevents the troops of that area-owning state to enter that area by force.

Underground Struggle (Underground Activity)

It is a political action which adopts secret approach in order not to be detected by the ruling regime. Thus it keeps its continuation and underground activities, and depends on the underground cell system as a doctrine for movement, gathering, and recruitment, so that is a cell is detected, the whole organization will not be detected. In practice, this approach was adopted by the communist, socialist, and Marxist parties, as well as some jihadist and resistance Islamic groups.

The Domino Theory

In politics, it is a theory which describes the ruling regimes in similar states in the event of their consecutive fall like the domino game's parts which depend on each other, so that when the first of these parts fall or sway, the remaining parts will fall one after the other. This term was used at time of the Arab Revolutions to describe the fall of the Arab Countries' regimes.

Creative Chaos Theory

It is a state which describes the outbreak of large-scale demonstrations and stay-in strikes, as well as comprehensive civil disobedience, aiming to spread anarchy and chaos for the purpose of correcting an existing political status and exercising public pressure, or for overthrowing a ruling regime by non-violent means without recourse to force or destruction. This theory is given to the spontaneous revolution which begins with a demonstration, followed by insurrection and civil disobedience, and ends in a large-scale popular rebellion that topples the ruling regime in return for sacrifices and martyrs, like the revolutions of Egypt and Tunisia. The term may also describe a country which directs a military attack or carries out destructive acts to spread anarchy and chaos in the society and political regime, with a view to stirring up the opposition to topple the ruling regime by way of peaceful means or by fight. Thus, it is regarded as an indirect attack made to topple a particular regime.

Congestion Chaos Theory

It is the non-creative chaos aiming to spread out anarchy and instability in the State, and, often, it is made with no goals or ends, yet it inflicts economic decline and security breakdown upon the state. In the majority of cases, it is a destructive theory led by aimless movements to demolish the society.

Security Grip Theory

It is a theory meaning that the rule is based on a series of security apparatuses; e.g. central security forces, internal security forces, political security forces, State security body, armed militias, police forces, Ministry of Interior's bodies, and other security forces established by the ruling regime to act against the people and repress any popular revolution, so that the ruler and his dynasty will remain in power whatever the cost may be. In practice, this theory proved abortive and unsuccessful in the most powerful Arab Regimes; i.e. Tunisia's ruling regime and Mubarak's regime in Egypt at time of 2011 Arab Spring revolutions which toppled both regimes.

Conspiracy Theory

It is a term describing the view that crises which face the political regime or organization or at the individual level are the result of premeditated conspiracy plotted by the opposing conspirators, even the results that are the fruit of political and economic actions are the outcome of that conspiracy and plot. This theory is regarded as a political imaginary disease which befalls the politician or ruling regime.

Security Theory

It is a term describing the security procedures adopted by a ruling regime which depends, in its existence, on security of race or political regime, and giving priority to security vision to any political confrontations or remedies for political problems. In this theory, security or security complex is a strategic goal of the ruling regime or race. This theory is adopted by the Zionist enemy, which has occupied Palestine, in its racial security policies and practices against the Palestinians and Arab Nation, supported by the United States of America which regards the security of Israel as one pillar of political pillars and strategic national security, and that's why is provides Israel with the state-of-the-art weapons, in order to ensure that Israel's military force is more powerful than the force of all Arab States.

"The Hungry Dog Always Follows You" Policy

It is a theory used by the dictatorial and despotic rules for the purpose of exercising pressure on the people economically, and distracting their attention to keep away from politics, thus any rights granted to the people are regarded as grant and gift from the ruler.

Armed Struggle

It is a theory based on the view that what has been taken by force will be regained only by force, and that the arm is the only solution to achieve peace and take back the plundered rights as well as occupied land. Thus, it is a revolutionary concept, which regards the armed struggle as the way to render the rebellion successful, and that no peace may be achieved without the force of arm. In practice, the armed struggle is adopted by the liberation movements which resist military occupation, so do the violent political organizations that believe in violence and power as a means to get the legitimate rights back.

Abortive Country

When NGOs failed due to civil war, the country turns to be abortive, where military and security institutions are only remain in the hands of one of the disputing parties.

Election Silence

The period before the election day where election campaigns are suspended and banned, usually two days before the election day.

# Second: Days circulate among the people, O Arabs! You should learn from this lesson

The Inspirer and First Spark of Arab Spring Revolutions of 2011

The Tunisian martyr Mohamed Bouazizi

As is well known, every volcano has a crater; every fire has a first spark, and every revolution has a cause and catalyst. The Tunisian martyr Mohamed Bouaziz was the first spark of Arab revolutions and the hammer which wiped out and eradicated the wall of Arab popular fear. This memorable martyr was born on 29 March, 1984 for a poor family in Sidi Bouzid, Tunisia. He felt tired by dreaming of decent living and enjoying a natural life like the other youth; the study did not change the course of his wretched life, neither did the hard work and satisfaction with the fate and destiny were able to provide food for him and his mother, who was waiting for his return home to eat from the hard work he suffers all day long. However, the ruling party oppressed him severely and unjustifiably; he did not belong to any party, and was not an extremist Islamist individual or a person of ideology; rather, he was the owner of vegetable and fruits cart, which he used to push by his physical body to the market wishing to get back to the timeworn house of his mother carrying livelihood for that day. Unfortunately, he was unsuccessful that day, as the municipality forces confiscated his produce cart with its contents not exceeding a few dollars. Hence, he protested and resorted to Ms. Faida Hamdi, a female municipal official at the market, yet she met him with a slap in the face and screamed in him "Go Away" in full view of the people, tossed aside his produce cart, so his dignity was humiliated by a police officer who was also oppressed by the regime's harassment, yet she was wearing the security garment that vested in her the power to assault, torture, and insult the people. Bouazizi concealed this in himself, and returned home hopeless to his mother who was looking for the day's livelihood; the tears of a wretched person trickled down his face, being stripped of his produce cart. As a result, he wrote a complaint to the governorate's authorities against the police officer, who slapped him in the face in full view of the people, explaining what had happened, and wishing to find anybody who would do him justice or provide him with his goods and produce cart back, but injustice was by then a government approach, the governorate's officials refused to receive his complaint. Being fully despairing and hopeless; all his efforts came to no avail, and all doors were locked in his face, he recalled that cutting a person's neck is severer than preventing his livelihood; an Arabic adage and other memorable Arabic adages, so he moved to the headquarters of Sidi Bouzid city on 17 December, 2010, poured oil on his body, and set himself on fire in protest of preventing his livelihood and the authorities' refusal to receive his complaint against the police officer Faida Hamdi who screamed in him "Go Away" after she had met him with a slap in the face. Thus, Mohamed Bouazizi went away only by his body, yet the word "Go Away" remained as a slogan and spark of the revolution which toppled Zein Al Abdein Bin Ali's regime in less than one month. This word also remained as a slogan of the succeeding Arab revolutions. The personal media played his role when an anonymous person circulated Bouazizi's image when he was setting himself on fire on mobile phones, which was soon circulated by the media. On the following day, 18 December 2010, demonstrations and protests broke out in Sidi Bouzid and Al Qusairien, the hungry and wretched people stirred up in revolt in solidarity with Mohamed Bouazizi, thus the walls of fear were destroyed by the Tunisian people, and the demonstrations turned into nationwide popular revolution which toppled Zein Al Abdein Bin Ali's regime in less than one month. As for Mohamed Bouazizi, the fate did not give him time see the outcome of his act, as he passed away 18 days following the date on which he set himself on fire, but his mother has witnessed the fruit of her son's sacrifice; after she was an anonymous mother, the whole world knew her for being the mother of Mohamed Bouazizi who stirred up the Arab Revolutions. In addition, the Mayor of Paris received her wearing the traditional Tunisian veil to confer honor upon her son; or rather, to make France honor her son by building a monument of Bouazizi in Paris on 30 June 2011, to remain as a symbol, reminiscence, and inspiration for all rebels, and a lesson as well as example for every haughty tyrant. Bouazizi is also the cause of economic reforms that took place throughout the Arab Countries; e.g. rise of pay and wage, along with the political reforms sought by the Arab regimes.

# The Arab Spring

Among the factors that led to outbreak of revolutions in the Arab Countries:

1. Transfer of republic regimes to totalitarian or autocratic, dictatorial regimes governed by one party or family rule, presided for life by the president who wins the elections by 99.99% and changes the articles of constitution to rule for presidential term (s), while his family and relatives control the state and public funds' resources.

The peoples of these republics suffered from the absolute despotic royal regimes and dictatorships related to foreign colonization till the armed forces officers led coup on the kings and overthrew them in military coups. Military leaders launched coup against military leaders till the one-party officers came to power. Uniform of their leaders is that of presidency, and he didn't forget his colleagues of officers till the senior armed forces leaders have become very rich. In some regimes, leaders of military units were close to the president or his sons. Military coups did no longer occur, and class system emerged in military and society, republican system turned to heritage system and the Saudi Ba'ath Party managed to devise authority to Bashar Al Assad , after death of his father, Hafez El Assad. The contagion moved to Egypt, Yemen and Libya. Presidents of those republics prepared their children to assume power after their fathers through the forged election boxes and the ruling party. In Libya, Gaddafi prepared his son, Sayf Al Islam, to inherit authority after him through the people's committees, but the Arab Spring aborted their plans.

2. The iron security grip, torture, dehumanization, loss of dignity, political detentions, administrative prison and torture in prisons are among the key reasons for revolutions in the Arab Republics that adopted multiplicity of security systems and their control of public life in the country till the state security concept has become security of the president, his family and his regime. The President's person has become sacred and can't be criticized, protested and resisted, and those who protest against him can be imprisoned and tortured if just suspected for opposing the president or referring to him by fingers. The president's person has become like that of autocracy kings and princes who find that their person is like the divine one and that they are faultless. The state security courts, martial courts, emergency laws and martial laws have all been tailored for the service of the president and his guerrilla, named as State. This grip didn't release any ideology, be it Islamic or secular. Detentions without trials and torture or murder in prisons are the common features of these suppressive agencies.

3. Capitalist globalization and transformation of national economy into private or joint-stock companies controlled and managed by capitalists related to the ruling regimes and their fellows. National industries and even utility services were privatized. Class of chance and stock-exchange rich emerged, and disadvantages of capitalism began to rise. Such disadvantages included bribery, financial corruption, percentage law, blind privatization, capitalist families and corporation owners. Waste of public funds and embezzlement of the nation resources increased, so rich became richer and poor became poorer. Middle class suffered accumulation of debts and losses of stock exchanged controlled by new feudalists who enslaved people who became servants, workers and private employees. Concept of civil servant who hardly transcends poverty line emerged. This led to spread of mediation, bribery, financial, moral and administrative corruption and inflation. Even though urban development, that results from privatization, appeared, since owners of those buildings are the same owners of capitals or the ruler and his fellows and family. Medical, social and other utility services have become worse to the extent that garbage companies have been privatized and dustmen have become unemployed. Unemployment extended to include university graduates, excluding the heirs of civil services; state doctors prepared their children to study medicine and to work with him in the hospital, judge prepared his children to be judges after him, and officers did the same that the new jobs have become monopolized to children of former employees, and inheritance has become the standard of employment and filling civil services positions.

4.Opposition parties failed to gain the confidence of generation of youth, since they didn't solve the social and economic problems, and failed to change, but gave legitimacy to, suppressive totalitarian regimes by their limited participation in government which is concerned with the president, or in the Shura Council or formal parliaments. This created state of political despair and despair of change through the political organization and feeling of frustration in change.

5.High prices that extended to bread price, and poverty increased to 40% of those under poverty line, and the rise in taxes and duties on citizens, while capitalists evade payment of taxes without pursuits or security procedures against them. Whenever the regime is inflicted by financial crisis, economists find solutions for them, so prices of major materials and fuel rise, and further duties are imposed on the services provided to low-income citizen.

6.Social status got worse among youth, and there appeared despair for inability to make family, due to the very high prices of residential properties and very low salaries of youth, and that just thinking of making family is disturbing unrealizable dream.

7.Spread of financial, administrative and political corruption, and spread of nepotism and lack of solutions to eradicate the corruption that spreads in society, appearance of class system in society, minority's acquisition of capital, positions and high-level jobs.

8.Political suppression policy adopted against intellectuals and politicians, and engaging people in the source of livelihood, and fight of every ideology politically against the regime, be it political or economic.

## Reasons for success of Egypt and Tunisia revolutions

  1. Fall of the barrier of fear

When the barrier of fear falls, sacrifices and martyrdom becomes end to achieve hopes,

Among the factors that led to fall of fear barrier from the hearts of rebels

  1. Unemployment and lack of social justice, and oppression and accumulation of anger removed the fear barrier.

  2. Multiplicity of security agencies increased suppression, detentions and jail for rights reasons, like use of email or devotion and exercise of religious rituals or adherence to the instructions of the Koran and Prophet (PBUH) Sunnah, and many malicious and ungrounded charges. Those missed by a security agency are arrested by another security one. As a result, the public had an idea that security agencies were created for fighting, not for providing, security. When opportunity appeared to encounter these agencies, the people's volcano erupted and the fear barrier exploded.

  3. Shooting the first fire to protesters and appearance of bloods of injured and killed persons fuelled the challenge which fired fear and removed it from the hearts of rebels.

  4. Use of mass media, including satellites, email and communication between protesters, and publication of the images of suppression victims and those of persons who fired themselves in protest to the regime, reinforced the courage and challenge, and removed the fear of regime.

  5. Public mobilization to the revolutions squares removed fear and hesitation that was in the hearts of some protesters and hesitant.

  6. The mistake made by the Regime by sending thugs to horrify the protesters, which had opposite result of increasing the number of protesters and their synergy to encounter the regime and respond to thugs and defend themselves. All this removed fear forever.

  7. Synergy of people of all social classes, and move of thousands with their families and children, and defiance of women removed fear from the hearts of some people and enhanced determination to topple the regime and complete the revolution.

  2. Information Technology

Technological development in communications and spread of electronic awareness were reasons for accelerating the eruption of Arab Spring, and reason for success of Egypt and Tunisia revolutions. The role of information technology comprised:

A. Social communication networks, like Facebook, Twitter, Youtube and other social communication websites that facilitated communication among the protesters and mobilization of people to the revolution square, and moved the feelings and communication with foreign mass media.

B. Electronic facilities provided by cell phones in internet and handheld pocket systems, and next generations of cell phones that facilitated communication and transfer and circulation of event.

C. Publication of images of citizens' torture in police agencies and stations, and materials taken secretly and published by policemen through their cameras, images of those who committed suicide by fire and protest on emails; these images were circulated among civilians and electronically extracted and published both within and outside the state, led to the congregation of demonstrators in the revolution squares.

D. Publication of Wikileaks reports that compromised the Arab regimes and their financial, moral and political corruption, and practices of the president, his family and ruling party that irritated vulnerable people.

E. Security apparatuses were unable to encounter the worldwide web and control it. Bloggers used several methods to deceive the security apparatuses. These systems rendered security tracing of means of communication failing. When the internet service was cut after eruption of the Egyptian and Tunisian revolutions, youth managed to manipulate and indirectly disseminate communication in satellite systems, as was the case in Egypt when rebels announced in Arab satellite channels organization of one-million-person rally that will be prepared in the coming days. One of publishers acknowledged this news and confirmed that no rally was prepared because communication is interrupted. However, the news was unintentionally spread among protesters by satellite channels, so protesters gathered as a result.

  3. Popular Participation

Popular participation had a great role in mobilizing protesters and organizing the revolution squares. This included:

Participation of all youth, political and partisan people, labor organizations and trade and rights unions, intellectuals and students of schools, universities, artists, lawyers, doctors, theologians and supporters of sports clubs, like the fan unions (ultras) of Al-Ahly and Zamalek football clubs in Egypt.

  1. When demonstrations erupted, their affairs were organized by youth of different parties, and liberal and leftist parties in particular, and Islamic parties in general. All ideological and political trends met in one block, one row and one goal, to overthrow the ruling regime.

  2. Good administrative organization of revolution squares, including food, medicine, cleaning, medication and security by youth rebels confused the estimations of security apparatuses and their plans and commanders, who found that stay-ins will be dissipated after suppression and killing of some protesters. Rebels reached high level of organization till they kept security in residential districts and protected government buildings and private properties, except for some buildings that symbolized the ruling regime. They fired the headquarters of the ruling parties and suppressive police stations that were stolen or fired.

  3. Popular revolution songs and revolution rap songs were players in mobilizing the enthusiasm of youth protesters.

  4. Different ages of crowd of two sexes, and turnout of families with their children and wives, fuelled the revolutionary enthusiasm and determination to defiance to the end.

  5. Synergy and solidarity of protesters in the squares of revolutions helped sustenance and determination to achieve the goals.

  6. The congregation (Friday) prayer and performance of Christian mass in the revolution squares had great effect on popular solidarity to the extent that prayers pray and Christians guard them against thugs in the squares of change in Egypt. It was the apex of coexistence and declaration of unity of people of all classes against the Egyptian regime that was rapidly ousted and its fragility appeared.

  4. Failure of security apparatuses

  1. The most catastrophic failure that encountered Zein Al Abdein Bin Ali's regime and Mohamed Hosni Mubarak's regime was the failure of security, intelligence, state security and investigation bodies, and their inability to estimate the situation and analyze the information that they receive concerning the despair of people, and inability of early human management of events, and proposal of non-suppressive solutions to the president.

  2. The security agencies vowed for the security absence from the country to create creative anarchy after which all protesters will divide, which would render restoration of security popular request and therefore calm the revolution.

  3. Security in Egypt and Tunisia managed to be neutralize and control opposition parties and local and foreign media, direct the intelligence effort against the Islamic groups, and recruit personnel and agents in opposition and Islamic organizations. This blindfolded these agencies with negligence of underground enemy that calls popular youth, Islamic and non-partisan powers "Allah attacked them from where they don't expect".

Collapse of security system because it was not able and not ready to manage thousands of people, and dissemination of fear among the security agencies which leaders fled and personnel dissipated, especially after it found that armed forces don't intervene in the conflict.

  4. Policy of security suppression and spending hundreds of millions on the security apparatuses that worked to protect the regime and its components proved failure and inability to protect the president and his family against the anger of people, and they didn't protect themselves against trials and charges brought against them with suppression and murder of protesters.

  5. Security forces controlled syndicates and popular unions by appointing leaders of syndicates and attempt to divide them and sustain conflict between their ranks led to revolution of the members of these syndicates and unions against their leaders and joined the protests and demonstrations. All this contributed to success of the revolution.

  6. Security intervention in all aspects of daily life of citizens and subjection of people to the security authorities of appointment, employment and acquisition of commercial licenses and generous livelihood as minimum. All this exploded the situations in the face of security authorities. Those affected by the fire of security apparatuses, majority of people, insisted on challenging the authorities and participated in stay-ins that turned to revolutions.

  5. Political Marginalization

The Tunisian and Egyptian regimes marginalized the economic middle class form participation in official political life. Ministries in both countries were limited to senior capitalists. This results in assumption of ministerial offices by businessmen. Government was related to the senior traders who managed to approach the president and his family by paying bribes and money to the election campaigns and mobilizing the poor to buy their votes for the presidential elections, and commercial relation with the family of the president and his relatives.

In spite of the good economic condition of middle class, it was deprived of official political participation. In addition, political parties subject to security and ruling authorities' approval. Islamists of Muslim Brotherhood and Salafism and others suffered planned political marginalization, and they were denied composition of parties. This policy didn't skip liberals and leftists, and the revolution was the sole means for political empowerment.

Political prisoners and detainees were absent of prisons and detentions. The two regimes denied existence of political detainees, although the were thousands in numbers. The ousted Tunisian regime denied that there are prisoners of word, and the political prisoners were called criminal guerrillas while they were tried in the state security courts. The Egyptian regime was not better off of its Tunisian correspondent. Muslim brotherhood members were frequent visitors of the Egyptian prisons without charges and emergency law was applied to them; that is, possibility of imprisonment and detention without trials

  6. Neutral attitude adopted by Armed Forces: The armed forces did not intervene in dispute and refusal to shoot the demonstrators, and abided by its role in the protection of people and homeland, and this was among the key factors that gave rise to the success of revolutions in Egypt and Tunisia and delay occurring in the other countries.

# Different Reactions of Armed Forces to the revolutions of Arab Republics in 2011

When revolutions and coups of Free Officers broke out in the last century against the royal despotic regimes affiliated to foreign colonization after the 1948 Palestine War, the military system was based on restoration of Arab dignity that was usurped in the 1967 War. The Egyptian Army defeated the Zionist enemy and defeated the theory of undefeated army in 1973 (October 6). However, the Egyptian President, Mohamed Anwar El Sadat, didn't invest his victory for the cause of Arab Nation, liberalization of the occupied Palestinian territories, and signed the surrender Camp David Treaty with the Zionist enemy, which divided Arabs into two camps, camp of confrontation and camp of truce. However, similarity prevailed in both camps, which is building new military system where armed forces advocate the president or ruler.

The republics presided by Free Officers were limited to their rule. They turned to presidents who pass the rule among them either peacefully or by military coups. As for the remaining royal despotic countries, the ruler was the supreme commander of armed forces, in addition to his position as absolute ruler. The two regimes were similar in that the potential enemy to the nation is the people, and the enemy of armed forces is national opposition that opposes the president and his ruling party. Class system emerged among the armed forces officers, due to their receipt of exaggerated salaries as compared to the other civil service jobs. Senior officers have become among the rich of the nation, the policy adopted by the presidents and rules to avoid the military coups, and to avoid the danger of military coup that may be expected by officers.

The president guaranteed the neutrality of armed forces towards any attempts to oust him, and the president surrounded himself by developed, multiple and trained security apparatuses in the best western security schools, and freed senior security leaders to waste public funds and create revolutions. The president or ruler has become the nation itself, and has become sacred and out of legal accountability, and everyone who criticizes the president even if by reference, and everyone who attacks the president has become enemy to the nation. Loyalty to nation was measured by loyalty to the president or ruler and his guerrilla. The president has more become absolute king than royalty. All state security apparatuses, including police, intelligence, state security, special or public security forces, semi-military militias and other nominations had their main duty to protect the president and his family and ruling party.

## Tunisia- Egypt Case

Tunisia's President, Zein Al Abdein Bin Ali; and Egypt's President, Mohamed Hosni Mubarak, though that they would remain in power up to the last breath in their life. They safeguarded neutrality and absolute loyalty of armed forces, security apparatuses, Ministry of Interior and most people provided with bribes and bequests by the ruling parties to haul the president and elect him in case of election. As a result, they didn't consider appointing their children as leaders in the armed forces and their security apparatuses (in contrast to Libya, Yemen and Syria), so command of armed forces has become part of the regime, but loyalty was to the nation. When the Egyptian and Tunisian youth revolted, the armed forces didn't sacrifice and kill people for the sake of president. When both presidents felt that armed forces disappointed them and that armed forces are neutral in the conflict and loyal to the revolts and people, they stepped down, and bin Ali fled to Saudi Arabia while Mubarak stayed in Sharm El Sheikh till he was taken with his sons and family to prisons and trials, the armed forces assumed its task of protecting the nation and people, and the military system returned to its right path.

## The Syria Case

In Syria, the leadership of Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party comprises the old guards who are senior officers and commanders of the armed forces. Although the military system was built and established to confront the Zionist enemy and restore the occupied Syrian territories, the Syrian Arab Army stayed in its barracks for long periods of time while Golan is occupied, and rigidity was the common feature of the army, even when Israeli military aircrafts flied over the Presidential Palace in Ladikia and it was said that President Bashar El Assad is in the place. In addition, building was stricken and destroyed in Syria for just suspicion or intelligence information that the building is dedicated to nuclear experimentation. When Arabs in the Arab world revolted in the Arab Spring, Syrians, particularly the Islamic opposition, seized the opportunity and found it suitable for political reform; some believed that it is an opportunity to revenge of the Syrian regime. Demonstrations erupted in certain areas of Syria, especially those known for their Sunni or Salafi ideology. The situation quickly turned into media war between opposition on the one hand, and Syrian government on the other, and developed into encounters and clashes where many Syrians were killed. Arabs were confused, since Syria is the fortified citadel and last country of confrontation with the Zionist enemy, even if no wars occur, and Golan is occupied part till present. However, the Syrian regime confronted the challenges of Zionists and Zionized, so it didn't respect the peace or normalization agreements. In addition, the Syrian regime is not the only Arab one ruled by government or regime that has become by inheritance??? Some military armed forces members dissented, but the regime stayed in defiance against all challenges, since the armed forces support and defend it and encounter protesters and others.

## The Libyan Case

Colonel Muammar Gaddafi is one of the Free Officers who revolted against the Senoussi Royal Regime in 1969 AD, and all people were fascinated with his national views in the early 1970s. However, over the time, he got rid of all his revolution companions and his revolutionary mottos changed. He stuck to American imperialism and assigns the principles of his Green Book. He killed Libyan Islamists and deported his people till he was haughty by his money that he stole from the Libyan people and his armed battalions commanded by his children. The Libyan armed forces turned to battalions in the name of his children. When the Arab East in Benghazi revolted in the Arab Spring, the Gaddafi forces encountered the people and tried to repress the revolution by killing and destruction. However, the Libyan people made armed uprising and overthrew the camps in Benghazi. The revolution turned from peaceful demonstrations to armed revolution. Officers of the uprising regions joined the rebels and some Arab countries, NATO Organization and Western countries supported the rebels to finalize old problems with Gaddafi and his regime. The insurgent Libyans came to kill the Libyan of the other party, and each one was keen to kill his mate and scream saying "Allah is the Greatest". Gaddafi battalions and forces and their supporting mercenaries did their best to protect Gaddafi and his regime. Rebels requested support of the NATO forces to overthrow the Gaddafi regime. They employed foreigners of Arabs and Africans, while protesters resorted to NATO forces till the rebels took control over Tripoli. Colonel Gaddafi's regime ended before fate gives him time to devise his rule to his son, Seif al-Islam, and Gaddafi was killed in a tragic scene.

## The Yemen Case

In Yemen, Colonel Ali Abdullah Saleh came to power after assassination of President Ibrahim Mohamed El Hamdi, the then President of North Yemen, in 1977.

After putting off his military uniform, and assigning his former title and rank, he behaved as a king, and presided over the ruling party. He tailored democratic system to befit him, and amended the constitution to remain in presidency for multiple terms. For over three decades and in every election round he and his party won the elections, like Egypt's ousted President Mohamed Hosni Mubarak. However, Abdullah Saleh appointed his son as the leader of Presidential Guards, the elite of Yemeni armed forces, and appointed his nephews in central security, political security and national security. He dictated to the people foreign agendas; he sometimes fought the Huthis and accused them of betrayal for Iran, and sometimes he fights the Southerners on the pretext that they try to separate from the Unified Yemen. He sometimes invited the Americans and helps them to kill his natives on the pretext that they belong to Al Qaeda. In the Arab Spring, Yemenis revolted after demonstrations erupted and motivated Sana'a University students who inspired from the Tunisia, Egypt and Libya revolutions. The peaceful revolution extended to 17 Yemeni governorates and the North unified with the South to overthrow Ali Abdullah Saleh. However, he had large numbers of advocates and beneficiary of his regime, especially the armed forces and Presidential Guards led by his Son, Ahmed Ali Abdullah Saleh, and was supported by the armed forces to abort the revolution. However, dissention of his step-brother Major General Ali Mohsen Al Ahmer, Commander of the First Armoured Vision in charge of protection of Sana's and his soldiers and equipments and his occupation of areas in Sana'a to protect the insurgent protests, and dissension of large numbers of militants, even of the Presidential Guards, led to rigidity in place by the authority and army on the one hand, and peaceful revolts on the other. As for the City of Taaz, Center of Revolution as called by rebels, Fight between Presidential Guards and advocates of Ali Abdullah Saleh and defenders of Al-Horriya (Freedom) Square reached its apex in Al Settin Street and the surrounding areas, and roads were cut on the forces in the Northern Sana'a by the armed tribes that supported the rebels. As for President Ali Abdullah Saleh, he sustained an assassination attempt in the early June 2011 that he miraculously survived after he was attacked by acute wounds and stayed for several months in Saudi Arabia for treatment of the injuries that he suffered. He was stepped down according to the Gulf Initiative that saved Yemen from a Civil War.

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## Conclusion

The republican regimes where the armed forces are not led by the presidents' relatives; e.g. Egypt's regime and Tunisia's regime, were toppled and collapsed quickly, as the armed forces in both states adopted a neutral attitude, and then supported the rebels when they were able to over throw the most powerful totalitarian security regimes in the Middle East region. On the other hand, the republican regimes, where the military units, teams, and battalions are led by the sons, brothers, and relatives of the presidents, stood firmly against the rebels, and the armed forces intervened to protect the president, his family, and regime, save a few number of military units and individuals who dissociated themselves from the armed forces due to tribal or personal considerations.

# Tunisia's Jasmine Revolution 14 January, 2011

# "If, one day, the people want to live, then the fate will answer their call"

No one could conceive or even expect that Tunisia would be the first spark of the Arab Spring Revolutions, as Zein Al Abdein Bin Ali and his regime were always boasting and lauding their highly organized and efficient security apparatuses, so the Ministers of Arab Countries used to hold their annual security meetings in Tunisia for being the best among the repressive Arab regimes. However, Fate later proves, after the outbreak of the revolution, that Tunisia's security apparatus was the weakest of the Arab security apparatuses; all of which are characterized by this weakness, yet their role has not yet come. Tunisia's revolution was stirred up by Mohamed Bouazizi; a 27-year-old jobless Tunisian young man, who set himself on fire on 17 December 2010, in protest of the confiscation of a cart through which he used to earn his living, and the humiliation he experienced at the hands of a police officer representing the Tunisian security repression, who slapped him in the face in full view of the people, and screamed in his face "Go Away", so that work became the slogan of not only Tunisia's revolution, but to all Arab Revolutions that followed it as well. As a matter of face, the coincidence, spontaneity, and means of communications have played a role in stirring up the revolution, as the image of Mohamed Bouazizi setting himself on fire was circulated across the communication means, thus the demonstrations broke out on 18 December 2010 in Sidi Bouzid city in solidarity with Mohamed Bouazizi and in protest against the police suppression and secret police, government corruption, and social injustice. At the beginning, the security forces dealt with the demonstrators in an extremely brutal way, killing, arresting, and assaulting them brutally, yet the Tunisians' persistence and challenge became stronger against the repressive regime; demonstrations spread out all over the cities and villages of Tunisia, and the rebels' ceiling of demands became higher shifting from social justice demands to the ousting of president and then the overthrow of the whole regime, and raised the slogans "Tunisia is free, Tunisia is free, Bin Ali is out", and "If, one day, the people want to live, then the fate will answer their call". Further, the lawyers, artists, and all segments of the Tunisian people joined the revolution, the secularists and religious men, the man and woman shared the same demand; the ousting of President Zein Al Abdein Bin Ali.

Zein Al Abdein's reliance on the security apparatuses proved unsuccessful, forcing him to appear on TV two weeks after the outbreak of demonstrations that was turned into popular revolution, and delivered a speech in which he warned and threatened the demonstrators, and described them as chaotic, terroristic movement, yet the demonstrators flew into a rage and demanded that he be ousted, yet he appeared against on TV and addressed the furious people stating that he understood their demands and knew what they sought, but time was over, and it was not acceptable for the people to yield after the bloodshed and fall of martyrs. Then, Bin Ali's regime was not able to resists and began to fall gradually, as the ousted president issued decrees to remove the Minister of Interior and a number of ministers, gave promises to remedy the economic problems demanded by the demonstrators, and ordered that the prices of foodstuffs and basis needs go down, announced that he would not be a candidate for a new presidential term in the 2014 presidential elections, reopened the communication websites which were withheld in Tunisia for 5 years; e.g. Youtube, visited the martyr Mohamed Bouazizi at hospital, and gave promises as well as undertakings to his mother. Unfortunately, Mohamed Bouazizi took his last breaths, and the revolution flared up, so the people rejected all promises and undertakings made by the president, and insisted that Bin Ali be ousted, yet, as usual, Bin Ali did not understand the lesson well, that's why he called the armed forces to support the security forces and secret police on suppressing the demonstrators, yet the command of the armed forces refused his call, and preferred to be neutral and not to open artillery fire at the demonstrators. On the other hand, the demonstrators' number went up, and they were able to lay hold of the government premises of ministries, and went even so far as to lay siege to the Ministry of Interior, and, by that time, Bin Ali felt that he would save his life and flee from the country, and come back when the matters are tranquil again.

On 14 January 2011, Bin Ali hastily left Tunisia under Libyan protection and headed to Jeddah, KSA, and Mohamed Ghannouchi proclaimed himself as the acting President of the country for a temporary period, because the president was not able to take over his presidential duties under Article 56 of the  Constitution of Tunisia, and imposed a state of emergency and curfew. However, the people who revolted and rose were not satisfied to go home before all their demands are fulfilled, particularly after the increase of popular demands and pressure as well as the neutral attitude adopted by the armed forces; even the armed forces stood by the demonstrators' side against the regime's thugs and security forces which attempted to spread a state of creative chaos in Tunisia, and forced Ghannouchi to put Article 57 of  Tunisia's Constitution into effect, and declared that the presidency was vacant. As a result, on 15 January 2011, Fouad Mebazaa,  President of the  Chamber of Deputies of Tunisia took over as an interim president of Tunisia pending the presidential elections pursuant to Tunisia's constitution.

Thus, Bin Ali was ousted in less than one-month period, and the Tunisian Revolution inspired the neighboring countries to rise up against oppression, flared up the popular rage in the Arab Countries, and revived the hopes of change.

Names Given to the Revolution:

1. The Dignity Revolution;

2. The Freedom Revolution;

3. The jasmine Revolution;

4. 14 January Revolution, this is the day on which Bin Ali was forced to flee Tunisia.

The slogans raised during the Tunisian Revolution:

1. Get Out;

2."If, one day, the people want to live, then the fate will answer their call";

3. Viva (Long live) the People... Viva (long live) the army;

4. Tunisia is free, Tunisia is free, the  Constitutional Democratic Rally is out;

5. Allah is the Greatest... Allah is the Greatest...No God but Allah and the martyr is loved by Allah;

6. Tunisia is free, Tunisia is free, Bin Ali is out;

7. We have grown very old;

The Revolution's Economic Losses

A study published by Al Jazeera satellite channel came the a conclusion that Tunisia needs USD 25 billion within a five-year period to get its economy back to its previous position before the outbreak of revolution.

Number of Martyrs

According to reports made by Human Rights Committees, about 219 martyrs fell during the Tunisian Revolution.

# Egypt's 25 January Revolution

As a matter of fact, Egypt is the land of Arab freedom and dignity, the Arab nation's status will not be perfect if its heart is ailing; Egypt is the heart of nation. Egypt is the land of dignity and Arabism, no matter how tyrannical its rulers may be and how many the mercenaries of their regimes are, Egypt will rise up and revolt after all. This fact is always told by history, and we have experienced and seen this fact with our own eyes, so that when deprivation and injustice reach their climax, Egypt revolts and the volcano of its rage erupts, burning its enemies and causing the land of volcano to bring forth blessed green trees. In fact, nobody could anticipate the January 25 Revolution due to the long Egyptian dormancy and the regime's full control over the elements of State, the people, and their fate, even the political analysis departments in both the State Security and General Intelligence Body could not anticipate that the non-violent demonstrations may be turned into a popular revolution that undermines their pillars and pillars of the regime they were protecting, causing it to collapse.

Just like Pharaoh, who could not anticipate that he would perish at the hands of Prophet Moses (peace be upon him) whom he brought up in his palace during his childhood and adulthood, this is the case of Egypt with its tyrannical rulers, as that as Allah, the Almighty Lord, destroyed Pharaoh and his companions, Hosni Mubarak and his regime fell down.

When injustice and tyranny reached their climax, and the Egyptian people found no hope that a military coup or a free officers revolution break out, the Divine triumph came from where nobody would expect, starting with Tunisia, as when the Tunisian Revolution broke out and succeeded, the Egyptians shouted "The Tunisians rose up and succeeded". As a result, the Egyptians went out in demonstrations in Cairo, Alexandria, Suez, and all other regions of the State, and, in response, Hosni Mubarak and his regime suppressed and killed the peaceful demonstrators, announced that he would act like Zein Al Abdein Bin Ali and that Egypt was not Tunisia, just as stated by Gaddafi and Ali Abdullah Saleh. The shed of pure, innocent bloods caused fear to vanish away, and the Divine calmness descended down upon the Egyptian people who offered martyr sacrifices to illuminate the way of freedom to Egypt and the Arab Nation, as when Egypt is free from oppression, every Arab spot will be free from the Gulf to the Ocean. This is a lesson we learnt from history, so the comeback of blessed Egypt is welcome.

On 25 January 2011, the Egyptians went on protests and demonstrations all over Egypt, which soon turned into a popular revolution managed by the parties, prominent figures, intellectuals, artists, and all segments of the Egyptian society. At first, the demonstrations took the form of protests against the living and social conditions, calling for the abolishment of Emergency Law and eradication of poverty, raising the slogans "bread, freedom, and social justice", yet, as the revolutions advanced, the regime's repressive practices and killing caused the ceiling of demands to reach its zenith, as they called for "overthrow of the president", and then " overthrow of the whole regime".

The events progressed rapidly, and President Mohamed Hosni Mubarak was overthrown in a 18-day period, after which he was taken to prison and trial, being humiliated and humble on his sickness bed, drinking from the same glass from which he forced the Islamist to drink for long years, and stood accompanied by his sons and the men of his regime in jail behind the bars where he imprisoned the Egyptians who said "Allah is our Lord and followed His Right Path". Sincerest congratulations to Egypt and its people as well as the whole Arab nation for Egypt's victory, as this victory will spread over the Arab World so soon.

Dates and Names of Events

1. The demonstrations broke out on Tuesday 25 January, 2011, and it was named the "Day of Anger";

2. Friday 28 January 2011, which was named the "Friday of Anger";

3. On 2 February 2011, the "Camel's Battle" took place;

4. 4 February 2011 was named the "Departure Friday";

5. on Sunday 6 February 2011, a martyr fall;

6. 8 February 2011 was named "Day of Egypt's Love";

7. 9 February 2011 was named the "Demands Day";

8. On 10 February 2011, the first signs of president's resignation;

9. On Friday 11 February 2011, which was named the "Victory Friday", the vice president announced at 06:00 PM that the president stepped down from office, and charged the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces to administer the State affairs.

Mohamed Bouazizi's Phenomenon

On 18 January 2011, four Egyptians set themselves on fire separately, in protest of the economic, political, and living conditions, following the example of the Tunisian martyr Mohamed Bouazizi who set himself on fire and stirred up the Tunisian Revolution.

Martyrs of Egypt's Revolution (source: social websites on GOOGLE)

Name of Region | Number of Martyrs

---|---

Cairo | 232

Alexandria | 52

Suez | 18

Assiut | 3

Rafah | 3

Mansoura | 2

Arish | 1

Al Kharja Oasis | 1

Zayed City and North Sinai | 1

Atfieh | 1

Luxor | 1

Abu Simple | 1

Total | 316

However, Egypt's TV announced that the number of martyrs was 365 persons, while Al Jazzera Satellite Channel, in an interview with a leader of the revolutions, announced that the number of martyrs was 850 martyrs.

Losses sustained due to the Revolutions

On its coverage of the losses sustained by the Arab Spring Revolutions, Al Jazzera Channel stated that the losses of Egypt's revolution were estimated at USD 30 billion.

Names of the Revolution

1. The 25 January Revolution;

2. The Anger Revolution;

3. The Youth Revolution;

4. The Lotus Revolution;

5. The White Revolution;

6. The 18-Day Revolution

Some of the slogans and cheers (many slogans are available on the website)

  * Dignity... Freedom... Social Justice;

  * Get Out... Get Out;

  * stay-in strike... stay-in strike... till the regime is overthrown;

  * Step down...Step down Hosni Mubarak;

  * The people want to overthrow the regime;

  * Change and Departure;

  * Presidency is not assumed by force...Get out of here;

  * Get out from here...Have some blood in your body;

  * It is none of your business USA;

  * Hosni Mubarak... Coward... Spy of the USA;

  * Hosni Mubarak, the Plane Is Waiting'

# Lessons learned from the Arab Spring Revolutions

"He (Allah) hurled horror in their hearts (as) they ruined their houses with their (own) hands and the hands of the believers. So ponder (on that), you who are endowed with beholding". Verse 2, Surah Al-Hashr

  * "The higher a bird flies, the lower it will fall"

The people of reason and conscience should learn lessons from the fates befalling the ousted presidents Mohamed Hosni Mubarak, the tyrant of Egypt, Zein Al Abdein Bin Ali, the plunderer of Tunisia, and Muammar Gaddafi, the King of African Kings. Where were they? Where have they become? Where are their kingdoms, thrones, and palaces? They, their regimes, and the men of these regimes fell down, and as they stepped aside from rule, they went to the dustbin of history.

  * Those, who praise your acts today, will praise the acts of others someday, even if the praise is different. Beware! Beware! The persons, who carried the images of ousted presidents, are the same persons who destroyed, treaded over, and even spat at their images, because a lauder is mercenary putting his service at the command of anybody who pays him, while loyalty to any person other than the homeland is fake and false loyalty, as a false loyal person will be satisfied if he gets paid, but if he is not paid, he will be dissatisfied and turns against his Master on the spot.

  * "God's mill grinds slow but sure against His enemy" "Until when they rejoiced with what was bestowed upon them, We took them (away) suddenly; then lo, they were dumbfounded" Surat Al-An'am, verse 44. In other words, whoever declares enmity to religion, and becomes haughty in reliance upon the life's enjoyments and man's laws, which cause him to detain, torture, and scares away a person who says "Allah is my Lord", will be penalized by Allah sooner or later, the same as what happened to Tunisia's ousted president bin Ali who struggled against the wearing of veils, prevented the women from covering up their bodies, prevented the multiplicity of wives, and abolished Islam's punishments prescribed for crimes "Hudud". As a result, Allah drove him to the dustbin of history; no western country admitted to shelter him, and no country welcomed his presence other than an Islamic Country in which the women wear veil and showing a woman's face is prohibited by Islamic Law, thus he will see, if he happens to see, the veil day and night, and "Those who oppress (other people) will be overthrown.

  * "FIRE STARTS FROM A LITTLE SPARK". As such, do not underestimate or disdain any weak person of a nation, because the flaring Arab Revolutions were first stirred up by a poor vegetable-seller Tunisian young man, from a poor village; i.e. the martyr Mohamed Bouazizi, who set himself on fire and stirred up the revolution. "What one's does today will be done against him tomorrow", without gloating over another's grief, as President Hosni Mubarak, since he came to power without considerable efforts made by him, made the prisons a home to the opposing Islamists, so that the jail became a home inherited by a son from his father, and, now, he and his sons are put in the same jails in which they jailed the bearded persons, and behind the same bars where the innocents stood raising the Holy Qur'an by their hands. As for Tunisia's ousted Bin Ali, trials are in progress, and judgments are entered against him in absentia, while he is hidden in his shelter, while Muammar Gaddafi and other tyrannical rulers are on their way to trials or graves.

  * The homeland is not the property of the ruler, his dynasty, or tribe; the homeland is the property of all citizens, and, as such, it may not be passed down by inheritance, while the resources and wealth of it are not a grant or gift from the ruler to the citizen and people. The people do not look forward to power; rather, they want to be ruled by whomever they elect, and call him to account for his acts and mistakes. A ruler must rather be a servant than a master of the people, security forces and the army must not be placed under his command, while the economic reform, pay rise, and provision of job opportunities without making political reform symbolized by national parliament and popular governments act like an anesthetic the effect of which would go away after a while, because when a person becomes sated, he begins to think of politics and political rights, which should take priority over the economic or living rights.

  * The proverb purporting that "The Hungry Dog Always Follows You" is proved unsuccessful after the passage of decades, and now it reads as follows "The Hungry Dog Eats You", as the hungry people of Tunisia and Egypt were able to overthrow the most powerful repressive security regimes.

  * "Only Your Fingernails Scratch your Skin"... The policy of recruitment and naturalization of non-national persons and mercenaries, whether Arabs or Non-Arabs, did not benefit Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, as the files are opened, and prisons are full of both Arab and foreign mercenaries. In addition, spoiling the population structure by way of naturalization has disadvantages more than its advantages, so no good is attributable by a regime which mistrusts its people, and hires foreign people and advocates tribes.

  * The multiplicity, large number, diversity, and high training of security apparatuses were not able to benefit the ousted presidents, although their security systems were rated among the most powerful and strongest security forces, and when the people rose up in revolt, they fled, while the presidents "In the end they cried (for mercy)- when there was no longer time for being saved" Surat Sad, verse No. 2

# Section V

#

# THE UNITED NATIONS

## Index of Section V Themes

Theme | Page No.

---|---

League of Nations | 257

The United Nations (UN) | 257

UN Agencies | 258

UN Structure | 260

First: UN Secretariat | 261

Second: General Assembly | 263

Third: Security Council | 265

Chapter VII Articles | 268

UN Security Council's Veto Power | 272

Fourth: International Court of Justice (ICJ) | 273

Fifth: The UN Economic and Social Council | 275

Sixth: Trusteeship Council | 277

The International Criminal Court (ICC) | 278

# The United Nations

The League of Nations

The League of Nations (abbreviated as LN in English) was founded by the states which signed the Treaty of Versailles, with the purpose of enhancing the spirit of understanding and cooperation among the nations, and maintaining world peace and security. The League was headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and the most important branch of which was the International Labor Office that still portative. The League remained in effect up to the 1st of June 1946, when it was replaced by the United Nations.

The United Nations

Foundation: The United Nations (UN) was established after World War II. The UN Charter was signed by 51 member states in San Francisco, USA, on 24 October 1945, pursuant to The Dumbarton Oaks Conference held in the USA's capital city of Washington following a number of former conferences.

Headquarters

The UN is headquartered in Ney York City, USA, and it has affiliated offices and principal agencies all over the world; inter alia, Geneva and Bern in Switzerland, Hague City in the Netherlands, Vienna City in Austria, and many other cities and countries.

Number of Members

The UN's members are 193 Member States after the accession of the Republic of South Sudan in 2011.

Official Languages

English – Arabic – French – Russian – Spanish – Chinese

Number of UN Charter's Articles

The UN Charter comprises 111 Articles divided into nineteen chapters, appended thereto is the Statute of the International Court of Justice

UN Membership

The UN membership is open to all peace-loving states which accept to abide by the UN Charter. The UN main structure comprises:

1. UN Secretariat;

2. UN General Assembly;

3. Security Council;

4. UN Economic and Social Council;

5. International Court of Justice;

6. Trusteeship Council

# The UN Agencies

The UN has independent agencies known as specialized agencies, which were founded under an international government treaty, to undertake large-scale responsibilities and duties; foremost of which are the following agencies:

  1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), headquartered in Rome, Italy;

  2. International Labour Organization (ILO), headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland;

  3. International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), headquartered in Rome, Italy;

  4. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), Montreal, Canada;

  5. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Rome, Italy;

  6. International Maritime Organization (IMO), London;

  7. International Monetary Fund (IMF), Washington;

  8. International Telecommunication Union (ITU);

  9. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Paris, France;

  10. United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO);

  11. Universal Postal Union (UPU);

  12. The World Bank, Washington, DC;

  13. UN World Food Programme (WFB), Rome, Italy;

  14. World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva;

  15. World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), Geneva;

  16. _World Meteorological Organization_ ( _WMO_ );

  17. United Nations World Tourism Organization, Madrid, Spain;

# The UN Structure

# First: UN Secretariat

The UN Secretariat is an administrative, political body comprising international staff in varying specialties, who work at the UN's headquarters in New York and all over the world. Their number is over 8,000 employees from 170 UN Member States. The tasks assigned to the UN Secretariat are of administrative and political nature, ranging from administering international peacekeeping operations to mediating international disputes, from surveying economic and social trends and problems to preparing studies on human rights and sustainable development. Un Secretariat staff also keeps the world's communications media informed the work of the United Nations; organize international conferences on issues of worldwide concern; monitor the application of resolutions adopted by the Un organs, and provide oral and written interpretation of speeches and documents into the UN's official language.

Headquarters

The UN Secretariat is headquartered in New York City, USA, and it has an affiliated office in Geneva, Switzerland, which represents a center for diplomatic conferences and issues involving disarmament and human rights. In addition, It also has an affiliated office in Vienna, Austria, dedicated to fighting drugs, crime prevention and criminal justice, using the space for peaceful purposes, and commercial law, along with an office at Nairobi, which is dedicated to environment activities and human settlements. As international servants, it is prohibited for the UN Secretariat Staff to accept any gifts, honorary ranks, or badges from any government body, and they undertake to operate in secrecy and confidentiality with respect to the official issues, and they are appointed by the UN Secretary General in conformity with prescribed by the General Assembly in 1946 in the UN Secretariat Staff Regulation.

UN Secretary General

He presides over the UN Secretariat and appoints its staff. UN Secretary General is appointed for a five-year term renewable for one time. UN Secretary General and Assistant Secretary General enjoy all privileges and immunities vested in the staff of diplomatic corps.

Nomination

UN Secretary General is nominated upon a recommendation by the Security Council, and he must obtain a majority of votes on nomination, including the five permanent member states of the Security Council. It is a common practice that the UN Secretary General is selected from the Non-Permanent Security Council Member States.

UN Secretary General's duties include:

  1. Appointing and promoting the UN Secretariat Staff, and tacking disciplinary actions against them as per the applicable regulations;

  2. Representing the UN before other organizations, and dealing in its name;

  3. Receiving UN Membership applications;

  4. Taking part in the meetings of the Security Council, General Assembly, and Economic Council, or designating a representative to attend on his behalf;

  5. Documenting and putting into circulation the treaties executed by the Un Member States;

  6. Preparing the interim agendas of the Un branches, and giving notice on the dates of launching the sessions and venues, and preparing the relevant documentation;

  7. Managing the UN Secretariat and preparing the UN Draft Budget;

  8. Monitoring the implementation of resolutions issued by the UN;

  9. Drawing up annual reports on the UN activities, and submitting it to the General Assembly in each of its sessions, and chairing the sessions of General Assembly's conferences;

  10. He may administer personal, political initiatives;

  11. Keeping the Security Council informed about any international issue; and

  12. Making good efforts to have the disputes resolved by peaceful means;

## UN Secretaries General since the foundation of UN:

Secretary-General | Nationality | Dates in Office

---|---|---

1. Trygve Halvdan  Lie | Norwegian | 1946–52

2. Dag  Hammarskjöld | Swedish | 1953–61

3. U  Thant | Burmese | 1961–71

4. Kurt  Waldheim | Austrian | 1972–81

5. Javier  Pérez de Cuéllar | Peruvian | 1982–91

6. Boutros  Boutros-Ghali | Egyptian | 1992–96

7. Kofi  Annan | Ghanaian | 1997–2006

8.  Ban Ki-Moon | South Korean | 2007–up to the present day

# Second: The UN General Assembly

The General Assembly is the principal deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the United Nations. It comprises all UN Member States; each State is represented by representatives not exceeding five members, yet each State has only one vote.

Number of Members

It comprises 193 Member States after the accession of the Republic of South Sudan in 2011.

Session

The General Assembly meets in a regular session on September 2 each year, and it may hold extraordinary meetings at the call of Security Council or a majority of the UN Member States, or at a call of a Member States upheld by the majority of Member States. In addition, the Assembly may be convoked in an extraordinary session within 24 hours at a call of nine Security Council members, a majority of the UN Members, or at a call made by a Member States upheld by the majority of Member States, or at the call of UN Secretary General, and, in this case, it is named an extraordinary session.

Voting Mechanism

Voting is administered on the important issues or any questions regarded by the Assembly to be significant, or on those issues the importance of which is determined by the UN Charter, and the voting is decided upon by a two-thirds majority. Resolutions adopted by the General Assembly are non-binding de jure, yet they have moral force and effect for being issued by the main organ of the UN.

Observer Member

In 1974, the UN General Assembly admitted the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) to be an observer member in the General Assembly and in all conferences convoked by the General Assembly or other conferences held under its auspices. In addition, other liberation movements were admitted as Observer Members, as the only Observer Member before that was Switzerland.

Functions of the General Assembly include, inter alia:

  1. Electing the non-permanent members of the UN Security Council;

  2. Electing the members of Economic and Social Council;

  3. Considering the UN Budget;

  4. Considering the general principles of international cooperation;

  5. Admitting the accession of new members to the UN;

  6. Appointing the UN Secretary-General upon a recommendation of the Security Council;

  7. Electing the judges of International Court of Justice;

  8. Discussing international problems and making resolutions with regard thereto;

  9. Investigating any dispute that may pose a threat to international peace and security;

  10. Maintaining the human rights and basic freedoms;

  11. Encouraging and reinforcing international cooperation in all fields;

  12. Undertaking any other functions assigned to the General Assembly; and

  13. Electing the members of UN Human Rights Council and Commission on Human Rights of the UN General Assembly;

# Third: Security Council

It is the most important and influential UN organ, as it is in charge of maintaining international peace and security. According to the UN Charter, the Security Council has binding legal force on the governments of Member States; therefore, its resolutions are binding upon these Member States.

Headquarters

The Security Council is headquartered in New York City, USA, but it may convene elsewhere other than the headquarters.

Members

The Council is composed of fifteen (15) members of which five permanent members with Right to Veto; i.e. The Russian Federation, The United Kingdom, The United States, China, and France, and ten non-permanent members elected for a two-year term. Each Security Council Member has one vote, and decisions on resolutions involving procedural issues are made by affirmative vote on at least nine members, while the decisions pertaining to substantive issues require affirmative vote of nine members, including all five permanent members, which is called "Major Countries Consensus". A State, which is a Member of the United Nations but not of the Security Council, may participate, without a vote, in the Council's discussions, and the Council sets the conditions of participation of a non-member state. A draft resolution set to voting will be turned down if either of the permanent members casts a "negative" vote using the Right to Veto.

Presidency of Security Council

Presidency of the Security Council is assumed by each of the members in turn for one month, following the English alphabetical order of the Member States' names.

Functions of the Security Council:

  1. To elect the Judges of the International Court of Justice;

  2. To recommend to the General Assembly the appointment of the UN Secretary-General;

  3. To maintain international peace and security in accordance with chapter VII of UN Charter;

  4. To make recommendation on admission, dismissal, or suspension of membership of a State;

  5. To enforce the judgments passed by the International Court of Justice, if requested;

  6. To dispatch international emergency forces (UNIFIL) and UN Peacekeeping Forces to the regions of instability, make settlement between the disputing countries, alleviate tension, maintain peace, and create an appropriate atmosphere for calmness through which peaceful settlements can be sought;

  7. To resolve international conflicts and impose sanctions to prevent aggression;

  8. The Council may take measures to impose or enforce economic procedures; e.g. economic embargo and blockade operations), or adopt a collective military action against a particular state;

  9. When a complaint is submitted to the Council which pertain to threatening of international peace, the Council, often, provide its recommendations to the concerned parties, in order to reach an agreement through peaceful means; however, in some cases, the council administers investigation and mediation per se, and it may appoint special envoys, or assign the UN Secretary General to perform such task. Also, the Security Council may lay down principles for peaceful resolution of a dispute. If a dispute gives rise to a fight, the Security Council chief concern will be to put an end to the fight and reach ceasefire in the earliest time possible.

Sessions

The Security Council has no regular sessions, yet it convenes whenever necessary. In order to discharge its duties on a permanent basis, a permanent representative of all members must exist at the Council's headquarters in New York. Statute of the Security Council provides that chairman of the Council shall call for a meeting at any time, and the period intervening between the convention of sessions shall not exceed two weeks.

# Chapter VII of the UN Charter

Too much reference is made to Chapter VII of the UN Charter when sanctions are imposed against a particular state, what is meant by Chapter VII? Chapter VII provides for Actions with Respect to Threats to the Peace, Breaches of the Peace, and Acts of Aggression. Chapter VII consists of 13 Articles as follows:

### Article (39)

The Security Council shall determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression and shall make recommendations, or decide what measures shall be taken in accordance with Articles 41 and 42, to maintain or restore international peace and security.

### Article (40)

In order to prevent an aggravation of the situation, the Security Council may, before making the recommendations or deciding upon the measures provided for in Article 39, call upon the parties concerned to comply with such provisional measures as it deems necessary or desirable. Such provisional measures shall be without prejudice to the rights, claims, or position of the parties concerned. The Security Council shall duly take account of failure to comply with such provisional measures.

###

### Article (41)

The Security Council may decide what measures not involving the use of armed force are to be employed to give effect to its decisions, and it may call upon the Members of the United Nations to apply such measures. These may include complete or partial interruption of economic relations and of rail, sea, air, postal, telegraphic, radio, and other means of communication, and the severance of diplomatic relations.

### Article (42)

Should the Security Council consider that measures provided for in Article 41 would be inadequate or have proved to be inadequate, it may take such action by air, sea, or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security. Such action may include demonstrations, blockade, and other operations by air, sea, or land forces of Members of the United Nations.

### Article (43)

  1. All Members of the United Nations, in order to contribute to the maintenance of international peace and security, undertake to make available to the Security Council, on its call and in accordance with a special agreement or agreements, the armed forces, assistance, and facilities, including rights of passage, necessary for the purpose of maintaining international peace and security.

  2. Such agreement or agreements shall govern the numbers and types of forces, their degree of readiness and general location, and the nature of the facilities and assistance to be provided.

  3. The agreement or agreements shall be negotiated as soon as possible on the initiative of the Security Council. They shall be concluded between the Security Council and Members or between the Security Council and groups of Members and shall be subject to ratification by the signatory states in accordance with their respective constitutional processes.

### Article (44)

When the Security Council has decided to use force it shall, before calling upon a Member not represented on it to provide armed forces in fulfillment of the obligations assumed under Article 43, invite that Member, if the Member so desires, to participate in the decisions of the Security Council concerning the employment of contingents of that Member's armed forces.

### Article (45)

In order to enable the United Nations to take urgent military measures, Members shall hold immediately available national air-force contingents for combined international enforcement action. The strength and degree of readiness of these contingents and plans for their combined action shall be determined within the limits laid down in the special agreement or agreements referred to in Article 43, by the Security Council with the assistance of the Military Staff Committee.

### Article (46)

Plans for the application of armed force shall be made by the Security Council with the assistance of the Military Staff Committee.

### Article (47)

  1. There shall be established a Military Staff Committee to advise and assist the Security Council on all questions relating to the Security Council's military requirements for the maintenance of international peace and security, the employment and command of forces placed at its disposal, the regulation of armaments, and possible disarmament.

  2. The Military Staff Committee shall consist of the Chiefs of Staff of the permanent members of the Security Council or their representatives. Any Member of the United Nations not permanently represented on the Committee shall be invited by the Committee to be associated with it when the efficient discharge of the Committee's responsibilities requires the participation of that Member in its work.

  3. The Military Staff Committee shall be responsible under the Security Council for the strategic direction of any armed forces placed at the disposal of the Security Council. Questions relating to the command of such forces shall be worked out subsequently.

  4. The Military Staff Committee, with the authorization of the Security Council and after consultation with appropriate regional agencies, may establish regional sub-committees.

### Article (48)

  1. The action required to carry out the decisions of the Security Council for the maintenance of international peace and security shall be taken by all the Members of the United Nations or by some of them, as the Security Council may determine.

  2. Such decisions shall be carried out by the Members of the United Nations directly and through their action in the appropriate international agencies of which they are members.

### Article (49)

The Members of the United Nations shall join in affording mutual assistance in carrying out the measures decided upon by the Security Council.

### Article (50)

If preventive or enforcement measures against any state are taken by the Security Council, any other state, whether a Member of the United Nations or not, which finds itself confronted with special economic problems arising from the carrying out of those measures shall have the right to consult the Security Council with regard to a solution of those problems.

### Article (51)

Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right of individual or collective self-defense if an armed attack occurs against a Member of the United Nations, until the Security Council has taken measures necessary to maintain international peace and security. Measures taken by Members in the exercise of this right of self-defense shall be immediately reported to the Security Council and shall not in any way affect the authority and responsibility of the Security Council under the present Charter to take at any time such action as it deems necessary in order to maintain or restore international peace and security.

# Security Council Veto

# The Veto Power, Right to Veto, or the Right to Reject

#

Veto is a Latin word meaning "I forbid", and it is used in the Security Council to reject and prohibit any draft resolution submitted to the Council, without giving an account of the reasons underlying such rejection. Veto is a right vested in the five permanent member states; i.e. The Russian Federation, The United Kingdom, The United States, China, and France. Under the UN Charter, it is sufficient for any of these five states to exercise its veto power to abort and prevent the passing of a Security Council's draft resolution, even if it is ratified by the other fourteen states.

# Fourth: International Court of Justice

The International Court of Justice (abbreviated ICJ) is the UN's principal judicial organ. The major functions of ICJ are to settle disputes arising between the States, and provide legal and judicial advice to the UN and its specialized agencies. The ICJ's Statute constitutes an integral part of the UN Charter, and its judgments are non-appealable.

Foundation

The ICJ was established in 1945 and began to perform its duties in the following year.

Official Languages: English & French

Headquarters

The official seat of International Court of Justice is located in Hague City, Netherlands, and, as such, it is the only organ among the UN's six organs which has its headquarters outside New York City. In addition, the ICJ may convene elsewhere other than the headquarters, if deemed necessary, and it is in permanent convention, except for on holidays. The ICJ may hold its sessions in the form of circuits or panels each of which is specialized in a type of legal proceedings and urgent matters.

Composition

The ICJ is composed of fifteen judges to be elected through an independent ballot to a nine-year term, renewable for unlimited times, by the  UN General Assembly and the  UN Security Council. The ICJ's judges are elected based on their qualification and expertise regardless of their nationalities, provided that only one judge is elected from each State, and due consideration is given, upon electing the judges, to represent the various civilizations and legal system worldwide. The ICJ has a president, vice president, and a head of court registry, assisted by a number of employees. The ICJ elects its president and vice president on a three-year basis.

Functions of the ICJ are limited to:

1. Consider and adjudicate upon the cases filed to the ICJ by the States, and its judgment is binding and enforceable. However, if a party to the case fails to execute the ICJ's judgment, the Security Council may be requested to intervene to enforce the judgment.

2. Provide legal and judicial advice and consultations to the UN's agencies, organs, and international organizations. The ICJ-given advice is not obligatory; rather, it serves as merely judicial and legal advice.

  * In the event of death of a member judge, a substitute judge having the same nationality of the dead judge will be elected, and he shall occupy the same seat up to the end of tenure.

  * A ICJ's judge may be removed from the court only by means of a secret ballot made by the ICJ's judges.

  * ICJ's Judges may deliver a joint judgment or separate judgments, as per the discretion of each judge. Decisions and Advisory Opinions are adopted by majority, and in the event of a tie of votes, the ICJ President has the casting vote.

  * Nine members are sufficient to satisfy the court's quorum.

  * The court convenes open-door sessions, and the deliberations of judgments are confidential.

  * A judgment is signed by the ICJ's president and head of court registry, and it is pronounced in an open-door session after duly serving the attorneys.

  * No appeal for judgment may be admitted unless there is a legal ground which reveals a crucial fact in the case upon the entry of judgment both for the court and appealing party. This appeal should be filed no later than six months from the date on which the new fact is detected.

  * Each litigant will incur its own expenses, unless otherwise ordered by the court.

# Fifth: Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

It is the principal organ in charge of the coordination of economic and social business and the relevant businesses, for the United Nations, and its specialized agencies and organizations. ECOSOC is of a technical nature, and it was established pursuant to the UN Charter.

Membership

UN Economic and Social Council is composed of 54 members representing their respective governments, and elected by the General Assembly.

Term of Membership and Election

Members of the ECOSOC are elected for a three-year term, and they may be reelected unconditionally. ECOSOC's members are elected by a majority of two thirds of the attending and voting members, regardless of the geographic location, however, membership should be divided equally between the Developed Countries and Developing Countries. Vote will be made by a simple majority, one vote for each member.

Sessions and Headquarters

The ECOSOC has no prescribed sessions; it convenes whenever necessity so requires. However, ECOSOC holds at least two annual sessions; one of which is held at the United Nations' headquarters, and the other session is held in Geneva, Switzerland, on summer.

Key Functions

1. The ECOSOC coordinates the businesses of the UN's ten specialized agencies, as well as the businesses of the five technical and regional committees. It receives reports from the eleven UN-affiliated funds and programmes, and submits recommendations on the general policies to the United Nations and Member States.

2. The ECOSOC is responsible for achieving the highest living standards and providing job opportunities to each member of the global community.

3. The ECOSOC provides support to social and economic progress and development.

4. The ECOSOC seeks solutions for international economic and social problems.

5. The ECOSOC helps facilitate cooperation in the educational and cultural fields.

6. The ECOSOC holds deliberation with the academics and business sector's representatives.

7. The ECOSOC cooperates with non-governmental organizations (NGOs).

# Sixth: Trusteeship Council

Trusteeship Council is one of the principal organs of the United Nations, was established under Article (77) of the UN Charter, to oversee the application of trusteeship system which replaced the mandate system.

Article (77) of the UN Charter provides that the Trusteeship System shall apply to the internal territories in the following categories:

A. Territories (then) placed under mandate;  
B. Territories which may be detached from enemy states as a result of the World War II;  
C. Territories voluntarily placed under the system by states responsible for their administration.

When the Trusteeship Council was established, 11 trust territories were placed under its supervision, administered by seven UN Member States, in order to ensure that proper steps are taken to qualify these territories for self governance or independence.

In 1994, all territories placed under the trusteeship system were granted self governance or independence, either as independent states or by joining neighboring independent states, the last of which was Palau, formerly part of the  Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, which obtained independence and became the UN Member States No. 185, and, since 1994, there is no trust territory, thus leaving the council with no task or role, and suspended its work.

# The International Criminal Court (ICC)

On 17 July 1998, 120 States approved, on the sidelines of the UN General Assembly meeting held in Italy, the so-called "Rome Statute, which was regarded as a base for the establishment of a permanent international criminal court. 7 States objected to the idea by that time, and 21 States abstained. Rome Statute regarded the millions of children, women, and men in the 20th Century, which witnessed two world wars, as the victims of indescribable crimes that inspired the human conscience, along with the destructive wars that endanger international peace and security, and that these crimes cannot go unpunished.

Foundation

Under the above-mentioned Statute, the International Criminal Court (ICC) was legally established on 1 July 2002. The ICC is vested with the jurisdiction to adjudicate upon the crimes committed beyond 1 July 2002, as an independent body which is not a part of the UN in terms of finance and personnel.

Headquarters

The official seat of the Court is in The Hague, Netherlands, but its proceedings may take place elsewhere.

ICC Structure

  1. The court presidency is charged with general administration of the court, and consists of 3 judges who are elected from the ICC's judicial bodies for a three-year term (3 years).

  2. Judicial Division which consists of 18 judges of the Court, who are specialized in the criminal law, criminal procedure, and international law.

  3. Office of the Prosecutor: it is responsible for conducting investigations and prosecutions on the crimes falling within the ICC's jurisdiction, looking for and examining the evidence and them submitting same to the court. The Chief Prosecutor is elected for a 8-years term.

  4. The Registry Division: The Registry is responsible for the non-judicial administrative aspects. The Registry is headed by a Registrar, who is elected by the judges to a five-year term.

  5. Many other offices; e.g. Office of Public Counsel for Victims and Office of Public Counsel for the Defense (OPCD), which are affiliated to the Registry, yet they operate in complete independence. There is also an office to compensate the victims and their families.

ICC Jurisdiction

The ICC has jurisdiction to try the persons in charge of the following crimes:

1. Genocide Crimes

According to Rome Statute, genocide crimes are crimes involving murder or inflicting severe harm for the deliberate and systematic destruction of, in whole or in part, of an ethnic,  racial, religious, or national group.

2. Crimes against humanity

Crimes against humanity are prohibited acts listed in Rome Statute, when committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population; e.g. premeditated murder, genocide, rape, extermination, racial discrimination, sexual slavery, enslavement, and political assassination crimes.

3. War Crimes

Was crimes encompass all breaches of the 1949 Geneva Convention and amending agreements, and violation of war laws in an international or domestic armed conflict.

4. Crimes of Aggression

The three types of crimes listed above are identified and defined in Rome Statute, while, as for this type, the definition and elements of the crimes of aggressions were not identified in the Statute of the ICC, therefore, the ICC will exercise its jurisdiction over this category when the aggression and conditions necessary to exercise this jurisdiction are clearly defined.

In addition, the ICC has jurisdiction to adjudicate on the cases involving persons accused of committing these crimes directly or indirectly in respect of persons who assume indirect responsibility for the commitment of crimes; e.g. responsibility for the preparation, planning, sheltering, or responsibility for complicity. The ICC forces the states ratifying the Statute of ICC to arrest and hand in the persons sought for investigation and those accused of crimes falling within the jurisdiction of ICC.

# References & Sources

  1. The Islamic Regimes: a book by Dr. Hassan Ibrahim Hassan & Dr. Ali Ibrahim Hassan, Al-Nahda Al-Masriya Bookshop, 4th edition, 1970 Cairo;

  2. Consultation and its impact on Politics: a book by Dr. Abd El Hamid Al Ansari, Salafi Edition, 1980, Cairo;

  3. "Studies in Politics", a book by Dr. Youssef M. Obaidan, first edition, Beirut, Husak, Beirut;

  4. Biographies Encyclopedia: Dr. Ali Mohamed Al Salabi, Dar Ibn Obaid Printing & Publishing, special edition, 2007, Beirut

  5. The Era of Rightly Guided Caliphs: Dr.  Akram Diaa El Emary, Sciences and Rule Bookshop, first edition, Al Madinah Al Munawarah;

  6. The State and Governance regime in Islam: Dr. Hassan Alsaid Bassiouni, Book World, 1985, Cairo;

  7. Alshoura bin ala'salah walma'asrah: Ezzeldin Al Tamimi, Dar Al Bashir, 1985, Jordan;

8) The Islam World, Dr. Hussein Mo'nes, Dar El-Marf, 1973, Cairo;

9) The Abbasid State, PhD Dissertation by Dr. Naibilah Hassan Mohamed, Ikhwan Bookshop, 1994, Beirut;

10) The Ottomans in History and Civilization: Dr. Mohamed Harb, Dar Al-Kalam, first edition, 1989, Damascus;

11) Common Political Terminology, Fadh Bin Abdullah Al Rabie'a Al Malki, Qatar National Printing Press, first edition, 1989, Doha, Qatar;

12) Websites navigated by Google web search: Sincerest thanks are extended to the publishers.

## The Authors in Brief

  * Dr. Mubarak Bin Abdullah Bin Jassim Bin Rabiah Bin Mohamed Bin Nasser Al Rabiah Al Malki, was born at HamdahHospital Doha, in 1960. He is a holder of PhD Degree in Computers from the University of Manchester, UK, in 1994. He made gradual progress in military positions, and the last rank conferred upon him was a Major in 1996.

  * Mr. Fadh Bin Abdullah Bin Jassim Bin Rabiah Bin Mohamed Bin Nasser Al Rabiah Al Malki, was born at Doha Hospital in Jasrah in 1956. He is a holder of Master's Degree in International Politics from Bristol University, UK, in 1995. He completed his PhD course, yet he was not awarded graduation due to special circumstances. He made gradual progress in military and civil positions; the last rank conferred upon him was a Lieutenant Colonel in 1996.

The Purpose of this Book is to provide the reader with brief information on political issues and terminology that are frequently circulated by the media, in a plain language without delving deep into the historic aspect of these issues and terminology, in order to enable the reader to take as much political culture as he can, which would help him/her keep abreast with the latest developments, and be fully aware of the rapid events taking place, as well as the overthrow of governments and regimes one after the other, and emergence of political concepts and terminology that accompanied these events and developments.

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