Welcome to the Endless Knot!
This week we’re doing something a little
different: instead of examining a single word,
we’re having a look at a person whose innovations
include both language and science, Erasmus
Darwin.
No, not Charles, his grandfather Erasmus!
Erasmus Darwin: doctor, scientist, inventor,
poet, innovator, organizer, promoter of others,
coiner of new words, and all around polymath.
He was the grandfather of the more famous
Charles Darwin, evolutionary scientist, and
of the somewhat less famous Francis Galton,
a polymath in his own right.
He was also one of the leading minds of the
English Enlightenment and one of the driving
forces of the English Industrial revolution,
an 18th century “renaissance man”, who
has even been described by some as England’s
Leonardo Da Vinci—in part because of his
tendency to come up with ideas that wouldn’t
actually be put into practice until centuries
later.
In many ways, though, Erasmus Darwin’s most
important role was as a connector of ideas,
people, and fields—he created learned societies
and dining clubs, had extensive and wide-ranging
networks of friends, and devoted much of his
energy to communicating his knowledge to the
wider public.
My own interest in Darwin lies not so much
in the deeper etymologies of the words he
created—so I won’t be tracing many of
those—but in the way his career highlights
the connection between new ideas and inventions
(in science and elsewhere) and the need for
new words or new uses of words to describe
them.
This is a fundamental and significant driver
of language change.
In addition to being a medical doctor and
a man of science, Erasmus Darwin had a literary
flair, though he was rather self-conscious
about his literary endeavours and sometimes
published his work anonymously.
His literary output included poetry, mostly
about nature and science, and he was actually
considered to be one of the most influential
poets of the 1790s.
In his writings, Darwin coined many words
and new senses of old words, some of which
made it into regular use.
He ranks in the top third of the sources quoted
in the Oxford English Dictionary, and provides
204 first examples of a word or meaning.
So Darwin was a significant linguistic innovator,
and in his poem The Temple of Nature he even
speculated about the origins of language.
But what sorts of words were these?
Well, he was prolific at verbing nouns, such
as “to cauldron” (put in a cauldron),
“to horizon” (furnish or bound with a
horizon), and “to lantern” (to furnish
or light with a lantern).
He also produced new forms of words such as
“acutish” (somewhat acute), “blubbery”,
“brineless”, “freightless”, and “refreeze”.
If you’re “red-blooded” and “air-breathing”
you might have to worry about “vampirism”,
thanks to Dr Darwin.
If that doesn’t impress you, you might be
amused to know that he was the first person
to use the word “bottom” to refer to a
person’s rear end.
Of course he also coined a number of scientific
terms, such as “aeration”, “alluviation”,
and “anemology” (the study of winds) and
is responsible for a number of botanical terms
such as “sap-wood” and “milk parsley”.
Some of his terms didn’t catch on quite
as well, such as “devaporate” instead
of “condense”, and “somnambulation”
instead of “sleepwalking”.
He suggested “branks” (probably from a
Scots word for a kind of gag for a scold)
instead of “the mumps” but to no avail,
but he is the coiner of “tonsillitis”
which previously had been referred to by such
terms as squinsy, strangullion, and prunella,
so thank goodness for that.
And speaking of tonsillitis, Dr Darwin was
perhaps one of the most renowned and successful
medical doctors of his day, largely due to
his sympathetic bedside manner and no-nonsense
approach.
For the most part he eschewed nostrums and
other such superstitious quackery, emphasizing
things like exercise, proper diet, and abstention
from alcohol.
Though he was a rather obese man himself (so
much so that he had a special cutaway table
allowing him to sit closer to his food, and
when on his medical rounds, he would send
his driver, also a very large man, into the
houses first to make sure the floors would
hold), after a bout of gout he gave up alcohol
much to the improvement of his health, and
henceforth became an advocate of teetotalling.
He was so taken with Jacob Schweppe’s carbonated
mineral water (yes that Schweppe), that he
recommended it for its health giving effects.
Oh, and by the way, he was the first to use
the verb “to carbonate”.
He was so well-thought-of as a medical man,
that no less a personage than King George
III offered him the job of official royal
physician, which he turned down, and instead
produced his great medical and scientific
work Zoonomia, identifying and describing
many diseases, and providing a general description
of the life sciences.
Of course the name Darwin immediately calls
to mind evolution through natural selection,
because of the theories of Erasmus’s famous
grandson Charles.
Well, Darwin senior had his own musings about
the evolution of all species from one source
through the process of natural selection,
first expressed in that medical and scientific
treatise Zoonomia.
As he wrote in his final great poem on evolution
from the origins of life to civilizations,
The Temple of Nature:
Organic Life beneath the shoreless waves
Was born, and nurs’d in Ocean’s pearly
caves;
First forms minute, unseen by spheric gas,
Move on the mud, or pierce the watery mass;
These, as successive generations bloom,
New powers acquire, and larger limbs assume;
Whence countless groups of vegetation spring,
And breathing realms of fin, and feet, and
wing.
That word “acquired” in the biological
sense was a Darwin coinage, by the way.
The elder Darwin seems to have believed that
organisms could pass along characteristics
acquired during their lifetime, not just genetically
encoded hereditary ones — well he wouldn’t
have had a sense of genetics as such.
But this idea, now referred to as Lamarckism
after its proponent Jean-Baptiste Lamarck,
and rejected by grandson Charles, is in some
ways now being reconsidered, in the guise
of epigenetics which suggests that lived experience
can have some impact on the way genes are
expressed in descendants.
But Erasmus did also seem to presage the idea
of natural selection, stating in his Zoonomia
that organisms competed out of “lust, hunger,
and security” and that “the strongest
and most active animal should propagate the
species, which should thence become improved”,
and clearly championed the idea that all life
sprang from a single “living filament”.
And the family motto that Erasmus Darwin adopted
was “e chonchis omnia”, everything from
shells, which, though he was forced to remove
it from the side of his carriage by a paranoid
church canon, he kept in his bookplates, in
books no doubt read by grandson Charles.
However Darwin’s main claim to fame in biology
circles is in botany.
Wanting to isolate his medical reputation
from his literary endeavours, he set up the
Litchfield Botanical Society as a front for
his publications on botany, and his first
project in that regard was to translate into
English the works of botanist and taxonomist
Carl Linnaeus in the form of, believe it or
not, a long poem, The Loves of Plants.
In addition to outlining Linnaeus’s classification
system, Darwin explained plant reproduction
by personifying the plants and describing
their, shall we say, amorous activities.
Needless to say, this caused some controversy
and raised eyebrows in straightlaced 18th
century England.
I mean, women were reading this stuff!
Shocking!
Well, Darwin was a progressive thinker and
didn’t see the need to shield women or other
non-specialist readers from accurate scientific
knowledge, even about sex.
That’s why he wrote all of this as a poem.
And in writing about the sex lives of plants,
Darwin coined the phrases “sexual reproduction”
and “sexual propagation”, being the first
person to use the English word “sexual”
in this biological sense.
This poem was paired with another more general
and theoretical scientific poem called The
Economy of Vegetation under the joint title
The Botanic Garden.
Though nominally botanical, this book covered
wide ranging topics on science and industry.
And in other writings, Darwin seems to be
the first to clearly describe the process
of photosynthesis, using carbon dioxide, water,
and sunlight to produce food for the plant
and give off oxygen, and also suggests the
importance of chemical fertilizers, such as
nitrogen.
In writing these poems Darwin wanted to use
plain English words wherever possible rather
than Latinate jargon, and found newly coined
English compound words more expressive than
the Latin.
And to make sure he got the vocabulary right,
he even consulted famed lexicographer Samuel
Johnson.
Darwin was the chief organizer of the Lunar
society, a group of scientists and industrialists
who were the driving force behind the English
Industrial Revolution, so called because of
their habit of holding their dinner meetings
at the full moon, so they could find their
way home in those days before street lighting.
Darwin was known as a sociable man and a great
supporter of the work of his friends, and
his fellow Lunarticks, as they were sometimes
called, included the likes of James Watt (of
steam engine fame), Joseph Priestly (the discoverer
of oxygen), and Josiah Wedgwood (of pottery
fame).
Wedgwood later became a Darwin relation by
the marriage of the former’s daughter to
the latter’s son, founding the great Darwin
Wedgwood family, whose wealth, it could be
said, made possible Charles Darwin’s voyages
compiling evidence to support his evolutionary
theory.
Erasmus Darwin invented a horizontal windmill
to power Wedgwood’s machinery, and also
worked with Wedgwood’s business partner
Matthew Boulton on the study of gasses, expressing
the ideal gas law some 20 years earlier than
its “official” discovery.
He was also interested in the electrical research
being conducted by the scientific community,
coining the term “electrical” to refer
to people working on the new science, thus
eventually giving electrical engineers their
name.
Darwin also had his eye on the big picture,
cosmology that is, suggesting in The Economy
of Vegetation that the universe might be cyclical
in nature, alternating between a sort of Big
Bang and Big Crunch, long before these 20th
century terms came into use, describing how
“Suns sink on suns, and systems systems
crush” and then eventually Nature “soars
and shines, another and the same.”
In his quest to understand the cosmos, he
designed a multi mirror telescope, that used
many smaller mirrors to get around the difficulty
of building one large perfect mirror, a system
which would only be put into use and first
constructed in 1979 in Arizona.
And Darwin has another roundabout connection
to modern space science; he was the first
to use the word “hydrogen” borrowing Antoine
Lavoisier’s term from French, formed from
Greek meaning “water generating” because
when it was burned, or in other words combined
with oxygen, it produced water.
Appropriate too, since Darwin was quick to
recognize hydrogen’s utility as a highly
combustible gas, envisioning both a hydrogen
internal combustion engine, and a hydrogen-oxygen
rocket engine, long before liquid fuelled
rocket engines became a reality, after Konstantin
Tsiolkovsky developed the necessary equations
in the 19th century and Robert Goddard first
successfully built one in the 20th.
Now, Darwin would often hand off his ideas
to others to develop rather than bring them
to fruition himself, as, again, he was worried
for his reputation as a doctor, not wanting
to be known as a mad inventor; these ideas
didn’t always get developed, however.
One such idea was Darwin’s copying machine,
which he called a “polygrapher”.
It was based on the pantograph system, but
greatly improved, and though we don’t have
Darwin’s prototype itself, a copy made by
it does survive and it is indeed difficult
to distinguish it from the original.
The person he gave it to turned out not to
have the funds to patent and market it; this
was one Charles Greville, a politician and
collector of minerals, plants, artworks, and
briefly the notoriously picturesque Emma,
Lady Hamilton, who later on became the mistress
of Lord Nelson.
But as a footnote to the story, the friendly
rivalry among the members of the Lunar Society
led James Watt to try to one-up his friend
by inventing a copy press, which was capable
of making a copy of an already existing document,
and became one of the primary copying devices
in use until the 20th century, manufactured,
of course, by James Watt & Co.
As yet another footnote, years later Darwin’s
other famous grandson, Francis Galton, invented
another duplicating system, called the cyclostyle,
capable of sending an image through the telegraph
system as a mathematical code, and then reproducing
it on the other end (foreshadowing computer
graphics); it was based in part on Edison’s
electric pen duplicating device, developed
further by David Gestetner, which itself became
the basis for the 20th century mimeograph
machine.
In addition to duplicating human writing,
Darwin also tried his hand at duplicating
human speech, this time as a sort of bet,
once again demonstrating the good-natured
rivalry amongst the Lunarticks.
His friend Matthew Boulton was to pay Darwin
the sum of £1000 for devising a machine which
could recite the Lord’s Payer, the Creed,
and the Ten Commandments.
While he didn’t manage anything so elaborate,
he did purportedly build a machine operated
by bellows with artificial tongue and lips
capable of convincingly pronouncing “mama”,
“papa”, “map”, and “pam”, a milestone
on the road to speech synthesis.
Some time later, a man named Charles Wheatstone
constructed a similar set-up.
Wheatstone’s other claims to fame include
the invention of the first practical telegraph
system, the concertina, and the stereoscope
which allowed for 3D pictures.
Wheatstone also came up with a way of accurately
measuring the speed of an electrical signal
in a wire, the method later used to measure
the speed of light.
And he invented the Playfair Cipher, used
right up to WWII, named after his friend Lyon
Playfair, the man to first suggest the use
of chemical warfare.
Erasmus Darwin would not have approved of
that last development.
Erasmus Darwin’s writings, particularly
The Botanic Garden and Zoonomia, became a
sort of literary guide to science, and were
especially influential on the back-to-nature
crowd we call the Romantics.
Wordsworth and Coleridge, though critical
of his old-fashioned 18th century style of
poetry in heroic couplets, were nevertheless
deeply influenced by Darwin’s natural science.
Darwin’s scientific poetry was the popular
science of its day, and one might compare
him to contemporary science communicators,
such as Carl Sagan, James Burke, Bill Nye,
or Neil deGrasse Tyson, in terms of his effect
on the popular interest and understanding
of science.
Perhaps most notably, Mary Shelley was inspired
to write Frankenstein, with its reanimated
corpse, by an experiment described in The
Temple of Nature.
(Mary may well have met Darwin as a girl,
as her father William Godwin knew him.)
Years later, she recalled: “Many and long
were the conversations between Lord Byron
and Shelley, to which I was a devout but nearly
silent listener.
... They talked of the experiments of Dr.
Darwin,… who preserved a piece of vermicelli
in a glass case, till by some extraordinary
means it began to move with voluntary motion.”
She may have confused vorticella, a microscopic
organism, with vermicelli the pasta, or she
may have been remembering an actual pasta-based
experiment that he did indeed describe.
Either way, Darwin did speculate about the
spontaneous generation of life.
And after all, he put some effort into the
mechanical replication of living things, as
with his speaking machine and an attempt at
making a mechanical bird; and his most famous
poem starts with theories about the creation
of the world and life.
Mary Shelley’s other inspiration for the
novel was the story of creation of Adam and
Eve as told by Milton in Paradise Lost, which
is specifically referenced in the novel.
Paradise Lost also in part inspired Joseph
Haydn’s great oratorio The Creation, for
which poet Anne Hunter nee Home wrote a libretto,
which also describes the creation of the planets,
including, I suppose, the newly discovered
planet Uranus, which its discoverer William
Herschel initially named Georgium Sidus “George’s
star” after his patron King George III (who
you remember wanted Darwin as his personal
physician).
Haydn, being a bit of an astronomy fan boy,
visited Herschel, as did novelist Fanny Burney,
who along with poet and libretticist Home,
was close friends with Samuel Johnson, a man
who liked to surround himself with the intellectual
women of the day, and whom you remember was
consulted by Darwin about scientific vocabulary.
As it turns out Anne Home’s husband, John
Hunter, was a noted Scottish surgeon who brought
the scientific method into medicine, and was
teacher and friend to Edward Jenner, developer
of the smallpox vaccine, an idea that had
initially been brought into England from Turkey
by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, another close
friend of Johnson (who by the way was no great
fan of Milton’s poetry).
And this kind of interconnectedness is indicative
of Darwin’s central role in the popularization
of science.
Strangely, though, Darwin himself never really
had a notion of the germ theory of disease.
Of course there are other forerunners to Erasmus
Darwin in the role of science communicator,
such as the Roman poet Lucretius, who wrote
“On the Nature of Things”, a poem that
explained the atomic theory of Democritus,
the creation of the world, and Epicurean philosophy;
he turned to poetry to spread his message
more widely among his Roman contemporaries
because its sweetness would help make the
‘bitter’ science palatable, just as (he
said) doctors put honey on a cup to make children
drink their medicine.
This use of poetry as a teaching tool was
not original to Lucretius, but his poem was
certainly an important influence on Darwin’s
own choice of poetry as a popularizing medium.
Other forerunners include those who translated
Isaac Newton’s writings for the general
public, such as John Newbery who wrote a children’s
book version in 1761.
And notably, after Darwin there was the British
Association for the Advancement of Science,
established in 1831 “to obtain a greater
degree of national attention to the objects
of science”, and Michael Faraday, an inspiration
to the likes of Neil deGrasse Tyson and Brian
Cox, who instituted the Royal Institution’s
Annual Christmas Lectures, one of the most
famous popular science outreaches.
Speaking of Faraday, by the way, he was responsible
for conveying the discoveries of Charles Wheatstone
(remember him) to the larger world, particularly
as he moved away from teaching and engaged
mostly in research.
In keeping with his desire to spread knowledge
more widely, Erasmus Darwin was keenly interested
in education, particularly the education of
women.
He even wrote a treatise on the education
of women for the benefit of his two illegitimate
schoolteacher daughters Susanna and Mary Parker,
which was remarkably practical, and included
scientific topics such as botany, chemistry,
and mineralogy, as well as a knowledge of
manufacturing and industry, and how to manage
finances.
And Darwin counted among his friends a number
of women with an interest in science, including
Anna Seward and Maria Jacson.
Seward, known as the Swan of Lichfield, had
a close, possibly romantic relationship with
Honora Sneyd, another Darwin friend who shared
his concerns about women’s education, also
writing on the subject.
She later married Lunar Society member Richard
Edgeworth who came up with, though like Darwin
often did, failed to develop, the idea of
the caterpillar track, which he described
as “a cart that carried its own road”.
So, Erasmus Darwin was a central pivot point
for a wide range of scientific discoveries,
inventions, language change, and social progress.
And perhaps the driving force of his work,
a creative impulse and a desire to connect
and communicate, can best be summed up in
his own words: “Enlist imagination under
the banner of science”.
It’s that inspiration that still drives
many science communicators today, and I’ll
end with one who, like Darwin, combines poetry
and science: Baba Brinkman, science rapper,
whose ‘peer-reviewed’ Rap Guide to Evolution
and other albums show us the continuing value
of looking for connections, not divisions,
between areas of knowledge.
Thanks for watching!
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