Hi, thanks for tuning into Singularity
Prosperity. In the previous video on this
channel we discussed the evolution of
the field of computing, from as early as
the Chinese abacus to the integrated
circuit. To expand on that, this video is
a culmination of a series of
documentaries from the vacuum tube,
transistor and integrated circuit eras.
The reason I wanted to do this is to
provide further insight into how
computers have evolved, highlighting the
exponential growth from less than half a
century ago and providing further
background context for future videos on
this channel.
Additionally, so we can appreciate the
advances in modern technology we all
often take for granted and the humble
beginnings that came from. Enjoy the
documentaries, consider subscribing and
let me know your thoughts on the subject
matter in the comments below!
[Music]
Electronics is a science that applies
these tubes to the service of math to
the speeding of production to the
winning of the war to understand how
electronic tubes work let's take a good
look at one of them one this
representative of his species this is a
diode the typical two element electronic
tube let's get inside in fundamental
operation it presents an ordinary single
pole switch a switch that can connect
for instance this battery and it's motor
low one power lead comes to the anode
the other lead goes to the cathode when
this switch is open the contacts are
insulated from each other by a vacuum or
by some inert gas inserted into an
evacuated tube under low pressure to
close this switch electronically all we
need do is heat the cathode and give the
anode a positive potential then here's
what happens as electron
from the surface of the heated cathode
being negatively charged they fly at
tremendous speed to the anode in this
way a current-carrying path is formed
which closes our electronic switch and
permits our motor to operate you'll
notice by the way that the direction of
electron flow is contrary to the
Orthodox concept of current flow from
plus to minus now at this point you may
ask if an electronic tube is basically
just a form of switch
why is electronics hailed today is the
technique of a new engineering era to
answer that question let's review six of
the basic things that we can do with
this new kind of switch in the first
place we can rectify current with
converting AC to DC we can do this
merely by connecting an electronic tube
in series with an AC circuit as you
study this circuit diagram note that
only each positive half wave of AC
voltage will now produce a current when
the anode is negative the electrons are
repelled and no current flows in other
words because only the cathode can emit
electrons we have here what amounts to a
one-way street we can visualize the
result of the tubes rectifying action
with the aid of these two oscilloscope
the one on the Left shows alternating
current coming in the one on the right
shows pulsating direct current going out
the applications of this basic
rectifying principle are many and
important here's one of them
changing AC to DC on the nation's
electrified transportation systems
here's another rectification for
electroplating operations of all kinds
operations possible only with direct
current LLL another example furnishing
DCM steel-mill
for the driving of variable speed motors
such as the one controlling this giant
ladle or the ones driving steel
conveyors with such precise control of
speed the danger of buckling and tearing
and consequent mill damage is eliminated
electronic rectification is also helping
to build American airpower by making
available record-breaking quantities of
aluminum for plane construction come
Arkansas must to American air power
involves a complicated conversion of
material before pure aluminum can be
extracted from this bauxite ore
direct-current must be applied in a
vital reduction process to obtain that
direct current from AC transmission line
the exact tron rectifier is used this
Westinghouse electronic development
changes vast quantities of AC to DC with
higher efficiency than any similar type
of conversion equipment today it's the
main source of current supply for the
nation's great aluminum industry an
industry that has achieved a miraculous
expansion to meet the demands of a world
at war
magnesium from seawater is another
achievement of industry under the stress
of war ignite Tron's used in the
extraction process speed up the
delivering of incendiary and demolition
bombs to the centres of axis production
still another example of electronic
rectification at work is the precipitant
a device for cleaning air
electrostatically this diagram explains
how the Pacific Tron works the
rectifying property of electronic tubes
is used to apply a potential of 13,000
volts DC to tungsten wires and 6,500
volts DC to collect their place as
incoming air passes through the field of
these wires each particle of dirt
receives a positive electrostatic charge
when the positively charged particle
reaches the collector chamber is
attracted to and deposited on negative
plate in this way air is clean so
thoroughly the dirt particles down to a
quarter millions of an inch are removed
this is a vital advantage today not only
in homes and public buildings but in
industrial plants of all kinds for
instance in plants manufacturing
delicate instruments where air
cleanliness is necessary for precision
work in work rooms where optical systems
are assembled for a host of military
purposes in inspection rooms where my
new parts must be closely examined under
high magnification air cleanliness is
vital to in film developing rooms like
this one to understand how electronic
air cleaning helps here let's go aloft
in a reconnaissance plane
[Music]
click 5,000 feet above the earth the
camera shutter opens and closes scores
of square miles of enemy territory have
been squeezed down into an image on a
photographic plate an image measured in
inches instead of mild on this
photograph a city might be covered by a
tip of a finger a speck of dust could
hide enough the airdrome the rectifying
tubes of the precipitant help make sure
that dust doesn't sabotage military
photography now so far in this film
we've discussed only one of the basic
things we can do with the electronic cue
we can use it to rectify the second
basic thing we can do with it is amplify
here's how between the cathode and the
anode of the two elements to which we
diagrammed a while ago we now place a
grid to this grid we connect an input of
some weak voltage which we wish to
amplify perhaps that of a faint radio
signal from halfway around the world now
let's see what happens every time a
negative potential is impressed on the
grid even though it'd be very - it has a
large effect in reducing the number of
the negatively charged electrons which
would otherwise keep flying from cathode
to anode conversely when the grid is
positive an equally large effect is
exerted in increasing the flow of
electrons from cathode we know the
important thing to note here is this a
small amount of power applied to the
grid is amplified into a large amount of
power in the anode or work circuit this
amplifying property of the 3 element
electronic tube is put to work in
innumerable way westinghouse electronic
amplification now helps provide radio
and radio telephone contact between
aeroplanes and control stations on the
ground between ships and their
communication bases both afloat from the
shore between individual tanks and their
tank Force commanders between firing
line and headquarters between C drom
lights and light flying pilots who can
turn them on by radio signal
in the field of power engineering
electronic amplification permits the
measurement and analysis of minus
voltages stepping them up to the point
where they can be seen and interpreted
on oscilloscopes when this giant rotor
is completed its precise Dianetics
balancing will be made possible by
amplifying to testing of these
propellers the vibration fatigue will
also be facilitated by electronic
amplifying to up to now we've considered
two of the basic things that the
electronic tube can do it can rectify it
can amplify a third thing it can do is
generate the term generate in this
connection is meant in a general rather
than a technical sense a triode is
connected for oscillation in the way
shown here the system then becomes
capable of changing direct current into
alternating current note that what we're
doing in this case is amplifying in the
usual way and then feeding back to the
grid part of the amplified voltage
continued repetition of this feedback
results cumulatively in a strong
alternating current this electronic
means of generating alternating current
is important because it can produce very
high frequencies frequencies up to
millions of cycles far beyond the range
of ordinary rotating equipment a
familiar application of this is the
radio transmitter
this modern transmitting room the
Westinghouse station KDKA is a far cry
from the pioneering equipment of its
famous predecessor this scene reproduces
an historic occasion the first time a
radio transmitter was used for
large-scale public entertainment this is
station KDKA of the Westinghouse
Electric and manufacturing company we
are about to begin the reading of the
presidential election returns between
warren g harding and James M Cox standby
please here is a new less familiar
application of electronic high frequency
generation high frequency heating of two
hundred thousand cycles per second is
now used to float Tim as the final step
in the electrolytic plating of steel
strip
after steel strip comes from its
electrolytic tin plating bath it first
passes through a washer and between hot
air drying jets at this point the steel
strip has a coating of Tim that is
relatively dull and porous next comes a
vital step the strip is raised to the
top of the heater unit housing inside of
which is a series of high-frequency
coils as the strip comes down through
these coils induced electric current
causes heat which flows the tin almost
instantaneously greatly improving its
structure as a protective covering
here's the result in place that is
mirror smooth
free from porosity so perfect a
protective covering the one pound of tin
can now do the work of three note the
horizontal bars in this close-up these
are parts of one of the high-frequency
coils that affect the tins low if you
look closely you can see the difference
in texture between the poorest TM
entering the top of the coils and the
shiny flows Tim leaving at its base and
these are the tubes that generate the
high frequency current which makes the
entire process possible another
important result of this new
westinghouse electronic process is time
saving tim can now be flowed at a rate
of more than a thousand feet a minute
here's another example of where
electronic high frequency generation is
doing a job today dialectic bonding of
plastic and plywood sections in a matter
of minutes instead of days as a result
of this application by wood instructed
PT boats can be produced more speedily
dielectric heating also cures intricate
plastic forms faster and better here our
dialectically cured plastic pieces being
given a stress analysis carrier currents
relaying also applies the electronic
principle of high frequency generation
here's part of the equipment that does
the work this equipment makes possible
an enormous increase in the speed with
which transmission lines can be cleared
of faults its effect is to increase the
load carrying ability of a system up to
50 percent or more
we've now Illustrated three of the basic
ways that the electronic tube can be put
to work it rectifies it amplifies is
generate and here's a fourth thing it
does its control this diagram
illustrates one of the principle
mechanisms of electronic control we use
the grid here not to amplify a weak
signal but to control the flow of power
to a machine to do this we connect the
control circuit in such a way that it
becomes a function of temperature feeds
time or any other variable as a result
grid potential is varied and the work
circuit is automatically closed modified
or open and we can do all this with
split-second timing and incomparable
precision take for instance this
electronically controlled spot welder
without sound without friction without
flame electronic control on this
equipment makes and breaks contact with
split-second timing team welding - is
electronically controlled as a result
flame parts today are being literally
sewn together with electric current as
thread but welding of course represents
only one opportunity for electronic
control automatic stepless regulation of
motor speeds is another application
without the smooth acceleration which
such control makes possible delicate
materials such as the capacitor windings
being handled here might be broken under
the shock of starting and abrupt speed
changes now for still another basic
thing that the electronic tube can do it
can also serve as a bridge to transform
light into electric current here's how
we replace the ordinary heat activated
cathode of a two element electronic tube
with one made of photosensitive material
light can now replace heat as the
simulator of electronic emission the
stronger the light the greater the
electronic emission and consequently
with the aid of an amplifier the more
power flowing through the worse circuit
this is important because it means that
photoelectric tubes can function as
light relays and so be given an almost
infinite variety of jobs to do handing
the soundtrack of the talking motion
picture film you're listening to right
now is one of them another is the
television camera
the Icona scope used in this camera is
merely a special form of electronics to
product and process control is still
another application in this plant a
photo troller automatically stops a
conveyor belt every time a lightning
arrester comes to its point of
inspection here a westinghouse
electronic eye inside the metal housing
our pinholes in metal strips as it comes
from the rolls automatically operating a
relay that rejects defective sections
dropping them out of the production line
without a moment's loss of working time
one of the most important basic things
is the electronic tube can do remains
yet to be listed
besides transforming light into electric
current it can also transform electric
current into light let's go
ray tube is an application of this
property through the aid of this tube an
electron beam is able to recreate an
original image on a screen of a
television receiving set the electronic
x-ray tube indirectly also transforms
electric current into light and bias
effect on photographic plate into light
images here's how an x-ray tube works a
high potential ranging up to 300,000
volts or more is applied between me an
Odom cathode electrons are emitted by a
focusing cathode
due to the extremely high voltage the
electrons hit pianos with tremendous
impact and caused the emission of waves
of exceptionally high frequency these
high-frequency way to do three useful
things penetrate excite fluorescence or
affect photographic plates as a result
doctors can now study human internal
organs by means of the fluoroscope or by
means of radiography they can photograph
them industrial x-ray today is also
playing a vital role detecting porosity
and fissures in welded metal scene
examining heavy castings for invisible
internal weaknesses but x-ray isn't the
only example of electronic usefulness in
the conversion of current into light the
whole field of modern fluorescent
lighting represents another application
so does the field of ultraviolet
radiation harmless-looking tubes like
this one have a deadly effect on
bacteria and other forms of microscopic
life in this demonstration farm easier
rather than bacteria are about to be
subjected to sterile amp ray
notice what happens the sterile lamps
today is becoming increasingly important
both as a servants of Public Health and
as a device for the preservation of
perishable good so many I'm so buried
are the applications of electronics but
a single film like this can mention only
one in a thousand we haven't even
mentioned for instance radar the
electronic developments that help save
Britain during the decisive weeks of the
German
here's what happened ultra-high
frequency waves were broadcast into the
skies from English defense stations when
enemy planes approached in the darkness
or in the fog
these waves would reflect back to the
transmitting point thus giving warning
to the defenders of Britain permitting
out aircraft batteries to swing into
action nor AF planes to rise for combat
whenever Hitler's bombers attack at
whatever altitude from whatever
direction British interceptors were
waiting for them as a result the
Luftwaffe was blasted from the English
skies on the tide of war turn
[Music]
yes the electronic tube in essence is
only a switch but wanna switch it
rectified amplified generate control
transforms right into electricity and
back into light again
[Music]
these cubes that look so mysterious are
essentially simple in operation
incredibly rugged and sure in
application they open enclose all forms
of electronic circuits as quickly as the
lightning flash and as silently as the
passage of time in the world of today
they're helping us to win a war in the
world of tomorrow they bid fair to lift
all of us the new levels of achievement
comfort and security
[Music]
this picture is about the transistor
there are three transistors here in this
collection of small electronic parts the
original point-contact type the junction
type and the photo transistor and here
is a more complex type of transistor
this is called the junction tetrode
these tiny transistors are destined to
play a big part in our electronic age
they will make possible smaller more
compact electronic devices that will
need less maintenance and have a longer
life but to grasp fully the importance
of these new members of the electronic
family let's recall the wonders made
possible by the high vacuum Q the common
radio tube the roots of the electronic
age reached back into the early years of
our century in nineteen seven dr. lee
deforest discovered that a grid of fine
wire placed between a filament and a
metal plate in a vacuum tube could
control the flow of electrons between
the filament and plate and the tube
could be made to amplify as well as
detect electrical waves
he called this amplifying cube and
Audion weak signals applied to the input
or grid of the Audion caused similar and
much stronger signals to flow from the
plate or output a few years later two
scientists dr. Arnold of Bell Telephone
laboratories and dr. Lyon your of
General Electric working independently
found it by pumping out the Audion tube
to create a very high vacuum they
obtained greater fidelity and stability
here is one of the first time vacuum
tubes that started us on the way to the
wonders of our electronic age by 1915
telephone research physicists and
engineers had succeeded in developing
methods of manufacturing the vacuum tube
with sufficiently uniform
characteristics so that hundreds of them
were installed as amplifiers thus making
possible the first telephone line
between New York and San Francisco and
three thousand mile transcontinental
telephone calls became a reality
this same year 1915 at Arlington
Virginia telephone engineers hooked
together 500 vacuum tubes to generate
enough radio power to send the human
voice across the Atlantic for the first
time in history words spoken into a
radio telephone transmitter at Arlington
were heard by engineers listening at the
Eiffel Tower in Paris and also at Pearl
Harbor Hawaii 1920 brought the beginning
of radio broadcasting but a vacuum tube
radio receiver it was a real luxury then
the next 10 years gave us talking motion
pictures transoceanic radio telephone
service television demonstrations and
ship-to-shore telephony
with our electronic age in full swing
the coaxial cable the cathode ray tube
the Icona scope and the image orthicon
aided by hundreds of more conventional
vacuum tubes gave us television radar
for war radar for peace and then
microwave radio relay to speed hundreds
of telephone calls as well as television
programs from coast to coast the heart
of all these electronic systems has been
the vacuum tube but the Bell Telephone
laboratories have added an entirely new
and different heart to modern
communication systems the transistor
operating on a new and different
principle arising from basic research on
solid substances and how the electrons
inside them behave how did it all come
about well doctors Shockley Bardeen and
Brattain and their associates at the
Bell Telephone laboratories were working
on a problem in pure research
investigating the surface properties of
germanium a substance known to be a semi
conductor of electricity their study
suggested a way to amplify an electric
current within a solid without a vacuum
or a heating element and after months of
calculations experiments tests the
transistor was born the transistor a new
name a new device that can do many of
the jobs done by the vacuum tube and
many that you can't do let's see how the
transistor and cube measure up first off
the vacuum tube is power-hungry while a
tube like this generally demands a watt
or more of electricity a millionth of a
watt is enough for the transistor even a
makeshift battery of moist blotting
paper wrapped around a coin can power a
transistor
the vacuum tube gets pretty hot
sometimes a little too hot that's why in
complex devices the tubes must be spaced
far enough apart for proper ventilation
since transistors remain cool they can
be crowded together in a small space in
size reliability and ruggedness to the
tiny transistor has many advantages and
research goes on to make it still more
useful many new and improved types of
transistors have followed the early
models but transistors are no longer
just an experiment here they are being
produced at the Allentown Pennsylvania
plant of Western Electric the
manufacturing and supply unit of the
Bell System different types for
different purposes
the Bell Telephone people have lots of
jobs lined up for them jobs based on the
transistors ability to amplify speech
sounds in this way this is all my voice
would sound over a 75-mile telephone
line that has no amplifying device now
with the transistor amplifier in the
line my voice is amplified so that you
can hear me distinctly this for example
would mean that in isolated farmhouses
far from central exchanges the
transistor right in the telephone will
make it easier for the farmer to hear
and be heard on his rural telephone and
transistors can replace many of the
vacuum tubes used in providing
long-distance telephone service because
they are so tiny transistors have made
it possible to miniaturized many types
of electronic equipment this equipment
requires less space and will cost less
to maintain transistors may also be used
in multi-channel telephony which
increases the number of calls that can
be carried at the same time along
telephone lines when you dial Direct
from your town to a distant city
transistors in this route selector may
be helping to mark out the pathway along
which your call will go transistors may
someday go under the sea
built right into underwater telephone
cables but transistors go well with lots
of other industries too many
manufacturers have been licensed to
produce transistors and devise new
applications through their efforts you
may be able to get music with the flick
of your wrist from the so called Dick
Tracy radio
[Music]
and with a portable television set you
may be able to enjoy video entertainment
anywhere you go for the military the
transistor opens up fantastic
possibilities most of them into earlier
stage of development to be talked about
transistors will take their place in the
complex calculating machines that have
often been called electronic brains
because they enable man to save days
months even years in solving
mathematical problems of course we
cannot build a calculating machine as
flexible as the human brain but even a
man-made computer designed to do
hundreds of brain like calculating jobs
might need an empire state building to
house it and a Niagara Falls to power
and cooler
if vacuum tubes were used in its
construction substituting transistors
for tubes such a versatile machine could
fit into a good-sized room and power and
cooling needs would be relatively low
with the transistor man has drawn far
toward matching some of the capacity of
the human brain he has done it with
imagination with the inventiveness and
teamwork of the Bell Telephone
scientists who are looking forward to
the age just beyond the age of
electronics
[Music]
[Laughter]
this is a report on integrated circuits
with dr. Jim angel professor of
Electrical Engineering and director of
the solid-state electronics laboratory
at Stanford University and dr. Harry
sello manager of the materials and
processes department at Fairchild
Semiconductor research laboratories
hello we're going to tell you about the
recent revolution of electronics of
course there have been many recent
revolutions in electronics you hear a
bottom all the time will tell you what
is an integrated circuit how to design
it we'll go through the agony of how
it's made and finally tell you about
some of the uses of it and what they're
good for
but first let's have a commercial it
started here pure PN junctions from a
pile of sand plane are silicon
integrated circuits invented here the
epitaxial process a secret locked in a
crystal higher yields in 1/10 the time
invented here metal over oxide you can't
make an integrated circuit without it
invented here
Fairchild brought out the first NPN
silicon Mesa double diffused transistor
the first PNP Silicon Mesa double
diffused transistor the first plain are
NPN transistor the first planar PNP
transistor the first lifetime controlled
silicon plane on our transistor the
first planar epitaxial PNP transistor
the first silicon RF transistor the
first plane r2 transistor the first
planar silicon controlled rectifier the
first planar epitaxial power transistor
the first resistor transistor logic
family the first complimentary
transistor logic family the first dual
inline package the first commercially
available face-down bonded circuit
[Music]
processes product packages price oh yes
and production invented here just not a
jump by you saying what is an integrated
circuit here is a packaged integrated
circuit inside this package is a tip of
silicon which provides the electrical
equivalent of many transistors resistors
and diodes all interconnected to provide
the desired function before we discuss
in detail what's inside that package I'd
like to show you some evolutionary
examples of what integrated circuits can
do for the appearance of electronic
equipment here is a photograph of a
printed circuit board from a digital
computer all our 1960 pre-historic right
built out of transistors separate
resistors and diodes wired together on
the printed circuit board here is the
electrical equivalent of the circuit you
saw in the previous photograph built-in
integrated circuit form of vintage 1963
notice how much smaller and simpler to
this board I have here a newer version
of integrated circuits containing in the
upper left hand corner eight integrated
circuits outlined now those eight
integrated circuits provide essentially
the same function that was provided by
this board namely 24 integrated circuit
down to eight notice that the wiring on
this package is extremely orderly and
well-organized I see less pin
connections - this is perhaps too
typical Harry that we find as we make a
more complex function in one structure
the number of pins tends to go up only
as roughly the square root of the
complexity that's provided by that for
now you've seen an evolution of
transistors to early integrated circuits
through modern ones let me show you a
series of photographs which shows you
what's inside the corresponding
and here is a photograph of a single
transistor chip such as we might find in
the 1960 version of the computer board I
showed you old-style again is the
intermediate style you remember the 1963
integrated circuit packages here is what
would be in one of them typically 10
transistors here is a modern 1966
version of integrated circuits with many
hundreds of components on this one
circuit this particular function
provides 16 bits of digital memory in
this one package now integrated circuits
can not only be used for digital but
also for linear service here is an if'
strip transistorized and hence perhaps
three years old here is its integrated
circuit counterpart providing exactly
the same function notice how much
simpler it is the wiring is roughly the
same the simplicity is greater hence we
can expect that it will not only be
cheaper but more reliable and these are
perhaps the most important contributions
of integrated circuits let's get on to
how to design an integrated circuit
alright let's do it by way of an example
up here we have a circuit or a typical
structure which might be an integrated
form this particular circuit has 20
components in diodes transistors and
resistors after the configuration has
been chosen by usual techniques the next
step is to build a breadboard model in
actual working form on the breadboard we
have separate transistors and other
components all actually wired into a
working circuit the purpose of working
with the breadboard is to try to
optimize the numerical value of each of
the components in the circuit once this
optimization has been achieved the next
job is the design of the masks which
will be used to make the integrated
circuit alright I wonder if you could
cover some of that work yes I can so we
made the engineer pick up a soldering
iron let's see we can make it an artist
out of him by using yet another example
there is a full-scale 30 by 30 inch
piece of typical integrated circuit
artwork which represents in a careful
careful precise form the interconnection
pattern of an integrated circuit for
example these are the metal pads these
will be on the integrated circuit the
metal pads which in connect to the
outside world here we have the
transistors and here are diodes and more
interconnecting metals the problem here
is to very carefully and precisely
convert this large scale drawing into a
small precise version of this on a 2 by
2 inch glass plate this artwork is
reduced 500 times by a process of
high-resolution photography - a glass
plate upon which the pattern shown by
the artwork is successively stepped and
exposed all the way across the glass up
to 1500 times which means of course 1500
integrated circuits now the artwork
which I showed was only one mask
potentially here is the artwork in
reduced plastic overlay version which
goes with a complete set to make an
integrated circuit there are five to
seven or even more of these potential
masks all of these must align carefully
and precisely these then will be
translated into another set of glass
masks which will then be used for
contact printing directly onto silicon
wafers in working with silicon this is
what you begin with a silicon ingot it's
a glass-like material very brittle very
much like diamond in fact it costs about
like diamonds and is a member of the
diamond family this is made in a series
of long rods by a process known as
crystal pulling it cools as it is pulled
however it is still very hot since it's
been grown at a very high temperature up
around the region of 1,400 degrees
centigrade we cut this into thin wafers
about 12 thousandths of an inch thick
by using a diamond saw
after cutting the wafers are very
carefully polished so you end up with a
mirror-like surface which is essential
in the preparation of the integrated
circuits the finished chip is about five
thousandths of an inch thick let's take
a look inside the silicon this is a
cross-section of the wafer we just
watched being made to protect it from
the outside world we allow oxygen to
react with the top surface and grow an
oxide called the passivating silicon
dioxide layer now we're going to make
use of the masks we made earlier first
the wafer is coated with a
photosensitive resin the mask is then
placed on the wafer and the system is
then exposed to light as a result the
exposed resin hardens the remaining
resin can be simply rinsed away the
wafer is then exposed to acid those
areas of the passivating layer not
protected by the hardened resin are
etched away in the next operation called
diffusion the wafer is exposed to a
dopant this impurity diffuses through
the window and into the silicon below
forming the collector of a transistor in
our integrated circuit but notice at the
same time diffusion is taking place more
oxide is being formed this is the
essence of the planar process now we're
going to strip off the passivating layer
and grow a new layer of silicon right on
top of the diffused wafer by a process
called epitaxial growth now we form
electrically isolated regions on the
wafer by a process of diffusion
photosensitive coating masking exposure
rinsing edging and diffusion next we
prepare the individual parts of the
integrated circuit first a transistor
base and a resistor the same procedure
is followed
notice that diffusion takes place not
only downwards but also laterally under
the oxide as a result the junction is
formed beneath the passivating layer
where is protected from the outside
world
the next diffusion forms an emitter and
a collector contact to complete the
transistor again the same process the
next step
enables us to interconnect the various
components and to make contact with them
again will etch Windows in the oxide but
instead of another diffusion a layer of
metal is deposited over the entire
surface of the wafer then by use of the
proper masks the excess metal can be
etched away sometimes we like to make
resistors a different way by using the
metal interconnection pattern all you
have to do is make the metal pathway a
little narrower and it provides higher
resistance if we wish to make a
capacitor we take advantage of the fact
that the oxide layer is an excellent
dielectric material a small area of
metal is deposited forming one plate of
a capacitor the oxide is the dielectric
and the silicon directly below the oxide
forms the other plate the series of
schematic operations taking place on one
structure that you just saw actually
takes place across a whole wafer this
results in a wafer containing many
integrated circuits up to 1500 of them
now comes the electrical testing of this
wafer Jim can you take over on this part
certainly Harry even though we have been
very careful in fabricating this wafer
containing many hundreds of integrated
circuits not all these circuits on the
way from a flawless the first job is to
determine and mark those circuits which
are not good
we test the wafer in a probe testing
machine
we then scribed the wiper using a
diamond point in the scribing machine
after separating cleaning and drying the
integrated circuits we fish out the ones
that are bad if we have been successful
to this point we have a high yield of
good ones from this point on we are
going to package the circuit and so
whenever we throw it away we're going to
fall away a complete package that's a
good point Jim let's look into this
matter of packaging a little bit you
know we've exercised a lot of care in
bringing the integrated circuit chip to
this point in the processing and we've
also done it economically because mostly
we've processed them as wafers fifteen
hundred at a time from here on out as
you point it out we will be handling
them as individuals putting expensive
packages around them so how we treat the
packages is important in the old days it
was simple you had a wide choice to
large and small a to18 outline small and
the to.5 larger outline these days we
have upwards of two hundred and fifty
varieties of packages and the user can
select any one of them here are an
example of three of these the dual
inline package a plastic package and a
flat pack the most nearly universal of
these is the dual inline package let's
take a closer look at just how that is
made you start out with the idea that
you're going to build a tasty but in out
of old sandwich here are the two halves
that you begin with two ceramic parts
into which the integrated circuit chip
will form the sandwich meet the two
halves are glass with a material which
will form the solder that glue the two
halves together later a Kovar frame has
been prepared in advance and cut out to
the pattern necessary to connect the
chip to the outside world
this Kovar frame will also be placed in
the middle of the sandwich along side of
the chip and here is the arrangement
chip in Center Cove our frame around the
outside and notice that the tips of the
frame here have been metallized this
will form the connection to the chip
directly as shown here where the lead
bond wires have been placed connecting
the pads on the chip to the metallized
tips of the cove our frame we complete
the sandwich by putting the top half of
the package right on top of the frame
the next operation will be to clip the
ends of the frame package is now
revealed in its magnificent beauty the
solder glass is peeping out so that we
have to clean that up a little bit by
sending the part through the furnace
along with many thousands of others so
that the solder glass is all melted in
and neatly arranged in place this is the
finished dual inline package now that
the circuit has been packaged we must
again test it substantially before we
would dare ship it to the user first is
a series of electrical tests many of
which use special test equipment which
is again built from integrated circuits
many of the tests made on the integrated
circuits now duplicate those tests which
were made on the wafers in addition to
these tests which duplicate those which
were made before we must make some
special tests such as frequency response
of a linear amplifier or switching speed
of the digital circuit before we would
dare ship the unit we can't make these
tests on the wafer State due to the
limitations of the test equipment
through the probes in addition to these
electrical tests we make a variety of
mechanical tests such as shock vibration
and acceleration
finally we make a set of temperature
tests running the unit at high
temperature and at low temperature to
ensure that the unit will work
dependably in service now let's look
into some of the things that we can do
with integrated circuits but first a
commercial the past year so Fairchild
has been publishing a series of
applications notes on integrated
circuits if you read the design journals
you might have seen one if the guy ahead
of you didn't tear it out they talked
about the switch to integrated circuits
how to design them in when to use them
which ones that costs basic design rules
a pretty complete short course then on
the back of each sheet we've covered a
specific industrial application an XY
controller a tape reader and display
cyclo converter
a dozen ideas
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but if you're really serious you'll have
to read the book it covers all the IC
families
Digital
right here
hybrid
memory customer
it tells about packaging testing and of
course how to order I cease altogether
that's about a hundred pages of fresh
information on integrated circuits we'll
send it to you of your writers got a
pencil
Fairchild TV briefing box
10:58 Mountain View California we send
you the whole stack by return mail now
that we've talked about how to design
build and test integrated circuits let's
look at some of the functions which are
available now in integrated circuit form
here is a list of readily available
digital circuit functions this list
includes about all the circuits which
are needed to build the electronics part
of a digital computer this list of
linear functions includes a large
variety of things as you probably know
operational amplifiers for example are
rather precise amplifiers that are used
as the major building block of analog
computers the voltage comparator is a
circuit which very accurately compares
which of two voltages is the larger you
know it's exciting to think that all of
these functions are here today they can
be used they're available and it's even
more exciting when you consider the
number of applications that these can be
put to you couldn't even begin to make a
list of all of them actually the uses of
integrated circuits are limited only by
those who are designing these uses let's
take a deeper look into some of the
present day applications of integrated
circuits one of the many industrial
companies using integrated circuits
today is Burroughs corporation at
Burroughs integrated circuits in dual
inline packages are inserted in circuit
boards automatically affording more
efficient production using this machine
which is proprietary with Burroughs a
single integrated circuit can be
installed for about the same cost it
previously took to install a discrete
component in order to automate the
entire manufacturing process Burroughs
uses other
advanced techniques such as slow
soldering this guarantees reliable
connections to each integrated circuit
in addition computerized wire wrapping
machines are used to make the backplane
interconnections so that the inherent
reliability of the integrated design
isn't compromised the machine
automatically cuts each wire to the
correct length strips the ends routes
the wires and makes the connections
meanwhile each completed circuit board
is tested individually finally circuit
boards are installed in the computer
frame and the completed system is
thoroughly tested wells is now committed
to integrated circuits and in fact
recently placed one of the largest
single orders ever placed for these
devices or burrows integrated circuits
provide a significant cost reduction and
a proven increase in reliability both of
which are real benefits to burroughs
customers stromberg-carlson is another
company committed to integrated circuits
their data products division is now
manufacturing the first in a line of new
stromberg-carlson products built with
ICS integrated circuits in this case
until five packages both metal and
plastic were used in the SC 1100 because
of their low cost size reliability and a
stronger Carlson says because integrated
circuits are here to stay the SC 1100
system consists of up to 18 desk top
interrogators like this one which are
handled by a single station control unit
which in turn ties into the computer
memory the operator asks the computer a
coded question on the interrogator the
computer responds with the requested
information almost instantly for
instance with an employee personnel
record this is the model 388 am/fm
stereo receiver built by HH Scot it's
only one of a new line of hi-fi
components in which linear integrated
circuits replace discrete transistors
Scot engineers have chosen ICS for one
specific purpose better performance more
stations can be pulled in with less
noise and interference which stations
become loud and clear and outside
interference is drastically reduced but
there are other benefits too a total of
37 discrete components in the receivers
if' strip have been replaced by only
four icees
this new approach to circuit design
promises even more dramatic new products
from the people at H H Scott we've seen
some examples of how industry is putting
integrated circuits to work today but
how about the future well that's a very
exciting part of the story research has
constantly gone on to find new ways to
use integrated circuits not only in the
R&D labs of semiconductor manufacturers
but in the universities like here at the
solid-state electronics laboratory of
Stanford University in Palo Alto the
facilities you see here in this
integrated circuits lab are made
available by funds from many industrial
organizations our lab at Stanford is a
miniature of the production facilities
you've seen in industry it was built
with the help of contributions from the
majority of our nation's semiconductor
manufacturers right now we're working in
several areas we do basic research in
integrated circuit technology we're
doing circuit research using the unique
capabilities of integrated circuits we
also develop devices which incorporate
ICS and we conduct research in several
peripheral areas as an example of our
research in IC technology we're studying
new ways for getting impurities into
semiconductors normally this is done by
diffusion we do the same thing by ion
implantation this machine takes
individual ions and accelerates them
ramming them into semiconductor material
much the same as you would shoot a
bullet into a bale of hay right now this
is a much more expensive process than
diffusion but it's a different technique
here we're not interested so much in
developing the technique as we are
learning the fundamentals how heavily
can you don't materials and what kinds
of materials can you dope this way let's
look at an example in the field of
medical electronics here we're using IC
technology to develop an array
find probes which a neurologist can
implant down in a living brain to study
the potential at different points on a
single neuron here you're looking at one
of the masks prepared by the student
doing this research we're developing
probes using the same technology as for
the metallization patterns on ICS the
probes will probably be of gold this
would have been impossible before I see
technology one of the most dramatic
devices being developed is this reading
aid for the blind this is a reading
device in which ordinary printed
material is converted to a tactile image
which is presented by a closely spaced
array of 48 piezo electric reads by
resting his finger on the vibrating
reads the blind person can sense a
vibrating and grainy facsimile of the
material being viewed the great
advantage is that this machine enables a
blind person to read the printed page
this version is relatively large even
though it incorporates integrated
circuits ultimately 170 by 90 mill chip
will take care of all the necessary
electronics to drive one vibrating read
certainly integrated circuits are used
in many present-day applications but we
mustn't forget one very important factor
and that is the reliability of an
integrated circuit it is a reliable
device in the industry we've logged
almost 80 million element hours without
a failure
that's reliability we have considered
many different things regarding
integrated circuits one question which
we might ask is why do people care about
integrated service well there are many
reasons certainly one of them is the
reliability factor that we were just
considering the second one is the fact
that they are inexpensive even today it
is often less expensive to do a function
with integrated circuits than it is with
separate discrete components the fact
that they are small is important this
board there contains many functions many
many more functions that we could get in
this volume otherwise finally there are
new functions which can be achieved with
integrated circuits that just plain
couldn't be achieved any other way
Perrie we've considered a large variety
of topics on this program I'm wondering
if you'd be willing to summarize it for
us
yes let's summarize we started out by
telling you what an integrated circuit
is this is an integrated circuit it's a
piece of silicon into which have been
built all of the necessary components to
perform an electronic function the piece
of silicon and a blow-up picture looks
like this all of the functions are there
we've taken you through the design and
building of an integrated circuit from a
circuit diagram through masking to wafer
processing and finally on to the final
packaging of an integrated circuit we
showed you that it takes a lot of
extensive testing to prove out an
integrated circuit and finally you've
seen a lot of the uses both present day
and future uses for integrated circuits
hopefully we've given you some ideas on
how you can put integrated circuits to
work or you
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