

He Will Rule as God

Ancient Israel History

An Old Testament Commentary

Copyright 2017 Anthony Pellegrino

Published by Androgynous Papers

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Dedication:

To the knowledge and compassion of life

May they walk hand in hand and support one another

As a couple entrusted to honesty

Table of Contents

Introduction

Maps of Canaan

On the Book of Genesis

On the Book of Exodus

On the Book of Leviticus

On the Book of Numbers

On the Book of Deuteronomy

On the Book of Joshua

On the Book of Judges

On the Book of Ruth

On the First Book of Samuel

On the Second Book of Samuel

On the First Book of Kings

On the Second Book of Kings

On the First Book of Chronicles

On the Second Book of Chronicles

Final Thoughts

Acknowledgments

Introduction

In the Holy Land, at approximately 970 BCE, various peoples coalesced and became a united kingdom. In essence, this kingdom encompassed the regions of Israel to the north and Judah to the south. After the reign of King Solomon, arguably the first and only ruler of the unified kingdom, the northern country of Israel rebelled against the Judah-based institution and gained their independence. At approximately 722 BCE, the Assyrian Empire invaded the kingdom of Israel and forced many of the Israelites into Judah. During the subsequent history of Judah, two of its kings made major moves to consolidate the amalgamation of peoples. King Hezekiah ruled from approximately 715 to 687 BCE. King Josiah ruled a couple generations afterward.

Although the following information is not the sole focal point of this undertaking, an understanding of the segment is essential if one wants to identify the different political factions of Israel and Judah.

With ideas that began to emerge in the beginning of the Common Era, various scholars proposed a theory that revealed the authorship of the Pentateuch, i.e., the first five books of the Old Testament. This multiple author hypothesis separated the Pentateuch into works from four different authors. One author was labeled "J" ( _Jehovah_ ) because he referred to the deity as _Yahweh_ within his biblical texts. Per these early scholars, this author resided in Judah and wrote before the Assyrians invaded Israel. A second author was labeled "E" because he referred to the deity as 'Elohim. However, it was believed he only referred to the deity as 'Elohim until the point in the narrative where the deity revealed his name to Moses, at which point, he began to refer to the deity as Yahweh. This author was stated to have resided in Israel and wrote before the Assyrian invasion. A third author was labeled "P" because his texts were constantly concerned with dates, details, and the roles and functions of the _priests_. He also referred to the deity as _'Elohim_ until the _Moses revelation_ , at which point, he too began to refer to the deity as _Yahweh_. He was said to have written in Judah during the time of the reforms of King Hezekiah. Finally, a fourth author was labeled "D" because he wrote the book of Deuteronomy, which he accomplished during the reign of King Josiah.

A major stepping-stone that moved credulity to the multiple author hypothesis came forth when scholars dissected the famous myth of the flood into two stories. A later redactor took two separate stories and wove them together to make them appear as one. One will have the chance to read the separated flood stories as I found them during research. However, albeit maintaining the "J", "E", "P", and "D" format, the author designations in this work are of my own discernment. Although I found the theory as I came upon it was quite erroneous, after years and countless hours of word-by-word examination, I am finally able to present to the world an accurate analysis of the first fourteen books of the Old Testament. Although my findings definitely do not agree with the masses or biblical scholars, I believe one of perspicacity will find veracity within this timeless commentary.

Within this work, I have quoted a Literal Translation © (Hebrew to English) of the Old Testament. In addition, when I place forth a Hebrew spelling or state _in Hebrew_ , I am conveying a Romanization of the Hebrew text, which is the use of the Latin alphabet to transliterate ancient Hebrew (an alphabet that did not contain capital letters). Moreover, since vowel points did not come into use in Hebrew until the second half of the first millennium CE, the Hebrew words given in this work are pronounceable translations. In addition, in nearly all the Hebrew to English translations of the Old Testament, a reader will continually come across the terms _Lord_ and _God_ , which can be extremely problematic if one endeavors an in-depth study of the biblical narratives. Within the narratives, the names _Yahweh_ and _Adonai_ are usually translated to English as _Lord_. Moreover, scholars translate the names _'Elohim, 'El, 'Elyown, 'Elaahaa, 'Elowah, Alaah_ , and _'Elaah_ to English as _God_ or _god_. Therefore, in this work I did not use the terms _Lord_ or _God_ , I used the actual names from the Romanized Hebrew text.

The following is the format I used to designate the authors, as well as a brief summary of the important events involving the various religious factions. This outline should facilitate the travel as one proceeds through the Old Testament narratives.

Between 1250 and 1050 BCE, there were a series of nomadic migrations into Palestine, which are often attributed to the widespread demise of several dominant cultures in surrounding areas. These series of migrations included the ancestors of the peoples who wrote and re-wrote the traditions that make up the majority of the Old Testament. An amalgamation of peoples in Palestine were fighting, uniting, splitting, and falling asunder, and these factions continually battled for control of strategic geographical cities that were beneficial to trade and security. Two of these places were the mountainous stronghold of Jerusalem, and Jericho _, the key to western Palestine_. Both of these cities were in Benjamin, which was a region conveniently positioned between the lands of Israel and Judah.

During an early period, peoples who included the Hittites, the Amalekites, the Kenites, the Hivites, the Jebusites, the Midianites, and the Amorites coalesced in the land that would become Judah. An author represented the Kenites as _Cain_ in the book of Genesis. Although these peoples were part of the earliest religious establishments in Judah, times would change and a later institution would force them out of the country. Along with and a part of the aforementioned settlements, there was a series of distinct migrations out of Aram (Syria) and Egypt into Canaan. Biblical scholars represent the priests from the combined Aramean-Egyptian coalition as the "J" school. However, the priests of this early union did not write the entire body of work ascribed to them. Forthcoming, I shall designate a portion of the "J" texts as "J/I". The "J/I" school spawned from the early settlements in Judah.

Approximately 1050 BCE, an army of Jehudaites and Philistines battled its way through Israel and ultimately conquered the religious institution in Shiloh. However, members of the Shiloh priesthood left the city and allied with the institution rising out of Judah. This coalition that would eventually center itself in Benjamin also wrote texts that referred to the deity as _Yahweh_. I refer to the combined entity as the _Shiloh-Judah_ ("S/J") school. The unified kingdom of Judah and Israel spawned out of this Judah-based coalition, which allied with the Egyptians, the Ammonites, and the Asherites or Phoenicians. Thus, they were ultimately able to gain control of the cities of Gibeon and Jerusalem when they conquered religious factions that had previously controlled the region of Benjamin. However, as the Judah institution was amidst its rise to power, it forced the peoples who would become the "J/I" school out of Judah and into Israel; hence, the labeling "J/I", or _Judah to Israel_. In Israel, "J/I", who then referred to the deity as 'Elohim, presided as priests in religious cities that included Bethel and Shechem. The later "J/I" texts that refer to the deity as Yahweh were written when the descendants of the original factions were back in Judah.

After Israel rebelled against the united monarchy and won its independence, the leaders that obtained power displaced a number of priests from the new religious hierarchy. Therefore, a group of supplanted priests, who were or would become _Levites_ , dispersed throughout the land and denounced the majority of the subsequent monarchies of both countries. Meanwhile, the _sons of Aaron_ , who were a sect of priests in Judah (including Shiloh priests) that arose to supreme power with the reign of King Solomon, remained in control within the Judah institution. However, when the Assyrians later invaded Israel, a large portion of the Israel populace fled into Judah. Although the two countries had battled for the majority of the time following Israel's rebellion, not only were they once united, many of the ancestors of the people from Israel once resided in Judah. Therefore, albeit with an often negative tone, a portion of the history written by the people of Israel covered the same events and heroes as the history of Judah. Thus, under King Hezekiah, the "P" school (sons of Aaron) created a new series of writings that in part attempted to re-unite the Jehudaites and Israelites. Two generations later, under the rule of King Josiah, "D" undertook the same endeavor that the sons of Aaron had under King Hezekiah. "D" re-wrote the history of the countries again as he wove new writings within extant texts and used the versions of the stories that suited his needs. The "D" history begins with the book of Deuteronomy. However, contrary to the beliefs of many scholars, the "D" school interpolated and re-wrote passages that appear in the first four books of the Old Testament.

The majority of this work concentrates on the Levitical priests who claimed ancestral ties to Moses ("J/I", "E", and "D") and the "P" school of priests who claimed ancestral ties to Aaron. Understanding the independent objectives of the Levites and the sons of Aaron is more important than any exact J/E/P/D author designation. Moreover, the Shiloh priests became part of the Judah-based institution and they wrote many of the myths in the narratives. Hence, with the Shiloh priests and "J/I", there was a sect of priests that became part of the Jerusalem monarchy and another that fled Judah and ultimately found itself in Israel. As one moves through the narratives, they will better understand the roles the Shiloh and "J/I" priests played in creating the Old Testament. In addition to the various groups of priests and authors mentioned, there were later redactors in various eras who interpolated and wove together the extant writings of the separate religious factions. Moreover, there were no copyright laws during the period the authors wrote the biblical narratives. Various scribes from multiple generations interpolated and re-wrote the stories that the final redactor wove together. When I point out interpolations (which means a later author inserted words into an extant text), one should perceive them as a common occurrence in texts of the time, as opposed to something irregular or cunningly contrived to fulfill my objectives.

It is imperative that one understands the sons of Aaron and the Levites were separate entities, and there was a move from Judah to Israel by a group of would-be Levites ("J/I"), which I unequivocally display in my commentary. In addition, certain authors also attributed Levitical ancestry to the sons of Aaron, which was done as a means of consolidation, as well as to adhere to later texts that stated only Levites could serve as priests. I shall begin by displaying the two groups were separate entities. In 1 Chronicles 15 & 23:

"4. And gathered David the sons of Aaron and the Levites."

"1. And David was old, and full with days, and caused to rule Solomon his son over Israel. 2. And he gathered all the chiefs of Israel, and the priests and the Levites."

Many texts merely refer to _priests_ and _Levites_ , as opposed to the _sons of Aaron_ and _Levites_. Nevertheless, in each example it is clear the sons of Aaron and the Levite line of priests were distinct entities. By the end of this book, one will realize this separation, but it helps to have this understanding beforehand.

A Levite is a descendant of Levi in the biblical narratives. The name _Levi_ means, "attached", and was derived from a word that means, "to twine", i.e., _unite_. The Levites represent sects of priests that became united. Levi is not a person, but the name is a symbol. This type of symbolism is ubiquitous throughout the biblical narratives. Authors conveyed history in story form by using names with understood meanings. One may not agree or truly comprehend this phenomenon at first, but after it arises repeatedly and the meanings of the names continually convey relevant and cogent content, the difference between coincidence and intent becomes evident.

In Genesis 46:11, the sons of Levi are Gershom, Kohath, and Merari. The name _Gershom_ means, "refugee", and was derived from a word that conveys to drive out. The _sons of Gershom_ represent priests who were ultimately displaced from their positions and in part migrated to the city of Dan in northern Israel. The name Merari means, "bitter", and represents a sect of priests who were once prominent, but who were later removed from favor. However, the _sons of Levi_ were a later development. Authors created the _sons of Levi_ to display the events that transpired involving the separate religious factions. With this said, Kohath is the son of Levi that reveals the most about the early history of the period. In Exodus 6:18, the sons of Kohath are Amram, Izhar, Hebron, and Uzziel. The name _Amram_ means, "people of height", and signifies a sect of priests. However, one can also interpret the name as _people of Ram_ , which conveys migrations from Aram (covered forthcoming). The name _Izhar_ means, "oil" (anointing), and also denotes an early sect of priests. The third son (city) Hebron was the center of a prominent religious establishment that preceded the Jerusalem monarchy. Finally, the name _Uzziel_ means, "strength of 'El", and could represent a powerful religious faction. The _sons of Kohath_ , the _son of Levi_ , convey the birth of a religious coalition centered in Hebron that included peoples from Aram and Egypt.

This point is suitable to take a moment and enlighten my companions on an invaluable piece of knowledge. The true history of the pre-exilic biblical era, divested of politics and myth, is silently nestled within the countless genealogies that permeate the biblical narratives. Seemingly insignificant genealogies are of invaluable worth for this inquiry.

Joshua 21 covers the towns that the priests received from the tribes. The fact the authors stated the towns were _given_ to the priests was merely a means to attain obeisance from the people. Nevertheless, this section clearly outlines the geography and balance of power. From the descendants of Kohath, the sons of Aaron received thirteen towns in Judah, Simeon, and Benjamin, which reveals the sons of Aaron (the "P" school) presided in Judah. The Simeonite lands were appropriated in Judah and Benjamin is included because the territory of Benjamin was assumed within the Judah-based institution. The rest of the descendants of Kohath received towns in Ephraim, Dan, and half the tribe of Manasseh. Therefore, the towns received from the tribes display the geographical separation of the sons of Aaron and the Levites. The sons of Aaron were in control in Judah and the "J/I" priests that once presided in Judah moved north and joined existing schools of priests in Israel. For a time, these sects of priests shared the religious prestige of the unified kingdom. The name _Kohath_ means, "ally", which is what the groups had done. The sons of Kohath were the _sons of alliance_ , which is why they share the same historical texts. They began as an allied entity in Judah and subsequently a portion of their descendants shared presiding rights over the short-lived united kingdom.

Within the biblical narratives, actually within the records of ancient history when it is presented in story-form, authors constantly represent place-names as surnames. In addition, metaphor and symbolism are ubiquitous throughout the narratives. However, the significances or author intentions regarding certain names in the myths and genealogies are difficult to unveil or ascertain. There are those names that refer to religious leaders or officials, but other names are mere symbols that convey or intimate matters of greater importance. Within this work, I placed forth educated postulates as to the intent of the authors with the names in their texts. A portion of the renderings are _most true_ , but others are mere probabilities derived from my knowledge of the narratives and history of the era. However, I based these concepts solely on the texts included in the Old Testament. Not only were there a myriad of writings not included, there was surely a general knowledge of places, peoples, and events that was known throughout the region. Hence, most assuredly many significant points or author intentions are impossibly for one to uncover.

On the Book of Genesis

Genesis 1- 2:3

This segment contains the first of two creation myths. An author from the "P" school (the sons of Aaron) wrote this first myth and as stated in the introduction, this author referred to the deity as 'Elohim until the third book of Exodus. The name _'Elohim_ is a plural version of the name _'Elowah_ , which is a variation of the name _'El_ , the preeminent deity for the peoples who would later become the Jehudaites and Israelites. Upon converting to Yahweh worship, the new deity was associated with 'El. As one reads the word 'Elohim, the name should instantly engender the question of why the author used a plural word to refer to a single deity. At this point, I am at a loss for an answer, but hopefully the reason will step forth and reveal itself forthcoming.

'Elohim created the heavens and the earth, the earth existed without form, and a pre-existent watery chaos is said to have the spirit of the deity upon it. Then 'Elohim created light and darkness, the heavens and the land, and the lights in the heavens to become signs of seasons and time. In verse 3, the deity created light, and then in verse 16, he created two great lights, i.e., the sun and the moon, to govern over the day and the night. The author conveyed the two lights without names, though they did have names, _Shemesh_ and _Yareah_ respectively, and he avoided the names to downplay their importance. The people worshiped the sun and the moon as deities during the entire history of Judah and Israel. Later institutions, as displayed in Deuteronomy 17:3, were against the worship.

"And worshiped them, or Sun (Shemesh) or Moon (Yareah), or {any of} all the host of the heavens, which not I have commanded."

The creation process continues and 'Elohim created the sea monsters, the water life, the birds, and the species of the land. Then 'Elohim said, "Let us make mankind after Our image, according to Our likeness", and man would have dominion over all living things. Therefore, 'Elohim created man in his image, "male and female he created them", and the deity gave humanity every plant and fruit tree on the face of the earth for food. The fact this author stated _every tree_ could discount the _Man and Eve_ story forthcoming (no forbidden fruit). Finally, 'Elohim sanctified the seventh day because he ceased creating.

If one wants to attempt to get a feel for the different authors, they should focus on how this author portrayed the nature of the deity. 'Elohim's spirit gently moved upon the water. He was a mystical and powerful deity, who performed the creative process with mere words. The author portrayed a very methodical, distant, and transcendental entity.

Genesis 2:4-24

In this second creation myth, the author referred to the deity as _Yahweh 'Elohim_. He was stating Yahweh and 'Elohim were one and the same deity, which is a mode of consolidation (a common phenomenon in the religions of antiquity). Most biblical scholars ascribe the story to a "J" author. However, when scholars ascribe a text to "J", they denote an author that referred to the deity as _Yahweh_ , but this author referred to the deity as _Yahweh 'Elohim_. He most likely wrote during a time of a conversion to Yahweh worship and was consolidating the new deity with 'Elohim.

The story begins during a period before there were plants and before Yahweh 'Elohim produced the rain and created man to till the ground. As one travels through this myth, they will find it is not as cosmic as the previous account. In the first story, 'Elohim performed his feats with mere words, but this author portrayed a deity with more anthropomorphic qualities. Yahweh 'Elohim is interactive within the story and he is doing instead of merely speaking.

Yahweh 'Elohim formed man from the dust of the ground and breathed the breath of life through his nostrils. The deity planted the garden, placed the man within the garden, and created trees that were pleasant to the eyes and good for food. Among these trees, in the middle of the garden were the tree of life and the tree of knowledge of good and evil. Oddly enough, the deity lied to the man and told him that he would die if he ate fruit from the forbidden tree of knowledge. Then after the description of the surrounding area, with verse 15, the deity once again placed the man within the garden, which could imply in the final version, the redactor included segments from separate stories.

Yahweh 'Elohim did not think the man should exist alone, therefore, he created all the living things on earth. However, none of them was a suitable partner for the man. Finally, the deity created a woman from the rib or side of the man. The chapter moves to an end and states the man and woman were naked, but not ashamed.

Genesis 3:1-24

Although the author referred to the deity as _Yahweh 'Elohim_ in this segment, he had both the serpent and the woman refer to the deity as _'Elohim_. Many scholars simply state the deity had not yet revealed his name. Actually, it was at the discretion of the author. In Genesis 4:1, Eve mentions Yahweh by name.

The story begins with a serpent that was cleverer than any animal in the field, hence its ability to deceive the woman and cause her to sin. The serpent told the woman if she ate the fruit from the forbidden tree of knowledge she would not die, but she would become like 'Elohim ( _Gods_ in English) and know good and evil. The woman believed the serpent, thus she enticed the man and they both ate some forbidden fruit. As the serpent said, they did not die, but they realized they were naked and sewed fig leaves together to cover themselves. However, when the couple heard Yahweh 'Elohim walking in the garden, they hid from him because they were naked. Within this ambiguity, the man explained to the deity that the two were hiding because his wife had enticed him to eat from the tree of knowledge at the bidding of the serpent, which caused them to realize their nakedness. For its actions, the deity cursed the serpent to a life crawling on its belly. The couple also received their punishment for the forbidden act, including labor pains for the woman, an endless toil for sustenance for the man, and humankind's inevitable return to the dust. Then the deity made the man and woman clothes, which is possibly another display of interwoven texts (or an improvement on the fig leaves).

The man named the woman Eve because she became the mother of all things. The name _Eve_ , or _Hawwah_ in Hebrew, means, "life giver", which was an epithet attached to Asherah, the state Goddess of Asher. Asherah was the consort of 'El and later became the consort of Yahweh. The people worshiped her as the _Lady of the Serpent_ and the Levites constantly denounced her representation. She was called the _Queen of Heaven_ (Jeremiah 7:18) and there were representations of Asherah as a _tree of life_. Eve and Asherah have an undeniable affinity, which surely was not a coincidence. Eve represents Asherah as the Serpent Goddess. With the serpent persuading her to disobey the command of the deity, the author displayed a move against an institution that worshiped Asherah. Moreover, when the priests worshiped the Goddess in the temple as a consort of Yahweh, the combined worship symbolized an alliance between Judah and the state of Asher. The more common name for Asherah was _Ashtoreth_ , a Phoenician fertility Goddess. Hence, when the worship of Ashtoreth became prevalent further south in the region of Asher and subsequently Judah, her worshiped transformed and she became the _Asherah_. The Judah institution that allied with the Asherites ultimately displaced the would-be Levites and exiled them out of Judah. Hiram was the king of Tyre, which was a city in the territory of Asher.

"12. And Yahweh gave wisdom to Solomon, as He had spoken to him. And was peace between Hiram and Solomon, and they cut a covenant, the two of them." (1 Kings 5:12)

This covenant between Hiram and Solomon was certainly a significant union and its mention is no mere coincidence or occasion of happenstance. In part, the author of this story, whose religious sect lost stature under King Solomon, conveyed the worship of Asherah, i.e., the Judah-Asher alliance, was the downfall of man, i.e., was detrimental to his people or sect of priests. However, authors from this early period were achieving multiple objectives. For centuries, religious leaders created and passed on stories that attempted to explain the many enigmas of life and serve as pedagogical and mnemonic tools. Many Hebrew myths, including the flood story, originated from Sumerians writings. In addition, before the written word, and even afterward due to the small number of literate people, important events, i.e., history, were conveyed in story form. When ancient communities coalesced, they combined their stories and thus their histories, which one will perceive throughout the narratives. An author borrowed pedagogical poems, or aspects of these ancient tales, and he placed a local spin on them. The author conveyed the lore of the land, but he allegorically expressed something else. I guarantee the priests of the day and those from subsequent eras were aware of the author's intentions.

As the story continues, "the man has become like us, knowing good and evil." Therefore, the deity sent them out of the garden to preclude them from eating from the tree of life and living forever. To keep the man and the woman away from the tree of life, the deity placed cherubs and a flaming sword as guards of the garden. The flaming sword most likely represents a religious or mythical army of Judah. Moreover, there were cherubs in the Jerusalem temple (1 Kings 6:23), which could intimate the Jerusalem hierarchy was protecting Asherah, _the tree of life._

Genesis 4:1-16

These verses cover the famous myth of Cain and Abel. The man experienced Eve and she later gave birth to Cain. Upon giving birth, Eve stated she created a man with the help of Yahweh. This section marks the first time an author referred to the deity as _Yahweh_ , as opposed to _Yahweh 'Elohim_ , which could imply he wrote from a different social, geographical, or temporal perspective. Eve conceived again and later gave birth to Cain's brother Abel. This "J" text references the early history of Judah, which included peoples from Asher.

Abel was a shepherd of flocks and Cain was a tiller of the ground. Cain and Abel brought their respective offerings to the deity, but Yahweh favored the animal offering from Abel over the vegetable offering from Cain. Cain was angered and consequently he killed his brother. As a punishment, Yahweh told Cain he would live the remainder of his days as a restless wanderer. Cain thought the punishment was too harsh, due to the fact he was banished by Yahweh, anyone who found him would kill him. The deity listened to the plight of Cain and stated:

"15. But said to him Yahweh, If anyone kills Cain, sevenfold he will be avenged! And put Yahweh on Cain a mark so that not should kill him anyone who found him."

Cain left Yahweh's presence for a land east of Eden called Nod, which means, "exile". This portion of the narrative is followed by a Kenite genealogy ( _Kenite_ is patronymic for _Cain_ ). The fact an author mentioned Cain as the first son of man merely conveys the Kenites were the first people associated with the settlements that would become the state of Judah. However, the Kenites found themselves in the classic vegetable farmer verses herdsman battle and a faction in Judah allied with the herdsmen.

The author's religious sect appears to have settled among and had good relations with the Kenites, but remained in the area when the Kenites were forced out of Judah. The author knew the Kenites had been exiled east, was part of the institution that displaced them, but with this text, he displays a subtle empathy and affinity toward them. Therefore, the deity protects Cain and the author intimated the enemies of the Kenites were vain. Authors of the biblical narratives were masters at word play. The word _abel_ means "meadow", but the name used in this story is _Hebel_ , which means, "vanity". When Cain kills Abel, it could represent a Kenite attack over farming and grazing lands in Judah, which would explain why the author stressed their livelihoods within the story. Nevertheless, an uprising faction in Judah was not sympathetic toward the Kenites and they ultimately forced them out of the land. Cain, i.e., the Kenites, was exiled east, which probably means out of Judah and across the Jordan.

Most scholars believe the Kenites were a Midianite tribe that migrated into the region from the east, but I am inclined to disagree.

"55. And the families of the scribes who lived at Jabez: the Tirathites, the Shimeathites {and} Suchathites. These {are} the Kenites who came from Hammath, the father of the household of Rechab." (1 Chronicles 2:55)

Hammath was a place in Naphtali (Joshua 19:35), and the name is a variation of the name _Hamath_ , a city in Aram, which displays points of migration. Furthermore, the name Rechab (Hebrew) means, "rider", and is a variation of the name _Rehob_ , which means, "broad place", i.e., _road_. There were cities named Rehob in both Asher and Aram. Therefore, it appears the Kenites migrated into Judah from Aram via settlements in northern Israel.

A religious faction forced the Kenites out of Judah and probably east of the Jordan. However, the Kenites were not the only Arameans exiled out of the region. The Reubenites also migrated from Aram and it appears they too may have settled in southern Judah before their migration east, where authors represented their territory in the narratives. In Genesis 46:9, the sons of Reuben are Hanoch, Pallu, Hezron, and Carmi. However, Hezron and Carmi are both mentioned as sons of Judah in 1 Chronicles 4:1, and in 1 Chronicles 5:3, they are again the sons of Reuben. Although people will merely argue that both Reuben and Judah, as well as Perez, had sons with the same names, the Hezronites were a people from the city of Hezron in southern Judah. In Numbers 26 verses 5 & 6:

"5. Reuben, firstborn Israel's; the sons of Reuben; {of} Hanoch came} the family of the Hanochites; of Pallu. the family of the Palluites; 6. of Hezron the family of the Hezronites; of Carmi, {came} the family of the Carmites."

In Numbers 26:21, of Judah's son Perez:

"21. And were the sons of Perez; of Hezron, {came} the family of the Hezronites."

_Perez_ represents an institution in Judah that superseded preceding religious establishments. Moreover, in the above quote, the word translated as both Carmi and Carmites is _Karmi_ , which is a variation of the word or name _Carmel_ (Karmel), a city south of Hebron in Judah (Joshua 15:55). In addition, in an earlier written 1 Chronicles 11:37 list of David's warriors, there is a man by the name of Hezro (variation of _Hezron_ ) the Carmelite and the use of the name may have been a means to symbolically connect the two cities. Hezron and Carmi were most likely brother cities settled by Arameans. The Reubenites were prominent in Judah and first inhabited these cities, but when the Reubenites were exiled out of Judah, these sons, i.e., cities, became descendants of Judah, i.e., cities of Judah. Moreover, the Kenites and Reubenites may have been part of a related migration from Aram. Returning to Numbers 26:5, Reuben's son Hanoch is the same entity as Enoch, the son of Cain in this chapter (the spelling is the same in Hebrew). Cain built a city and named it after his son Hanoch, and it only follows that the Hanochites (descendants of Reuben) lived in this city. Therefore, peoples from Aram migrated into Canaan and settled cities in the land of Judah. Hanoch was the first born of both Cain and Reuben, thus the city was probably the center of an early religious coalition. The name _Hanoch_ means, "dedicated", hence, a holy city of worship. Furthermore, this early coalition in Judah also included Arabians, Edomites, and Egyptians who settled the same cities and general region. In verses 22 & 24 of the next chapter, Hanoch walked with 'Elohim, which further conveys its status as a prominent religious city. However, in the following verse 24b, when 'Elohim took Hanoch away, it conveys not only the fall of this early religious coalition, but the destruction of the city itself, which is not mentioned again in the narratives after its construction by Cain. In Numbers 32:42, there is a city in the land of Gilead (across the Jordan) named _Kenath_ , a name that is a variation of the name _Kenite_ , and a place most likely settled by Kenites. Hence, with the fall of this early religious coalescence in southern Judah, Cain and Reuben were exiled eastward, but if the two entities were distinct peoples, the Kenites appear to have lost their identity in later eras. Reuben was the first son of Jacob, i.e., the first would-be _Israelite_ people in the region, and in this chapter, the author presented the Kenites as the first son of man, i.e., the first people of Judah.

Genesis 4:17-26

The author sourced this section on Cain's _family tree_ from a tradition that was written before the Kenites were exiled out of Judah, hence, before the story of Cain and Abel. In the original tradition, Cain may have found a wife, who in this segment he experienced and she conceived Enoch (Hanoch). Then Cain built a city and named it after his son. Most of the conjecture on this city is that it is somewhere far to the east. I have read as far as Babylon. However, due to the fact this segment was written before the Kenites were exiled, this city was actually the beginning of the Kenite settlement in southern Judah. Then Enoch fathered Irad, i.e., _fugitive_ , which expresses an escape from ruling powers. Irad fathered Mehujael, who fathered Lamech. The name Lamech feels to have a subtle affinity with the name _Amalek_ , albeit the notion is merely an instinctive feeling and the correlation is extremely tentative.

Lamech married two women named Adah and Zillah. Adah's first son was Jabal, who was the father of herdsmen and tent dwellers, or the common man. Her second son was Jubal, who was the father of those playing the harp and the pipe, which could imply members of the religious elite or priesthood. Adah was also portrayed as a wife of Esau, whose son Eliphaz fathered Amalek (Genesis 36:12), which connects Amalek and Lamech and displays two different genealogies, i.e., traditions, that refer to the same historical events. The descendants of Lamech represent early settlements in the region, including herdsman or nomadic hunters in southern Judah. The name _Zillah_ , Lamech's other wife, is a variation of the name _Zelah_ , which is a city of Benjamin in Joshua 18:28. Zillah gave birth to Tubal-Cain and his sister Naamah, which is a city mentioned in Joshua 15:41 as an inheritance for the sons of Judah. Tubal-Cain, "the hammerer of every engraving tool of bronze and iron", in part refers to Tubal, a nation that appears to have been to the northeast of Palestine near the Black Sea. Hittites migrated into Palestine from this region, where the Hittite Kingdom once controlled most of the iron source for the world. Tubal-Cain could represent the combined Kenite and Hittite presence in Canaan.

Lamech spoke to his wives and told them he killed a man in self-defense. If the deity would avenge Cain seven-fold, then the deity should avenge Lamech seventy and seven. Obviously, the author sought a justification for an act of battle or war, which could represent the conquest of peoples in Judah. One possibility is a group of Edomites, who an author connected to Lamech's wife Adah, which would explain why he justified the act to his wives. The animosity displayed in the verse could signify the later antipathy held toward the Amalekites.

In verse 25, an author referred to the deity as _'Elohim_ for the first time in the chapter, but the name was spoken by the wife of the man. Moreover, the story does not refer to the wife as _Eve_ because that name was a later creation used to denigrate the Judah-Asher alliance. The author's use of the name 'Elohim could simply reflect Genesis 3, in which the serpent and the woman called the deity _'Elohim_ , but the remainder of the text read _Yahweh 'Elohim_.

The man had intercourse with the woman and she gave birth to Seth, who fathered Enosh. This last set of births consolidates the Arameans in Judah with peoples who most likely migrated into the region from Egypt. The name _Seth_ in Hebrew is akin to a word that means, "to place", and he placed his son _Enosh_ , which means, "mortal" (he placed man or men). However, Seth was the name of an Egyptian deity, as well as the father of Ramses the 2nd. Pharaoh Seth most likely assumed his name when he became ruler and elevated the worship of Seth the deity. Moreover, texts forthcoming state a portion of the peoples that migrated from Egypt lived in the land of Ramses. The use of the name Seth may have merely been a means to represent the arrival of peoples from Egypt. After the birth of Enosh, the people began to call upon the name Yahweh, which could intimate the beginning of Yahweh worship and a new era for this institution in Judah.

Genesis 5

Genesis 5 is a genealogy that references a few of the same entities as chapter 4. A "P" school redactor compiled the list from extant sources. Cain, Abel, and Eve are missing in this genealogy and the same entities were absent in the "P" creation myth. Authors used these figures to subtly denigrate "P"'s ancestors and their institution in Judah, which is why they are absent in "P" written and redacted texts.

The man fathered Seth, who fathered Enosh, who fathered Kenan or Cainan (depending on translation), a name that is a variation of the name _Cain_. Cainan fathered Mahalalel, who fathered Jared, who fathered Enoch (who walked with 'Elohim, but the deity took him away), who fathered Methuselah, who fathered Lamech, who fathered Noah. Noah would deliver them from the agonizing labor delivered by Yahweh when he cursed the ground. This Yahweh insert may belong with the "J" flood story to follow. The chapter ends with the sons of Noah, who were Shem, Japheth, and Ham.

Genesis 6:1-4

In this short section, a redactor wove together a couple of brief segments. In verses 1 & 2, mankind began to multiply and have daughters. When the sons of 'Elohim seen the daughters of men, they took them for wives. Then with verse 3, there is a segment that probably belongs at the end of the second creation story. The spirit of Yahweh would not forever contend with man because he was flesh, thus he would limit his days to one hundred and twenty years. Verse 4 continues from verses 1 & 2, which end with the sons of 'Elohim taking the daughters of men for wives. The Nephilim, i.e., giants, were there in those days and afterward. When the sons of 'Elohim conceived with the daughters of men, they were the mighty men of old. There are those who believe the Nephilim were _the fallen_ , i.e., fallen angels, but the belief spawned from an attempt to romanticize the story. From Numbers 13:33, the Nephilim were the sons of the giant Anak, "as grasshoppers we were in their sight."

Genesis 6:5-8:22

The story of the great flood is actually two texts that a later redactor wove together. In the following section, the stories are separated with one version italicized, thus one can easily read one version and then return to the beginning and read the other. The "J" text is italicized and the "P" text is in regular font. These stories, as I came upon them during research, were not quoted as a literal translation. Therefore, one should translate the name _God_ as _'Elohim_ and the name _Lord_ as _Yahweh_.

_5. And the Lord saw that the wickedness of man was great in the earth, and that every imagination of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually. 6. And it repented the Lord that he had made man on the earth, and it grieved him at his heart. 7. And the Lord said, I will destroy man whom I have created from the face of the earth; both man, and beast, and the creeping thing, and the fowls of the air; for it repenteth me that I have made them. 8. But Noah found grace in the eyes of the Lord_.

9. These are the generations of Noah: Noah was a just man and perfect in his generations, and Noah walked with God. 10. And Noah begat three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth. 11. The earth also was corrupt before God, and the earth was filled with violence. 12. And God looked upon the earth, and, behold, it was corrupt; for all flesh had corrupted his way upon the earth. 13. And God said unto Noah, The end of all flesh is come before me; for the earth is filled with violence through them; and, behold, I will destroy them with the earth. 14. Make thee an ark of gopher wood; rooms shalt thou make in the ark, and shalt pitch it within and without with pitch. 15. And this is the fashion which thou shalt make it of: The length of the ark shall be three hundred cubits, the breadth of it fifty cubits, and the height of it thirty cubits. 16. A window shalt thou make to the ark, and in a cubit shalt thou finish it above; and the door of the ark shalt thou set in the side thereof; with lower, second, and third stories shalt thou make it. 17. And, behold, I, even I, do bring a flood of waters upon the earth, to destroy all flesh, wherein is the breath of life, from under heaven; and every thing that is in the earth shall die. 18.But with thee will I establish my covenant; and thou shalt come into the ark, thou, and thy sons, and thy wife, and thy sons' wives with thee. 19. And of every living thing of all flesh, two of every sort shalt thou bring into the ark, to keep them alive with thee; they shall be male and female. 20. Of fowls after their kind, and of cattle after their kind, of every creeping thing of the earth after his kind, two of every sort shall come unto thee, to keep them alive. 21. And take thou unto thee of all food that is eaten, and thou shalt gather it to thee; and it shall be for food for thee, and for them. 22. Thus did Noah; according to all that God commanded him, so did he.

_1. And the Lord said unto Noah, Come thou and all thy house into the ark; for thee have I seen righteous before me in this generation. 2. Of every clean beast thou shalt take to thee by sevens, the male and his female: and of beasts that are not clean by two, the male and his female. 3.Of fowls also of the air by sevens, the male and the female; to keep seed alive upon the face of all the earth. 4. For yet seven days, and I will cause it to rain upon the earth forty days and forty nights; and every living substance that I have made will I destroy from off the face of the earth. 5.And Noah did according unto all that the Lord commanded him_.

6. And Noah was six hundred years old when the flood of waters was upon the earth.

_7. And Noah went in, and his sons, and his wife, and his sons' wives with him, into the ark, because of the waters of the flood_.

8. Of clean beasts, and of beasts that are not clean, and of fowls, and of every thing that creepeth upon the earth, 9. There went in two and two unto Noah into the ark, the male and the female, as God had commanded Noah.

_10. And it came to pass after seven days, that the waters of the flood were upon the earth_.

11. In the six hundredth year of Noah's life, in the second month, the seventeenth day of the month, the same day were all the fountains of the great deep broken up, and the windows of heaven were opened.

_12. And the rain was upon the earth forty days and forty nights_.

13. In the selfsame day entered Noah, and Shem, and Ham, and Japheth, the sons of Noah, and Noah's wife, and the three wives of his sons with them, into the ark; 14.They, and every beast after his kind, and all the cattle after their kind, and every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth after his kind, and every fowl after his kind, every bird of every sort. 15.And they went in unto Noah into the ark, two and two of all flesh, wherein is the breath of life. 16. And they that went in, went in male and female of all flesh, as God had commanded him:

and the Lord shut him in. 17. And the flood was forty days upon the earth; and the waters increased, and bare up the ark, and it was lift up above the earth. 18. And the waters prevailed, and were increased greatly upon the earth; and the ark went upon the face of the waters. 19. And the waters prevailed exceedingly upon the earth; and all the high hills, that were under the whole heaven, were covered. 20. Fifteen cubits upward did the waters prevail; and the mountains were covered.

21. And all flesh died that moved upon the earth, both of fowl, and of cattle, and of beast, and of every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth, and every man:

_22. All in whose nostrils was the breath of life, of all that was in the dry land, died. 23.And every living substance was destroyed which was upon the face of the ground, both man, and cattle, and the creeping things, and the fowl of the heaven; and they were destroyed from the earth: and Noah only remained alive, and they that were with him in the ark_.

24. And the waters prevailed upon the earth an hundred and fifty days. Genesis 8: 1. And God remembered Noah, and every living thing, and all the cattle that was with him in the ark: and God made a wind to pass over the earth, and the waters asswaged; 2. The fountains also of the deep and the windows of heaven were stopped, and the rain from heaven was restrained;

_3. And the waters returned from off the earth continually_.

: and after the end of the hundred and fifty days the waters were abated. 4. And the ark rested in the seventh month, on the seventeenth day of the month, upon the mountains of Ararat. 5.And the waters decreased continually until the tenth month: in the tenth month, on the first day of the month, were the tops of the mountains seen.

_6. And it came to pass at the end of forty days, that Noah opened the window of the ark which he had made_ :

7. And he sent forth a raven, which went forth to and fro, until the waters were dried up from off the earth.

8. Also he sent forth a dove from him, to see if the waters were abated from off the face of the ground;9. But the dove found no rest for the sole of her foot, and she returned unto him into the ark, for the waters were on the face of the whole earth: then he put forth his hand, and took her, and pulled her in unto him into the ark. 10. And he stayed yet other seven days; and again he sent forth the dove out of the ark; 11. And the dove came in to him in the evening; and, lo, in her mouth was an olive leaf pluckt off: so Noah knew that the waters were abated from off the earth. 12. And he stayed yet other seven days; and sent forth the dove; which returned not again unto him any more.

13. And it came to pass in the six hundredth and first year, in the first month, the first day of the month, the waters were dried up from off the earth

_and Noah removed the covering of the ark, and looked, and, behold, the face of the ground was dry_.

14. And in the second month, on the seven and twentieth day of the month, was the earth dried. 15. And God spake unto Noah, saying, 16. Go forth of the ark, thou, and thy wife, and thy sons, and thy sons' wives with thee. 17. Bring forth with thee every living thing that is with thee, of all flesh, both of fowl, and of cattle, and of every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth; that they may breed abundantly in the earth, and be fruitful, and multiply upon the earth. 18. And Noah went forth, and his sons, and his wife, and his sons' wives with him: 19. Every beast, every creeping thing, and every fowl, and whatsoever creepeth upon the earth, after their kinds, went forth out of the ark.

_20. And Noah builded an altar unto the Lord; and took of every clean beast, and of every clean fowl, and offered burnt offerings on the altar. 21. And the Lord smelled a sweet savour; and the Lord said in his heart, I will not again curse the ground any more for man's sake; for the imagination of man's heart is evil from his youth; neither will I again smite any more every thing living, as I have done. 22. While the earth remaineth, seedtime and harvest, and cold and heat, and summer and winter, and day and night shall not cease_.

One can easily discern the differences in the two stories. In the "P" text, in which the author referred to the deity as _'Elohim_ (God), the portrayal of the deity is mystic, powerful, and transcendental. "P" used the same terminology in his flood story as in his creation story and the consolidation author portrayed a linear evolution of the people. Of the two authors, only "P" mentioned the names of Noah's sons, which he placed into the preceding and following genealogies. "P" also mentioned Mount Ararat, which correlates with his attention to names and details. The "J" author was never concerned with details. In addition, Noah brought the clean and unclean animals aboard two by two in the "P" story, where in the "J" story, Noah brought seven clean and two unclean. In the "P" version, it rained one hundred fifty days, where in the "J" version, it rained forty days and forty nights (in antiquity forty just denoted "a lot"). Noah sent out a dove to find a sign of land in one of the stories, where in the other, he sent out a raven. The two writers definitely had different agendas. "J" merely recorded myths that storytellers and authors had conveyed for generations, some of which spread throughout Mesopotamia. However, "P" used a collection of myths and records from various communities in Palestine and attempted to create a unified, chronological, and actual perceivable history. Within this endeavor, "P" had the deity predict and ordain the leadership of his school of priests. He created a history that rebuked opposing institutions and bestowed upon his sect the ancestry and unequivocal rights to the priesthood in Jerusalem.

Genesis 9:18-27

The narrative moves to a story about Noah and his sons. Noah planted a vineyard and he drank of his vine until he became intoxicated. Afterward, he fell asleep and exposed himself in his tent. Ham, the father of Canaan, entered the tent and viewed his father naked. He then told his brothers, who in turn covered their father. Noah awoke knowingly and he cursed Canaan, the son of Ham, and stated he would serve his brothers and lose his inheritance. In the ancient world, people believed in collective sin, which means a person can suffer for the sins of their father, grandfather, etc. In addition, Noah did not curse the other sons of Ham because the Jehudaites and Israelites were not after the lands represented by the other sons. When Ham seen his father naked, it could imply sexual intercourse or vulnerability (undefended), but the author stressed the fact his brothers did not see their father naked. The story is about the land of Palestine, which Ham's brothers did not see because the peoples they represent either resided outside of Canaan or were later arrivals into the land. Moreover, the author may have intimated the Canaanites raided a vulnerable land and its yield, or showed a lack of respect for the land and its 'Elohim, thus it was left undefended until the peoples who would become the Jehudaites and Israelites arrived and made a covenant with the deity. However, more subtly, the author tacitly admonished a segment of the peoples for interbreeding and allying with the Canaanites, who were not the chosen of the deity. Regardless of what the author implied when Ham seen his father naked, he justified the conquest of peoples in land of Canaan. When Noah cursed Canaan and stated he would serve his brothers, the author spoke of a time when inhabitants of Palestine served the Jehudaites and Israelites. In forthcoming texts, authors stated the Canaanites who were not killed or exiled were subdued into slavery.

Genesis 10

A redactor used extant sources when constructing this table of nations, which was an idea taken from one first constructed by Mesopotamian scribes. One must remember the use of personal names for place names was common in the Near East. This _genealogy_ begins with the three sons of Noah. After reading the descendants of each man, the text states the aforementioned people were their clans, in their nations, with their own languages. Therefore, in this tradition, the world population spawned from these three men.

The segment begins with the sons of Japheth and places forth various names that represent regions to the north and northeast of Canaan, including the land of the Greeks, settlements on the Black and Mediterranean Seas, and the referenced Tubal. The descendants of Japheth divided the coastlands of the Gentiles.

Ham and his descendants represent the lands of Ethiopia, Egypt, Arabia, Babylon, and the land of Canaan, including Sidon his firstborn. Canaan also fathered Heth, which was a patronymic name for the Hittites. Cush (Ethiopia), one of the sons of Ham, fathered Nimrod, who became a hero, "the great hunter in the presence of Yahweh." The beginning of his kingdom included Babel, Erech, and Accad, and out of that land, he went into Asshur and built Nineveh. Ancient Calah (which is now Nimrud) worshiped a warrior deity of hunting whom one can possibly correlate with Nimrod. However, I have also read that Nimrod represents Tukulti-Ninurta, an Assyrian emperor from 1234 to 1200 BCE.

The sons of Shem represent the lands of Assyria, Elam, Lud, and Aram. Nimrod did go forth into this territory out of Cush, but probably from a different tradition. This line of descendants leads to Eber, a name that means, "region across". Numerous scholars erroneously believe Eber was or represents an ancestor of the Hebrews. The first son of Eber was Peleg, "because in his day was divided the earth." The second son was Joktan, which means, "insignificant", and whose descendants represent regions of Arabia. The Arabians were forced out of Judah, or were _insignificant_ , and in the next chapter, Peleg's descendants lead to Abram.

Genesis 11

The story begins during a time when all the people spoke one language. They traveled and found a level valley in Shinar, which was a plain in Babylonia. They began to build a tower that would reach toward the heavens. Yahweh came down to see what the children of men had built, but upon perceiving their vainglorious endeavor, he decided to confound the people by altering their language.

"scattered them Yahweh over the face of the earth."

"called place the name Babel because did there confound Yahweh the language of the earth and from there did scatter them Yahweh."

In this tradition, Babylon was the center of humanity and from there the earth was populated, as opposed to from the three sons of Noah, whose descendants already had their own languages.

The next genealogy moves the narrative to Abram. The passage begins by following the lineage of Shem, but when the list arrives at Peleg, unlike in the last chapter, he fathers a child whose bloodline leads to Abram (consolidation of pre and post Abram traditions). The name _Abram_ means, "high father", and may have been a title that denoted a high priest or tribal leader. However, one can also interpret the name Abram as _father of Ram_. The line of descent reads Shem- Arpachshad- Shalach- Eber- Peleg- Reu- Serug- Nahor- Terah, and he fathered Abram, Nahor (city of Nahur), and Haran (city of Haran). Haran, who is stated to have died in Ur, fathered Lot, Abram married Sarai, and Nahor married Milcah. In the 13th century BCE, the city of Haran was conquered by King Adad-Nirari of Assyria, which the author may have expressed by the death of Haran.

Abram and his family left Ur of the Chaldeans and settled in Haran, a city that harbored a great shrine to the moon deity Sin. The Chaldeans were a nomadic tribe that about 1250 BCE settled near what was then Sumer.

Genesis 12 & 13

This section begins with four redactor verses. Numerous inserts as this one were added over time to connect independently written stories, as well as to add ages to the patriarchs and include prophecies for the Jehudaites and Israelites. Moreover, these later authors included the name _Yahweh_ in many of their inserts, often when the original stories existed before the creation of Yahweh worship or were from an institution that did not support the Yahweh religion.

Abram departed for Canaan with his wife and Lot. They traveled as far as Shechem to the oak of Moreh, into the land inhabited by the Canaanites. In the Hebrew narratives, there is constant mention and attached importance to the oak, terebinth, and tamarisk trees. Authors used these pillars to symbolize powerful religious cities and institutions. Hence, the _oak of Moreh_ refers to the religious (political) institution in Shechem. Yahweh appeared to Abram in the city, thus the patriarch built an altar to the deity. From there, Abram traveled to a mountain with Bethel on the west and Ai on the east, where Yahweh again appeared and Abram built another altar. In these two instances, an author connected Abram and Yahweh to the cities of Shechem and Bethel. These places in Israel harbored prominent governmental institutions; hence, it is not a coincidence the author had Abram travel into both of them. When an author placed the patriarch within the boundaries of important cities, it moved a sense of credibility, thus belief and adherence in the institution. These are the places where the deity appeared in the past and they became his home in the future. At least a portion of this text is a "J/I" excerpt and the author united his southern roots with important cities in the north.

With verse 10, there is another well-known biblical myth, in which Abram sojourns in Egypt. In essence, Abram went into Egypt and became wealthy due to his beautiful wife, but he told the people of the land she was his sister. Pharaoh took Sarai into his house, but Yahweh ultimately plagued him because she was married. Pharaoh exiled Abram, but let him maintain his wealth. When a wife is taken into the house of a foreign institution, it clearly represents an alliance. Moreover, since the deity plagued Pharaoh, the author disparaged the event. This segment is another "J/I" excerpt, thus an author whose sect was abandoned by King Solomon. In 1 Kings 3:1:

"And made an alliance by marriage Solomon with Pharaoh the king of Egypt, and took the daughter of Pharaoh and brought her into the city of David, until his finishing to build his own house, the house of Yahweh, and the wall of Jerusalem all around."

The alliances with Egypt and Asher brought a coalition in Judah to power over the entire land of Canaan, which diminished the status of previous religious establishments.

In Chapter 13, Abram left Egypt and arrived in the Negev of Judah with his wife and Lot. The two men were rich in livestock, gold, and silver. Then there is a two-verse interpolation at verses 3 & 4 (and 1a), in which Abram traveled into the land of Bethel. Not only do these verses place the travels of Abram in this prominent city of Israel, Bethel is, "the place where had been there his tent at the beginning." The interpolation rendered a "J/I" sect's new home, after an exile out of Judah, the genesis of the covenant and extremely elevated the importance of the city. The author wrote this insert at the same time he wrote the Yahweh interpolations in the last chapter and the sections work well together. With these two interpolations, it appears the deity first revealed himself to Abram in Israel, when the original story was about the patriarch in southern Judah. Furthermore, in Genesis 12, Lot was traveling to Canaan with Abram and Sarai, but when Yahweh appeared to Abram in Israel and Abram traveled into Egypt, Lot was absent within the verses, which should move one to question if there is something more transpiring within these verses. To recapitulate, Abram's altars in the chapters 12 & 13 interpolations were a product of "J/I". The author used these interpolations to have Yahweh appear to Abram in these one-time Levitical cities of Israel. Moreover, Abram traveling into Egypt was also a "J/I" interpolation, which an author used to denigrate an alliance with the Egyptians. An author from an early Judah coalition wrote the original story during a period before the conception of Yahweh worship (pre-J/E/P/D). The following verses (from chapters 12 & 13) are a segment of what the original author placed forth.

"5. And took Abram Sarai his wife, and Lot son his brother's, and all their property that they had gained, and the persons whom they had gotten in Haran. And they departed to go into the land of Canaan and they came in the land of Canaan. 1. ... he and his wife and all that was to him, and Lot with him into the Negev. 2. And Abram was rich very in livestock, in silver and in gold. 5. And also to Lot who went with Abram, there was sheep and oxen and tents. 6. And not was able to support them the land for living together, because was their property great."

In the original story, Lot was not left out of certain segments, Abram did not cut his covenant with Yahweh in Bethel, and the story does not denigrate the Judah alliance with Egypt. Abram and Lot merely left Haran and arrived in Judah. However, the region could not support both peoples and thus they chose to divide the land. Abram settled the land of Canaan and Lot chose the land of the plains by the Jordan, and in verse 12b, he settled as far as Sodom. One will surely inquire why, but I believe the original text ends with verses 10a, 11, & 12a, which as stated, pre-dated Yahweh worship. However, within a verse 10b interpolation, this was before Yahweh destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah, and with verse 13, the people of Sodom were evil before Yahweh. The _settled as far as Sodom_ was also a part of these interpolations, which an author wrote to consolidate this text with the later myth of Sodom and Gomorrah. One new to an in-depth study of the narratives would not find a sensible reason to conjecture the aforementioned verses as interpolations. However, it is not a mere feeling, but a deep understanding of the authors, their objectives, and the politics of this era in Canaan that bring the interpolations and separate texts to light. Until one grasps a better understanding of the separate religious factions and their deities, the true period of the authorship and the events portrayed, and the overall consolidation motif that created the Old Testament, I merely beseech an open-minded journey to the end of this book. At that point, hopefully a better understanding of the pre-exilic world will engender a further examination of this work.

The interpolating author continued through the end of the chapter. The deity revealed a prophesy for Abram's descendants and the land, and then Abram picked up his tent and moved to the oaks of Mamre in Hebron, where he built an altar to Yahweh. However, this altar in Hebron represents the _later_ religious establishment. In verse 12, before the interpolation, Abram settled in the land of Canaan, which conveys the original text was written before a coalition of peoples arose to power in the city of Hebron. The _Abram_ wave of Aramean migrations settled in the land of Judah, before a segment of the peoples were forced out of the region (Cain, Lot, etc.) by the later government. Authors covered the takeover in southern Judah and the subsequent move into Hebron in the stories of David.

The original text is from an uprising coalition in Judah. After this institution gained control in the region, and subsequent to the original story, the leadership created and established Yahweh worship. Although the interpolating author attempted to place the genesis of this worship in Israel, Yahweh was the state deity of Judah, not unlike Athena was for Athens and Asherah was for Asher. The actual spelling without vowel points is _YHWH_ for _Yahweh_ , and _YHWDH_ for _Yehuwdah_ (Judah), one can realize the former was derived from the latter. The entire region of Palestine worshiped variations of the deity 'El before an institution in Judah created Yahweh worship, which later beckoned some consolidation.

Genesis 14

This chapter is an early text that may have been a product of the same era and school as the original story of Genesis 12 & 13. It begins with a list of kings who went to battle in the days of King Amraphel of Shinar. There was a group of kings from the east going to battle against a group of kings from Palestine, including the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah. The battle took place in the Siddim Valley, which is near the Sea of Salt (an earlier name for the Dead Sea). The kings of Sodom and Gomorrah were defeated and most of the people fell in the Siddim Valley, albeit some survivors fled to the mountains. The victorious kings looted the land and they captured Lot, who had settled in Sodom (written before the _settled as far as Sodom_ in the last chapter). One of Lot's men escaped and told Abram the Hebrew, who was living by the oaks of Mamre. Abram had a covenant with Mamre, who was an Amorite.

The name _Hebrew_ , or _Ibri_ in Hebrew, means, "region across". In 1 Chronicles 24:27, there is a Levite named Merari who had a son named Ibri, but the name should be translated as Hebrew. In Joshua 21:7, for his Levitical inheritance, Merari received towns from Reuben, Gad, and Zebulun, and Reuben and Gad were located across the Jordan, or a region across. Therefore, with an understood origin of the Hebrews, one must re-examine this text and _Abram the Hebrew_.

"12. And they took Lot and his goods, the son of brother Abram's, and they went away. And he had been living in Sodom. 13. And came one who had escaped and told Abram the Hebrew. And he was living by the Oaks of Mamre the Amorite, brother Eschol's and brother Aner's. And they had a covenant with Abram."

If one seriously examines these two verses, they may ask why the author failed to mention that Abram was a Hebrew in verse 12. In addition, Mamre, a place in or near Hebron (interpolated into the last chapter), is now an Amorite, which merely represents their presence in the city. In verse 13, Abram had a covenant with these Amorites, but the author did not mention them as part of the force that Abram led to recover Lot. The author stated the raiders were three hundred and eighteen trained men _born of his house_. Furthermore, in Genesis 15:19, the Amorites are included in a list of peoples who would lose their land to Abram. For some reason, the author wanted to stress the fact this covenant existed. Abram represents an institution of Judah and maybe there were those who contended his institution gained control of the area by force or cunning dealings. Moreover, verse 13 is the only verse in the narratives in which an author referred to Abram or Abraham as a Hebrew. Furthermore, neither Isaac nor Jacob are ever referred to as Hebrews. Here are verses 12 & 14 without verse 13, which is an interpolation.

"12. And they took Lot and his goods, the son of brother Abram's, and they went away. And he had been living in Sodom. 14. And heard Abram that was captured his brother. And then he led out his trained men, born of his household, eighteen and three hundred and pursued as far as Dan."

However, why did the author feel the need to interpolate? The would-be Hebrews were in part a religious faction that was forced out of Judah and then later represented in the stories of Joseph in Egypt. These peoples departed from Egypt, settled lands east of the Jordan, and then finally made a hostile move across the river. Due to the fact the Hebrews were formerly part of the Judah institution, the stories of Abram were part of their history. Therefore, a Hebrew could have written the verse to change the ancestry of the great patriarch. Regardless if the interpolating author was a Hebrew, centuries after an author wrote the original text, after the Assyrians conquered Israel and a segment of the Israel populace fled into Judah, consolidating authors were confronted with the task of creating a unified history of two countries. They possessed texts of Abram and Judah, the people of Israel, and the Hebrews who had entered the land from across the Jordan. If a later consolidating author labeled Abram _the Hebrew_ in this text, the name would create a linear birth of the people and connect the early patriarchs of Judah with the Hebrews who later entered the _region_ from _across_ the Jordan.

Abram pursued Lot's captors as far as Dan, divided against them, and struck them as far as Hobah, which was on the west of Damascus. After Abram retrieved all the people and goods plundered, the original text most likely comes to an end. However, it could have included the upcoming segment in which Melchizedek blesses Abram, but the passage regarding the king of Sodom is definitely an interpolation. Hence, Abram recovered all the people and goods, the defeated king of Sodom came out to him, then in verse 18:

"18. Melchizedek, king of Salem, brought out bread and wine. And he was a priest to the 'El `Elyown."

One is left to wonder what happened to the king of Sodom. Salem was an early name for Jerusalem, but neither the city nor Melchizedek were mentioned at the beginning of the story as being involved in the battle. However, not only did the king bring out bread and wine, he blessed Abram unto 'El 'Elyown (the 'El worshiped at Salem) and he gave him a tenth of all. The majority of the translations of this verse read, "Abram gave him a tenth of all", but in the Hebrew text, King Melchizedek finished his blessing and, "he gave him a tenth of all." In either case, why did Melchizedek either give or receive wealth in a story in which he was not originally involved? Did the goods belong to Melchizedek or the other kings? Did Melchizedek rule over the other kings? Then, directly after a tenth was given, the king of Sodom said to Abram (probably from verse 17):

"give me the persons but the goods take for yourself."

Abram responded to the king of Sodom and said he lifted his hands to Yahweh 'El 'Elyown (later consolidation) that he would not take anything from him, lest he should say that he made Abram rich. These two segments with the foreign kings are rather intriguing. Depending on the translation, the segment with Melchizedek either conveys a camp in Judah shared the wealth with their ally in Salem, or the wealth was returned to the king of Salem and Abram merely received a tenth. However, their interaction could intimate the forces of Abram allied with the king of Salem for this battle. The segment with the king of Sodom is stating the goods were offered to Abram, but he declined to accept them out of honor. Hence, the institution of Judah created its own wealth, but not by seizing their neighbor's goods. Finally, Abram told the king of Sodom that he wanted the Amorites _who came with him_ to receive their portion, albeit as stated, they were not mentioned as part of the force that Abram led to rescue Lot.

It appears the institution in Judah was growing powerful at this juncture. The peoples represented by Abram began by merely coalescing with other factions in Canaan, but during the represented period, they began to flex their muscle, while attempting to remain in a good light with the conquered peoples who were still living among them. The passage pertaining to King Melchizedek, which may be an interpolation, most likely conveys an alliance between institutions in Judah and Salem. An author wrote the king of Sodom interpolation to rebuke unknown accusations against the Judah establishment.

Verse 10 mentions the Siddim Valley contained pits of tar, or _chemar_ in Hebrew, which means, "bitumen", from a word that implies to boil or glow with redness. In addition, the name _Sodom_ means, "scorch" or "burn". The implications are the area had volcanic activity, which is the genesis of the myth of Sodom and Gomorrah. Furthermore, this story is one of the few within the biblical narratives in which the people won a battle without any intervention by a deity. An author wrote the original text during an early period when the priests were not yet at the point when they were vying for dominant control of the populace and a lucrative priesthood. It is obvious the interpolations were written during a far different era.

Genesis 15

This chapter consists of two authors. The original (beginning of a "J" school) author referred to the deity as _Yahweh_ , but has Abram refer to the deity as _Adonay Yahweh_. Since both names are usually translated as _Lord_ , it would feel redundant reading _Lord Lord_. Therefore, together they are usually translated as _Lord God_. It appears the original text is from a period when the Yahweh establishment began its control over Judah. This chapter is most likely the first Abram text that includes the name Yahweh when it was not an interpolation.

Yahweh came to Abram in a vision, but Abram questioned the deity because he was childless and his only heir was Eliezer of Damascus. The implications are that if Abram died, Eliezer would inherit his household, i.e., the Judah institution. In 1 Chronicles 27:16, there is a leader of the Reubenites named Eliezer, who could have been this heir of Abram. The name _Reuben_ can be translated as _sons of Reu_ (inverted), and Reu is an ancestor of Abram in Genesis 11, which strengthens my belief that the Reubenites migrated into the region from Aram (Damascus is in Aram). However, since Abram was looking for another heir, it intimates the exile of certain Arameans. Therefore, the _Abram faction_ would form a new alliance that excluded a segment of the old coalition. Forthcoming, a later Judah institution displayed a lack of support for the Reubenites. This text represents a new era in the Abram narrative. Yahweh told Abram an heir would come forth out of his body and he should look toward the heavens because his descendants would become as numerous as the stars. This new child and heir of Abram was most likely Ishmael, whose _mother_ migrated from Egypt.

With verse 12, there is a five-verse "D" interpolation. The quill of this school was not silent until its major appearance with the book of Deuteronomy, which (as mentioned) was fashioned during the reign of King Josiah. Little inserts, as this interpolation, later serve "D" well. The verses foretell of the slavery and emancipation in Egypt. The author consolidated traditions, while at the same time he created a motif that continues throughout the narratives. He has the deity tell Abram his offspring would live in a strange land for four hundred years, they would dwell as servants in that land but come out with great possessions, and finally they would return to this land, because the iniquity of the Amorites would then be full. An interpolating author conveyed a covenant between Abram and the Amorites, but the institution of Judah conquered them. However, forthcoming texts display the Jehudaites and Israelites settled and lived in peace with the Amorites and other peoples of Canaan, but then as they became more powerful, they methodically overtook them. Moreover, authors represented the conquest of these peoples in independent traditions, as the books of Numbers, Joshua, Judges, and Samuel. Placing a period of time between these traditions not only remedies this problem, it consolidates them in a linear time-line. Later in this chapter, Yahweh informs Abram that his descendants would receive the land of Canaan, but this interpolation instills the belief that it would not occur for hundreds of years. Finally, "D" wrote these verses during a far later period when the Judah government was attempting to instill fear within the populace. Instead of merely reading this interpolation alone, one must view it as part of an entire theme the author created. The deity predicted the enslavement in Egypt and once a reader or listener arrived at the point in the narrative where the prediction is fulfilled, they would begin to believe in the mystic power of the texts. The author wrote centuries after various adverse events transpired and he blamed the misfortunes on the failure of the people to heed the word of the deity. I detail this endeavor as it unfolds.

The original story resumes with verse 17 and clearly follows verse 11 (it helps to read the original by skipping verses 12 though 16). Abram and Yahweh made a covenant and the deity gave Abram's descendants the land from the river of Egypt to the great river Euphrates, the land of:

"19.the Kenite, and the Kenizzite and the Kadmonite, 20. The Hittite, and the Perizzite and the Rephaim, 21.and the Amorite, and the Canaanite, and the Girgashite, and the Jebusite."

This list of tribes differs from the one Levitical authors wrote that conspicuously omits the Kenites from the peoples who would lose their land to the _Israelites_. Hence, the author's institution drove Cain, i.e., the Kenites, east of Judah, which aligns with the premise that Eliezer the Reubenite (discussed Reubenite-Kenite connection) was the unwanted heir of Abram. The original story most likely arose from a government that ascended to power following the era of the original Genesis 12, 13, & 14 texts. This author has Abram and Yahweh cut a covenant, it appears Abram has a new heir, and the deity told Abram his descendants would receive the land of Canaan. Therefore, this institution was rather powerful and in control of most of Judah and possibly Israel.

Genesis 16

This chapter is the last of the _Abram_ stories (before the name change) and was written by a "J/I" author whose sect either once presided in Beersheba or supported the Beersheba religious establishment. Sarai was barren, but she believed Yahweh had kept her from conceiving. Therefore, she took her Egyptian servant Hagar and gave her to Abram for a wife. In 1 Chronicles 5:11, in the days of Saul, the Reubenites waged war against the Hagarites. Consequently, _Hagar_ represents a people, not a female servant. The fact the author referred to Hagar as an Egyptian reveals the Hagarites migrated out of Egypt. However, since the author portrayed her as a servant, the story implies the Hagarites were living in the domain and probably under the rule of a Judah religious institution.

Hagar conceived and this created enmity between her and Sarai. The conceived child, Ishmael, i.e., the Ishmaelites, was a product of peoples from Aram (Abram) and Egypt (Hagar). This child not only represents interbreeding, but an early alliance between the two peoples. Sarai told Abram it was wrong for her to give him Hagar for a wife because she felt despised in her sight. She told Abram that Yahweh should judge between the two of them (Sarai and Abram). As I point out in the next chapter, the figure of Abram would transform into _Abraham_ and come to represent the institution in Hebron, which included peoples from Egypt. Due to the fact the patriarch became the father of the Hebron institution, authors altered the figure to represent all the peoples of the coalition, not just the Arameans. However, Abram would become the _father_ of opposing religious factions after "J/I" was forced out of Judah, but the Levites would not want to blame the great patriarch for their defeat. Therefore, Sarai or Sarah would come to represent certain portions of the Hebron hierarchy, as well as unfavorable (to the Levites) allies of the government. Hence, choosing between Abram and Sarai implies choosing between factions that were for and against the alliance with the Hagarites. After Sarai came forward, Abram told her to do as she wished with her maidservant, thus Sarai treated Hagar harshly and drove her away from the couple. The author subtly denigrated the actions of a Judah institution, as an author did with the establishment that forced the Kenites out of the region. However, the author only placed Sarai in a negative light and did not direct any denigration toward Abram.

The messenger of Yahweh found Hagar by a well in the southern desert near Shur. The well was called _Beer-Lahai-Roi_ , which was in Beersheba. Therefore, either this heir of Abram implies a possible alliance between the establishments in Hebron and Beersheba, or the Hagarites were driven out of the former and into the latter. The messenger of Yahweh instructed Hagar to return to her mistress because the descendants of Sarai would multiply. Hagar should submit to her hands, i.e., remain in the region of southern Judah and under the control of the Judah institution. The seed of Hagar would multiply through a son she was to name _Ishmael_ , because Yahweh _heard_ her affliction. When the Hagarites migrated north out of Egypt, they settled with existing camps in Judah. Then some time afterward, a faction in Judah became powerful and forced the Hagarites and Ishmaelites to the outskirts. They, represented as he, "will be a wild donkey of a man", i.e., strong and free roaming. The Ishmaelites were a nomadic tribe that primarily traversed trade routes. Conversely, the Jehudaites settled down and were the driving force in leading to the short-lived unified kingdom of Israel and Judah.

Hagar called Yahweh the 'El of Sight ( _sight_ is spelled _roi_ after the place) because she had looked upon he who sees, which consolidates Yahweh and 'El, but also reveals Beer-Lahai-Roi (thus Beersheba) was under the Yahweh government. Hagar returned to Abram and she gave birth to Ishmael. The name _Ishmael_ means, "'El will hear", and scholars suggest the name _Simeon_ was derived from the word _shama_ , which means, "hearing". The Simeonites originated from a group of Ishmaelites who branched off and allied with the Judah institution. In Genesis 25:14, the sons of Ishmael named Mibsam and Mishma are the sons of Simeon in 1 Chronicles 4:25. These sons display a division in the Ishmaelites as well as the birth of the Simeonites.

Genesis 17

The chapter begins with an introduction from a school that consolidated 'El-Shaday and Yahweh. Yahweh appeared to Abram and stated, "I'm 'El-Shaday, walk with me and be whole", and in verse 2, he established the covenant with him. These two verses are from the Shiloh priests, who worshiped 'El Shaday as their tutelary deity. "P", whose school was a descendant of the early Jerusalem monarchy that included Shiloh priests, often re-wrote the stories and wove his texts around the writings of the "S/J" school.

Verse 3 begins the "P" segment of the chapter and remaining consistent with the "P" texts thus far, the author referred to the deity as _'Elohim_. 'Elohim proclaimed their covenant and then changed the name of Abram to _Abraham_ , because he would become the father of many nations. Initially, the figure of _Abram_ was created to represent peoples that migrated south from Ur into Canaan, but after they coalesced with other peoples in Judah, a faction ascended to power in Hebron, which authors represented by a few noted interpolations into the previous chapters. The name _Abraham_ represents a different era in the history of Judah. Most scholars believe the name means, "father of a multitude", which would explain the passage, "a father of many nations I have made you." However, "P" was a later consolidation author and here he merely attempted to explain divergences in the narratives. One can also translate the name _Abraham_ as _father of Raham_. In 1 Chronicles 2:44, there is a man by the name of Raham, who is the son of Shema, the son of Hebron. In the narratives, authors often used the word raham to denote the womb, and the word _shema_ (from _shama_ : _hearing_ ) to convey _news_ , a _report_ , or _fame_. Returning to 1 Chronicles 2, the first son of Hebron is Korah, who represents a religious faction that was forced out of Judah (Numbers 16). The second son of Hebron is Tappuah, but in Joshua 12:17, an author conveyed the king of Tappuah was conquered by Joshua. The third son of Hebron is Rekem, a Midianite king killed by Phinehas and the army in Numbers 31:8. Hence, after the demise of the first three sons of Hebron (genealogies often work temporally backwards), a _report_ of a _new birth_ was heard out of Hebron, this through Shema, the _father of Raham_ , that is, _Abraham_. The patriarch now represents an institution that conquered its enemies and ascended to power in Hebron. The author of 1 Chronicles 2 actually conveyed the fallen factions and the ultimate conquest in Hebron that resulted in the kingdom of Judah.

As the chapter continues, the text becomes predictive and consistent with "P" terminology.

"6.and I will make fruitful you very greatly. And I will give you for nations, and kings out of you will come."

The sign of the covenant was the circumcision of males on their eighth day, which was performed on the entire household, including foreigners bought with money, i.e., slaves. Males who were not circumcised were exiled.

'Elohim then told Abraham he had changed Sarai's name to _Sarah_. After an establishment in Hebron gained control in Judah, it was time to conquer the land of Israel, but the Judah institution needed assistance. The government of Asher was one of the most important allies of Judah. In Numbers 26:46, Sarah is the name of Asher's daughter, and her marriage to Abraham signifies this crucial alignment. However, there were other alliances in Israel made by this Judah institution. Sarah could well represent the combined leadership in Israel that allied with Judah. The name _Sarah_ means, "to contend" or "persist", and a root of the word is found in the name Israel. Hence, this name change from _Sarai_ to _Sarah_ represents a new era in the history of Judah, the alliances of the country, and how the coalition contended in the land of Israel.

'Elohim revealed that he would bless Sarah and she would carry a son for Abraham. She would become the mother of nations and kings, but Abraham laughed when he heard the revelation because of their old age. The couple would name the child Isaac. Ishmael would become a great nation, but the covenant belonged to Isaac.

"20. And, as for Ishmael, I have heard you. Listen, I have blessed him and I will make fruitful him, and I will multiply him tremendously. two + ten princes He will father and I will make him a nation great. 21. However, My covenant I will establish with Isaac."

The above quote beckons thoughts of the twelve tribes. However, an alliance forced the Ishmaelites out of Judah, and then the Hebron institution united with another entity, which is represented by Isaac. This change from Ishmael to Isaac actually represents a change from the Ishmaelites to the Simeonites, i.e., the Simeon institution in Beersheba. Ishmael was the older brother of Isaac and an offspring of the Ishmaelites conceived the Simeonites, hence, _brothers_. At this point, Abraham symbolizes the institution in Hebron and Isaac symbolizes the institution in Beersheba. However, the Simeonite Levites were eventually forced out of Beersheba. The name _Isaac_ means, "he will laugh", and the word that denotes _laughter_ is "tsachaq", which has scornful and mocking connotations. The name _Isaac_ implies the alliance was a mockery. In 1 Chronicles 4:28, there is a list of Simeonite cities that begins with Beersheba, which displays it was the most prominent of their cities. However, in 1 Chronicles 4:31, "these were their cities until the rule of David", when the Judah establishment appropriated the Simeon territory. A number of the Simeonite common people most likely remained under the control of the Judah institution, while others escaped to Benjamin, lands across the Jordan, and into the country of Israel ("J/I").

Genesis 18

In this chapter, the author referred to the patriarch as _Abraham_ , which moves the narrative to the era referenced in the last segment. The chapter begins, "and appeared Yahweh to him by oaks of Mamre." Therefore, it appears the following text is a continuation from another story. It is doubtful this chapter is a continuation of the "P" text in the last chapter, because this author wrote before "P" and the two authors referred to the deity by different names. One must realize there were countless texts written by various religious sects and institutions that were not included in the Old Testament. Therefore, this beginning could have been a continuation from a story not included in the narratives. Moreover, I believe this author (or school) interpolated the _oaks of Mamre_ into Genesis 13, and the _oaks of Mamre_ and the covenant with the Amorites into Genesis 14. The story represents a period after the institution was in place in Hebron, which the author displayed with the use of the name Abraham. The exact faction or school of this and the following chapter is difficult to discern, in part because authors wrote the stories in layers and separate texts were often combined to produce the final product. Moreover, the offshoot "J/I" sect frequently re-wrote or interpolated the original "J" texts.

Abraham was sitting by his tent when he seen three men standing nearby, who were actually messengers or angels. Abraham went out to meet them and implored them not to pass. In verse 9, they asked him of Sarah's whereabouts, but verse 10 begins, "and said", but is usually translated as _one of them said_ , _he said_ , or _Yahweh said_. Nevertheless, either one of the visitors or the deity told Abraham that upon his later return, Sarah would give birth to a son. Sarah was listening at the entrance to the tent and due to their age, she laughed when she overheard the conversation (in the last chapter, "P" had Abraham laugh). Moving toward the end of the chapter, the visitors began to leave for Sodom and Gomorrah. Yahweh told Abraham he was about to destroy the cities because the inhabitants were evil. Abraham beseeched the deity to save the people because he believed there were a few good ones, but his efforts were all for naught. The event is another divine justification, if they were not completely evil, the deity would not have destroyed them. However, it is possible the visitors and the discussion about the fate of Sodom and Gomorrah between Yahweh and Abraham were part of an original story, then the revelation about the birth of Isaac was a later "J/I" addition, which would explain the ambiguity within the chapter. As stated, the "J/I" school was exiled out of Judah and into Israel, and Isaac represents the abandoned priests from Beersheba.

Genesis 19:1-29

Either this section consists of two interwoven stories or a main story with segments added from another text. The chapter begins and two messengers, or angels, appeared to Lot when he was sitting at the gate of Sodom. Lot engendered the messengers to stay the night at his home, but instead they wanted to remain in the city square. After some persuading, the messengers went home with Lot and they all partook in a feast. Before they went down for the night, the men from the city, from young to old and from every quarter, i.e., all the people, surrounded the house and asked Lot to bring out the visitors because they wanted to _know them_. Lot went out of his home and shut the door behind him. He asked the people to stop acting wickedly, but then offered his two virgin daughters to appease their desires. Unsatisfied, the people told Lot he was not one to judge them because he arrived as an alien. At this point, the people pressed forward and were about to break into Lot's home, which moved the _men_ to pull Lot back inside, shut the door, and then strike the city people with blindness. With Lot safe and inside, the men informed him if he had any family, he should bring them out of the city because Yahweh had sent them to destroy the region. The interesting point thus far is the messengers or angels are now referred to as men, as they were in the last story with Abraham. This change from _messengers_ to _men_ reveals an added segment from another version of the story, which could belong with the last chapter.

With daybreak, the original or first story continues. The _messengers_ arose in the morning and urged Lot to leave with his wife and two daughters because if they stayed, the punishment of the city would consume them. If one did not realize the interpolation or change in story, this verse reads as if the messengers spent the night in Lot's home and were now arising and warning him of the pending destruction, as if the people of the city coming to the door and the men striking them with blindness never occurred. If that all transpired, then the people came to the door for the visitors, the men struck them with blindness and warned Lot of the pending disaster, but then they all went to sleep for the night. This series of events is highly unlikely.

Even with the warning, Lot hesitated in leaving, which does not place him, i.e., his descendants, in the best of light. This segment was most likely written by a "J/I" author, whose faction was subdued by an institution of Judah that allied with the _descendants of Lot_. Since Lot delayed, the _men_ took his hand, along with the hands of his wife and daughters, and due to the compassion of Yahweh, they placed them outside of the city. Then they told Lot and his family to run for their lives and not to look back nor remain on the plains, but to escape to the mountains or fall with the destruction. However, Lot told them he might encounter danger in the mountains, thus he asked if he could escape to a city nearby, since he accepted their word about them overthrowing the city (not in verse 16). This escape plan was acceptable, but they commanded Lot to hurry because they could not do anything until he arrived at the little city, which they named _Zoar_ , which means, "little". Yahweh rained fire and brimstone down on Sodom and Gomorrah, he overthrew the cities and the plains, and he killed all the inhabitants. However, Lot's wife looked back toward the devastation, thus the deity turned her into a pillar of salt.

After the deity killed Lot's wife, there is a one-verse interpolation. However, it is unclear if the verse belongs with one of the two stories uncovered in the previous section. From where he stood with Yahweh, Abraham viewed the destruction. Then in verse 29:

"when destroyed 'Elohim the cities of the plain remembered 'Elohim Abraham and sent Lot out of the middle of the disaster when overthrew the cities in which dwelled they Lot."

The quote reads as if there was a version of the event that did not include a rescue of Lot. In addition, Lot's family was previously taken away due to the compassion of Yahweh, thus the theme is already in one of the stories. Due my commentary on chapter 14, one can understand the area had volcanic activity. Hence, there were surely various myths of deities destroying the region due to the sins of man. This verse could have been part of an "E" story that was not included in the narratives.

In reviewing the above myth of Sodom and Gomorrah, in verse 17, the men told Lot to escape to the mountain. In Genesis 14:10:

"10. And the Valley of Siddim pits {was} full of tar. And ran away the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah and fell there. And those left to the mountain fled."

In Genesis 14, Abram rescued Lot, but in this chapter, the messengers (or men) rescued Lot. In verse 19, Lot asked if he could escape to Zoar, and in the Genesis 14 battle, the king of Zoar is one of the kings who went to battle against the forces led by Elam. Therefore, the people escaped to a city of an ally (thus Zoar existed before the above myth). The two chapters obviously refer to the same event. However, for an unknown reason, Lot's situation was changed from a _captive_ to _living among evil people_. This change may have been due to deterioration in the state of affairs between Abram, i.e., an institution of Judah, and the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah, which would explain the _king of Sodom_ interpolation in Genesis 14.

Genesis 19:30-38

Within the myth of Sodom and Gomorrah, the deity turned Lot's wife into a pillar of salt. In this segment, Lot lived in a mountain cave with his two daughters (in another version he escaped to Zoar). In consecutive nights, the daughters rendered their father intoxicated and had sexual relations with him to propagate his seed. The first daughter gave birth to Moab, "The father of the Moabites to this day." The second daughter gave birth to Ben-Ammi, "The father of the Ammonites to this day."

The name _Ben-Ammi_ means, "son of my people", but from what people did the Ammonites spawn? The name _Ammon_ means, "people of strength", but one can also read the name as _people of Own_. In Numbers 16:1, there is a Reubenite named _On_ ( _Own_ in Hebrew), and the Reubenite migrations from Aram are represented by the travels of Abram and Lot. However, the relation between the Reubenites and Ammonites in Numbers 16 most likely refers to a kindred migration or an allied settlement. Furthermore, there were Reubenites and Edomites in southern Judah who migrated into the region of Benjamin (covered forthcoming) and settled among various peoples, before their subsequent exile across the Jordan (the location of Moab and Ammon). Moreover, 1 Chronicles 8:12 refers to a city in Benjamin named Ono ( _Ownow_ in Hebrew), which is a prolonged version of the name _Own_. Ono was a town northwest of Jerusalem that along with Lod, was built by the sons of Elpaal, the son of Shaharaim (1 Chronicles 8:12). After moving this line of descendants, Shaharaim fathered sons in the land of Moab. The name _Shaharaim_ means, "two dawns", as in the rising of two peoples. Contemplating the name leaves one with two logical conclusions. One possibility is the _two dawns_ reference the birth of the two peoples across the Jordan, i.e., the Ammonites and Moabites. However, I am more inclined to believe the name symbolizes successive ascensions of peoples on each side of the Jordan. The first dawn included Shaharaim's sons Abitub and Elpaal, as well as Elpaal's sons who built Ono and Lod. The second dawn arrived when Shaharaim divorced his wives and fathered sons in the land of Moab (1 Chronicles 8:8). Hence, there were Aramean settlements from both Judah and Benjamin that were exiled across the Jordan, which is further expressed by a city in Judah named _Naamah_ (Joshua 15:41), which was also the name of an Ammonitess (1 Kings 14:21), as well as a variation of the name Naaman, who was a Benjamite ancestor of Shaharaim in 1 Chronicles 8:6. The name _Lot_ was derived from a word that means (along with other meanings) to "envelop", and these Arameans were enveloped and forced out of Judah and Benjamin. In reference to the lands east of the Jordan settled by Arameans (and others), the would-be lands of Ammon and Moab became sovereign entities, and the would-be lands of Reuben and Gad became the dominion of the kingdom of Judah.

The sons of Ammon and the Moabites were related to the faction that acquired power in Judah and Benjamin. When the peoples on each side of the Jordan later became allies, it was a marriage of _incest_. Not only does a Judah-Moab alliance manifest itself quite clearly in the narratives, Judah also became an ally of the Ammonites. In 1 Kings 14:21, Solomon's son was born of _Naamah_ the Ammonitess, but the name probably represents the people, and royal marriages were alliances in antiquity. This institution cast out the Levites, thus they subtly blamed unfortunate events on Solomon and his allies.

"5. And went Solomon after Ashtoreth, goddess of the Sidonians, and after Milcom, the idol of the Ammonites." (1 Kings 11:5)

Genesis 20

The author of Genesis 20 referred to the deity as _'Elohim_ , thus the text is usually ascribed to an "E" school from Israel. However, authors who wrote in Judah also referred to the deity as _'Elohim_. Since several of them wrote as late as the last period of the kings, not all the priests of Judah converted to Yahweh worship. Albeit this author was most likely from Israel, either he or his ancestors once presided in Judah.

This story resembles the Genesis 12 myth about Abram and his wife in Egypt. Beginning by focusing on the similarities, Abram or Abraham traveled to a foreign land, he deceived the ruler of the land by stating Sarai or Sarah was his sister, and he became wealthy when the foreign ruler accepted her into his household.

Abraham traveled south between Kadesh and Shur and he journeyed into Gerar. The king of Gerar was Abimelech, and in Genesis 26, a story that is similar to this one but features Isaac and his wife, the author referred to _Abimelech_ as the _king of the Philistines_. Gerar may have been a region occupied or controlled by them. Like the story of Abram and Sarai in Egypt, this story intimates an alliance. In 1 Samuel 27:8, when David was living in the land of the Philistines, he made a raid on the region of southern Judah.

"For they {were} the inhabitants of the land which {were} from the past. {As} you come to Shur and to the land of Egypt."

When Abraham settled between Kadesh and Shur and then interacted with Abimelech, the king of Gerar, it intimates the same conquest by the Judah-Philistine alliance that an author expressed with the raid by David.

Abraham told the people of Gerar that Sarah was his sister, thus King Abimelech had Sarah brought to him. However, 'Elohim came to Abimelech in a dream and told him he was about to die for taking a married woman into his house. Abimelech proclaimed his innocence to Adonay, who told him to return the woman to her husband because he was a prophet. When Abimelech later questioned Abraham about his deceit, Abraham replied she actually was his sister, the daughter of his father, but not his mother. Therefore, when 'Elohim sent him from his home, Abraham told his wife to lie about their relation (Abraham is the one who lied when the story began).

Abimelech returned Sarah to Abraham with gifts of sheep, oxen, and female slaves. He also gave her one thousand silver pieces to clear her reputation. He then told Abraham he was free to dwell in his land wherever he pleased. Between the livestock, money, and untethered access to Abimelech's land, an alliance or covenant between the two entities is overtly conveyed, although the author purposefully refrained from the using the name _Philistines_. He may have been inclined to convey the affinity between the two peoples, but decided only to intimate the alliance was with the Philistines.

Abraham prayed to 'Elohim, thus the deity healed the house of Abimelech to allow the woman to bare children. However, in this story, 'Elohim told Abimelech he would die for taking Sarah into his house, but there was not a mention of closed wombs. Then an interpolation states _Yahweh_ (only mention in chapter) had closed the wombs of Abimelech's house, which reveals an author borrowed the event from another version of the story.

Genesis 21:1-7

The section begins with a "J/I" verse that continues his story from chapter 18. In verse 1, _Yahweh_ visited Sarah and brought her a child as promised. Then in verse 2, a "P" passage follows his text from Genesis 17 and per _'Elohim's_ promise, Sarah gave birth to a child who Abraham named Isaac. Then the author had the child circumcised in the required eight days per the "P" covenant in chapter 17.

Genesis 21:9-21

In this "E" story, Sarah noticed the son of Hagar was mocking Isaac. Interestingly, the word used to denote mocking is _tsachaq_ , which the name _Isaac_ was derived from. Hence, the son of Hagar knew Abraham's heir was a mockery, i.e., that Judah would abandon the Simeonites. Judah had grown strong and the flourishing institution displaced the Hagarites and the Ishmaelites. The author unequivocally blamed their demise on Sarah, who complained to Abraham because she did not want Hagar's son to share Isaac's inheritance. She asked Abraham to send them away, but this was wrong in his eyes. After 'Elohim intervened, Abraham did as Sarah desired and he sent Hagar and her child into the desert of Beersheba. When they ran out of water, she submitted her will and abandoned her child. However, 'Elohim sent a messenger, who instructed Hagar to arise because 'Elohim would make the boy a great nation. The boy became an archer and he lived in the Paran Desert with an Egyptian wife.

The intriguing aspect of this section is the author never referred to the child by name. Abraham sent Hagar to the desert in Beersheba where the Simeonites for a time resided. Not mentioning the name of the child could merely convey a transition from the Ishmaelites to the Simeonites. Furthermore, the Ishmaelites in the desert of Paran later joined other peoples in route to Egypt, hence the Egyptian wife, and later returned to the region in hopes of being a _great nation_. I detail this complicated chain of events forthcoming.

The descendants of _Abram_ and _Hagar_ divided with a camp in southern Judah ( _Beersheba_ \- _Simeonites_ ) and another south of Judah ( _Paran_ \- _Ishmaelites_ ). However, this author displayed favor toward the Ishmaelites and he denigrated a segment of the Judah institution that exiled them. It was not Abraham who wanted them banished, but his wife Sarah. In texts to come, the denigration is not as subtle.

Genesis 21:22-34

In this segment, there is a "J" text with a later insert. Abimelech's commander Phichol accompanied him when he spoke to Abraham. He told Abraham that 'Elohim was with him in all his endeavors, but then he asked Abraham to swear he would not deal falsely with him or his descendants. Abimelech had been loyal to Abraham, thus Abraham should display a loyalty to him and his country. In verse 24, Abraham swore, but then in verse 25, he rebuked Abimelech and accused his servants of seizing a well. The latter verse definitely reads as an interpolation or an addition from another version of their encounter. Abimelech told Abraham that he had no idea who seized the well and the mention was the first he had heard of it. In verse 27, which follows verse 24, Abraham gathered sheep and oxen and gave them to Abimelech to form an alliance. Then verse 28 follows verses 25 & 26 and a second version of them making a covenant begins. Abraham separated seven lambs from the flock and gave them to Abimelech as a testimony that he, i.e., Judah, had dug the well. They called the place Beersheba, which means, "well of an oath". After they made the covenant, Abimelech returned to the land of the Philistines. Then Abraham planted a tamarisk tree and called upon Yahweh, the 'El everlasting, which again (Genesis 16:13) places Beersheba under the domain of the Hebron religious hierarchy. The chapter ends with, "And lived Abraham in the land of the Philistines days many", even though Abimelech _returned_ to his land in verse 32. This crafty verse subtly conveys the Judah-Philistine alliance, while at the same time, it veils the fact the institution that Abraham represents controlled the country of Judah, thus the _initial_ conquest can occur in the books of Joshua and Judges.

To recapitulate, Abraham swore to do right by Abimelech, he accused him of taking a well, and then finally he actually paid him for it with livestock. If the servants of Abimelech had actually seized the well, Abraham, i.e., Judah, would not have given him the livestock and then cut a covenant. Moreover, there were several wells in Beersheba and the well in this story probably represents the city in its entirety. The word _sheba_ not only means "oath", but the number seven. Beersheba was the _city of seven wells_ , and the _seven_ lambs given to Abimelech convey the Judah-Philistine alliance. The story could imply the Judah establishment purchased the region of Beersheba from the Philistines.

Genesis 22:1-19

Numerous scholars believe this is an "E" text with a later interpolation. However, I am not as dogmatic in reference to who wrote the separate passages and what the authors' objectives may have been.

'Elohim decided to test Abraham, thus he asked him to sacrifice Isaac, _his only son_ , in the land of Moriah. In 2 Chronicles 3:1, Mount Moriah is where Solomon began to build the house of Yahweh. Therefore, the story indirectly refers to a faction's achievement of the Jerusalem monarchy. Furthermore, since the author emphasized his only son, the story of Ishmael may not have been a part of his sect's traditions.

Abraham left the following morning with two of his young men and Isaac. On the third day, the place the deity specified was in view, thus Abraham instructed his young men to stay behind as he and Isaac walked on together. When they arrived at the site, Abraham built an altar and prepared wood for a fire. He then bound Isaac, placed him upon the altar, and he grasped a knife to slay his son.

The next passage (verses 11 through 14) begins the first inquiry. In the first segment, the author referred to the deity as _'Elohim_ , but in verse 11, an author referred to an _angel of Yahweh_. Hence, this change could signify either an interpolation, or another version of the story that the redactor wove into the narrative. However, the same author could have changed the name of the deity to express a transition from 'Elohim to Yahweh worship.

The angel of Yahweh called to Abraham and instructed him not to harm the boy. The deity then knew Abraham feared 'Elohim because he did not withhold his son, thus he provided him with a ram to sacrifice in Isaac's stead. Abraham called the place _Yahweh-Yireh_ , which means, "Yahweh sees".

In verse 15, the angel of Yahweh spoke to Abraham a second time, but there is not an event between the passages, hence, the deity could have merely continued speaking. A different author wrote the following segment and a redactor merely added verse 15 to connect the separate traditions. With verse 16, since Abraham _had done this and not withheld his son_ , his offspring would become as numerous as the stars in the sky and the sand on the shore. His descendants would possess the gates of his enemies and his offspring would bless the nations of the earth. Abraham received this blessing because he _obeyed the deity's command_. Then in verse 19:

"19. And returned Abraham to his young men, and they got up and went together to Beer-sheba. And Abraham settled in Beer-sheba."

In verse 16, Abraham did not withhold his son, in verse 18, he obeyed the command of the deity, and in verse 19, Isaac did not return to the young men with Abraham. In this version of the story, Abraham most likely sacrificed Isaac. Due to the fact this transpires at the future home of the Jerusalem temple, and the deity blessed Abraham due to the sacrifice, the author conveyed the sacrifice of Isaac, i.e., the conquest of the Simeonites, was instrumental in the institution's move to power over the land of Canaan. Furthermore, after the event, Abraham settled in Beersheba, i.e., the Judah institution appropriated the territory of Simeon.

It is possible this chapter consists of three separate passages written by three different authors, but with verse 15 added and a sacrifice omitted by the redactor. However, the first ten verses in which an author referred to the deity as _'Elohim_ could belong with either (not both) verses 11 through 14, in which the angel of Yahweh intervened and stopped the sacrifice, or verses 16 through 19, which most likely belong with a story in which Abraham sacrificed his son. If either of the aforementioned is the case, as stated, an author would have changed the name of the deity to signify a transition from 'Elohim to Yahweh worship.

If verses 1 through 14 originated from an "E" sect that included Simeonites, the story was either a product of one author who conveyed a Simeonite expulsion from Judah and then a later Levite alliance with the new kingdom, or verses 11 through 14 were a later interpolation to save Isaac after the school became a part of the Jerusalem monarchy. In the latter case, the interpolating author would have discarded the original ending, in which an author may have referred to the deity as 'Elohim throughout the story. If in an incomplete (in the narratives) Simeonite tradition Abraham sacrificed Isaac, the story would have been a statement against the Judah-based institution that conquered them. Then a later author from the Jerusalem monarchy would have written verses 11 through 14 to align the text with the stories that made Isaac the heir of Abraham, thus in a mode of consolidation, _the deity spared Isaac_. Furthermore, if a Simeonite author wrote the original story of the sacrifice, an author from the Jerusalem monarchy would have written a rebuttal, in which Yahweh blessed Abraham due to the event. The redactor would have sourced verses 16 through 19 from this possible "S/J" or "J" text.

Another possibility is an author from the Judah establishment that conquered the Simeonites wrote the story of the sacrifice (verses 1 through 10, a sacrifice, and verses 16 through 19). This premise would explain why the author had Abraham, who represents the Hebron institution, settle Beersheba after the event, which as stated conveys the seizure of Simeon territory. This conquest was a blessing, i.e., instrumental in the Yahweh regime's ascension over the united monarchy (in the _land of Moriah_ ). Then a later author, again in a mode of consolidation, wrote verses 11 through 14 to spare Isaac.

A third possibility is an "E" faction with Ishmaelite ancestry wrote the initial story. The Ishmaelites were forced out of Judah, but a segment of them allied with the Hebron institution and became the Simeonites, which gave an Ishmaelite camp a good reason to praise the sacrifice of Isaac, i.e., the conquest of the Simeonites. Again, with this scenario, verses 16 through 19 would signify the Yahweh institution and its ascension over the Jerusalem monarchy. However, the passage could also convey an alliance with the new government. As detailed in events forthcoming, a camp of Ishmaelites later migrated into Israel and allied with the Jerusalem monarchy.

Genesis 22:20-24

Abraham returned home and found Nahor's wife Milcah had given birth. The firstborn was Uz, who is mentioned in Genesis 10:23 as the son of Aram. The next son was _his brother_ Buz, who in 1 Chronicles 5:14 is the eldest ancestor of Gad. Since the author stated the first two sons were brothers (an obvious point), he most likely conveyed a related peoples or a united migration. Then Milcah gave birth to Kemuel, the ancestor of Aram, i.e., ancestor of a camp of Arameans. The remaining sons were Chesed, Hazo, Pildash, Jidlaph, and Bethuel. Bethuel fathered Rebekah. These children represent Arameans who settled the region of Gilead.

Nahor had concubine by the name of _Reumah_ , which is a feminine variation of the name _Reu_. She gave birth to Tebah, Gaham, Tahash, and Maacah. The Reubenites ( _sons of Reu_ ) from Aram settled across the Jordan, which correlates well with this text and the conveyed migration from Aram into Gilead. In addition, there was a place named Maacah in Aram (1 Chronicles 19:6), and in Joshua 13:11 (and elsewhere), the text states there were Maacathites east of the Jordan, thus the two passages display points of migration. However, although the children of Milcah and Reumah represent migrations into Gilead, certain migrants traveled a direct route and others (as the Reubenites and Kenites) entered the region after settlements in southern Judah. In Genesis 36:28, Uz is an Edomite descended from Seir the Horite (Hori is a Simeonite in Numbers 13:5), and as I discuss forthcoming, the Edomites may have migrated from Aram. Furthermore, Bethuel was a town in Simeon (1 Chronicles 4:30), and the Simeonites were born of the Ishmaelites, who were a product of _Abram_ and _Hagar_ , i.e., Aram and Egypt. Finally, in a Joshua 13:8 passage on lands east of the Jordan, an author affiliated the Maacathites with the Geshurites, who were attacked in southern Judah (1 Samuel 27:8) before they migrated east, which is another display of an Aramean exile out of Judah.

Genesis 23

The chapter begins with:

"And died Sarah in Kirjath-Arba, this Hebron in the land of Canaan."

Authors have consistently referred to the city as _Hebron_ , thus to read _Kirjath-Arba, this Hebron_ , is an interesting change. This reference to Hebron could imply an author from a different temporal or cultural perspective wrote the text. As the short segment is followed by a "P" text, I am inclined to believe this author was from the "S/J" school.

When Sarah died, Abraham spoke to the sons of Heth, or the Hittites, because he wanted to buy the cave of Machpelah for a burial-place. Ephron the Hittite was going to give him the field and the cave, but Abraham wanted to purchase it. Ultimately, Abraham paid for it legally and certified with witnesses.

"19. And after this, buried Abraham Sarah his wife at the cave of the field of Machpelah before Mamre, which {is} Hebron in the land of Canaan."

In this ending, the city is no longer _Kirjath-Arba, this Hebron_ , but is once again _Hebron, in the land of Canaan_. The story of the field and cave was a later addition by "P" and reads as a testimony or a rebuttal to unknown accusations. Obviously, there was a dispute or contention over the acquisition of the land, which again in verse 20:

"was certified the field, and the cave which {is}in it to Abraham for a burial possession from the sons of Heth."

First Abram attained wealth due to his Genesis 14 rescue of Lot, which one author claimed he never received. Then in Genesis 21, Abraham purchased the region of Beersheba from the Philistines in somewhat ambiguous language. Finally, Abraham _purchased_ land in Hebron from the Hittites, who in Genesis 15:20 would lose their land to Abraham and his descendants. There is definitely more to this institution than the authors wanted to reveal overtly.

Genesis 24

This "J/I" text introduces Issac's future wife Rebekah to the narrative. The traditions of Judah as they read in the book of Genesis merely began with Abram, and then expanded to include Ishmael after the arrival of the Egyptians. Abram's heir in Genesis 15 was most likely Ishmael, but a camp of Ishmaelites allied with a hierarchy in Judah and became the Simeonites, while others were forced south of the region. Therefore, a once abandoned Levitical sect later changed the heir of Abram to Isaac. Isaac, who in the narratives lives in Beersheba, represents the would-be Levites who once presided in the city. However, before the creation of Isaac, the figure of Jacob represented a sect from Beersheba, whose travels an author detailed in chapters 32 & 33, as well as in other traditions forthcoming. Thus, in lost traditions, Jacob was most likely the son and next heir of Abram or Abraham, but he was later transformed into the son of Isaac. The Jacob tradition originated within a sect that aligned with the Hebron institution, but was later forced out of Judah, migrated into Israel and ascended to power in Bethel, and then allied with the Jerusalem monarchy. However, a faction that was forced out of Judah and then later rejected in Israel created the figure of Isaac, which is why _this_ "J/I" sect also wrote stories that denigrated Jacob. Within the ambiguity, later authors would have the heir of Abraham marry a woman from Aram to introduce into the narratives another wave of Aramean migrations that harbored peoples who allied with the Judah-based institution. Hence, first Jacob and then Isaac (consolidation) would take wives from Aram, which ironically was the ancestry of Eliezer, who Abram did not want as an heir.

Abraham was old and Yahweh had blessed him in all his pursuits. He decided it was time for Isaac to marry, but the woman was not to be a Canaanitess. Therefore, he sent his servant to the city of Nahor to find a wife for Isaac. However, the servant asked Abraham if he should bring Isaac on the journey, in case he found him a wife, but she was unwilling to come to Canaan. Abraham clearly told his servant not to bring Isaac, but if he found a woman and she unwilling to return with him, Abraham would release him from his duty. I find it interesting that when Jacob needed to find a wife, an author ultimately placed him in Aram, but here the author made it rather obvious that Abraham did not want Isaac to leave with his servant. Moreover, the fact the woman would have to come voluntarily could have arisen due to a forthcoming text in which Jacob is in Aram and allocates his wives and wealth by less than honest means. With Isaac staying in Beersheba and the woman coming to Canaan on her own accord, it precludes such claims.

Abraham's servant eventually found Rebekah, who was the daughter of Bethuel, the son of Milcah, the wife of Nahor. Rebekah also had a brother named Laban, a figure I discuss forthcoming. As the segment moves to an end, Abraham's servant inevitably asked the family if he and Rebekah could return to Canaan. With her consent, they returned to Hebron with her nurse mother, who the author neglected to give a name.

Isaac went to Hebron from Beer-Lahai-Roi because he lived in the Negev. After he met Rebekah, he took her into Sarah's tent where they were married. Since Isaac left Beersheba to marry Rebekah in the tent of Sarah, it not only displays an alliance between the religious hierarchies in Hebron and Beersheba, it intimates the Hebron institution was at least in part controlled by peoples or alliances from the north (Sarah's tent, not Abraham's).

Genesis 25:1-18

Abraham married another woman named Keturah, which means, "perfumed", but was derived from a word that means, "to smoke", i.e _., to drive out_. Keturah gave birth to Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah. Jokshan fathered Sheba and Dedan. Dedan's sons were the Asshurim, Letushim, and Leummim. Midian's sons were Ephah, Epher, Hanoch, Abida, and Eldaah.

The name Zimran is a variation of the name _Zimri_ , a Simeonite who Phinehas killed for a bringing a Midianite woman into the tent of Yahweh (Numbers 25:14). The death of Zimri displays the fate of a group of Simeonites, as well as their Midianite allies. Midian's son Ephah is a concubine of Caleb in 1 Chronicles 2:46, i.e., part of an early institution in Hebron (Hebron belonged to Caleb: Joshua 14:13, etc.). Finally, Hanoch (covered Genesis 4) represents a group of Midianites that settled in the city with the Arameans, and both peoples shared the same fate.

Abraham's new wife represents an alliance with these peoples who settled in Judah, but her name implies to _drive out_. When the Judah establishment became powerful, it forced these peoples out of the region. These exiles included a coalition of Simeonites and Arabians, including the Midianites and Jokshan, an Arabian patriarch who was divided from Peleg, which intimates the same occurrence. This text removes these peoples from the covenant between the deity and Abraham. Abraham gave all his possessions, i.e., the land of Canaan, to Isaac, and he merely gave gifts to the sons of his concubine. He sent them away from Isaac to an eastern land. The author sourced this story from an institution of Judah and it could have originated during any number of generations.

With verse 8, "P" writes of the death of Abraham, and then he reiterates the testimony from Genesis 23.

"9. And buried him Isaac and Ishmael, his sons, at the cave of Machpelah, at the field of Ephron, the son of Zohar, the Hittite, which in front of Mamre, 10. the field which bought Abraham from the sons of Heth."

It is becoming apparent that someone had different views about the acquisition of this land. Then verse 11 reiterates that Isaac lived in Beer-Lahai-Roi, which again connects him to the institution in Beersheba.

Verses 12 though 18 list the generations of Ishmael, who came to pass, but his descendants settled from Havilah to Shur in defiance against the rule of his brothers.

Genesis 25:21-34

The text of verses 21 through 34 is the well known story of Isaac, Rebekah, and their future twins, which was written by a "J/I" Levitical sect. The stories of Isaac and Rebekah and the later stories of Jacob, which were written after the "J/I" authors were back in Judah, often display the contention between the separate religious factions.

Isaac prayed to the deity because his wife was barren. Yahweh listened to his prayers and Rebekah conceived twins, who were fighting inside of her. Rebekah went to the deity and inquired of the feeling, to which Yahweh responded:

"Two nations in your womb, and two peoples from your body will break forth. And one people than the other people will be stronger, and the older will serve the younger."

When Rebekah gave birth, the first son was red and hairy all over and they named him Esau. The second son came out holding his brother's heel and they named him Jacob, a name that means, "heel catcher", i.e., one who supplants. This name is of the utmost importance for the objectives of the author. Here Jacob represents the religious institution in Judah that conquered the Edomites and Ishmaelites (and others). On the surface, Jacob appears as the patriarch father of _the twelve tribes of Israel_ , but with a subtler intent, in these _later_ texts, the name represents an institution of Judah itself. However, entering the Jacob narrative, a portion of his travels represent those of a "J/I" sect that migrated north, which I referenced in chapter 24.

In verse 28:

"28. And loved Isaac Esau, because of game in his mouth, and Rebekah loved Jacob."

Due to the fact a segment of the Edomites became Levites, it is sensible that Isaac loved Esau, i.e., Edom, more than Jacob, or the institution that forced the would-be Levites out of Judah. Rebekah represents an Aramean element of the peoples that migrated into Judah and forced "J/I" and their brothers out of the country.

With verse 29, Jacob was presumptuously cooking a red ( _Edom_ means, "red") stew, during which time Esau came in from the field. Fatigued and in dire need, Esau asked Jacob for some of the stew, but Jacob only offered to give him some in trade for his birthright. Esau pleaded with Jacob because he was near death, but Jacob made him swear to give his birthright. Esau had no choice but to comply. This Levitical author did not place Jacob, i.e., this Judah institution, in the best of light.

Genesis 26:1-33

The chapter begins with some consolidation.

"1. And was a famine in the land, besides the famine former, which was in the days of Abraham. And went Isaac to Abimelech, king of the Philistines, to Gerar."

Yahweh told Isaac not to travel into Egypt, but to stay in this land as a foreigner and he would confirm the oath he made with Abraham. The author made a statement against Judah's alliance with the Egyptians. Unlike the story of Abram and Sarai in Egypt, this author did not want to give the Egyptians credit for the later prosperity of the Judah institution. Furthermore, as when Abram lived in the land of the Philistines, the author had Yahweh instruct Isaac to _live as a foreigner_ in the land this institution had already conquered. With this clever instruction, the people can conquer the land again in independent traditions.

In the following story, this later "J/I" author, whose religious sect was previously conquered by a Judah-Philistine alliance, attempted to erase any sign of affinity between the two peoples, as well as deny any wealth or benefits were attained by their affiliation.

_Isaac dwelt in Gerar_ , hence, the author placed forth a revision of the events covered with Abraham and thus the acquisition of territories in southern Judah. Like Abraham, Isaac lied to Abimelech and told him Rebekah was his sister. When Abimelech learned the truth, he warned his people if they touched Isaac or Rebekah, he would execute them.

Yahweh blessed Isaac and he became wealthy in flocks, possessions, and servants, which created envy in the Philistines. Therefore, Abimelech sent him away from his people and Isaac settled in a valley of Gerar. In this story, Yahweh created the wealth for Isaac, where in Genesis 20, an author intimated an alliance with the Philistines created the wealth. Moreover, the Philistines had stopped the wells that Abraham's slaves had discovered, but Isaac re-opened the wells and called them by the same names. There were obviously extant traditions of the wells discovered by Abraham during the Judah affiliation with the Philistines, but to discredit the affinity between the two peoples, this later author informed the people their traditions were missing part of the story. The Philistines had turned against the people of Judah and closed off the wells, but Isaac is the one who actually brought these great services to the people, albeit the wells were called by the same names.

The servants of Isaac were digging in the valley when they found a spring of water. However, they quarreled with the shepherds of Gerar, thus they named the well _Esek_ , which means, "strife" or "contention". They then discovered another well they called _Sitnah_ , which means, "hostility" or "adversary". Finally, they found a third well they named _Rehoboth_. The name _Rehoboth_ means, "broad places", and was often used to denote streets, but is a doubtful a choice for the name of a well. An author connected the name to the Edomite Saul in Genesis 36:37, thus the well was most likely intended to represent the conquest of Edomite territory in southern Judah. However, due to the fact this author was a Levite, he refrained from displaying any hostility between the Edomites and Isaac; thus he merely intimated the event. As far as the wells of Esek and Sitnah, these locations are unknown and most likely represent battles during the conquest of the land.

When Isaac returned to Beersheba, Yahweh appeared to him and stated he was the 'Elohim of Abraham and due to his servant, he would bless Isaac and his offspring. Isaac built an altar to Yahweh and he pitched his tent there.

After Isaac received the revelation from the deity, his servants dug another well. At this time, Abimelech came to Isaac with his adviser Ahuzzath and his commander Phichol. Abimelech nearly plead for a covenant between the two peoples. Although he was received with disdain, Isaac prepared a banquet and the next morning the two men swore an oath. Then Isaac sent the Philistines away in peace. As in Genesis 21, Judah and the Philistines made an oath at Beersheba, but this author changed the circumstances and the mood or spirit of the covenant. Moreover, _after_ the Philistines departed, Isaac's slaves came forward and told him they found water in the well, which they named Sheba. Therefore, the people stilled called the city _Beersheba_ at the time of authorship.

Authors wrote the stories of Abraham and Isaac and their interactions with the Philistines about the same event or series of events in southern Judah, which is intimated when in both accounts the city of Beersheba is named. When Abraham planted his tamarisk tree in Beersheba, it represents the same event as when Isaac erected an altar in this chapter. Gerar was probably not in ancient Philistia, but in a southern region ranging from Beersheba to the land of the Philistines. Moreover, the quarrels with the shepherds of Gerar were not actually contentions with the Philistines, but with the peoples who the Judah-Philistine alliance conquered. Another author implied this conquest when he wrote that Abraham traveled into Shur and areas of the Negev before going to Abimelech.

Genesis 26:34-35

The chapter ends with a small Esau genealogy. He was a son of forty and took a wife named Judith, or a _woman of Judah_ , who was the daughter of a Hittite. Due to the fact a Hittite's name means, "woman of Judah", it would imply one of the earliest establishments of Judah included the Hittites, which does not contradict anything I have covered thus far, especially regarding the texts of Abraham arriving and _purchasing_ a field from the sons of Heth. The fictitious story of Jacob's son Judah was a later creation. Therefore, the Edomites aligned themselves with the Hittites, but both peoples were later forced out of Judah or into servitude. The chapter finishes with a verse written by a school of Judah in reference to Esau and his bride.

"35. And they were a grief of spirit to Isaac and to Rebekah."

This statement is rather different than the one by the Levitical author.

"28. And loved Isaac Esau, because of game in his mouth, and Rebekah loved Jacob."

Genesis 27

This story is definitely a "J/I" Levitical text and there are clues as to when the author wrote. The eyes of Isaac were dim, i.e., he was upon death. The limited Isaac narrative consists of his birth prediction, a short section on his birth and circumcision, Ishmael mocking Isaac (mostly about Hagar and Ishmael), Abraham nearly sacrificing Isaac (his role is non-existent), Abraham sending a servant to find Isaac a wife (not really a story about him), the birth of Jacob an Esau, the story with the Philistines (remake of the Abraham story), and then this story, in which the focal point is Jacob and Esau. Isaac is merely an addition to the traditions of Abraham, Ishmael, and Jacob, and authors created the figure to denigrate the alliance between a Judah institution and a sect of would-be Levitical priests.

Isaac instructed Esau to go hunting and bring back a sacrificial meal. Upon his return, Isaac would give him the firstborn blessing. However, Rebekah helped Jacob deceive Isaac by instructing Jacob to disguise himself as Esau and bring back the sacrifice. Hence, he would receive the firstborn blessing. Moreover, Rebekah told Jacob if the deception were uncovered, she would endure the curse. This passage was a purposeful insert by the author, because the deception was uncovered, but Judah was more prosperous than Edom. The author could not change history. Since Rebekah represents peoples from Aram, the author unequivocally placed the blame on a certain element of the institution. Jacob did as his mother instructed and the deception worked. Isaac gave Jacob the firstborn blessing.

"May serve you nations, and bow to you peoples. Be a ruler to your brothers, and may bow to you sons your mother's, those who you curse cursed, and those blessing you blessed."

Esau returned from the field and Isaac informed him that Jacob stole his blessing by deceit. Esau pleaded with Isaac and thus he received a blessing of his own.

"Listen, from the fat of the earth will be your home and from the dew of the heavens above. And by your sword, you will live; and your brother you will serve. And it will be when you fight, you will break his yoke from your neck."

The author wrote the blessings of Isaac after the represented events transpired. Judah for a time controlled the Edomites and most of Palestine, thus Jacob would become the ruler over his brothers. When Isaac blessed Esau and stated he would break the yoke from his neck, the text refers to Edom's rebellion against Judah's control. In 2 Kings 8:20, Edom revolted and broke free from the Judah monarchy during the reign of King Jehoram.

Esau hated Jacob and planned to kill him after the death of their father. Therefore, Rebekah sent Jacob to live with Laban in Haran. In the last verse of the chapter, which could be an interpolation, Rebekah told Isaac she did not want Jacob to take a wife from the daughters of Heth (Hittites) because they made her feel weary for her life. Rebekah's message not only displays the contention between an uprising faction in Judah and the Hittites, it engenders increased doubt about Abraham's purchase of the field from them. The two peoples lived together and were part of a coalition in Hebron, but the Hittites were later suppressed, as opposed to becoming an ally of the new government. In the narratives, authors portrayed allies as wives, thus Rebekah did not want Jacob to marry a daughter of Heth, i.e., ally with the Hittites. Forthcoming, an author subtly displayed their downfall in the matter of David and Uriah the Hittite.

Genesis 28:1-9

Isaac called Jacob and instructed him not to take a wife from the daughters of Canaan. In the last chapter, an author wrote a more specific _daughters of Heth_ , but that was a later statement meant to convey the division of the Hittites and a new Judah hierarchy. The _daughters of Canaan_ was a generic theme used to exclude various peoples from the new religious institution.

Isaac sent Jacob to the house of Bethuel in Padan-Aram to take a wife from the daughters of Laban. The name _Laban_ means, "white", and has an affinity with the name Lebanon (the names were derived from the same word). Lebanon was part of the Phoenician kingdom and the expanse of the Lebanon mountain range included Aram. If Laban in part represents Lebanon, then _Laban the Aramean_ may represent peoples from Aram and Phoenicia. However, the name _Laban_ could also refer to skin color and thus have been a two-fold endeavor.

In verse 3, the redactor wove in an "S/J" passage.

"May 'El Shaday bless you and make you fruitful and multiply."

Jacob would possess the land _where he lived as a foreigner_ ; the land 'Elohim gave to Abraham.

When Esau understood that Isaac disapproved of Canaanite women, he married Mahalath, the daughter of Ishmael, which conveys a coalescence of the two peoples. The name _Mahalath_ means, "sickness", which reveals their fate in Judah.

Genesis 28:10-22

In beginning this section, Jacob left Beersheba for Haran. The following segment is from an independent tradition that an author wrote before the texts in which Rebekah sent Jacob to Laban in Haran, and Isaac sent him to Laban in Padan-Aram. Here is the original "E" text minus the interpolated _Yahweh_ verses that changed the entire mood of the story.

"10. And left Jacob from Beer-sheba and went toward Haran. 11. And he came upon a place and stayed there, because had set the sun. And he took from the stones of the place and put {them} at his head and he lay down in place that. 12. And he dreamed and, look, a ladder was placed on the earth its top reaching to the heavens. And, look, the angels of 'Elohim going up and down on it! 17. And he was afraid and said, How awesome is place this! is nothing This except the House of 'Elohim, and this {is} the door to the heavens! 18. And rose early Jacob in the morning and the stone which he had put at his head, and placed it {as} a pillar; and he poured oil on the top of it. 19. And he called the name of place that Bethel, and yet Luz {was} name the city's at first."

The name _Bethel_ means, "house of El", and since Jacob left Beersheba, the text refers to a Simeonite ("J/I") sect that migrated from Beersheba into Bethel. This story not only conveys a (would-be) Levitical move from Judah to Israel, it displays the birth of Bethel as a prominent religious city. Luz became a _house of 'El_. Furthermore, the author wrote this passage before the Genesis 12:8 interpolation, hence, this story is truly the first instance in the narratives that an author combined the history of Judah with the country of Israel.

A time removed from the original story, a later author consolidated the deity of Bethel with Yahweh.

"13. Yahweh stood above and said I Yahweh 'Elohim of Abraham your father and the 'Elohim of Isaac."

"20. And vowed Jacob a vow, saying, If is 'Elohim{will be}with me and keeps me in way which I {am} traveling, and gives to me food to eat and clothing to wear, 21. and I return in peace to the household of my father, then will be Yahweh to me for 'Elohim."

The use of the name Isaac may reveal a third layer ( _italicized_ ) in the final product. In verse 13a, an author referred to Abraham as _Jacob's father_. In forthcoming texts, authors placed Jacob back in Beersheba to consolidate this tradition with the traditions of Joseph and Moses.

Genesis 29

As the chapter begins, Jacob left on his journey, which consolidates the earlier written revelation at Bethel with this later text, in which Jacob meets his future wives Rachel and Leah, and Leah gives birth to their first four sons. This Levitical author ("J/I") created a consolidation story that continues in the next chapter.

The essence of this story is Jacob fell in love with Rachel and told her father he would serve seven years for her hand in marriage. He served the seven years, but Laban deceived him and gave him Leah instead. Jacob then served an additional seven years for Rachel. Laban also gave his slaves as servants for his daughters. In the next chapter, I attempt to discern the importance of these slaves, but for now, one is compelled to question the deception by Laban. Once again, the _seven_ , in the _seven years_ , can also denote an _oath_ , as perceived with the _oath at Beersheba_. The would-be Levites ("J/I"), who in part migrated out of Egypt, became part of various religious institutions in Judah, which also included peoples from Phoenicia and Aram (Laban the Aramean). As far as the first _seven_ years that Jacob served, i.e., the first _oath_ or alliance in Judah, they yielded the "J/I" school Leah.

"And eyes Leah's {were} weak, but Rachel was beautiful of form and fair of appearance."

The author denigrated the first oath. The name _Leah_ , who represents the affairs of a Judah institution, simple means, "weary".

When Yahweh noticed that Leah had been slighted, he opened her womb and left Rachel barren. Leah gave birth to Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah. I have already conjectured the tribe of Reuben had first settled in Judah, only to have an uprising institution exile them east of the Jordan, where authors represent their territory. The same government that forced the Reubenites out of Judah also conquered the Simeonites (1 Chronicles 4:31). The third son Levi, i.e., the Levites, relocated into Israel, which is displayed by the separation of the sons of Aaron and the Levites covered in the introduction. Finally, the fourth child is the new establishment in Judah. The first seven years, or the first oath or alliance in Judah, inevitably yielded the Levites nothing. The Judah institution forced the would-be Levites and their allies out of the country. With temporal genealogies, the last mentioned is the last to survive, or the entity that emerged and overpowered their predecessors. If one takes away the first three children who were forced out of Judah, or the Reubenites, the Simeonites, and the Levites, the fourth child of Leah remains, i.e., the Judah institution that conquered them. In Genesis 49, there are further intimations of this conquest, as well as a justification placed forth by "S/J". However, Jacob would serve another seven years, i.e., the Levites would form a new alliance, a new oath, which represents their move into Israel. The name _Rachel_ was derived from a word that denotes, "to journey", and the Levites journeyed into Israel. Yahweh worship began with the above-mentioned institution in Judah. However, "J/I" relocated into Israel, which was a country that worshiped 'Elohim.

Genesis 30

As stated, the author of this and the last chapter used historical events to create a metaphorical narrative. When the author used _'Elohim_ for the name of the deity in this chapter and _Yahweh_ in the previous, it displays Judah and the south worshiped Yahweh and Israel and the north worshiped 'Elohim.

Rachel became contentiously envious of Leah, but she remained barren and thus she gave Jacob her slave Bilhah to bear children in her stead. Bilhah later gave birth to Dan and Naphtali. Dan was a city in the Naphtali region that was conquered by invaders from southern Dan (Judges 17 & 18). Moreover, in 1 Chronicles 4:29, Bilhah is a city of Simeon. The Ishmaelites and Simeonites coalesced with the Edomites, and the name Bilhah is a variation of the name _Bilhan_ , a descendant of Esau in Genesis 36:27, which implies the city in Simeon was an Edomite settlement. In addition, the name Dan means, "judge", and there was an Edomite town (Gen. 36:32) by the name of _Dinhabah_ , which means, "to give judgment". This town could point to the origin of the Danites. Bilhah was a slave and a child of a servant would never have the rights to the family inheritance that a child of a wife would. The acerbity the author displayed in Rachel in correlation with these births could have been a statement about the religious institution in Dan. Although certain authors displayed their support for the Edomites, the priests who presided in northern Dan were _sons of Gershom_ , i.e., displaced refugees.

When Leah stopped giving birth, she decided to give her slave Zilpah to Jacob and this yielded two sons named Gad and Asher. As I have conveyed, the tribe of Asher was an ally of Judah, but was subtly denounced by the prophets, i.e., this Levitical sect of priests. Hence, not only did the author connect Asher to Leah, who represents the affairs of Judah, he had the tribe conceived by a slave. Furthermore, authors often mentioned Gad and Asher together; hence, the two states were associated with one another. This connection reflects migrations from Asher into the land of Gad (east of Jordan). Moreover, in 1 Chronicles 12:8 (and elsewhere), the Gadites supported a new Judah institution, which explains why the author connected Gad to Leah, i.e., Judah.

Next, there is an odd story in which Reuben brought Leah some mandrakes, which were an aphrodisiac. The exact implications are difficult to follow. Reuben gave them to Leah, but Rachel wanted some, thus she gave Jacob to Leah for a night. Afterward, Leah gave birth to Issachar and Zebulun, which connects these tribes of Israel to the country of Judah. In Numbers 2, Issachar and Zebulun camped to the east of the tent of the meeting with Judah, which displays an alliance. However, I am not sure how this last set of births connects to the Reubenites. Nevertheless, the lands of Issachar and Zebulun were in Israel, but the two states allied with Judah. Thus, Rachel gave Jacob to Leah, i.e., Israel lost allies to Judah.

Leah conceived again and gave birth to Dinah, a name that is a variation of the name _Dan_. This birth could represent a Danite alliance with the Jerusalem monarchy. Finally, 'Elohim remembered Rachel and opened her womb. She then gave birth to Joseph. Levitical sects would for a time preside in Israel's house of Joseph (Manasseh and Ephraim), which included the land of Bethel. At this juncture, Joseph was the only child of Rachel, which gave the house of Joseph control over Israel.

The narrative now moves back to Canaan. Jacob asked Laban to send him home, but first he was to work for Laban to attain some wealth of his own. His yield would only come from the worst of the flock. However, Jacob was able to manipulate the flocks and obtain the wealth of Laban.

Genesis 31

This intriguing section consists of two stories that a later redactor wove together. I attempted to separate the stories into their original forms. Besides the two stories in this chapter, there are interpolations by either a third author or the individual that wove them together. The first story is an earlier written text of unsure authorship. It appears an author whose people migrated from Aram and settled in the region of Gilead wrote this story. This story is followed by an "E" text, which the author wrote some time afterward and comes across as a rebuttal.

"1. And he heard the words of sons Laban's, saying, has taken away Jacob all that {was} to our father, and from that which was our father's he has gotten all wealth this. 19. And Laban went to shear his sheep. 20. And deceived Jacob the heart of Laban, the Aramean, because not he did tell him that about to run away he {was}. 21. And ran away he and all that {was}to him. And he arose and crossed the {Euphrates} River and set his face toward the hill of Gilead. 22. And was told Laban on the day third that had run away Jacob. 23. And he took his brothers with him and pursued after him {for} journey seven days, and he caught him in the hill of Gilead. 24. And came 'Elohim to Laban, the Aramean, in a dream of the night, and said to him, Watch out for yourself, lest you speak with Jacob from good to bad! 26. And said Laban to Jacob, What have you done that you have deceived my heart and taken my daughters like captives of the sword? 27. Why did you hide so as to run away and have deceived me and not have told me? And I would have sent you with rejoicing and with music, with tabret and with harp. 28. Not you have let me kiss my sons and my daughters. Now you have been foolish to do {this}. 29. It is in the power of my hand to do you harm, but the 'Elohim your father last night spoke to me saying, Watch out for yourself lest you speak with Jacob from good to evil! 30. And now surely you have left because you have yearned after household your father's. 31. And spoke Jacob and said to Laban, Because I was afraid, because I said lest you should take by force your daughters away from me. 43. And spoke Laban and said to Jacob, The daughters {are} my daughters and the sons {are} my sons, and the flocks my flocks. And all which you see, to me it {is} And my daughters, what I can do to these today, or to their sons whom they have given birth to? 44. So now come, let us cut a covenant, me and you, and let it be for a witness between me and you. 50. If {not} you will afflict my daughters and if {not} you will take wives more than my daughters, no man {is} with us, look, 'Elohim is a Witness between me and you. 51. And said Laban to Jacob, Look on heap this, and look on the pillar which I have set between me and you. 52. {is} a witness heap This and {is} a witness the pillar. As for me, not I will pass over to you heap this. And as for you not you will pass over to me heap this, and pillar this for harm. 53. The 'Elohim Abraham, and the 'Elohim Nahor, let judge between us the 'Elohim their father. 55. And rose up early Laban in the morning and kissed his sons and his daughters and blessed them, and left, and returned Laban to his own place."

After reading this story, one should reflect on the events covered thus far. Abram and Lot left their home for the land of Canaan, but their travels did not include lands east of the Jordan. However, Genesis 22 covered the sons of Nahor, i.e., peoples from Aram who traveled into the region of Gilead. An author represented these _descendants of Nahor_ in the story quoted above. Moreover, the author may have written the story before the creation of Isaac, as he mentioned the _'Elohim of Abraham_ and the _'Elohim of Nahor_ , but Isaac is noticeably absent.

In the story, Jacob decided to leave because Laban's sons thought he had deceived their father, at which point, he deceived Laban and fled. However, because of 'Elohim, when Laban encountered Jacob, he treated him with kindness. Laban asked Jacob why he had taken his daughters captive by the sword, but the author did not give the daughters names, which could imply he wrote the story before the texts of the last couple of chapters. Jacob did not deny the claim nor did he argue when Laban stated the sons, daughters, and flocks belonged to him. In addition, if Jacob promised to marry only Laban's daughters, i.e., not to unite with other peoples, they would have peace between them. Hence, peoples who migrated from Aram coalesced with the _Jacob camp_ in Gilead, but the author claimed the wealth of this alliance originated with the Arameans. This coalition began east of the Jordan and subsequently camps of these peoples made their way into Ephraim and Manasseh, which are lands collectively referred to as the _house of Joseph_. However, when I mention the house of Joseph, I am referring to lands west of the Jordan and not half of Manasseh on the east.

Next, there is the "E" ("J/I") version of the story.

"2. And saw Jacob the face of Laban. And look, it was not toward him as before. 4. And sent Jacob and called for Rachel and for Leah, to the field to his flocks. 5. And he said to them, see I the face of your father, that it is not toward me as before, but the 'Elohim my father has been with me. 6. And you know that with all my power I have served your father. 7. But your father has cheated me and has changed my wages ten times. But not has allowed him 'Elohim to do harm to me. 8. If thus he said, The speckled will be your wages, then gave birth to all the flocks speckled. And if thus he said, The striped will be your wages, then gave birth to all the flocks striped. 9. And has taken away 'Elohim the livestock of your father and has given to me. 10. And at the time was in heat the flock, I raised my eyes and saw in a dream. And, look, the rams which leaped on the flock were striped, speckled, and dappled. 11. And spoke to me the Angel of 'Elohim in a dream, Jacob! And I said, I {am} here. 12. And He said, Raise now your eyes and see all the rams which are leaping upon the flock. {They are} striped, speckled, and spotted, because I have seen all that Laban is doing to you. 13. I am the 'El Beeyt-'El, where you anointed there the pillar, where you vowed to Me a vow. Now, rise up, go out, of land this and return to the land of your relatives. 14. And answered Rachel and Leah and said to him, {Is there} to us a portion and an inheritance in the household of our father? 15. Are not strangers we counted by him? Because he has sold us and he has spent also entirely our silver. 16. Because all the riches which has taken 'Elohim from our father, for us it is and for our sons. Now, then, all that which has said 'Elohim to you, do. 17. Then got up Jacob and set his sons and his wives on camels. 18. And he drove all his livestock, and all his goods which he had gotten, livestock of his property which he had acquired in Padan- Aram, to come to Isaac, his father, to the land of Canaan. And stole Rachel the household idols which her father had. 25. But overtook Laban- Jacob, and Jacob had pitched his tent at the mountain. And Laban had pitched with his brothers at the hill of Gilead. 26. And said Laban to Jacob, Why have you stolen my 'Elohim? 31. And spoke Jacob and said to Laban. With whomever you find your 'Elohim, not he will live here in front of our brothers. See for yourself what {is} with me, and take {it}to you. (Because not did know Jacob that Rachel had stolen them.) 33. And went Laban into tent Jacob's, and into tent Leah's, and into the tent of the two slave-girls, and not did find. And he left tent Leah's and entered into tent Rachel's. 34. And Rachel had taken the household idols and put them into the saddle of the camel, and sat on them. And felt around Laban all the tent but not did find. 35. And she said to her father, not Let angel be in the eyes of my lord that not I am able to rise before you, because the way of women {is} to me. And he looked but not did find the household idols. 36. And was angry Jacob, and he argued with Laban. And answered Jacob and said to Laban, What {is} my transgression; what {is} my sin, that you have pursued hotly after me? 37. Because you have felt around all my vessels. What have you found from all the vessels of your house? Set it here in front of my brothers and your brothers, and let them decide between the two of us! 38. Now twenty years I {was} with you. Your ewes and your female goats not have failed to give birth, and the rams of your flock not I have eaten. 39. The mangled not I did bring to you. I replaced it. From my hand you exacted it, that stolen {by} day and that stolen {by} night. 40. So I was. By day consumed me the heat, and the cold by night. And eluded my sleep from my eyes. 41. Now I {have been} twenty years in your household. I served you fourteen years for two of your daughters and six years for your flocks and you have changed my wages ten times. 42. Unless the 'Elohim my father, the 'Elohim Abraham and the Reverence of Isaac, had been for me, truly, now empty you would have sent me. my affliction and the toil of my hand has seen 'Elohim, and He judged {last} night. 45. And took Jacob a stone and set it up as a memorial. 46. And said Jacob to his brothers, Gather stones. And they took stones and they made a heap. And they ate there upon the heap. 47. And called it Laban Jegar-sahadutha, and Jacob called it Galeed."

In this version, the entire mood of the story is different. The author placed Jacob in a light of grandeur and he unequivocally placed all the blame on Laban, who cheated Jacob and changed his wages. In the first story, Jacob kidnapped Laban's daughters as captives of the sword, but in this second version, Rachel and Leah asked if there was an inheritance for them in the house of their father, because Jacob had acquired nearly all of his wealth. Moreover, in the first story, the sons of Laban also left with Jacob, but in this version, it was just Jacob, his wives, and their children. Therefore, besides Jacob's wives and their offspring, the author removed the Arameans from the _Israelite_ history. The family left with all the livestock and property acquired in Padan-Aram and traveled to the house of Isaac, which reveals later authorship. However, Rachel does steal the household idols. Although this author gave Jacob absolute impunity, he did not deny the fact that something dishonest transpired. Archaeologists believe these teraphim were not only used for divination, but they could signify a legal title to an estate. The author killed two birds with one proverbial stone. First, with Rachel stealing the idols, the Arameans' possessions would not merely go to Israel or Judah, their wealth would become the property of her son Joseph, i.e., Manasseh and Ephraim, the holy cities of the Levitical school. Secondly, the author appears to have conspicuously blamed Rachel, i.e., the Arameans, for the deceit or inequities committed.

Genesis 32 & 33

The next couple of chapters consist of two texts from the Jacob tradition that a redactor later wove together. This first quoted section contains a series of travels from an early period (before the preceding chapters) in the Jacob narrative. However, it appears the passages are a synopsis of more extensive stories.

"1. Jacob went on his way, and angels of 'Elohim met him. 2. when Jacob saw them, he said, This [is] place 'Elohim; and he called the name of that place Mahanaim. 24. And Jacob was alone; and wrestled a man with him until the breaking of the day. 25. And when he saw that not he prevailed over him, he touched the socket of his thigh; and was out of joint the socket of the thigh of Jacob as he wrestled with him. 26. And he said, Let me go, for breaks the day. And he said, not I will let you go unless you bless me. 27. And he said to him, What [is] your name? And he said, Jacob. 28. And he said, not Jacob shall be called your name anymore, but Israel: for you have struggled with 'Elohim and men and prevailed. 29. And asked Jacob and said, Tell I pray your name; and he asked; why you ask my name? And he blessed him there. 30. And Jacob called the name of the place Peniel; for I have seen 'Elohim face to face, and my life is preserved. 17. And Jacob journeyed to Succoth, and built him a house, and made booths for his cattle: therefore the name of the place is called Succoth. 18.And Jacob came peaceful to the city of Shechem, which [is] in the land of Canaan, when he came from Padan-Aram; and pitched his tent before the city. 19 And he bought a parcel of a field, where he had his tent, at the hand of the children of Hamor, Shechem's father, for a hundred pieces of money. 20 And he built there an altar, and called it 'El-'Elohim-Israel."

Woven within these verses and spread out in chapters 32 & 33 is a later written story of an encounter between Jacob and Esau, which I delve into hereafter. In verses 1 & 2 of the above quote, Jacob encountered the messengers of 'Elohim. He noticed he was at the camp of 'Elohim and he named the place Mahanaim, which was a city east of the Jordan. The name _Mahanaim_ means, "two camps", and may have originated with the two peoples referenced in the last chapter. With verse 24, Jacob was alone and he wrestled with a man until dawn. The man was actually 'Elohim, who then changed the name of Jacob to _Israel_ , because he contended with 'Elohim and prevailed. The name Israel means, "he will rule as 'El", and was derived from a word that means, "to contend" ( _sarah_ ). The place where this event occurred was Peniel, thus it appears this faction ("E" / "J/I") that entered the region from across the Jordan changed the patriarch's name to represent their migration from Judah into Israel. In verse 17, which moves the narrative into chapter 33, Jacob traveled to Succoth and built booths for his cattle. Then with verse 18, he arrived in peace to the city of Shechem. As with Abraham and the sons of Heth, Jacob bought a parcel of land from the sons of Hamor, the father of Shechem. He erected an altar and called it _'El-'Elohim-Israel_. Hence, the verses quoted above denote important cities that the Levitical priests controlled on the way to a division of them ascending to power in Bethel. Around the time these tribes were migrating across the Jordan, a group of Arameans (from the last chapter) separated from the Jacob camp. The stories of Genesis 31 display the contention between the two peoples.

It is not a mere coincidence that both Abraham and Jacob bought land in cities that harbored prominent religious institutions. Moreover, with the Judah establishment purchasing a well or the land of Beersheba, the authors conveyed three events that represent new eras of prominence in Hebron, Beersheba, and Shechem.

Beginning with chapter 32 verse 3, there is the mentioned "E" story (with a verse 9 through 12 interpolation) about Jacob and Esau. In verses 3 though 8, Jacob sent messengers to his brother. They were to reveal to Esau the prosperity and wealth attained by Jacob when he was with Laban in Aram. When the messengers returned, they told Jacob that his brother was on the way to meet him with four hundred men. This news frightened Jacob, which reveals the author was writing to an audience who knew of his deceitful actions against Esau. The author probably wrote this text before the stories of Genesis 25 & 27. Jacob then divided his men into two camps. Therefore, if one camp was attacked, the other could escape. In verses 13 through 23, Jacob gathered a portion of his newfound wealth as a present for Esau. He divided his livestock and had his servants create a space between a first herd, a second herd, and a third. When they came upon Esau, each group was to tell him the herd was a gift from his brother, which would gradually entreat his grace. Jacob then crossed the Jabbok river with his two wives, their female servants, and his eleven sons. In verses 1 through 16 of chapter 33, the author finished his story. Jacob came upon Esau and his four hundred men. He divided his family with the female servants and their children first, then Leah and her children, followed by Rachel and Joseph. Esau inevitably accepted the gifts from Jacob and urged him that they might travel together. However, Jacob's children and flocks were weary, thus he told Esau to go ahead and he would meet him in Seir. Esau agreed and left a division of his men with Jacob. In essence, albeit within a secondary plot, this story represents a camp of Edomites that was forced out of Judah, but later joined the _Jacob exiles_ when they entered the land of Canaan from across the Jordan. Since the men with Esau numbered four hundred, and the number four is spelled _arba_ , as in the name _Kirjath-Arba_ (an early name for Hebron), these Edomites were probably exiled out of Hebron. A division of them migrated into Benjamin and lands east of the Jordan, while others were forced south. Therefore, to separate the Edomites in Edom from those who later became _Israelites_ , the author portrayed the men as traveling to Seir.

Genesis 34

This text, which came out the Judah-based institution ("S/J") that displaced the Levites, is another glance at the enmity that brewed between the religious factions. Albeit this chapter is a later text (contrary to the belief of most scholars), it appears to have been written before the "P" texts that took a more gloves off approach toward their opposition.

In the forthcoming story, a man named Shechem humbled Dinah, which incited her brothers Simeon and Levi to kill all the males in the city. Although the horrid act is blamed on Simeon and Levi, the author mentioned all the sons of Jacob in the anger toward Shechem, the deceitful pact made with Shechem and his father, and the plunder of the city after the slaughter. The author obviously meant to denigrate the Levites, but he could have included the other sons of Jacob to maintain the appearance of a unified twelve tribes. Moreover, if the heinous act was committed by Levi and Simeon, but all the brothers plundered the city, the land and wealth would then belong to the _sons of Israel_ , not only the Levites. Finally, the story displays the Simeonite (and other would-be Levites) migration out of southern Judah.

Shechem, the son of Hamor the Hivite, seen Leah's daughter Dinah and sexually humbled her. Shechem fell in love with Dinah and wanted her for a wife. Due to the fact the name _Dinah_ is a feminine variation of the name _Dan_ , it could convey a short-term alliance between religious factions in Shechem and northern Dan, the latter was governed by a sect of rogue Levites.

Jacob heard Shechem had defiled his daughter, but he decided not to act on the news until his sons came in from the fields. When his sons returned and realized Shechem had slept with their sister, they became angry with the son of Hamor. What do the texts state in other instances of a man humbling a virgin? Let me quote Deuteronomy 22 verse 28 & 29.

"28. If finds a man a girl {who is} a virgin {and} not is betrothed and seized her, and lies down with her, and they be found, 29. then will give the man lying down with her, to father the girl's fifty pieces of silver. And his she will be wife {always}, because he has humbled her. not He may put her away all his days."

Per the law code of Deuteronomy, Shechem acted in accord with the accepted manner to deal with the situation. Hamor went to speak with Jacob and his sons to get permission for Shechem to marry Dinah, in hopes the two peoples could live in peace and intermarry. However, the _sons of Jacob_ treated Hamor and Shechem with deceit and convinced them if both peoples were to live in peace, the men of Shechem would have to be circumcised. Then Levi and Simeon killed the men of Shechem why they were still in pain. The _sons of Jacob_ then confiscated all the livestock that was in the city and the fields, as well as the goods, children, and wives of the slaughtered men. Afterward, Jacob admonished Simeon and Levi because they made him odious to the Canaanites and the Perizzites.

As is perceivable in texts forthcoming, a Jerusalem monarchy was at one time an ally of the institution in Shechem, which could explain the author's antipathy toward the Levite's bloody assault. This story paints a rather different picture than the last chapter, in which Jacob peacefully arrived and bought the land from the sons of Hamor.

Genesis 35:1-15

These verses, which a few different authors wrote, cover _Jacob's_ move into Bethel (Genesis 28:19). Actually, authors wrote these passages to display the prominent ascension of a sect of priests in the religious city. The multiple stories of a move to power in Bethel lead one to ponder how many versions of these events, merely in the stories of Jacob, actually existed. If one possessed all the texts written by the different religious factions from this period, including sects that are not represented in the literature of the Old Testament, the view of the pre-exilic biblical era would become vastly different.

In verse 1, 'Elohim instructed Jacob to go to Bethel and build an altar to the 'El who appeared to him when he ran from Esau. If one reads this verse inquisitively, they must realize the author referred to two entities, or two manifestations of the same entity. The _Israelite_ deities were deities of place, regardless if they resided on a mountain, in a temple, or at a high place. However, when separate communities united, which 'El would become the state deity? If one was not referring to an 'El of a specific place, they would then speak of the _'Elohim_ , or the 'Els collectively. Therefore, it is sensible why the authors often referred to the divinity by the plural name. In Genesis 14, Melchizedek worshiped _'El 'Elyown_ , or the 'El who resided in Salem. In the city of Bethel, the deity was the _'El of Bethel_. In Numbers 25:3, an author referred to Baal-Peor, i.e., the Baal of Mount Peor. In Judges 2:15, the _sons of Israel_ served the _Baalim_ , which were collective deities like the _'Elohim_.

In verses 2 through 5, Jacob instructed his people to cast away their strange 'Elohim and leave for Bethel, where Jacob would build an altar to the 'El who was with him in his time of distress. Jacob took the 'Elohim in their hands and ears and discarded them under an oak tree near Shechem. When the people left on their journey, the terror of 'Elohim came upon the surrounding cities and they did not pursue Jacob and his sons. After a sect of Levites ascended to power in Shechem, whether by purchase or slaughter, this passage represents a move to power in Bethel. Then in verses 6 & 7:

"6. And came Jacob to Luz (which {is} in the land of Canaan, it {being} Bethel), he and all the people who {were}with him. 7. And he built there an altar and called the place 'El-Bethel, because there revealed Himself to him 'Elohim when he fled from before his brother."

The author of verses 1 through 5 referred to the city as _Bethel_ , and it is doubtful that in the following verse he would refer to the city as _Luz, it Bethel_. Moreover, in verse 1, the deity instructed Jacob to travel to Bethel, in verse 3, he told the people they were leaving for Bethel, but in verse 7, Jacob named the city. Therefore, verses 6 & 7 are from a different author and thus another version of the narrative.

Moving on to verse 8, Rebekah's nursing mother (nameless in Genesis 24:59) passed away in Bethel. Her name was _Deborah_ and she was buried under an oak tree, which Jacob named _Oak of the Weeping_. The woman was not a concubine or a wife, but a mere nurse had a place named after her. Women did not have a prominent place in _Israelite_ society, thus one must speculate in the hopes to find a deeper meaning to this one verse segment. Whatever _Deborah_ represents, the entity was obviously supplanted when power and prominence moved to Bethel, which is displayed by her burial there.

With an "S/J" verse 9, the deity again changed Jacob's name ("E" in Genesis 32). The Shiloh priests at one time allied with the _Jacob tribes_ in the house of Joseph, but the author most likely wrote the passage in a later mode of consolidation. 'Elohim appeared to Jacob when he came out of Padan-Aram. The deity then changed the patriarch's name to _Israel_ , and:

"11. said to him 'Elohim I am 'El- Shaday. Be fruitful and multiply a nation and a group of nations will be from you, and kings from your body will go forth."

In verses 14 & 15, Jacob placed a marker where 'Elohim spoke to him, he anointed it with oil, and he called the place _Bethel_. These two verses do not align with the author of verses 1 through 5, or the author of verses 6 & 7, therefore, a third author wrote this passage on the event in Bethel.

Genesis 35:16-20

In verses 16 through 20, Rachael died during childbirth. The story begins with the family traveling from Bethel to Ephrath (Bethlehem). During the trip, Rachel passed away due to difficulties associated with her pregnancy. Before she died, she gave birth to a child she named Ben- Oni, which means, "son of Sorrow". However, one can also read the name as _son of Owni_ , and _Owni_ is a variation of the name _Own_. Rachel represents people from Aram and here the author displayed her affiliation with the country, as she refers to her newborn by the name of Arameans who were exiled across the Jordan. Although Rachel called the child Ben-Oni, Jacob called him Ben-Jamin, which means, "son of the south". Therefore, peoples from the south conquered an early Aramean institution in the region that was later named Benjamin. Moreover, the family was traveling from Bethel to Ephrath, and the region of Benjamin was located between these two cities, which harbored prominent religious institutions. However, when political power became concentrated in Benjamin, the house of Joseph and their allies in Bethlehem faded from importance. Hence, with the _birth of Benjamin_ , Joseph's mother Rachel came to pass. This text represents a change of guard.

Genesis 35:21-29

_Israel_ journeyed and stretched his tent as far as Migdal-Eder, which was a tower in Bethlehem. This little insert displays the alliance between this "E" religious sect and a faction in Bethlehem, which occurred before the religious institution in Bethlehem allied with the hierarchy in Hebron. At this time, Israel heard that Reuben slept with his concubine _Bilhah_ , which conveys a Reubenite alliance with a faction of Edomites.

With verse 22b, "S/J" lists the sons of _Jacob_ and their mothers, and then Jacob returned to Isaac at:

"Mamre, in Kiriath-Arba, which is Hebron."

The quote displays the same wording "S/J" used in Genesis 23:2 in a passage on the death of Sarah. Isaac passed away and Jacob and Esau buried him. However, unlike Abraham and Sarah, Isaac was not buried in the cave of Machpelah. Isaac was a Levitical figure created to denigrate an institution of Judah. Therefore, it is possible an author from the Judah establishment did not feel the need to give him a proper burial place.

Genesis 36

This chapter contains a few different Edomite genealogies.

Esau was the same person as Edom and he took his wives from the daughters of Canaan. The wives of Esau were Adah- the daughter of Elon the Hittite, Oholibamah- the daughter of Anah- the daughter of Zibeon the Hivite, and Basemath- the daughter of Ishmael and the sister of Nebaioth, a name derived from _Nebat_. In Genesis 26:34, Esau married a Hittite named _Judith_ , or a _woman of Judah_ , but in this tradition, the woman was Adah. Moreover, in Genesis 28:9, Esau married an Ishmaelite named _Mahalath_ , which means, "sickness", but in this tradition, the woman was Basemath.

Adah gave birth to Eliphaz, Oholibamah gave birth Korah (among others), and Basemath gave birth to Reuel, which is the name of Moses' Midianite father-in-law in Exodus 2:18. Since the author portrayed Basemath as an Ishmaelite, and her son Reuel is an Edomite, the narratives connect Moses' Midianite father-in-law to both the Edomites and the Ishmaelites, which is not a one-time occurrence. Furthermore, Korah is a Levite in Exodus 6:24 and a son of Hebron in 1 Chronicles 2:43, which merely displays there were Edomites, i.e., would-be Levites, in Hebron.

In verse 6, Esau gathered everything he had acquired in the land of Canaan and left Jacob, i.e., Judah, because the land could not sustain the two peoples. The author portrayed the Jacob and Esau division in the same manner as that of Abraham and Lot, which paints a rather different picture than Genesis 25 & 27. Like the separation of Abram and Lot (Genesis 13), this statement came out of a Judah institution.

Beginning with verse 9, a couple independent Edomite genealogies include numerous names from the previous list. Then verse 31 begins a list of the kings in Edom before any king ruled over the _sons of Israel_ , which merely prepares the scene for the specious tradition of King Saul. I only cover a few of the names.

King Hadad (son of Bedad) defeated Midian in the fields of Moab. Hadad was the name of an ancient deity who was worshiped throughout the region. However, Hadad is most often associated with the Arameans and Assyrians. Furthermore, moving down this list of kings, there is King Saul from _Rehoboth by the river_ , which scholars believe refers to the Euphrates. There were ancient cities named Rehoboth in Assyria and Aram, and the Euphrates flowed in both countries. Finally, the first king in this Edomite list was a son of _Beor_ , who in Numbers 22:5 is the father of _Balaam_ , who came from Pethor by the river (Euphrates). Numbers 23:7 places Pethor in Aram, and Deuteronomy 23:4 places it in _Aram of two rivers_ , i.e., the Tigris and Euphrates. If one correlates the aforementioned with Nahor's son Uz from Genesis 22:21 (Edomite in verse 28 of this chapter), they should at least entertain the possibility of an Aram or Assyria origin for the Edomites.

After King Samlah, who succeeded Hadad, the next Edomite ruler was the mentioned King Saul. Saul is also the name of a son of Simeon in Genesis 46:10 and both men refer to the entity that would ultimately rise to power in Benjamin.

Before moving within chapter 37, which is continued in chapter 39, I first cover chapter 38, which a redactor placed within the longer story.

Genesis 38

This "J" author appears to have been from a sect of priests that remained part of the Judah hierarchy when the would-be Levites and their allies were defeated, but he displayed an affinity and empathy toward the abandoned priests with his indirect denigration of Judah in the latter portion of the story. The "J/I" authors were not near as subtle when they admonished the Judah-based institution.

Judah went away from his brothers and stayed with an Adullamite named Hirah. There he encountered the daughter of a Canaanite man named Shua and he had intercourse with her. The daughter of Shua gave birth to three sons, who were Er, Onan, and Shelah, the latter was born at Chezib, i.e., a lie, which could express an act of betrayal. The name _Onan_ is a variation of the name _Ono_ , which I discussed in reference to Lot and the sons of Ammon. Moreover, in 1 Chronicles 1:40, there is an Edomite named _Onam_ , which is a variation of _Onan_. Due to the fact all three names are akin to one another, Onan reflects an Edomite camp that migrated out of Judah and into Benjamin, before a subsequent exile across the Jordan. Eber and his brothers built the city of Ono in Benjamin, and Shelah is the father of Eber in Genesis 10:24. In addition, the name Shelah, or _Selah_ in Hebrew, was derived from the same word as the name Saul. In 2 Samuel 21:14, an author mentioned a city of Benjamin named Sela, where the bones of Saul and Jonathan were buried. As stated, Saul the Edomite and Saul the Benjamite were the same entity. As far as Judah's firstborn, _Er_ represents the land of _Ur_ , where Abram left in Genesis 11:31 to travel to the land of Canaan. In 1 Chronicles 4:21, Er is the son of Shelah, the son of Judah, and his descendants later married in the land of Moab. It is becoming apparent authors wrote of these events in previously covered traditions. Finally, these sons were conceived by a daughter of _Shua_ , who in 1 Chronicles 7:32 is a daughter of Heber, a descendant of Asher. The beginning of this story references an early Aramean, Edomite, and Asherite coalition in Judah that was eradicated.

Judah selected a wife for Er named Tamar, but Yahweh killed Er because he was evil. Judah then had his second son marry Tamar to plant the seed for his brother, but Onan wasted his seed on the ground. Yahweh found this act evil and killed him as well. Finally, Judah promised Tamar to his youngest son, who never received his bride. These sons represent entities that were conquered and exiled out of Judah by the new Yahweh institution.

After the daughter of Shua passed away, Judah and Hirah headed toward Timnah to his sheep shearers. On the way, he perceived Tamar dressed as a prostitute at the entrance to Enaim, but she had intentionally veiled herself to deceive him. Unaware of her identity, Judah offered Tamar a young goat from his flock to have relations with her. _One from Judah's flock_ could symbolically convey he sacrificed one of his children or peoples to align with the entity that Tamar represents.

Tamar became pregnant and later had twins. The midwife tied a scarlet thread on the first hand seen coming out of the womb and she declared him firstborn. However, he withdrew and his brother Perez came out first. The name _Perez_ means, "burst forth", which intimates he ascended above his brother. The younger brother was Zerah (Edomite son of Reuel in Genesis 36:13) and the midwife tied a scarlet thread on his hand ( _Edom_ means, "red"). Therefore, this is another story about the Edomites. As far as the cities, i.e., the region referenced, Adullam ( _Hirah Adullamite_ ) was a city near Zorah and Eshtaol (Josh. 15 verses 33 & 34), which were cities in southern Dan. Moreover, Timnah (Edomite _Timna_ in Genesis 36:12?) was a city that did belong to the Danites (Josh. 19:43). I have already postulated a correlation between the name Dan and the Edomite town of Dinhabah. Before David's faction came to power in Hebron, he and his men, including Edomites, for a time assembled in Adullam (1 Samuel 22). The Edomites first settled the region and were firstborn, but they were later conquered by Judah, or _their brother_. Therefore, after the _Er, Onan, and Shelah_ coalition was defeated, a Judah-Philistine alliance then conquered and split the region of southern Dan. Perez, whose line of descendants leads to King David, i.e., the kingdom of Judah, overtook the birthright of Zerah, i.e., a camp of Edomites. With the near incestuous nature of this text, the author did not exactly approve of the event. Esau was born before Jacob, but Jacob stole his birthright and moved into prominence. This story conveys events similar to those in Genesis 25 & 27, but with less denigration to Judah.

The name _Hirah_ is a variation of the name _Hiram_ , the king of Tyre who had an alliance with King Solomon. Hirah was with Judah when he took the Canaanite bride and when he found Tamar veiled. However, I am not sure why the author referred to him as an Adullamite. As mentioned, there was a stronghold in Adullam during the uprising of a faction in Judah. It is possible a camp of Asherites had settled Adullam and assisted in creating an allied fortress there.

Genesis 37

I know the quills of multiple authors touched the following Joseph narrative. There is a text from the Shiloh-Judah school, a more voluminous "E" narrative, "D" interpolating "E", and the final redactor. The "E" school migrated into the house of Joseph from east of the Jordan, and they were _sons of Merari_ represented by his son _Ibri_ , or the _Hebrews_. However, the house of Joseph was also the home of the Shiloh priests, before their migration into Benjamin, which became part of the country of Judah. Therefore, the Joseph narrative includes writings from two prominent schools of priests that at one time presided in the house of Joseph. Nevertheless, the "S/J" school most likely created their narrative in an attempt to consolidate the traditions of the Jerusalem monarchy with the peoples who came out of Egypt. Consequently, I believe "E" was the first author of the Joseph narratives, as well as the school with an ancestral footprint in Egypt. Moreover, within the Joseph stories (and throughout the biblical narratives), there are layers from both schools, i.e., traditions that authors expanded upon over time. Hence, parsing out an original text from either school is almost impossible.

Entering the narrative of Genesis 37, I attempted to dissect the texts of the separate authors. I italicized the "S/J" inserts or interpolations. However, it is possible there were two complete versions of the narrative written and at his own discretion, the final redactor merely chose which portions of each he would include in the final product. The parsing begins with an "S/J" excerpt.

"Joseph, a son of seventeen years, was tending with his brothers the flock. And he {was} a youth with the sons of Bilhah and with the sons of Zilpah, wives his father's. And brought Joseph their report, a bad one, to their father."

The above quote is from a later version or amendment to the "E" story, which included all the brothers in the hatred and envy of Joseph. Although the original "E" version included Judah, it also included Levi and Simeon. However, if all the brothers hated Joseph, it merely conveys this sect lacked support in both Judah and Israel when it was forced out of Canaan. In addition, "E" may have written his narrative before the creation of the _Levi_ figure. Furthermore, it is possible that to remove denigration from Judah, the "S/J" author wanted to change the focal point of the story to the sons of Bilhah and Zilpah, the wives of his father. However, what did this later author from the Judah-Shiloh coalition intend to convey when he placed the contention between the sons of these women (Asher, Gad, Dan, and Naphtali) and Joseph. As displayed, Asher was a significant ally of a faction in Judah that ultimately displaced peoples of both Judah and Israel. This alliance would have diminished the status of the house of Joseph, which would explain why Joseph would give a bad report on Asher. The Gadites, who were in part peoples from Aram and Asher, allied with a Judah institution at the time the _Joseph tribes_ were exiled, which would explain the contention between the two peoples. As far Dan and Naphtali, authors clearly denigrated a prominent religious institution in northern Dan. In addition, when Jeroboam centered a portion of his religious establishment there (forthcoming), it moved wealth and control away from the house of Joseph and to a rogue sect of priests. The aforementioned points also explain why a Levitical author wrote that slaves conceived these tribes (Genesis 30), which is a means of denigration.

Next is the earlier written "E" text.

"3. And Israel loved Joseph more than all of his sons, because a son of old age he {was} to him. And he made for him a long coat {reaching to} the feet. 4. And saw his brothers that him loved their father more than all of his brothers, and they hated him. And not they were able to speak {to} him in peace 5. And dreamed Joseph a dream and told {it} to his brothers, and they increased more to hate him. 6. And he said to them, Listen to, now, dream this which I have dreamed. 7. And look! We {were} binding sheaves in the middle of the field. And look, arose my sheaf and even stood up. And look, came around your sheaves and bowed themselves to my sheaf! 8. And said to him his brothers, Indeed, will you reign over us or really will you rule over us? And they went on even more to hate him because of his dreams and because of his words. 9. And he dreamed again dream another and told {it} to his brothers, and said, Listen, I have dreamed a dream again! And look, the sun and the moon and eleven stars {were} bowing themselves to me! 10. And he told {it} to his father and to his brothers. And rebuked him his father and said to him, What {is} dream this which you have dreamed? Indeed, will we come, I and your mother, and your brothers, to bow ourselves to you to the ground? 11. And envied him his brothers, but his father paid attention to the matter."

This author, whose school changed the name of the patriarch (Genesis 32:28), again referred to him as _Israel_ , which assists in identifying his texts. In reference to Joseph's coat, the word used in the Hebrew text is _ktonet_ , which is the same word used in Exodus 28:4 as part of the attire for Aaron the high priest. When Joseph received his coat, it intimates he received the priesthood from of his father, which evoked hatred within his brothers. Joseph went on to reveal his dreams, which foretold of his father, mother, and brothers all bowing to him. His father rebuked him and paid attention to the matter. "E" wanted control over the priesthood of Judah and Israel, and apparently dominance over _all the tribes_ , but obviously the existing religious sects would not approve of this. His father's attention to the situation merely displays the contention between the separate religious factions.

"E" continues:

"12. And his brothers went to feed their father's flock in Shechem. 13 And Israel said unto Joseph, Do not brothers feed [the flock] in Shechem? come, and I will send you unto them. And he said to him, Here [am I]. 14. And he said to him, Go now, check on the welfare of your brothers and the welfare of the flock, and bring to me word. And he sent him from the Valley of Hebron. And he came to Shechem, 15. and found him a man, and, look, wandering in the field. And asked him the man, saying, What do you seek? 16. And he said, my brothers I {am} seeking. tell Please me where they {are} tending. 17. And said the man, They have left here, because I heard {them} saying, Let us go toward Dothan. And went Joseph after his brothers and found them at Dothan. 18. And they saw him at a distance, And, before he came near to them, they plotted against him to kill him 19. And they said each to his brother, Look, master of dreams this coming! 20. And now come, let us kill him and throw him into one of the pits. And let us say, An animal ferocious has eaten him. And let us see what will become of his dreams."

The brothers went to feed their flocks in Shechem. Later Joseph's father sent him from Hebron to check on their welfare. Hebron and Shechem were major religious cities that both harbored the footprint of this religious sect. In addition, Shechem was on the northern border of Ephraim, which means there was most of Judah and all of Ephraim between the two cities, hence, not an insignificant journey. However, if authors associated the brothers with both places and his brothers ultimately betrayed Joseph, then the text intimates both religious institutions abandoned the _Joseph tribes_. Furthermore, in the first book of Kings, Shechem loses its prominence in the religious hierarchy of Israel, which may explain why the brothers were gone when Joseph arrived there. Although the brothers were missing, Joseph found a man wandering in the fields, which could imply someone in exile (a group of priests). The man sent Joseph to Dothan to find his brothers. Dothan is a city mentioned as the home Elisha in 2 Kings 6:13. The city appears to have been twelve miles north of Samaria on an important trade route. It is difficult to discern why the author placed the brothers in Dothan, but it may have been due to the trade route that went from there into Egypt, where Joseph was inevitably taken. In addition, the Ishmaelites, who I further connect to the _Joseph tribes_ , were known to traverse this trade route.

"E" continues:

"21. And heard Reuben and saved him from their hand, and said, not Let us take his life. 22. Then said to them Reuben, not Do shed blood! Throw him into pit this, which {is} in the desert; but a hand not lay on him (in order to deliver him from their hands to return him to his father)23. And when came Joseph to his brothers, they stripped {from} Joseph his long coat, the long coat reaching to the feet which {was} on him. 24. And they took him and threw him into the pit, the pit {being} empty, no in it water."

When the brothers plotted to kill Joseph, Reuben saved his life in hopes to return him to his father, which expresses an alliance between the Reubenites and the peoples forced into Egypt. Furthermore, when the brothers removed Joseph's coat, it symbolizes the removal of this sect from the priesthood i.e., the religious hierarchy.

From verse 25, I have quoted the text to the end of the chapter, but with the two authors designated ("S/J" italicized).

_"25. And they sat down to eat food. Then they raised their eyes and looked, and behold, a caravan of Ishmaelites {were} coming from Gilead. And their camels {were} carrying spices and balm, and ladanum, going to take {them} down to Egypt.26.And said Judah to his brothers, What gain that we kill our brother and conceal his blood? 27. Come, let us sell him to the Ishmaelites, and our hand not let be upon him, because he is our brother, our flesh, He is. And listened his brothers. And they sold Joseph to the Ishmaelites for twenty pieces of silver. And they took Joseph into Egypt._ "

"28. And came by men, Midianites, traders. And they pulled up and took Joseph out of the pit.29. Then came Reuben to the pit, and look, was not Joseph in the pit! And he tore- his clothes. 30. And he came to his brothers and said, The youth he is not; and I, where I will go? 31. And they took long coat Joseph's and killed a ram of the goats and dipped the long coat in the blood. 32. And they sent the long coat reaching to the feet, and they brought {it} to their father, and said, This we have found! Look, now {is} long coat your son's it, or not? 33. And he recognized it and said, long coat My son's! An animal ferocious has eaten him! is torn to pieces surely Joseph!"

_"34. And tore Jacob his clothes and put sackcloth on his body. And he mourned for his son days many. 35. And arose all his sons and all his daughters to comfort him, but he refused to be comforted. And he said, I will go down to my son mourning, to Sheol. And wept for him his father_."

"36. And the Midianites sold him into Egypt to Potiphar, an officer of Pharaoh, the chief of the executioners."

In the "S/J" text, Judah stopped his brothers from killing Joseph, where Reuben saved him in the original version. This event most likely represents either Judah's alliance with the Shiloh priests or with the house of Joseph in ascension over the united monarchy (possibly both). Furthermore, in the original text, the Midianites sold Joseph into Egypt, where in the "S/J" version, his brothers sold him to the Ishmaelites, who brought him into Egypt. However, I am not certain of the significance in the change. The Ishmaelites had an Egyptian element (being born of Hagar), but were forced out of Judah. Previously, an "E" author displayed support for the Ishmaelites. However, Moses had a Midianite father-in-law (forthcoming), i.e., alliance with the Midianites, who were also forced out of Judah. Therefore, at least at one time, this would-be Levitical sect appears to have supported both the Ishmaelites and the Midianites. However, actually, the _Joseph tribes_ were in part Ishmaelites ( _as the boy would become a great nation_ ) and later allied with the Midianites, which the authors appeared to have intimated. "S/J" conveyed an Ishmaelite element of the _Joseph tribes_ , where "E" subtly conveyed their affiliation with the Midianites. Finally, due to the fact the _Joseph tribes_ were in part Ishmaelites, it explains why the "E" author included Simeon in the hatred of Joseph. The Simeonites were Ishmaelites who allied with the Hebron establishment, while the same establishment forced their brothers into Egypt.

Genesis 39

This chapter is a continuation of the Joseph story, which is why I covered chapter 38 before beginning this portion of the narrative. In verse 1, a redactor begins this "E" text by aligning the separate traditions.

"1. Joseph was brought to Egypt and purchased him Potiphar, an officer of Pharaoh and the captain of the guard, a man from Egypt, from the Ishmaelites, who had brought him there."

The interpolations continue throughout the text, but following is the original "E" story divested of the later _Yahweh_ additions (the last "E" verse of Genesis 37 italicized).

"36. And the Midianites sold him into Egypt to Potiphar, an officer of Pharaoh, the chief of the executioners. 4. And found Joseph favor in his sight, and served him. And he appointed him over his household, and all that was to him he put into his hand. 6. And he left all that was to him in hand Joseph's, and not he did know that he had anything, except the food which he was eating. And was Joseph handsome in form and fair of face. 7. And it was after things these that raised the wife of his master her eyes toward Joseph and said, Lie down with me! 8. But he refused and said to the wife of his master, Look, my master not does know with me what is in the house, and all which is to him he has given into my hand.9. No one is greater in household this than I. And not he has withheld from me anything, except you, because you {are} his wife. And how should I do evil great this and sin against 'Elohim? 10. And it was, as her speaking to Joseph day {after} day, that not he did listen to her, to lie down beside her, to be with her. 11. And it was, about day this, and he went into the house to do his work. and no male of the men of the household {was} there in the house. 12. And she caught him by his robe, saying, Lie down with me! Then he left his robe in her hand and got away, and he went outside.13. And it was when she saw that he had left his robe in her hand and had gotten away outside, 14. that she called out to the men of her household, and spoke to them, saying, Look, he has brought to us a man Hebrew to laugh at us! He came to me to lie down with me, and I cried out with a voice loud. 15. And when he heard that I raised my voice and cried, he left his robe beside me and ran away, and he went outside.16. And she kept his robe beside her until the coming of his master to his household. 17. And she spoke to him words these same, saying, came in to me The slave Hebrew, whom you have brought to us, to laugh at me! 18. And it was at my raising my voice and crying out, he left his robe beside me and ran outside. 19. And it was, when heard his master the words of his wife which she spoke to him, saying, According to words these did to me your slave, glowed his anger. 20. And took master Joseph's him and put him in house the prison-, the place where prisoners of the king {were} imprisoned. And he was there in house the prison."

A later author (probably "D") interpolated this story to make it appear as a _Yahweh_ text, which gave more credit to the deity for the preferential treatment that Joseph received. In the original "E" story, the deity was not as an integral part of the interaction between Joseph and the Egyptian. After the interpolations in this chapter, authors did not use the name _Yahweh_ again until Genesis 49:18.

Within this story, for the first time since the Genesis 14:13 interpolation, an author mentioned the name _Hebrew_. As covered, the Hebrews were _sons of Merari_ , who were in part the _Joseph tribes_ that migrated out of Egypt and later entered Canaan from a _region across_ the Jordan.

Genesis 40 & 41

"E" continues his story in the next two chapters. At the end of chapter 39, the chief of the executioners threw Joseph in jail, after which, the story moves directly into Genesis 40. The author expanded on the dreams of Joseph and through this gift, the deity inevitably moved Joseph over the entire house of Pharaoh. In verse 15, the author again mentioned the Hebrews, as Joseph was _stolen from the land of the Hebrews_.

In Genesis 41, the dream motif continues. Joseph pleased Pharaoh with his dream interpretations, thus Pharaoh placed him over his entire house and the land of Egypt. Throughout these two chapters, the author referred to Joseph as a _Hebrew_ and the deity as _'Elohim_ , which one should expect within an "E" text. As chapter 41 moves to a close, Joseph had two sons by an Egyptian wife named Asenath, the daughter of Poti-Phera, who was the priest of On. These births display the Egyptian ancestry of this "E" faction. The firstborn of Joseph was Manasseh and the second was Ephraim.

Genesis 42

This chapter appears to continue the "S/J" narrative. However, as the defining aspects of the authors are limited in this chapter, it is extremely difficult to discern the author/s with certainty. Although in verses 1 though 4, the author referred to the patriarch as _Jacob_ , the name is not used again until verse 29.

The last "S/J" passage is in Genesis 37:34, in which Jacob heard of the supposed death of Joseph.

"34. And tore Jacob his clothes and put sackcloth on his body. And he mourned for his son days many. 35. And arose all his sons and all his daughters to comfort him, but he refused to be comforted. And he said, I will go down to my son mourning, to Sheol. And wept for him his father."

The author finally returns in this chapter with:

"1. And saw Jacob that was grain in Egypt. And said Jacob to his sons Why do you look at each other? 2. And he said, Listen, I have heard that there is grain in Egypt! Go down there and buy for us from there, so that we may live and not die. 3. And went the brothers of Joseph ten to buy grain from Egypt 4. But Benjamin, the brother of Joseph, not did send Jacob with his brothers, because he said, Lest happen to him harm. 5. And came the _sons of Israel_ to buy among those who came, because was the famine in the land of Canaan. 6. And Joseph {was} the governor over the land. He {was} the one selling to all the people of the world."

If Genesis 41 were part of this story, after reading verse 57 (copied below) in chapter 41, the same author would not have included verse 6 in the above quote. Moreover, the italicized verse 5 most likely belongs with verse 57 and the "E" story of chapter 41.

"57. And all the world came to Egypt to buy, to Joseph, because was severe the famine in all the world."

"5. And came the _sons of Israel_ to buy among those who came, because was the famine in the land of Canaan."

Furthermore, since Jacob did not send Benjamin into Egypt with his brothers, it could signify a time before the religious institution that obtained control over united monarchy conquered the region of Benjamin.

Joseph's brothers came to him in Egypt to buy food, but they did not recognize him. However, Joseph recognized them and he accused them of being spies. The brothers told him they came from the land of Canaan to buy food, but they left their father and their youngest sibling behind. They also told Joseph they had another brother who was no longer alive. However, Joseph still accused them of being spies and he decided to hold them hostage until one of them brought the other brother to him. Joseph held them in custody for three days, but then oddly he changed his mind. He decided to only hold Simeon captive and allow the others to make the journey to Canaan together. Therefore, if the brothers did not return to Egypt with Benjamin, it would explain the state of Simeon dissolving.

Not knowing he could understand them, the brothers began to speak remorsefully about Joseph, who heard their conversation and began to weep. He then bound Simeon, filled their sacks with grain, and secretly returned the money they used to buy the grain. They were on their journey home when they realized what had transpired. However, when they told Jacob about the events in Egypt, he still did not want them to return with Benjamin. To this, Reuben stated:

"two my sons You may kill if not I do bring him to you! Put him into my hand and I will return him to you."

A camp of Reubenites wanted to control the fate of Benjamin. In their move for power, they allied with a sect of Edomites (Reuben slept with Bilhah), but the coalition was exiled out of Benjamin by the Judah-Shiloh alliance. Therefore, Jacob answered:

"38. And he said, not will go My son with you, because his brother is dead, and he alone is left. And {if} come to him harm on the road which you go in, you would bring down my gray hair in sorrow to the grave."

In essence, Jacob, i.e., Judah, chose Benjamin over Reuben and Simeon; the latter was still captive in Egypt, which could imply Simeonites who later fled from the Judah government. Moreover, in this version of the events, Benjamin may not have been reunited with Joseph in Egypt, which would seal Simeon's fate.

Genesis 43, 44, & 45

Although it appears "E" wrote the majority of these three chapters, it is also clear there are interpolations within the text.

The famine was severe in the land of Canaan, thus after the family finished the grain they had purchased in Egypt, the patriarch wanted the brothers to return. These verses appear to have been a continuation of verse 5 of the last chapter, which I stated belonged with the "E" verse 57 of chapter 41.

Ch 41: "57. And all the world came to Egypt to buy, to Joseph, because was severe the famine in all the world."

Ch 42: "5. And came the _sons of Israel_ to buy among those who came, because was the famine in the land of Canaan."

Ch 43: "1. Now the famine in the land was severe. 2. When they had used up the grain they had brought back from Egypt, their father said to them, "Go back and buy us some food."

However, entering the text, one will realize the events follow those of chapter 42, as Judah told _Israel_ they had to bring Benjamin with them if they returned to Egypt. To recapitulate, "E" wrote the majority of Genesis 37, Genesis 39 (minus the _Yahweh_ interpolations), and Genesis 40 & 41. At the end of chapter 41, Joseph had two sons and was the head of the entire house of Pharaoh. Then the redactor wove in an "S/J" written chapter 42, in which Joseph took Simeon captive until Benjamin was brought to him. Hence, if the redactor did not omit parts of the "E" narrative from the final product, it is possible this segment of the story was a later addition or layer by an "E" author who wanted to answer to and consolidate with "S/J" narrative. Therefore, the text moves the _sons of Israel_ back into Egypt and thus assists in creating the appearance of a unified _Israel nation_ that made a consolidated entrance into Palestine from east of the Jordan (Joshua invasions).

After Judah told his father it was essential that Benjamin accompany the brothers into Egypt ("S/J" accomplished in chapter 42 verse 34), Israel rebuked him for revealing they had another brother, to which Judah replied:

"if not I do bring him to you and set him in front of you, I will be a sinner against you all the days."

In the last chapter, Reuben wanted to ransom his sons, but here Judah swore his righteousness to his father. Hence, after Judah ascended over the united monarchy, the promise implied he would bring Benjamin back as part of the new kingdom, which means the author placed the fate of Benjamin within the hands of Judah.

Israel sent his sons to Joseph with the best goods from the land, as well as double the grain money in order to repay the money they found upon their last return home. Then with verse 14:

"14. And 'El Shaday may give to you mercy in the presence of the man, and may he send to you -your brother other and Benjamin. And I, if I am bereaved, I am bereaved."

"E" was consistent in using _'Elohim_ for the name of the deity, thus the _'El Shaday_ interpolation is rather conspicuous. In the "E" narrative (that is included), the brothers were not previously in Egypt, which means Joseph did not take Simeon (brother other) captive. Since he used the name _'El Shaday_ , the author aligned this text with an upcoming story in the book of Exodus, which associates Yahweh with the older deity. Hence, a later redactor served two objectives with one insert. He first amended the "E" story to include the hostage Simeon, but he also prepared the scene for the forthcoming name revelation by the deity.

The _sons of Israel_ went down to Joseph with the money and gifts. When they arrived in Egypt and Joseph perceived Benjamin, he told his steward to bring his brothers to his house. The brothers explained their situation to Joseph's steward and mentioned they had brought extra money with them for repayment. They were then brought to Joseph, where they prostrated themselves before him, after which they all partook in a feast. During this feast, Benjamin received a double portion, which could intimate a house of Joseph alliance with an institution in Benjamin, if not an author attributing the wealth and success of Benjamin to the house of Joseph. However, since authors portrayed Benjamin as the _last child_ , it is possible that a portion of the region was once a part of Ephraim, hence, a transfer of wealth.

In chapter 44, Joseph instructed his steward to fill the packs of his brothers with all the food and money they could carry. However, Joseph also had him plant a silver cup in Benjamin's pack. When Joseph's servants caught the brothers, his steward told them the guilty person would become a slave, but he would view the others as innocent. When the cup was found in the pack of Benjamin, Judah and his brothers returned to Joseph. Judah pleaded that he would willingly become a slave if only his brothers could return to their father. Due to the fact he guaranteed the safe return of Benjamin, he would not return without him while his father went to the grave in misery.

Benjamin was framed as a thief because the region would become the center of the unified kingdom, which stole power and wealth from the house of Joseph. However, Judah accepted accountability because a Judah-based coalition conquered the land of Benjamin and centered its government in Jerusalem.

In chapter 45, the Joseph narratives return to a discernible weave of the two religious factions. Joseph finally revealed himself to his brothers. When they became afraid, Joseph explained their actions were part of the plan of 'Elohim. He then asked his brothers to bring their father down to him, because due to 'Elohim, Joseph was the lord over all of Egypt. All the children of his father, the children of their children, and all their livestock would dwell in the land of Goshen. There Joseph would nourish them because there were five years left of the famine.

When Pharaoh heard that Joseph's brothers had arrived in Egypt, he instructed Joseph to send his brothers to Canaan to bring back their father. "E" already had Joseph send for the patriarch in verse 9, thus verse 16 enters the "S/J" narrative. Joseph's family was not to concern themselves with their belongings, because they would eat off the richness of the land. To each man, Joseph gave garments, but to Benjamin, he gave three hundred silver pieces and five changes of garments, which could reflect the wealth brought by the Shiloh priests from the house of Joseph when they migrated into Benjamin. In addition, this text is obviously from a later layer of the "S/J" narrative, because Benjamin is now in Egypt. This _later_ Shiloh-Judah author had a distinct style, which is fashioned by a name split. The brothers arrived in the land of Canaan to _Jacob_ , and _Israel_ decided to visit Joseph in Egypt.

Genesis 46:1-7

Israel departed for Egypt and on the way, he arrived in Beersheba.

"1. And departed Israel, and all belongings to him. And he came to Beersheba, and he offered sacrifices to the 'Elohim his father Isaac. 2. And said 'Elohim to Israel in visions of the night, and He spoke, Jacob! Jacob! And he answered, I {am} here! 3. And He said, I am 'El, the 'Elohim forefathers. not Do be afraid to go down into Egypt, because a nation great I will make of you there. 4. I will go down with you into Egypt. And I, I will return you also surely. And Joseph will put his hand upon your eyes. 5. And arose Jacob from Beer- sheba and carried the _sons of Israel_ , Jacob, their father, and their little ones, and their wives in the wagons which had sent Pharaoh to carry him. 6. And they took their livestock and their property which they gained in the land of Canaan, and they entered Egypt-- Jacob and all his seed with him."

Verse 1a follows verse 28 of the last chapter, and then the later "S/J" author placed the patriarch back in Beersheba, which intimates peoples were driven out of the city and into Egypt. Moreover, to display the short-lived unification of Judah and Israel, this author referred to both _Jacob_ and _Israel_ within the same verse or statement. This style not only consolidates the countries, as well as the texts that refer to the patriarch by different names, it renders Jacob the patriarch of Judah. As perceived, the texts had subtly moved him into the religious cities of Israel. Abraham was only portrayed in Israel in a couple brief interpolations. The author used this same style in Genesis 49 and subtly displayed the future of certain entities. He consolidated the texts and the countries in this chapter, but in Genesis 49, he delivered the fate of the twelve tribes.

Genesis 46:8-27

With verse 8, the later "S/J" author (name split) stated these are the names of _sons of Israel_ , _Jacob and his sons_ , who went into Egypt. The author most likely sourced the following list from various records and traditions.

The sons of Reuben were Hanoch, Pallu, Hezron, and Carmi. I have already covered the first three sons, and in Numbers 16:1, an author referred to Pallu as _Peleth_ , who in 1 Chronicles 2:33 is a descendant of Judah. These _sons of Reuben_ represent the Reubenite time west of the Jordan.

The sons of Simeon were Jemuel, Jamin, Ohad, Jachin, Zohar, and Saul, the son of a Canaanite woman. The Simeonites were a product of Aram and Egypt, the latter is conveyed with the arrival of his son _Jamin_ , i.e., peoples from the south. The name _Ohad_ means, "united", and most likely conveys an alliance that engendered his brother _Jachin_ , which means, "he will establish", and was the name on the right hand pillar of the temple (1 Kings 7:21). Therefore, a _kingdom established_ , which either points to Simeonite defectors who joined the Judah alliance, or Simeonites who migrated into Jerusalem as part of a ruling coalition prior to the reign of King Solomon. Zohar is the name of a descendant of Judah in 1 Chronicles 4:7, as well as a Hittite in Genesis 23:8, which merely displays the early Hittite presence in Judah and Simeon (the latter became part of Judah). Finally, Saul represents Edomites who settled in southern Judah (Simeon) and later arose to power in Benjamin.

As covered, the sons of Levi were Gershom, Kohath, and Merari.

The sons of Judah were Er, Onan, Shelah, Perez, and Zerah. All these names are represented in the story of Genesis 38. The sons of Perez were Hezron and Hamul. Therefore, Hezron, a one-time son of Reuben, and Hamul, which means, "spared" ( _Hezron was spared_ ), were allowed to remain in Judah under the new religious hierarchy.

The sons of Issachar were Tola, Puah, Job, and Shimron. I explore these names forthcoming. In proximity to Issachar, the sons of Zebulun were Sered, Elon, and Jahleel. Elon is the name of a Hittite whose daughter married Esau in Genesis 26:34 (and 36:2), which again points to the Hittite presence in the early kingdoms of Israel and Judah.

The sons of Gad were Ziphion, Haggi, Shuni, Ezbon, Eri, Arodi, and Areli, which are names that predominantly fall under the category of unknown entities or author intentions. There is a more informative list of Gadites in 1 Chronicles 5 that I cover in-depth.

The sons of Asher were Jimnah, Ishuah, Isui, Beriah, and their sister Sarah, i.e., an alliance with Judah. The first three sons are not unlike the sons of Gad, and could represent an early period before the state of Asher was affiliated with matters of the south. The sons of Beriah were Heber and Malchiel. The name _Beriah_ was derived from a word used to denote "trouble" or "evil". In addition, the name _Heber_ was derived from a word that means, "community". Finally, the name _Malchiel_ means, "King 'El". Beriah and his sons represent an _evil_ or _troublesome community of kings_. There were migrations out of Asher into Judah, Benjamin, and Ephraim, and Levitical authors were not in favor of the religious institutions that were comprised of and allied with the Asherites. In 1 Chronicles 7:23, Ephraim had a son named Beriah, because there was _evil_ upon his house. Moreover, there were migrations from Asher into Judah, and the name _Hebron_ was derived from the name _Heber_. Although the name could merely denote a _community in Hebron_ , the Hebron coalition forced the would-be Levites out of the country.

The sons of Benjamin were Bela, Becher, Ashbel, Gera, Naaman, Ehi, Rosh, Muppin, Huppin, and Ard. The king of Bela, which was the same place as Zoar (Gen. 14:2), was one of the kings who went to battle against the kings from the east. However, most scholars place Zoar east of the Jordan. Hence, Bela could represent another exile out of Benjamin. Bela is also the name of an Edomite in Genesis 36:32. Forthcoming, I clearly display an Edomite presence in Benjamin. The name _Naaman_ is a singular variation of the word _Naamanin_ , or _pleasantness_ , and both names were derived from a word that means, "beauty". Therefore, understanding the migrations into the region from the north, it is possible the name Naaman represents the deity Adonis ( _Naamanin_ could represent the plural _Adonai_ ). Per ancient mythology, Adonis was the son of an Aramean king; hence, _Naaman_ could represent Arameans who entered Palestine by way of Phoenicia, as well as the presence of the cult itself. In 2 Kings 5:1, a man named Naaman is an Aramean General from a later period, which also points to a possible northern origin for the name. Naaman is also represented in the story of Ruth and in a 1 Chronicles 8 genealogy. In both texts, the entity was exiled into Moab. Therefore, these entities of Benjamin appear to represent early religious establishments that were exiled across the Jordan and to northern Dan. There are more informative lists of Benjamites in 1 Chronicles 7 & 8.

Hushim was the only son of Dan. In 1 Chronicles 8:8, an author portrayed Hushim as a wife of Shaharaim, whose descendants built Ownow and Lod in Benjamin. The peoples represented by Hushim were exiled out of Benjamin before they found a home in northern Dan.

The sons of Naphtali were Jahzeel, Guni, Jezer, and Shillem. The name _Jahzeel_ means, "'El divided", which could symbolize either a divided kingdom centered in Hazor, or the later conquest of Laish in northern Israel, which the conquerors renamed Dan. Stories cover these two events forthcoming. An author referred to the last son Shillem as _Shallum_ in 1 Chronicles 7:14. Shallum is a Simeonite in 1 Chronicles 4:25, and a descendant of Judah in 1 Chronicles 2:40, which could refer to entities from Judah who migrated to northern Israel (Judges 4:11). The name Shillem, from this chapter, was derived from the word _shillum_ , which can denote a bribe or retribution. Therefore, this version of the name could have been a statement in reference to religious leadership in Naphtali, and possibly the city of Dan.

Genesis 46:28- Genesis 47:12

With verse 28, "E" continued the narrative from the last chapter. After Israel departed from Canaan, he sent Judah ahead to obtain directions to Goshen. When the family arrived, Joseph went in his chariot to meet Israel. He then told his brothers he would announce their arrival to Pharaoh. Joseph would tell Pharaoh his brothers were shepherding their flocks, which they brought with them because they were men of livestock. However, if Pharaoh inquired of their occupation, they were to tell him they were men of livestock, because shepherds of flocks were an abomination to the Egyptians. In the obvious interpolation, an author attempted to make a distinction between cattle herders and those who raised sheep or goats.

Moving into chapter 47, Joseph informed Pharaoh of his family's arrival in the land of Goshen. He then gathered five men from among his kinsmen and brought them to Pharaoh, who asked them of their livelihood. The men answered:

"shepherds of flocks, we and our forefathers."

This passage clearly contradicts the one that began at verse 33 of the last chapter.

"33. And it will be when calls to you Pharaoh and says, What {is} your occupation? 34. And you will say, men of cattle have been Your servants from our youth and until now, both we and our forefathers, so that you may live in the land of Goshen, because the abomination of Egypt {is} every shepherd of flocks."

There were independent camps that migrated out of Egypt and these verses merely display the contention between the divided or distinct peoples.

The brothers informed Pharaoh that they came to Egypt because the famine in Canaan devastated the grazing lands for their sheep. Therefore, they wanted to settle in the land of Goshen. Pharaoh told Joseph they could live in the land of Goshen and if any of the men were capable, he was to place them in charge of Pharaoh's livestock.

In an "S/J" passage, Pharaoh spoke to Joseph and told him the best land in Egypt was there for his family to dwell. Then Joseph, who previously lived in the house of Pharaoh, settled with his father and brothers in the land of Ramses. The mention of Ramses dates these traditions in Egypt in a period _after_ 1213 BCE. However, this latter segment appears to represent different peoples than those who came out of Goshen, which was a region approaching Egypt. The section moves toward an end and Joseph nourished his fathers and brothers with food according to their families

Genesis 47:13-26

In this section, the actions of Joseph were rather interesting. Due to the famine, there was a lack of sustenance in the lands of Egypt and Canaan. Joseph gathered all the money in Egypt and Canaan for the grain he sold to the people, which he brought to the house of Pharaoh. However, when the people of Egypt were out of money and they were upon death, he then traded all their horses, donkeys, flocks, and cattle for food. Then after they traded all their flocks and livestock and were once again upon death, they traded themselves and their land for food. The land of Egypt became the land of Pharaoh and all the people became his servants. However, the land of the priests was not purchased because Pharaoh had assigned them a portion. Since Joseph bought the people and all of their land, four portions of the yield went to them for seeds and sustenance, and a fifth of the yield belonged to Pharaoh. Joseph saved the people's lives, thus they became his servants. Therefore, Joseph passed the aforementioned into law, which was still binding at the time of authorship. However, the author had an unequivocal objective when he wrote these verses. During this era, the people believed the Pharaoh was a deity. Hence, due to this story, the people of Israel and Judah could draw a parallel when their deity, i.e., the priests, stated an allotment of the land belonged to the priests and a percentage of the people's yield belonged to the deity. The author thought the existence of this text would facilitate obeisance.

Genesis 47:27-31

In this short section, Israel dwelt in the land of Goshen and his possessions increased exceedingly. The text mentions Jacob's age and his time spent in Egypt. As the chapter comes to a close, Israel was growing old and asked Joseph not to bury him Egypt, but to carry him into the land of Canaan and bury him with his father.

Genesis 48

This chapter consists of two stories that deal with the inheritance for the sons of Joseph. After a short weave or introduction, with verse 3, the "S/J" text continues through verse 8. Jacob spoke to Joseph and said when 'El Shaday appeared to him at Luz in the land of Canaan, the deity blessed him and told him he would be fruitful and multiply (a familiar style). Therefore, Joseph's sons born in Egypt belonged to Jacob, i.e., the two peoples became part of the Judah-based institution. Ephraim and Manasseh would be like Reuben and Simeon. Not only were Reuben and Simeon Jacob's first two sons, both peoples were supplanted in Judah. The new institution replaced the Reubenites and the Simeonites with the house of Joseph, which for this author implies the Shiloh priests.

"E" begins his version of the event with verse 9. Joseph brought his sons to Israel, but his father did not recognize them because his eyes were dim, i.e., he was close to death, which was a theme used by a Levitical author when Isaac blessed Jacob and Esau. Because Manasseh was first-born, Joseph took Ephraim to the left hand of Israel and Manasseh to the right. However, Israel crossed his hands when he placed them upon their heads, which displeased Joseph, but Israel told him Manasseh would become great, but his brother would be greater.

As the chapter moves to an end, Israel gave Joseph a portion above his brothers. Hence, the author gave Joseph the first-born inheritance, as his school attempted when an author had Israel give the coat of the priesthood to Joseph in Genesis 37:3. Moreover, in a critical verse, Israel told Joseph that 'Elohim would bring him into the land of his father, which he took from the Amorites with his sword and bow. In the narratives that were included in the Old Testament, Joseph never returned to the land of his father, but it appears in other traditions he did. Furthermore, in a Genesis 15 "D" interpolation, the deity told Abram the people would return to the land in four hundred years when the inequity of the Amorites was full, but this "E" text already has them conquered. "D" wrote the interpolation because the statement in this chapter does not align with the events in books to come. The events in forthcoming books happened during approximately the same era as the stories covered thus far. However, later authors wanted their subjects to perceive these occurrences within a unified and chronological development of the people.

Genesis 49

The chapter begins with a few words that instantly ring of consolidation.

"Gather yourselves and hear, sons of Jacob; and listen to Israel your father."

This text is from the "S/J" school, which comes from the era referenced in Genesis 46 (splitting of the names). Scholars refer to the text as The _Blessings of Jacob_ and it reveals important information about the author.

The first blessing went to Reuben.

"Reuben, my firstborn, you {are}, my vigor the beginning of my power."

"Like uncontrolled water, not you will excel, because you went up to the bed of your father."

In Genesis 35:22:

"And it was, during living Israel's in land that, that went Reuben and lay with Bilhah, concubine his father's."

Bilhah was the mother of Dan and Naphtali. However, due to the fact the name represents the same people as Bilhan, this statement could have been directed at the Edomites in Benjamin (1 Chronicles 7:10), who in part migrated to northern Dan. It appears an association with these Edomites precipitated the decline of the Reubenites.

The author continued and denounced Simeon and Levi for their violence.

"5 Simeon and Levi are brothers,{are} tools of violence their weapons. They will be divided in Jacob and scattered in Israel."

"P" recalled these actions in Genesis 34. However, it is not insignificant that the author referred to Simeon and Levi as brothers. Authors portrayed all the _sons of Jacob_ as brothers, thus one should take heed of the extra mention. This portrayal implies the Simeonites produced at least a portion of the Levites. They were _divided in Jacob_ when the old coalition was conquered in Judah and the would-be Levites fled the country. They were _scattered in Israel_ when various sects from Judah were again displaced in Israel cities that included Ramah, Shechem, and Bethel. In his blessings for the first three _sons of Leah_ , this "S/J" priest justified the displacement of the old Judah institution, or the Reubenites, the Simeonites, and the would-be Levites.

Judah's brothers would praise him while his hand would be on the necks of his enemies. The scepter would remain with his descendants:

"until comes shiloh and to him the obedience of peoples."

Many translations of the last verse change _shiloh_ to read, "until the ruler comes", along with other similar interpretations. The verse refers to the priests of Shiloh, who would arrive in Benjamin with the Judah-based institution and attain their religious and thus political eminence.

Zebulun would live by the seashore and harbor ships, which is a statement that probably denotes a significant harbor for trade. His border would extend to Sidon, which could imply their territory, along with Asher, became part of the Phoenician kingdom.

Issachar was an early ally of Judah, but the author stated when he realizes the beauty of his land, he would submit to forced labor. It appears the united monarchy placed a heavy labor burden on many of the peoples in Israel, which may not have changed with subsequent institutions.

Dan would _judge_ his people as one of the _tribes of Israel_ , which conveys this was not always the case and thus refers to a period before the conquest of Laish. Moreover, the statement could imply the people did not take the name _Danites_ until they arrived in northern Israel. Thus in the south, they would not have been a state or "tribe", but merely Edomites (and others) in southern Canaan.

Gad and Asher received rather short blessings. People would raid the territory of Gad, but he would bite the heels of the invaders, which is a statement that implies an attack from behind. Asher would become prosperous and provide delicacies for a king, which is displayed when King Hiram assisted Solomon in building the Jerusalem temple.

Naphtali would live as a doe set free and have beautiful children, which could intimate a people who were once oppressed in northern Israel, but later gained their freedom.

Joseph was a fruitful son beside a spring and his daughters marched over a wall, which may refer to the Shiloh migration into Benjamin with the fall of their religious institution.

"23. And vex him and shoot, and lurk for him a man of arrows, 24. but remains firmly his bow, and agile are the arms of his hands, from the hands of Mighty One Jacob's, from there the Shepherd, the Rock of Israel. 25. From the 'El of your father, May He help you. And Shaday may He bless you with blessings of Heaven."

The _mighty hand of Jacob_ and the _shepherd from the rock of Israel_ refer to Judah's alliance with the Shiloh sect out of Israel. In verse 25, the "S/J" author demonstrated his sect's one-time allegiance to 'El Shaday.

Benjamin was a ravenous wolf that devoured his prey in the morning and divided the plunder at night. This verse is self-explanatory. The power and wealth of the kingdom was centered in Benjamin.

In verse 29, Jacob asked his sons to bury him with his father in the cave that is in the field of Ephron the Hittite. The author did not state the field purchased from Ephron the Hittite, but in _Ephron's field_. Therefore, the author wrote this verse before the Hittites were forced out of the Judah coalition. Then with verse 30, an interpolation mentions the later testimony about the purchase of Ephron's field ("P" writing within the "S/J" texts).

"the cave that is in the field of Machpelah before the face of Mamre in the land of Canaan which bought Abraham the field from Ephron the Hittite."

Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, and Leah were buried there. However, in the earlier written burial of Isaac, the author failed to mention the cave and the field, but "P" wrote this verse during a period of consolidation. Then verse 32 conspicuously reiterates:

"the purchase of the field and the cave that is it in front of the sons of Heth."

In verse 33, Jacob passed away and the chapter ends.

Genesis 50

"E" begins the last book of Genesis. Joseph commanded his physician servants to embalm Israel, which took forty days. Then, to consolidate the Joseph narratives with the Moses myths, the author has Joseph leave the country to bury his father in Hebron, but then return to Egypt. Therefore, Joseph left for Canaan with his entire family (excluding the young), all the servants of Pharaoh, and all the elders of Egypt. They came to a place east of the Jordan named Atad, where they mourned for seven days. Since the Canaanites perceived the grave mourning of an Egyptian, they called the place Abel-Mizraim, which means, "meadow of Egypt". Then the redactor wove in the familiar "P" testimony.

"13. And carried him his sons to the land of Canaan, and buried him in the cave of the field of Machpelah, which bought Abraham the field for a place of burial, from Ephron the Hittite, in front of Mamre."

One is moved to inquire what they were doing east of the Jordan when they were going to bury the patriarch in Hebron. Assuming any of the following survived the fictitious famine, they would not have been avoiding the Philistines, because Judah had a covenant with the Philistines, which was displayed at the city of Beersheba. The route would not have been due to the Amorites, because Abram had a covenant with them in Genesis 14:13, and in chapter 48 verse 22, Israel told Joseph they had been conquered by the sword and bow. Moreover, Abram had purchased the field and thus the burial place in Hebron from the Hittites. However, there is a reason for their travels east of the Jordan. In the original Joseph stories, as Israel stated in chapter 48, the _Joseph tribes_ left Egypt and settled lands east of the Jordan, after which a portion of them entered Israel as the _Hebrews_. Atad was called _Abel-Mizraim_ because peoples from Egypt settled lands east of the Jordan, not due to the perceived mourning of an Egyptian.

Therefore, it appears the _Joseph tribes_ did migrate out of Egypt. Furthermore, the story of betrayal by Joseph's brothers represents the actual conquest of peoples in Canaan. The peoples forced into Egypt included Ishmaelites and Edomites, which makes sense due to the fact both peoples were exiled out of Judah. However, with the prejudice and jingoism conveyed in later _Israelite_ texts, authors subtly veiled the true ancestry of the peoples who returned from Egypt. However, there is a prominent figure from the house of Joseph that one can connect to the Joseph narrative. In 1 Kings 11:40, Jeroboam lifted a hand against King Solomon, but subsequently he fled into Egypt. He later returned and became the king of Israel. The name _Jeroboam_ means, "the people increase", and the name _Joseph_ was derived from a word that means, "adding" or "increasing". Jeroboam was the son of _Nebat_ , and in Genesis 36:3, Esau took a wife named Basemath, who was the daughter of Ishmael and the sister of Nebaioth, a name derived from _Nebat_. This coalition of Ishmaelites, Edomites, and other would-be _Israelites_ made a move for religious power in Canaan, but they were forced south into Egypt. There they dwelt until a time later when their divisions settled east of the Jordan, after which several camps made a move across the river into Canaan. In the first book of Kings, I further explore this postulate.

The book of Genesis moves toward a close. Joseph was about to pass, but 'Elohim would lead his people out of Egypt and into the land promised to Abraham, Isaac (later authorship), and Jacob. He lived in Egypt to see the sons of Ephraim to the third generation, as well as the sons of Machir, the son of Manasseh. Joseph made an oath with the _sons of Israel_ that 'Elohim would visit them and they would carry his bones out of Egypt.

Table of Contents

On the Book of Exodus

An author begins the book of Exodus by connecting the Joseph narratives to the story of Moses. While studying the Moses myths, it becomes apparent Moses had ties to the country of Moab and was most likely at one time a Moabite hero, albeit the predominantly later authorship and layers of his story veil this fact. However, since the Moabites had a Judah and Benjamin element, the fact would not render Moses a foreign entity to Judah or Israel. Although the stories of Moses were consolidated with the Joseph traditions, authors placed forth an intimation of contention between a sect represented by Moses and the later sons of Merari. Although the texts do not reveal the origin of this contention, a battle for religious and political eminence is a safe assumption.

Exodus 1

Entering the book of Exodus, there are six verses by an "S/J" author that list the twelve sons of the patriarch who came into Egypt, followed by the generation of Joseph and his brothers coming to pass. However, one should not dismiss verse 1 with any haste. It mentions the _sons of Israel_ who came to Egypt with _Jacob_ , which is the same terminology "S/J" used in Genesis 46:8, but moving forward, the _sons of Israel_ usage engenders a few questions. In the Joseph narratives, one author referred to Jacob as Israel, thus the verse reads rather sensibly. However, from this point on, the term _sons of Israel_ takes on a new meaning and represents the collective Jehudaites and Israelites throughout the ages. The first question is why authors used the term _sons of Israel_ instead of _sons of Jacob_. From the books of Kings, one can understand that for the majority of their history, the kingdoms of Judah and Israel were bitter enemies, not to mention the fact Israel rebelled against Judah and gained their independence. This contention renders the blanket use of the term as the name for the peoples of both countries all the more enigmatic, because the priests and leaders from Judah would not refer to themselves by the name of their enemy. Moreover, within the narratives that detail the period prior to the Kings history, there is overt evidence of a complete lack of unity and constant warfare between the would-be _sons of Israel_. Therefore, the term necessarily originated in Israel, but became a name for the collective people during a consolidation period of the Jerusalem monarchy. The integration era occurred when peoples and priests from Israel began to amass in Judah, but they brought their identity with them. Within the Jerusalem monarchy, the term _sons of Israel_ served well in including the people of Israel within the Judah-based Yahweh institution. Thus, as the peoples and their histories coalesced in Judah, authors with Judah ancestry used the term as a mode of consolidation. Thereafter, the term became tradition or simply the understood collective name for the people. Hence, the texts that include the names _Yahweh_ and _sons of Israel_ were written after the conception of the Jerusalem monarchy. Although scholars ascribe many of these texts to a "J" school, the majority were written by early "S/J" authors and by "J/I" ("E") exiles from Israel who amassed in Judah, while a fair amount by "P" and "D" originated in Judah after the Assyrian invasion of Israel. Furthermore, authors re-wrote or amended numerous narratives to include _Yahweh_ and/or the _sons of Israel_ when the texts were originally about other deities and religious institutions, were from an era before the term _sons of Israel_ came into use, and before the creation of and wide spread move to Yahweh worship. The same phenomenon occurred with texts that authors changed to include the _sons of Aaron_ and the _Levites_.

In verses 7 though 14, there is a consolidation segment from the "S/J" school. The _sons of Israel_ were fruitful and teeming and they multiplied across the land, which is a very distinct and familiar style. By the time a king arose over Egypt who did not have knowledge of Joseph, the _sons of Israel_ had grown powerful in numbers, which evoked fear within the new king. Therefore, he placed the _sons of Israel_ under masters and afflicted them with hard work. They built the cities of Pithom and Ramses for Pharaoh.

The "E" narrative begins with verse 15. The king of Egypt spoke to the Hebrew midwives named Shiphrah and Puah. The name _Shiphrah_ was derived from a word that means, "fairness" or "beauty", and like the beauty of Sarai in Egypt, is meant to imply 'Elohim favored the Hebrews over the Egyptians. In the first section, the author referred to the people as the _sons of Israel_ , but "E" wrote that his ancestors were _Hebrews_. An author used the term once in a Genesis 14 interpolation, then the label was silent until the Joseph narratives, in which the "E" author used the term with purposeful intent. As the story continues, the king instructed the midwives to kill all the sons born to the Hebrew women, but they could spare their daughters. However, the midwives feared 'Elohim and refused to kill them, which caused the people to multiply. From a different version of the "E" narrative, _Pharaoh_ instructed the people to allow the Hebrew daughters to live, but to throw all the sons into the Nile.

Exodus 2

"E" begins the chapter with a story on the birth of Moses. In this portion of the narrative, written after the original Moses myths and after the would-be Levites split from the Judah institution, "E" rendered Moses a full-blooded Levite.

"1. And went a man from the household of Levi and took a daughter of Levi."

The story continues and a male child was born. His mother hid the baby for three months, but when she could no longer accomplish this, she settled him in a basket and placed it within the reeds by the river. His sister watched the infant to observe his fate, which came into being when the daughter of Pharaoh found him. Pharaoh's daughter noticed the baby was one of the Hebrews, and she unknowingly had his mother nurse him until he was old enough to take into the house of Pharaoh. The daughter of Pharaoh named the child _Moses_ (from a word that means _to draw_ ), because she drew him out of the water.

When "E" wrote that Moses was a _Hebrew_ , he made a double claim to the ancestry of the great prophet; Moses was a Levite and a Hebrew. Furthermore, his portrayed childhood marks the second time "E" placed a significant figure from his mythology within the house of Pharaoh. I find this theme quite interesting, which intimates Egyptian ancestry, while maintaining their later identity. Although Moses was raised in the house of Pharaoh, he was of Hebrew and Levite blood. This subtle change from the Joseph narrative, in which his sons were part Egyptian, may have been due to later prejudice.

As timed passed and Moses grew in years, he observed an Egyptian man beating one of his Hebrew brothers, which incited Moses to kill the Egyptian. Even though the daughter of Pharaoh nurtured him, the author wanted to portray Moses as understanding his true ancestry. This murder could represent the hostility between peoples in Egypt and the Egyptian hierarchy that prompted the later escape from the country.

Following the first incident, Moses perceived two Hebrews fighting. When Moses came between them, they asked who made him a leader and judge over them, as well as if he planned to kill one of them as he had done with the Egyptian. Pharaoh heard of the earlier murder and sought to kill Moses, who then fled to the land of Midian. In reflecting on this short segment, it appears the true contention was with the Hebrews or Moses' own people and the author included Pharaoh in a mode of consolidation. This sect fled to Midian from their brothers (covered forthcoming), but later fled from Pharaoh in Egypt. Furthermore, certain peoples migrated into Canaan from Egypt, but then were later forced to return south by a Judah government. The author consolidated the events into one story, which is a common occurrence in the narratives. Therefore, this escape to Midian most likely represents an "E" sect that allied with the Midianites when they were forced out of Judah. An author subtly displayed this event in Genesis 37:36, when the Midianites sold Joseph into Egypt, i.e., the two peoples traveled into Egypt together. In addition, the dispute between the two Hebrews, an ancestry this "E" sect imputed on all the _sons of Israel_ , could represent the civil war in Judah that forced the Joseph tribes into Egypt.

With verse 16, the "S/J" story continues through verse 22. As Moses sat beside a well, seven (oath) daughters of Reuel, the priest of Midian, came to water their flocks. Moses assisted the women and they in turn told their father. Moses agreed to live with Reuel, who gave Moses his daughter Zipporah for a wife. The name _Zipporah_ , or _Tsiporaah_ in Hebrew, is the feminine variation of the name _Tsippowr_ , a king of Moab. An author displayed this Moabite element of an early Judah institution in the book of Ruth when he conveyed King David was of Moabite descent. Moreover, since the author portrayed Zipporah as the daughter of a Midianite priest, he conveyed an early Judah coalition that included southern-based peoples. Zipporah conceived and later gave birth to a son named Gershom, which means, "refugee". _Gershom_ represents the same entity as the son of Levi, or the Levitical priests who would in part preside in northern Dan. I have premised a later Edomite presence in northern Dan, and in Genesis 36:10, Reuel is the son of Esau. Since the author portrayed Reuel as a Midianite, it illustrates the Edomites who were forced out of Judah and joined a group of Midianites in route to Egypt, without overtly revealing that a segment of the _Joseph tribes_ were Edomites.

In verses 23 & 24, "P" moves the narrative to the end of the chapter. When the king of Egypt finally passed, the _sons of Israel_ cried out to 'Elohim because of their difficult labor. 'Elohim heard their cries and remembered his covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.

Exodus 3

In this chapter, the "E" story resumes from where it left off in verse 15a of the last chapter. "E" referred to Moses' Midianite father-in-law as _Jethro_ , where the author writing in the last chapter referred to him as _Reuel_. The name _Jethro_ is a variation of the name _Jether_ , an Ishmaelite in 1 Chronicles 2:17, and this is not the only instance in the narratives in which authors associated the Midianites with the Ishmaelites. Furthermore, the Edomites and Ishmaelites intermarried, i.e., coalesced, which in part produced the _Joseph tribes_ who fled into Egypt.

Here is the "E" text that begins the chapter, but divested of the later Yahweh interpolations.

"And Moses was tending the flock of Jethro, his father-in-law, the priest of Midian. And he led the flock behind the desert and came to the mountain of 'Elohim, to Horeb. and look, a thorn bush was burning with fire, but the thorn bush was not burned up. 3. And said Moses, Now I will turn aside and see sight great this, why not is burned up the thorn bush. and called out to him 'Elohim from the middle of the thorn bush, and said, Moses! And he said, I {am} here. 5. And He said, Do not come near here. Pull off your sandals from your feet, because the place which you {are} standing on it, ground holy it is."

One will come to realize the Levitical school consistently referred to this mountain as Horeb, where "P" referred to it as _Sinai_.

The "P" narrative resumes with verse 6. The deity told Moses he was the 'Elohim of his forefathers, the 'Elohim of Abraham, the 'Elohim of Isaac, and the 'Elohim of Jacob. Moses hid his face because he was afraid to look toward the deity. Since Moses was afraid of the face of 'Elohim, the author diminished the affinity between them. "P" consistently placed forth subtle statements to shade the glory of Moses, who "E" transformed into a Levite, i.e., opposing sects of priests. "P" wrote after "E", who not only claimed ancestral ties to Moses, he harshly censured the priests of Aaron and the "P" school.

In the Levitical written verses 7 & 8, Yahweh perceived the affliction in Egypt and came down to deliver the people from their bondage. He would deliver them:

"to a land flowing {with} milk and honey, to the place of the Canaanite and the Hittite, and the Amorite, and the Perizzite, and the Hivite, and the Jebusite."

Levitical authors continually placed the above list of tribes (minus the Kenites) within their narrative to denote whose land the _sons of Israel_ were to conquer. This verse instilled a divine decree and rendered the appearance of a chosen race.

With verse 9, the "P" story continues from where it left off in verse 6. Reading the segments together, verse 6 leads directly into these verses with the same terminology and meager portrayal of Moses (verse 6 italicized).

"6. And He said, I {am} the 'Elohim forefathers, the 'Elohim Abraham, the 'Elohim Isaac, and the 'Elohim Jacob. And hid Moses his face because he was afraid to look toward 'Elohim 9. And now, listen, the cry of the _sons of Israel_ has come to Me, and also have I seen the oppression {with} which the Egyptians are oppressing them. 10. And now, go, and I will send you to Pharaoh. And you bring My people the _sons of Israel_ out of Egypt. 11. And said Moses to 'Elohim, Who {am} I that I should go to Pharaoh and that I should bring out the _sons of Israel_ from Egypt? 12. And He said, Because I will be with you, and this for you {will be} the sign that I have sent you, when you bring out the people from Egypt. You will serve 'Elohim on mountain this. 13. And said Moses to 'Elohim, Look, I {will} come to the _sons of Israel_ and say to them, The 'Elohim of your forefathers has sent me to you. And they will say to me, What {is} his name? What will I say to them? 14. And said 'Elohim to Moses, I am who I am! And He said, Thus you will say to the _sons of Israel_ , I am has sent me to you. 15. And said again 'Elohim to Moses, thus, You will say to the _sons of Israel_ , Yahweh, the 'Elohim forefathers, the 'Elohim Abraham, the 'Elohim Isaac, and the 'Elohim Jacob has sent me to you. This {is} My name forever, and this {is} My title to generation of generation."

The deity told Moses that he would send him to Pharaoh and Moses would bring the people out of Egypt. However, Moses showed a lack of faith when he questioned his worthiness of the task. He then inquired what he should say to the people if they asked the name of their forefather's deity. The word _ehyeh_ , or _I am_ , was used to convey _been_ or _become_ in the narratives. Regardless if their ancestors called the deity 'El, 'El Shaday, 'Elohim, or any other name, the deity had always been and would always be. "P" consolidated the worship of different deities. Moreover, there is another text in which the deity revealed his name to Moses and that text was extant at the time "P" wrote. Hence, "P" referred to the deity as _'Elohim_ until this point in the narrative, where he wrote this second version of the name revelation and from this point onward, he referred to the deity as _Yahweh_.

With verse 16, the "D" (or a would-be "D" school) narrative continues from verse 8, which is a continuation of the simple "E" story of the burning bush that "D" interpolated to include Yahweh (verses 7 and 8 italicized).

"7. And said Yahweh, surely I have seen the affliction of My people who {are} in Egypt, and their cry I have heard from before his slave drivers, because I know his sorrows. 8. And I have come to deliver him from the hand of Egypt and to deliver him from land that, to a land good and broad, to a land flowing {with} milk and honey, to the place of the Canaanite and the Hittite, and the Amorite, and the Perizzite, and the Hivite, and the Jebusite 16. Go and gather the elders of Israel, and say to them, Yahweh, the 'Elohim forefathers has appeared to me, the 'Elohim Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, saying, surely I have visited you and {what} is done to you in Egypt. 17. And I have said, I will bring up you from the affliction of Egypt to the land of the Canaanite, the Hittite, and the Amorite, and the Perizzite, and the Hivite, and the Jebusite, to a land flowing {with} milk and honey."

This author used the name Yahweh in verses 7 & 8, but he also interpolated the "E" story of verses 1 through 5 to prepare the scene for what was to come. As the amended story reads, the angel of Yahweh appeared to Moses in the burning bush, but he still did not know the name of the deity and thus referred to him as 'Elohim. In this segment, when the deity appeared to Moses, he was _Yahweh, the 'Elohim of his forefathers_ , i.e., _Yahweh_ , the deity your forefathers referred to as _'Elohim_. However, this author placed these verses at the end of an "E" text. Moving through the book of Exodus, I clearly display the "E" use of _'Elohim_ for the name of the deity, as well as the later _Yahweh_ interpolations into certain "E" texts. This author continues into verse 18 and Yahweh was the _'Elohim of the Hebrews_ , and he was _Yahweh, their 'Elohim_.

Exodus 4

The chapter begins in a discernible "P" manner (deity now referred as Yahweh in his texts). Moses was worried the people would not believe that Yahweh appeared to him. He brought forth his doubt, thus Yahweh turned Moses' staff into a snake. He began to run from it, but Yahweh commanded him to grab it by the tail and when he did, the snake turned back into a staff. By this display of power, the people would believe Yahweh was the 'Elohim of their forefathers, the 'Elohim of Abraham, the 'Elohim of Isaac, and the 'Elohim of Jacob. Yahweh then gave Moses two more signs to gain the support of the people, but Moses told Yahweh he was not a man of words. However, if Moses went to the people, the deity would teach him how to speak and instruct him what to say. Even with this reassurance, Moses displayed a lack of faith when he asked Yahweh to save the people by the hand of another. Yahweh became fierce with anger, but he knew Moses' brother, Aaron _the Levite_ , was skilled at speech. Therefore, Aaron would go to the people and speak for Moses.

With verses 18 & 20 (verse 19 is part of the next section), the redactor wove an "E" passage within the predominantly "P" chapter. Moses went to Jethro and asked if he could return to his brothers in Egypt. Jethro told him to leave in peace, thus Moses took his wife and sons and left for the land of Egypt with the staff of 'Elohim in his hand.

When Moses was in Midian, Yahweh instructed him to return to Egypt because the men who wanted him were dead. He was to show Pharaoh all the wonders that Yahweh placed in his hands, but the deity would harden the heart of Pharaoh and he would not listen. Moses was then to tell Pharaoh that _Israel_ was Yahweh's firstborn, and if he did not allow _Israel_ to leave and worship Yahweh, the deity would kill the firstborn of Pharaoh.

At an overnight campsite, Yahweh confronted Moses and sought to kill him. However, Zipporah intervened and cut off their sons' foreskin, which she threw at Moses' feet (a euphemism for genitals). She then told Moses he was a bridegroom of blood. The mere fact that Yahweh wanted to kill Moses renders this an audacious verse by "P", but the story actually implies that Moses was also uncircumcised, which would explain why Yahweh wanted to kill him. Moreover, Zipporah only circumcised the child to save Moses, not due to the covenant with Yahweh, which expresses they were not a part of it. The author segregated Moses from the covenant with the deity.

Yahweh sent Aaron to meet Moses in the wilderness. At the mountain of 'Elohim, Moses revealed to Aaron all that Yahweh had said, as well as the feats Moses was instructed to do. Aaron went and carried out the signs in front of the people, who then believed, bowed, and worshiped before the deity.

Exodus 5

In this chapter, the narrative progresses to the beginning of the plagues and miracles, but there are two versions of the events. In one version, Moses and Yahweh interact and perform the miracles, and in the other, authors included Aaron. When reading the texts with Moses and Aaron, it is often difficult to differentiate between the "P" texts that increased the role of Aaron, and the later redactor texts that included Aaron to blend the separate traditions together. In verse 3, an author mentioned the _'Elohim of the Hebrews_ and _Yahweh, our 'Elohim_. These terms are a distinct style of "D", which reveals the later school had a hand in creating the final narrative as it reads before us. However, one is most likely wondering how I can ascribe the _Yahweh our- their- my- your 'Elohim_ to the "D" school with such certainty. In the book of Deuteronomy, which is widely accepted to be the work of "D" (hence the label of the author), these mentioned labels occur approximately three hundred and five times. The repetitiveness is not a coincidence and shows a distinct style. The terms appear only three times in Genesis and twenty-seven times in Exodus, the latter contains more "D" interpolations because his hero Moses arrives in the narrative.

Moses and Aaron went to Pharaoh and told him Yahweh, the _'Elohim of Israel_ , instructed them to hold a festival in the desert. Pharaoh knew nothing of this Yahweh, thus he would not obey him and let _Israel_ go. He then told Moses and Aaron their distractions were causing the people to neglect their work. As the chapter moves toward an end, Pharaoh decided to increase the labor burden of the people.

Exodus 6

This chapter begins with a small "S/J" text, which "P" later expanded upon. In verse 2, the deity again revealed his identity to Moses.

"spoke 'Elohim to Moses, I Yahweh and I appeared to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob as 'El Shaday, but my name Yahweh, not did I reveal myself to them."

The fact the deity stated he did not reveal himself to the earlier patriarchs was an attempt to explain why their ancestors did not worship Yahweh. However, in Genesis 15, Abram referred to the deity as _Adonai Yahweh_ , in a Genesis 28:13 interpolation, the deity told Jacob he was _Yahweh, the 'Elohim of Abraham and Isaac_ , and in Genesis 29:32, Leah said _Yahweh_ had seen her affliction. These mere examples correlated with the "S/J" quote display the different traditions written in different eras that were not meant to be read together in a single narrative. Moreover, since the deity stated he appeared as _'El Shaday_ , it places this text in a different light. The Shiloh priests worshiped 'El Shaday as their tutelary deity, thus this text explained the older texts that failed to mention Yahweh, while at the same time it conveyed the true deity was the one worshiped at Shiloh.

One should take notice of Moses' uncircumcised lips in verse 12.

"12. And spoke Moses in the presence of Yahweh, saying, Look, the _sons of Israel_ not have listened to me, and how should hear me Pharaoh, I {am}{of} uncircumcised lips?"

Due to the fact Moses had uncircumcised lips, correlated with his possible lack of circumcision in chapter 4, "P" again suggested that Moses was not a part of the covenant with Yahweh.

Verse 14 begins a genealogy that depicts an early institution in the region of Judah. The list only includes the Reubenites, the Simeonites, and the Levites, which points to a time before a later institution conquered the aforementioned, gained control in Judah, and subsequently made a move for power in Israel. The sons of Reuben and Simeon are the same as in Genesis 46, but the list of Levites moves further down the line of descendants. However, during the period the text represents, these entities were simply _priests_ and _would-be Levitical sects_.

I covered the sons of Kohath in the introduction, the sons of Gershom were Libni and Shimei, and the sons of Merari were Mahali and Mushi. The name _Libni_ was derived from the word _laban_ , or _white_ , and it could denote Arameans who were part of an early religious hierarchy in Judah. I cover Shimei (a Simeonite in 1 Chronicles 4:26) and the demise of the entity he represents forthcoming. Finally, the name _Mahali_ means, "sick", and represents entities destined for failure. Reading _Mahali_ and _Mushi_ together could intimate the _sickness_ or fate of the Mushites.

In verse 19b, "these are the families of the Levites according to their generations." The initial genealogy ends here, and as stated, represents an early institution in Judah that included the Reubenites, the Simeonites, and the would-be Levites. Although there were later deemed _foreign peoples_ included in this coalition, these three tribes were the beginning of the peoples who later became the _sons of Israel_. However, as intimated in Genesis 29 & 49, these three groups, or first three _sons of Leah_ , would not endure in Judah.

Beginning with verse 20, either an interpolating author expanded upon the preceding list or a later text was added to it. This second segment only covers the descendants of Kohath, i.e., the alliance or coalition that moved forward toward the achievement of the united monarchy. In addition, due to the fact _Hebron the son_ represents the city of Hebron, the author only included the sons of Amram, Izhar, and Uzziel.

Amram, _or people of Ram_ , married Jochebed, who was the sister of his father. In 1 Chronicles 2:25, Ram is a son of Jerahmeel, the son of Hezron. Moreover, in 1 Samuel 27:10 and 1 Samuel 30:29, the Jerahmeelites are associated with the Kenites. These verses connect Ram to the Hezronites (thus Reuben) and the Kenites; hence, Amram most likely represents entities from Aram. Since Amram's wife was the sister of Kohath, or the _alliance_ , she could represent peoples from Egypt. Hence, the marriage symbolizes the unification of peoples from Aram and Egypt. The name Jochebed means, "glory of Yah" (contracted from _Yahweh_ ), and could intimate the beginning of the new Judah religious institution. The sons Amram and Jochebed were Aaron (Aram) and Moses (Egypt).

The sons of Izhar were Korah, Nepheg, and Zichri. In Numbers 16, Korah rebels against Moses and Aaron, and then the Korah faction is eradicated in Judah. In 2 Samuel 5:15, Nepheg is a son of David in Hebron by a wife or concubine (alliance) in Jerusalem. Moreover, in 1 Chronicles 27:16, Zichri is the father of Eliezer (a leader of Reuben), and Zichri was also the name of three Benjamites in Jerusalem (1 Chronicles 8:19, 23, & 27). Therefore, the Korah faction was overthrown in Judah, while the other two sons represent entities from Judah that migrated north and became part of a coalition in Salem or Jerusalem. This institution in Benjamin would fall to Solomon and the sons of Aaron.

The sons of Uzziel were Mishael, Elzaphan, and Zithri. When two of the sons of Aaron were killed by Yahweh, i.e., Judah (Leviticus 10 verses 1 though 4), Moses instructed Mishael and Elzaphan to carry the dead brothers outside the camp. The event displays a division in the religious hierarchy in the Judah-based institution. Furthermore, since these men were sons of Uzziel, or _strength of 'El_ , who could represent a powerful and combative sect, the _sons of Uzziel_ could have been the force behind the ascension of sons of Aaron in Jerusalem. Although Mishael and Elzaphan carried the dead men out of the camp, it implies they joined the remaining sons of Aaron upon their return.

Aaron married a woman named Elisheba, who was the daughter of Amminadab and the sister of Nahshon. This marriage represents the same alliance as the marriage of Amram and Jochebed, which is expressed with the name _Elisheba_ , which means, "'El of an oath". Not unlike numerous texts in the narratives, the author consolidated independent traditions. The name _Amminadab_ means, "liberal people", and represents a faction that authors displayed in the early stages of this institution, after which it appears the liberals were driven out of power. Ram, who I discussed in reference to Aaron's father Amram, is the _father of Amminadab, the father of Nashon,_ in 1 Chronicles 2:10, which refers to the same events and peoples displayed in this chapter. Elisheba's brother Nahshon is a mentioned leader of the descendants of Judah throughout the book of Numbers, as well as the captain of the Judah army in Numbers 10:14. Scholars state the name was derived from _nahash_ (appears only the first half), which can denote either a _serpent_ or an _enchanter_ (second half of _Nashon_ , the word _own_? _mighty serpent_?). Furthermore, _Nahash_ is the name of an Ammonite in the books of Samuel. Hence, digesting this information on Nashon, the name most likely represents a High Priest or religious order in Judah. Due to the correlation with a serpent, it is possible the faction worshiped Asherah. Finally, if Nashon was later exiled out of Judah, it could explain the association with Nahash, i.e., the Ammonites, or _people of Own_ , who once settled in Judah before they were forced across the Jordan. The offspring of Aaron and Elisheba were Nadab (liberals), Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar.

The sons of Korah, who probably represent an era following their demise in Numbers 16, were Assir, Elkanah, and Abiasaph. The name Assir was derived from a word that means, "prisoner", which was probably the fate of numerous priests and religious factions. Elkanah is a man who lives in Ephraim in 1 Samuel 1:2, which is another display of would-be Levites migrating from Judah into Israel ("J/I"). Finally, the name _Abiasaph_ means, "father of assembly", i.e., the priest or leader of the relocated religious sect.

In closing the segment, Eleazar married a daughter of Putiel, who gave birth to Phinehas, who is a prominent entity from the Judah-Shiloh alliance. Although scholars are at a loss for a theory regarding the _daughters of Putiel_ , one will receive this postulate with greater clarity after I have covered events in forthcoming texts. This said, Eleazar represents a faction or religious order in Judah that later came to power in the Gibeonite cities of Benjamin, which were Gibeon, Chephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-Jearim (Joshua 9:17). In 1 Chronicles 2:53, the clans or families of Kiriath-Jearim are the Ithrites, Puthites, Shumathites, and Mishraites. The name _Puthites_ is spelled _Puti_ in Hebrew, and with the addition of the deity's name ('El), one arrives at _Putiel_. Hence, when Eleazar married a daughter of Putiel, it represents an early religious faction in Judah that allied with peoples and moved to power in the Gibeonite cities. However, this institution would fall to Solomon and the Judah-Shiloh alliance. Therefore, Eleazar's son, i.e., the institution that would supplant him, was Phinehas from Shiloh (1 Samuel 1:3). The name _Phinehas_ means, "mouth of the serpent", which could represent the _voice of Nashon_ , a name that reflects Asherah worship. The Asherah poles were ubiquitous in Palestine and forthcoming in the book of Numbers, Moses makes a bronze snake called the _Nehustan_ , which the people worshiped until the reign of Hezekiah (2 Kings 18:4). The name _Nehustan_ was derived from _nehasa_ , a variation of the word _nehas_ , which is found in the name _Phinehas_. However, since the name _Phinehas_ can also suggest an _enchanter_ or _divination_ , _his mouth_ could represent the _voice_ or High Priest of the new religious order, with possible intimations of Asherah worship. This institution allied with the Ammonites.

Not coincidentally, this _Levite genealogy_ travels down the ancestral line of Aaron to Phinehas, but conspicuously states nothing more on Moses. This "P" author recorded the priests from the preceding era, as well as those who would move forward with the Jerusalem monarchy.

The chapter moves to an end with:

"26. It {was} Aaron and Moses {to} who said Yahweh to them, bring out the _sons of Israel_ from the land of Egypt, according to their armies. 27. These {were} the ones speaking to Pharaoh, king of Egypt, to bring out the _sons of Israel_ from Egypt. It {was} Moses and Aaron. 28. And it was on the day spoke Yahweh to Moses in the land of Egypt, 29. that spoke Yahweh to Moses, saying, I {am} Yahweh. Speak to Pharaoh, king of Egypt, all that I am speaking to you. 30. And said Moses in the presence of Yahweh, Look, I {am} of uncircumcised lips. How could listen to me Pharaoh?"

The traditions that only included Moses were strong in place when the "P" school created their version of the myths. These words were answering to an extant tradition and trying to convince the populace the known tradition was missing some facts.

Exodus 7

In the next two chapters, I attempted to separate the stories into their original forms. This task is extremely difficult because the complete texts of both stories are not always included in the final product. Moreover, the endeavor is further complicated due to the layers added by the different authors. Although the following parsing of the narrative may not be completely accurate, it will give one a feel for the separate traditions and the objectives of the authors. Both stories quoted below are a continuation of the last chapter.

Within this "S/J" text, I bold-typed the Levitical interpolation.

"3. And I will harden the heart of Pharaoh. And I will multiply My signs and My wonders in the land of Egypt 4. And not will listen to you Pharaoh. And I will lay My hand on Egypt, and will bring out My armies, My people, the _sons of Israel_ , from the land of Egypt with judgments great. 5. And will know the Egyptians that I {am} Yahweh, when I stretch out My hand upon Egypt, and bring out the _sons of Israel_ from their middle. 14. And said Yahweh to Moses, {is} heavy The heart of Pharaoh. He refuses to send away the people. 15. Go to Pharaoh in the morning. Look, {he is} going out to the water. And you stand to meet him on the bank of the Nile {River}. And the rod that was turned into a snake you must take in your hand. 16. And you will say to him, Yahweh, 'Elohim of the Hebrews has sent me to you, saying, Send away My people, and they will serve Me in the desert. But, look, not you have listened until now. 17. Says Yahweh, By this you will know that I {am} Yahweh. Look, I will strike with the rod which {is} in My hand on the water which {is} in the Nile {River}. And it will be turned to blood! 18. And the fish which {are} in the Nile {River} will die, and will stink the Nile {River}. And will be became tired the Egyptians {of} drinking water from the Nile {River}. And he uplifted the rod and he struck the water which {was} in the Nile {River} in front of eyes Pharaoh's, and in eyes his servant's. And was turned all the water which {was} in the Nile {River} to blood.21. And the fish which {were} in the Nile {River}died, and did stink the Nile {River}. And not were able the Egyptians to drink water from the Nile {River}. And was the blood in all the land of Egypt. 24. And dug all the Egyptians around the Nile {River}, water to drink, because not they were able to drink from the water of the Nile {River}. 25. And were fulfilled seven days after struck Yahweh the Nile {River}."

If one reads this text and leaves out the later interpolation, they will realize the lack of the verse creates no problem and the text actually reads with more fluidity with the verse omitted. The interpolating author simply consolidated the _sons of Israel_ and the Hebrews.

Next is the "P" text from the sons of Aaron.

"1. And said Yahweh to Moses, Look, I have made you {like} 'Elohim to Pharaoh. And Aaron, your brother, will be your prophet. 2. You must speak all that I order you, and Aaron, your brother, will speak to Pharaoh. Then he will send the _sons of Israel_ from his land. 3. And I will harden the heart of Pharaoh. And I will multiply My signs and My wonders in the land of Egypt. 8. And spoke Yahweh to Moses and to Aaron saying, 9. When speaks to you Pharaoh, saying, Give for yourselves a miracle. You will say to Aaron, Take your rod and throw {it} in front of Pharaoh. Let it become a snake. 10. And came Moses and Aaron to Pharaoh and they did so, as had commanded Yahweh. And threw Aaron his rod in front of Pharaoh and in front of his servants, and it became a snake. 11. Then called also Pharaoh wise men and the sorcerers. And performed also they, the priests of Egypt, by their secret arts thus. 12. And they threw, each one his rod, and they became snakes. But swallowed rod Aaron's their rod! 13. But was hardened heart Pharaoh's, and not he did listen to them, as had said Yahweh.19. And said Yahweh to Moses, Say to Aaron, Take your rod, and stretch out your hand over the waters of Egypt, over their rivers, over their canals, and over their pools, and over every reservoir of their waters so that they may become blood. And will be blood in all the land of Egypt, both in wooden and in stone {vessels} 20. And did so Moses and Aaron, as had commanded Yahweh.22. But did so priests Egypt's by their secret arts. So, was hardened the heart of Pharaoh, and not did he listen to them, as has said Yahweh. 23. And turned Pharaoh and went into his house and not he did set his heart also to this."

In this story, Aaron is playing a significant role, but Moses is merely a mediator between Aaron and Yahweh. In this manner, the author diminished the grandeur of Moses and increased the laurels of Aaron.

Exodus 8

The plagues continue in this chapter. I have added a few brief explaining interruptions ( _italicized_ ). The first text is an "S/J" story and again, I bold-typed the "D" interpolations.

"1. And said Yahweh to Moses, Go to Pharaoh, and say to him, Thus says Yahweh, Send away My people and they will serve Me. 2. And if refuse you to send {them}, Look, I {am} about to strike all your territory with frogs. 3. And will swarm the Nile {River}{with} frogs. And they will come up and go into your house, and into the room of your sleeping, and upon your bed, and into house your servants', and on your people and into your ovens, and into your kneading troughs. 4. And upon you and upon your people, and upon all your servants will come the frogs. 8 And called Pharaoh to Moses and to Aaron [ _Aaron is placed here by a redactor, but you will see it is just a cameo appearance and Moses actually remains on the stage alone_ ], and said, Pray to Yahweh so that He may remove the frogs from me and from my people! Then I will send away the people, so that they may sacrifice to Yahweh! 9. And said Moses to Pharaoh, Glory over me! Because when should I pray for you and for your servants and for your people, to cut off the frogs from you, and from your house, {that} only in the Nile {River} they may be left? **10. And he said, For tomorrow. According to your word, so that you may know that {there} is no one like Yahweh our 'Elohim**. 11. And will depart the frogs from you, and from your houses, and from your servants, and from your people. Only in the Nile {River}they will be left. 12. And went out Moses and Aaron [see _note verse 8_ ] from Pharaoh. And cried out Moses to Yahweh over the matter of the frogs which He had set on Pharaoh. 13. And did Yahweh according to the word of Moses. And died the frogs from the houses, from the courtyards, and from the fields. 14. And they gathered them{in} heaps {and} heaps. And did stink the land. 20. And said Yahweh to Moses, Rise early in the morning and stand in the presence of Pharaoh. Look, he {is} going to the water. And you say to him, Thus says Yahweh, Send away My people so that they may serve Me. 21. Because, if you do not send away My people, look, I am sending on you, and on your servants, and on your people, and on your house, flies! And will be full the houses of the Egyptians swarms of {flies} and also the ground which they {are} on it. 22. And I will separate on day that the land of Goshen {with} My people resting on it, so that no there be there flies, so that you may know that I {am} Yahweh in the middle of the earth. 23. And I will put a difference between My people and your people, because tomorrow will be miracle this. 24. And did Yahweh so and came into flies teeming, to the house of Pharaoh and the house of his servants, and into all the land of Egypt. was destroyed The land in front of the swarms of {flies}.25. And called Pharaoh for Moses and for Aaron, [see note verse 8] and said, Go! Sacrifice to your 'Elohim in the land. **26. And said Moses, It is not right to do so, for that abomination of the Egyptians we offer to Yahweh our 'Elohim. Look,{if} we offer the abomination of the Egyptians in front of their eyes not will they stone us? 27. a journey of three days We must go into the desert, and sacrifice to Yahweh our 'Elohim, as He may say to us. 28. And said Pharaoh, I will send away you, and you may sacrifice to Yahweh your 'Elohim in the desert.** Only, very not far off do go. Pray for me! 29. And said Moses, Listen, I {am} going from you and I will pray to Yahweh so that depart the swarms of {flies} from Pharaoh, from his servants and from his people tomorrow. But not do let continue Pharaoh to deceive, not to send the people to sacrifice to Yahweh. 30. And went out Moses from Pharaoh and he prayed to Yahweh.31. And did Yahweh according to the word of Moses, and departed the flies from Pharaoh, from his servants, and from his people. Not was left one. [ _the redactor ends the chapter with_ ] 32. And hardened Pharaoh his heart also time this, and not he did send away the people."

One should easily discern the story as an "S/J" text interpolated by a later author. Moses does all the interacting with the deity and Pharaoh. The redactor gave Aaron cameo appearances, but his role is non-existent. As far as the interpolation in verses 26, 27, and 28, where the author used the names _Yahweh our/your 'Elohim_ , the text reads with more fluidity with the interpolation omitted.

The following is a short (or possibly incomplete) "P" text, after which the author disappears until Exodus 12.

"5. And said Yahweh to Moses, Say to Aaron, Stretch out your hand with your rod over the rivers, over the canals, and over the pools. And bring up frogs on the land of Egypt. 6. So, stretched out Aaron his hand over waters Egypt's. And came the frogs and covered the land of Egypt. 7. But did so the priests with their secret arts, and they brought the frogs on the land of Egypt. 15. And saw Pharaoh that there was relief. And he made heavy his heart, but not he did listen to them, as had said Yahweh. 16. And said Yahweh to Moses, Say to Aaron, Stretch out your rod and strike the dust of the earth, and let it become lice in all the land of Egypt. 17. And they did so, and stretched out Aaron his hand with his rod and struck the dust of the earth, and were the lice on man and on animal. All the dust of the land became lice in all the land of Egypt. 18. But did so the priests with their secret arts to bring forth lice, and not they could and were the lice on man and animal.19. And said the priests to Pharaoh, the finger of 'Elohim It {is}. And was hardened the heart of Pharaoh. And not he did listen to them, as had said Yahweh."

Instantly, one should notice the interactive role the author gave to Aaron, where Moses is once again merely an intermediary.

Exodus 9

Chapter 9 begins a three-chapter segment that conspicuously lacks any significant "P" writings. The redactor most likely sourced these texts from "S/J" and earlier traditions that authors wrote and re-wrote during the Jerusalem monarchy.

The plagues continue in chapter 9 with the death of the Egyptian livestock, boils upon man and beast, and thunder and hail throughout the land. After each plague, the heart of Pharaoh was hardened and he would not let the _sons of Israel_ leave to worship Yahweh.

Yahweh instructed Moses to warn Pharaoh that if he would not let the people leave to worship, the deity would send plagues upon the peoples of Egypt. The deity could have obliterated Pharaoh and Egypt from the face of the earth, but Yahweh let him live to display his power. He then thundered a hail throughout Egypt, except the land of Goshen where the _sons of Israel_ resided. This passage obviously came from a different tradition than the one that placed the peoples in Ramses.

After the thundering hail, Pharaoh sent for Moses and Aaron. He told them Yahweh was more righteous than he was, but if they stopped the plagues, he would then let the people leave the land to sacrifice. Moses extended his hands toward the sky and the thunder and hail ceased, but the heart of Pharaoh was hardened as the deity foretold.

Exodus 10

Yahweh's demonstration of power continues at the expense of the Egyptians. Aaron and Moses returned to Pharaoh and threatened him with a plague of locusts, which would afflict those who escaped the hail. After the two departed, Pharaoh's officials beseeched him to let the people leave and sacrifice to Yahweh, but Pharaoh would not listen. Therefore, the plague of locusts devastated Egypt. Finally, after the plague of darkness, Pharaoh told Moses the people could go and sacrifice, if they would only leave their flocks and herds behind. However, Moses replied that without their flocks and herds, they would not have anything to sacrifice. Due to Yahweh, the heart of Pharaoh was hardened and he asked never to see Moses' face again. Moses agreed to the request and the chapter ends.

Exodus 11

Yahweh told Moses he would inflict Pharaoh with one more plague. Moses was to instruct the people to ask their neighbors for their silver and gold jewelry, to which they would give willingly because Yahweh had granted the people favor in the eyes of the Egyptians. Furthermore, Pharaoh, his officials, and the people of Egypt held Moses in high regard. There is some ambiguity or a poorly executed weave of sources in this chapter. Yahweh began to explain the forthcoming plague to Moses, then without a change in scene, Moses began speaking to Pharaoh, even though in the last chapter, Moses and Pharaoh both agreed not to see each other again. In verse 8, the speech ends and Moses left Pharaoh's presence in anger. Hence, the redactor sourced this speech to Pharaoh from a different version of the narrative, but misplaced it here. The short chapter moves to an end and states Moses and Aaron performed all the miracles. Aaron's prominent role is absent in chapters 9, 10, & 11. Therefore, an interpolating author brought him back into the active narrative.

Exodus 12

"P" returns with the first twenty verses of chapter 12, in which Yahweh instructed Moses and Aaron on the Passover feast. Either this author went from the plague of the lice in Exodus 8 to a detailed explanation of the Passover, or there are "P" texts missing that were either lost or purposefully omitted.

With verse 21, the redactor returned to an earlier tradition. In the ending of the last chapter (or the chapter before), Moses warned Pharaoh of the upcoming terror and then stormed out from him. In this chapter, Moses prepared the people for the plague and instructed them to kill the Passover lamb.

At midnight, Yahweh struck down every firstborn male in the land of Egypt from the son of Pharaoh to the son of the man in the dungeon. The plague also included the eldest male of all the livestock. With death permeating every non-Israelite house in Egypt, Pharaoh summoned Moses and Aaron and instructed them to leave his people. They were to take the _sons of Israel_ , along with their herds and flocks, and go sacrifice to Yahweh. Due to the horrific plague, all of Egypt wanted the _sons of Israel_ to leave as soon as possible, thus they left with their dough before it was leavened. As instructed, the _sons of Israel_ asked the Egyptians for their silver, gold, jewelry, and clothing. Due to Yahweh, they gave their goods freely. By this, the people plundered the Egyptians. These peoples in Egypt most likely made a surprise raid or attack, plundered the people, and escaped by the cover of night, which explains why the Egyptians pursued them when they left the country. This summation is supported in my commentary on 1 Kings.

With verse 37, a later redactor combined independent sources. The _sons of Israel_ traveled from Ramses to Succoth with about six hundred thousand soldiers on foot. A throng of ethnically diverse peoples went along with them, which would have included Midianites, Ishmaelites, Edomites, and Egyptians. However, those later deemed _sons of Israel_ included peoples with the aforementioned ancestry. In addition, the people baked unleavened bread because they left their yeast behind, which an author covered in verses 33 & 34 (different source). The segment comes to an end by stating the _sons of Israel_ were in Egypt for four hundred thirty years, which is obviously part of the fictitious history the later authors created.

Briefly returning to verse 37, the _sons of Israel_ traveled from Ramses to Succoth, which is from a different tradition than the one that placed the peoples in Goshen. I have not found evidence for the existence of a city named Succoth in or near Egypt. Therefore, this passage could have been derived from a narrative in which a group of peoples were traveling out of Egypt and came to Succoth east of the Jordan, which is a place an author mentioned among Jacob's travels (Genesis 33:17).

Exodus 13

The first sixteen verses of chapter 13 cover rituals and commands on firstborn sacrifices to commemorate the feats of Yahweh in Egypt. Although "E" writings have been absent in this segment of the narrative, in verses 17 through 19, an "E" author conspicuously returns.

"17. And it was when sent Pharaoh's the people, not did lead them 'Elohim the way of the land of the Philistines although nearer it. For said 'Elohim, Lest change their minds the people when they see war and return to Egypt. 18. But caused to turn 'Elohim the people the way of the desert, {to} the Sea of Reeds, and armed went up the _sons of Israel_ from the land of Egypt. 19. And took Moses the bones of Joseph with him, surely he had made swear the _sons of Israel_ , saying, Surely will visit 'Elohim you, and you must carry up my bones from here with you."

The first clue that an "E" author wrote the segment is the name of the deity. None of the authors used the name _'Elohim_ throughout this portion of the narrative, which renders the usage conspicuous. As stated, this sect entered the land of Canaan from the east of the Jordan as the Hebrews. However, in the original Moses tradition, the prophet brings the people out of Egypt and into the Negev of Judah, hence, the addition of the quoted text. Moreover, the above passage is the first instance in which any author referred to the land of Canaan as the _land of the Philistines_. In the period the "E" verses represent, Judah and the Philistines had already conquered the land of Judah and forced the Joseph tribes and their allies out of the country. Hence, the verse aligns with the text in which the deity told Isaac to live in the land as a _foreigner_ , but subtly conveys the Philistine presence that assisted in the conquest of Judah. The redactor probably sourced the quoted "E" verses from a complete "E" narrative in which Joseph and the people left Egypt and settled across the Jordan. In a mode of consolidation, a later author took segments of their journey and placed them within the layers of the Moses exodus out of Egypt. Finally, this "E" segment also brings the bones of Joseph out of Egypt, which is an amendment to the original "E" tradition.

In verse 20, the people left Succoth and camped in Etham on the edge of the wilderness. If there were two places named Succoth, Etham was somewhere on the outskirts of Egypt. If there was only one, Etham could have been on the travels represented by Jacob. This verse comes after the three verse "E" segment quoted above, thus it could have been part of the "E" travels out of Egypt.

Exodus 14

This chapter contains another two-school weave. However, in verses 2 & 3, Yahweh told Moses to instruct the _sons of Israel_ to turn back and encamp by Pi-Hahiroth, between Migdol and Baal-Zephon by the sea. The verses appear to consolidate these travels with a tradition that already had the people past these places. Therefore, the author has them turn back toward Egypt.

Here is the "S/J" version of the well-known story.

"5. And it was told to the king of Egypt that had escaped the people. 6. And he prepared his chariots, and his people he took with him. 10. And Pharaoh came near. And raised the _sons of Israel_ their eyes, and look, the Egyptians were marching after them! And they were afraid greatly. And cried out the _sons of Israel_ to Yahweh. 11. And they said to Moses, Is it because no graves in Egypt, that you have taken us to die in the desert? What this you have done, to bring us out from Egypt? 12. Is not this the word which we spoke in Egypt, saying, Let alone, and let us serve the Egyptians? better to serve the Egyptians than to die in the desert! 13. And said Moses to the people, not Do be afraid! Take your stand and see the salvation of Yahweh which He will perform today! as you see the Egyptians today, not you will continue to see them again forever! 14. Yahweh will fight for you. And you must be silent! 21. And stretched out Moses his hand over the sea, And He made the sea dry land, and were divided the waters. 22. And went the _sons of Israel_ into the middle the sea on the dry ground, and the waters a wall from their right and from their left. 24. And it happened in watch the morning. looked down Yahweh toward the camp of the Egyptians in the pillar of fire and cloud, and He confused the camp of the Egyptians. 25. And He took off the wheels of their chariots, and caused them to drive with difficulty. And said the Egyptians, I will run away from the face of Israel, Yahweh is fighting against the Egyptians. 27. And stretched out Moses his hand over the sea and returned the sea at the dawn of morning, to its usual flow. And the Egyptians running away to meet it. But shook off Yahweh the Egyptians into the middle of the sea. 29. And the _sons of Israel_ walked upon dry ground in the middle of the sea, and the waters a wall from their right and from their left. 30. And saved Yahweh on day that Israel from the hand of the Egyptians. And saw Israel the Egyptians dead upon the shore of the sea. 31. And saw Israel the hand great with which worked Yahweh against Egypt, and revered the people Yahweh. And they believed in Yahweh and in Moses, His servant."

In this version, Moses consoled the people and told them Yahweh would fight for them. When splitting the sea, he moved on his own without any direction or interaction from the deity. This autonomy does not imply the power of Moses split the sea, but the author portrayed Moses as an integral part of the miracle process.

Next is the later version of the story from the sons of Aaron institution.

"3. And will say Pharaoh as to the _sons of Israel_ , are wandering They in the land, has closed off upon them the desert. 4. And I will harden the heart of Pharaoh and he will pursue after them. And I will be honored through Pharaoh, and through his armies. And will know the Egyptians that I Yahweh. And they did so. Then was turned the heart of Pharaoh and his servants toward the people. And they said, What {is} this we have done? we have sent away Israel from serving us! 7. And he took six hundred chariots chosen, and all the chariots of Egypt, and officers over all of them. 8. And hardened Yahweh the heart of Pharaoh, king of Egypt, and he pursued after the _sons of Israel_. And the _sons of Israel_ were going out with a hand high. 9. And pursued the Egyptians after them and overtook them camping beside the sea, all horses and chariots Pharaoh's and his horsemen, and his army, beside Pi-Hahiroth, before Baal-Zephon. 15. And said Yahweh to Moses, Why do you cry out? Speak to the _sons of Israel_ , and go on! 16. raise your rod your hand over the sea and divide it, so that may go the _sons of Israel_ in the middle of the sea on dry ground! 17. And I listen, I am hardening the heart of the Egyptians, and they will go after them. But I will be honored through Pharaoh and through all his armies, through his chariots, and through his horsemen. 18. And will know the Egyptians that I Yahweh in my being honored through Pharaoh, through his chariots, and through his horsemen. and made recede Yahweh the sea by a wind east strong all night. 23. And pursued the Egyptians and went after them all the horses of Pharaoh, his chariots, and his horsemen, into the middle the sea. 26. And said Yahweh to Moses, Stretch out your hand over the sea, and let return the waters upon the Egyptians, upon their chariots and upon their horsemen. 28. And returned the waters and covered the chariots and the horsemen, together with all the army of Pharaoh, those going after them into the sea. And not was left even one."

"P" obviously wrote this text. The first thing one should observe is the author's treatment of Moses. When it was time to split the sea, Yahweh rebuked Moses for crying out and commanded him to raise and lower the rod with a frustrated tone, as if Moses should have acted instead of looking to Yahweh. The author could not change this portion of the narrative. The extant story of Moses splitting the sea was too well known for "P" to include Aaron, but he could diminish the role of Moses.

Exodus 15, 16, & 17

Exodus 15 is a song to Yahweh written by "S/J". Certain writers of this sect have a distinct and poetic style, and there are more songs from the school forthcoming.

It is usual for an oral song to exist before the written word. Songs developed before the art of writing and originated as pedagogical and mnemonic tools, because metered verses are far easier to remember than prose. Therefore, within the Moses narrative and the many layers and authors, it is impossible to discern how the original stories went and how often the scribes amended the myths before a selection of them were included in the Old Testament.

Moses and the _sons of Israel_ sang this song to Yahweh. However, after the introduction, the author referred to the masses as people, without mentioning the _sons of Israel_ , which is a distinct difference from later texts in which authors used the term incessantly. The use of this generic label could imply the song originated during an early era of the Jerusalem monarchy before authors began including the term _sons of Israel_ in their Yahweh texts.

In their more poetic writings, the "S/J" school used multiple names for the deity, which is a distinguishing characteristic.

"2 Yahweh my strength and song; He has become salvation. My 'El, and I praise Him, my father's 'Elohim, and I exalt Him. 3 Yahweh a warrior; Yahweh His name."

The author exalts the feats of Yahweh against the Egyptians, and:

"14. sorrow will seize the people of Philistia. 15 The leaders of Edom dismayed; tremble seize the mighty of Moab 16. and terror and dread will fall on them. They will be as still as a stone because of Your powerful arm until Your people pass by, Yahweh, until the people whom You purchased pass by."

Although the institution of Judah allied with a segment of the Philistines, the author wanted to convey that all the people in the land feared Yahweh and his _people_ when they came out of Egypt. The author displayed the same trepidation when the Moabites and Edomites trembled before the deity.

The song ends with verse 18. However, beginning with verse 19, an interpolating author added another passage that mentions the prophetess Miriam, the sister of Aaron. The first evidence of the new author is in verse 19, when the people are once again referred to as the _sons of Israel_. Furthermore, the original song appears to have been written during an era before the figure of Aaron was introduced into the various traditions. Miriam sings in verse 21, but the later author borrowed her small part from verse 1. The fact she was called a prophetess assists in adding her to the story, as it implies she was endowed with the gift of song. Interestingly, the author referred to her as the sister of Aaron, but the same relation to Moses is not mentioned.

The name _Aaron_ , or _Aharon_ in Hebrew, is of uncertain derivation. The sons of Aaron apparently emerged with the fall of "J/I" and their allies in Judah, but I believe the sect originated from the Shiloh priests who later joined the Judah alliance. If Arameans settled Shiloh, as I believe, _Aharon_ could be a rearranging (first letter) of the name _Nahowr_ , which would render _Ahowrn_. Although this origin for the name is faint conjecture, with the Aramean presence in Canaan from the _house of Nahor_ , it is a possibility.

The name _Miriam_ was derived the same word as the name _Merari_. In 1 Chronicles 4:17, there is a man named Ezra who had sons named Jether, a variation of the name Jethro (same era), and Mered. Mered had a son named Miriam by the daughter of Pharaoh. When Mered conceived with the daughter of Pharaoh, it represents the same event as when Joseph fathered sons with an Egyptian wife. Both instances of the name _Miriam_ represent peoples of Egyptian ancestry, who in part evolved into the sons of Merari Levitical sect. The sons of Nahor, or peoples from Aram, for a time allied with an "E" sect in the region of Gilead (Genesis 31). Segments of both camps later migrated into the house of Joseph. It is the relation between these two peoples, camps from Aram and Egypt, that are represented in the relation between Aaron and Miriam. In the Miriam interpolation that began in verse 19, the author wanted to connect the sons of Aaron, or the Jerusalem monarchy, to peoples who migrated out of Egypt. He could have been denigrating both religious factions, as he prepared the scene for a story forthcoming in the book of Numbers. However, various sects in several regions were battling for religious control during the period prior to and throughout the era of the kings, but the later sectarian, literary, and historical consolidation in Judah renders it almost impossible to define all the separate factions and their independent ascensions and falls.

The narrative resumes with verse 22. Moses brought the people from the Sea of Reeds to the wilderness of Shur, which represents the same events in southern Judah that are displayed in the travels of Abraham and the raids of David. The people could not drink the water of Marah because it was _bitter_ , which is the meaning of the name. The name _Marah_ was derived from the same word as the names _Miriam_ and _Merari_. The text intimates contention within the camp, which could symbolize the battles between the would-be sons of Merari and the Judah institution that later forced them out of the country.

In chapter 17, the _sons of Israel_ quarreled with Moses, thus they called the place _Massah_ , which means, "test", and _Meribah_ , which means, "strife". The passage is merely another display of the contention between a faction that would ascend to power in Judah and a rebellious segment of the peoples.

Verses 8 through 13 are an "E" segment on a battle between _Israel_ and Amalek at Rephidim. As the story begins, Joshua arrived on the scene unannounced. Due to the fact the stories of Joshua and Moses arose from independent traditions that were later consolidated, the author could have added Joshua to the battle to create a subtle transition from one leader to the next. Conversely, if there were separate versions of the battle that featured Joshua and Moses, a later author may have merely consolidated the two stories.

Moses told Joshua to choose his men to fight against the Amalekites. While Joshua gathered his men, Moses, Aaron, and Hur went to a nearby hilltop. Moses carried the rod of 'Elohim and when he held out his hand, _Israel_ prevailed, but when he let it down, the Amalekites prevailed. When Moses' hands became heavy, Aaron and Hur stood by his side and each held one of his arms, thus Joshua overwhelmed Amalek with the edge of his sword. Hence, according to "E", Aaron and Hur supported the leadership of Moses.

In the five-verse segment, Hur arrives in the narratives, but more importantly, this "E" author included Aaron as an obvious subordinate to Moses. He also included Aaron in the next chapter in a purposefully insignificant role, but his monumental denigration comes with a story beginning in Exodus 24. In addition, and not a point of insignificance, it appears "E" was one of the first authors to introduce Aaron into the narratives (in the texts included). An author first mentioned Aaron in Exodus 4:14, but "P" wrote that passage during a later era (probably from the reign of Hezekiah). Due to the fact this "E" sect coalesced with the Shiloh priests, the author/s would have known of their Aram origin. It is possible the name _Aaron_ originated from a Shiloh and "E" affiliation. Therefore, after the religious sect was subdued by the Jerusalem monarchy, "E" wrote texts that denigrated the name Aaron, which brought upon a rebuttal by the "P" school, or the _Aaron priests_.

The name _Hur_ means, "white" or "pale". In Numbers 31:8, Hur is the name of a Midianite king who was defeated by the _sons of Israel_. If this account is accurate, it conveys he was an outside entity that ruled over or allied with the Midianites. The Midianites were an Arabian tribe and the Arabians were very proud of their dark or black skin. For them to have a king whose name meant _white_ is not a trivial matter. The would-be _sons of Israel_ , or at least a faction of them, were at one time allies of the Midianites. As covered, Moses had a Midianite father-in-law. Furthermore, if Hur was from Aram, as other entities portrayed as _white_ , it would align with the Aram-Midian coalition that is intimated in Genesis 25:4 (and Judges 3:8). In Phinehas' conquest of Midian, Hur represents the end of this coalition in Judah, which included Arameans who were exiled eastward (represented in various traditions). In 1 Chronicles 4:4, Hur is the father of Penuel, which implies the mentioned exile across the Jordan. If Hur does represent peoples from Aram, it would explain why "E" associated him with Aaron. Not only does "E" include both Aaron and Hur in this chapter, he also includes Hur in the forthcoming story that denigrates Aaron, but he only overtly criticizes the latter. Therefore, it is uncertain if the descendants of Hur became a part of the Judah-Shiloh alliance, or merely fell from biblical prominence in cities across the Jordan.

With verse 14, a later passage moves the chapter to an end. Yahweh would erase the memory of Amalek from the heavens as he battled against him for generations. This verse is a product of consolidation, since authors depicted the same war against the Amalekites in forthcoming books.

Exodus 18

This chapter consists of an "E" story with a later Yahweh interpolation. Jethro heard what 'Elohim had done for Moses, thus he took Zipporah and her two sons and went to meet Moses in the wilderness. In chapter 2 verse 22 ("S/J"), the only son of Moses was Gershom, thus the son added in this text is Eliezer. In my commentary on chapter 6, I stated Zichri, who is mentioned as the _father of Eliezer_ \- the leader of Reuben in 1 Chronicles 27:16, represents a sect in Judah that migrated into Benjamin. Furthermore, in my commentary on Genesis 30, I stated Dan's mother _Bilhah_ represents _Bilhan the Edomite_ (Genesis 36:27), who is also represented in Benjamin (1 Chronicles 7:10). Hence, these points align with Reuben, i.e., a camp of Reubenites (via Eliezer), sleeping with his father's concubine Bilhah (Genesis 35:22), i.e., migrating into Benjamin and joining a ruling establishment that is represented by the house of Kish or Saul. When a Judah-based institution later conquered the region of Benjamin, some of the peoples fled east of the Jordan, while other _refugees_ migrated to northern Dan (the _sons of Gershom_ ). However, the relation to Moses does not imply all the referenced peoples were from Egypt. These camps were part of a coalition in Judah that included Arameans, Midianites, Edomites (Moses' father-in-law _Reuel_ ), Hittites, Moabites, and peoples from Egypt. Moreover, I have conjectured the Reubenites were part of the _Abram migrations_ , and Abram (Aram) and Hagar (Egypt) produced the Ishmaelites (Moses' father-in-law Jethro = _Jether the Ishmaelite_ ). The offspring of this coalescence was the Judah institution represented by Eliezer. A division of this establishment later arose to power in Benjamin. Finally, _Eliezer_ represents the same entity as _Eleazar_ , the son of Aaron, as well as the brother of Kish in 1 Chronicles 23:21. The fall of these peoples in Judah is expressed in Genesis 15 when Eliezer is supplanted as Abram's heir.

Jethro went to Moses and they camped on the mountain of 'Elohim. Verses 8 through 11 are part of a _Yahweh_ insert, and the "E" text continues with verse 12, in which Jethro and Moses offered sacrifices to 'Elohim. Then Aaron and the _elders of Israel_ joined them on the mountain. Jethro noticed the people came day and night to Moses for judgment. He told Moses no man could endure this, thus he should appoint rulers over the people and teach them ordinances and laws. This passage foreshadows the text on the Ten Commandments. However, one should first realize a foreigner instructed Moses on how to run the government. Due to the fact _Jethro_ represents the same entity as _Jether_ , an Ishmaelite, the author may have conveyed the status his ancestors once secured before they were forced out of Judah, which the author intimated in this story when Jethro returned to his own land. Finally, "E" included Aaron in the story, but did not give him any role in the leadership, which is not a silent statement.

Exodus 19-40

Chapter 19 begins a section of the narrative on the legal codes of Israel and Judah. The "E" verses I have placed forth are from an original story, but in the Old Testament, they are found in chapters 19 and 20 (verses 3a, 17 & 19 are from chapter 19, and verses 1, 18, 20, & 21 are from chapter 20).

"17. And brought Moses the people to meet 'Elohim from the camp. And they stood at the bottom of the mountain. 18. And all the people saw the sounds, the lightnings, the sound of the ram's horn and the mountain smoking. And looked the people and they trembled. 19. And they said to Moses, speak and we will listen! But not let speak with us 'Elohim, lest we die! 20. And said Moses to the people, not Do be afraid, in order to test has come 'Elohim, may be His fear upon your faces, so that not you may sin. 3. Then Moses went up to 'Elohim 21. And stood the people from a distance, and Moses approached the thick darkness where there 'Elohim. Moses spoke, and 'Elohim answered him by a voice.1. And spoke 'Elohim all words these, saying..."

A redactor placed the last verse at the beginning of Exodus 20.

Chapter 20 begins with the commands of the deity, which a later Levitical ("D") author sourced from an earlier tradition and then re-wrote or amended. The deity told Moses he was _Yahweh, your 'Elohim_ , who brought the people out of Egypt, which is standard Levitical verbiage. The people were not to have other 'Elohim above or over him, nor were they to make idols or images of forms in the heavens, on earth, or in the waters. They were to refrain from worshiping these 'Elohim and idols because _Yahweh, their 'Elohim_ , was a jealous 'Elohim who punished children for the sins of their fathers to the third and fourth generation. In essence, these commands instructed the people not to support the various religious factions throughout the region. Furthermore, the commands condemn the idols of Micah and thus the controversial Danite institution in the north (forthcoming in Judges 17 & 18). Due to the fact this segment is a Levitical re-write, a variation of the commands most likely followed the quoted "E" text from chapters 19 & 20. Not only did a sect of would-be Levites relinquish religious control to the worship in northern Dan, a sect was cast out by the Jerusalem monarchy. Therefore, the cherubs on the chest of the covenant (Exodus 25:18), which was placed in the Jerusalem temple, as well as the cherubs in the inner sanctuary of the temple (1 Kings 6:23), would have been included in this condemnation because they were images of beings in the heavens.

The people were not to take the name of _Yahweh, their 'Elohim_ , in a move of vanity because Yahweh would not leave them unpunished. This command could have been directed at the kings, who in ancient times often assumed the names of deities. They were allowed to labor for six days, but the seventh was a Sabbath to _Yahweh, their 'Elohim_ , because he made the heavens and the earth in six days, but then he rested on the seventh. The people were to honor their father and mother, but refrain from murder, adultery, theft, and false testimony. They were also to refrain from coveting their neighbor's possessions, including his wife and slaves.

Verses 22 & 23 were derived from another source. Yahweh told Moses to tell the _sons of Israel_ they were not to make 'Elohim of silver and gold. This command came from a sect that lost their stature in the country of Israel. After the reign of King Solomon, his son Rehoboam became king in Jerusalem. When the country of Israel rebelled against Judah, Jeroboam became king of Israel and he excluded several sects of priests when he implemented his new religious institution. Dan and Bethel were the new centers of worship and at each place, he erected a golden calf. This command condemned the new worship that displaced several sects of priests.

Exodus 21, 22, and 23 continue with social and religious ordinances, which authors placed forth as commands from a deity to attain obedience. The authors derived a large portion of these laws, as well as those in the books of Leviticus and Deuteronomy, from extant sources, not to mention a common code that was probably used throughout the Near East. I only discuss a few of the passages.

The first segment covers Hebrew slaves and the redactor derived the commands from a sect with ancestry across the Jordan. If a person buys a Hebrew slave, the man would serve for six years and his owner would set him free in the seventh. If he arrived alone he would leave alone, but if he arrived with a wife, she would leave with him. However, if the master gave the man a wife and she bore children, they belonged to the master and the man would leave alone. The slave could declare his desire to stay, in which case his master would mark him as property and the slave would serve for life. If a man sold his daughter into slavery and she displeased her new master, he must allow another to redeem (purchase) her, but not a foreigner. The author wanted to distinguish between the enslavement of their own people and the enslavement of foreigners; the latter would not have the same rights and would most likely serve for life.

This next segment covers personal injury, including a death sentence for murder and attempted murder. However, if the death was not intentional but 'Elohim allowed the occurrence to happen by the hand of a person, the deity would appoint a place for the unfortunate to flee. Since the author wanted the people to believe these laws were commanded by the deity in the wilderness, he could not list the towns of refuge, which an author included in Joshua 20.

If religious sects or governments wanted to control and subjugate the populace, obedience on every level is necessary, thus the leaders would attempt to instill it within the minds of the youth. Therefore, a mere strike or curse against one's father or mother was punishable by death. In the same vein (next chapter), one was not to curse 'Elohim or one of their leaders.

If a man abused one of his slaves and the slave died, the owner would be punished. However, if a slave was beaten but he stood on his own after a couple days, the owner would not be punished because the slave was his property. However, if a master injured an eye or knocked out a tooth of one of his slaves, the slave would go free for compensation. Discussing rights with slavery harbors an inherent dichotomy, as perceived in this segment. As discussed in Genesis 34, if a man had sexual relations with a virgin, he was to pay the bridal price and take her as a wife. However, if the father refused to give away his daughter, the man was still to pay the bridal price for virgins.

Entering a segment on a few capital offenses, a sorceress would be put to death, along with one who had sexual intercourse with an animal. It should be noted that one who performed magic only differed from a prophet by the deity worshiped and the sect supported. Anyone who sacrificed to an 'Elohim other than Yahweh would also be sentenced to death. Regarding this mandatory worship, the people were not to invoke the names of other 'Elohim. They were to hold festivals to their deity three times a year and no one was to arrive empty handed, i.e., the people were ordered to bestow wealth upon the religious leadership.

In chapter 23 verse 12:

"12. Six days you will do your work, and on the day seventh you must rest, so that may rest your ox and your donkey, and may be refreshed the son of your slave- girl and the alien."

This simple law was the origin of the Sabbath. The day of rest became the _Sabbath_ , i.e., a day to rest your workers and animals became the mandatory Sabbath and the people probably correlated the festival with the feast of the new moon. If the people would not obey an existing law, leaders created a divine decree or myth to obtain obeisance.

Due to travel limitations, great festivals and religious ceremonies were held at the governing temples to accrue religious offerings. Therefore, three times a year all the males were to appear before _Adon Yahweh_ , which refers to a single manifestation of a deity at a certain place. The deity was most likely _Israel's_ version of Adonis, the personification of male beauty; hence, all the males were to appear before him. _Adon Yahweh_ was a deity derived from the coalescence of two religious sects. In this verse, the author incorporates an extant Adon festival into a later conceived Yahweh worship. In a later written verse, and by a "D" school that would never use the name _Adon Yahweh_ , the people were to bring the best of their first fruits, i.e., mandatory offerings, to the house of _Yahweh, their 'Elohim_.

In verse 20, the deity would send an angel ahead of the people to lead them into the land of the Amorites, the Hittites, the Perizzites, the Canaanites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites. The people were not to worship the 'Elohim of the land, i.e., align with other religious factions, but instead they were to destroy their sacred places of worship, i.e., their temples and governing bodies. If they only worshiped _Yahweh, their 'Elohim_ , he would bless their bread and water, remove their illness, and they would live a full number of days.

When the people entered the land promised, the deity would fill their enemies with terror and confusion and they would turn in retreat. He would send hornets (a mystical army) ahead of them to drive out the Hivites, the Canaanites, and the Hittites. However, they would not be driven out in a single year, lest the land become desolate and the wild animals multiply against them. Instead, the deity would remove them gradually until his people became numerous and could take possession of the land.

The ordinances section moves to an end with the constantly reiterated command not to make covenants with the people of the land or their 'Elohim. It was these covenants or alliances with foreigners that drove many religious factions, including the would-be Levites, out of power.

In Exodus 24, Moses ascended the mountain of 'Elohim with Aaron, Nadab, Abihu, and seventy _elders of Israel_. As one will perceive, Hur is also included in this story as a companion to Aaron, thus he may have an implied guilt by association. Here is the original "E" text divested of interpolations.

"9. And went up Moses and Aaron, {with} Nadab and Abihu, and seventy from the elders of Israel. 10. And they saw the 'Elohim Israel. And under His feet as the work of a pavement of sapphire, and as the heavens for clarity. 11. And to the nobles of the _sons of Israel_ not He did outstretch His hand. And they saw 'Elohim. And they ate and drank.13. And rose Moses and Joshua, his attendant. And went up Moses to the mountain of 'Elohim. 14. And to the elders he said, Wait in this {place} until we return And look, Aaron and Hur with you. Whoever a master of matters, let him come to them.15. And went up Moses onto the mountain. And covered a cloud the mountain 18. And came Moses into middle of the cloud, and he went up to the mountain. And was Moses on the mountain {for} forty days and forty nights."

In another section from chapter 32, "E" continues.

"1. And saw the people that delayed Moses to come down from the mountain and gathered the people to Aaron, and they said Arise, make 'Elohim who may go in front of us! As for this Moses, the man who brought us up from the land of Egypt, not we do know what has become of him. 2. And said Aaron, Break off the rings of gold which {are} in the ears of your wives, your sons, and your daughters, and bring {them}. 3. So, broke off all the people the rings of gold which {were} in their ears. And they brought {them} to Aaron. 4. And he took from their hand and formed with an engraving tool. And he made it a calf casted. And said, these {are} your 'Elohim O Israel, who brought you up from the land of Egypt! 5. And saw Aaron, and he built an altar in front of it. 6. And they rose early on the next day, and offered they burnt-offerings and brought peace-offerings. And sat down the people to eat and drink, and rose up to celebrate. 15. And turned and went down Moses from the mountain, the two tablets of the testimony in his hand, tablets written on two their sides. on this and on that They {were} written. 16. And the tablets, the work of 'Elohim they {were}. And the writing, the writing of 'Elohim, engraved on the tablets. 17. And heard Joshua the sound of the people in their shouting, and he said to Moses, A sound of war in the camp! 18. But he said, It is not a sound of a cry of victory, and not a sound of a cry of defeat. the sound of singing I {am} hearing. 19. And it was, as he came near to the camp and saw the calf and dances, glowed anger Moses'. And he threw from his hands the tablets, and he broke them at the bottom of the mountain! 20. Then he took the calf which they had made and burned {it} with fire and ground {it} until fine, and he scattered {it} on the surface of the water, and he caused to drink {it} the _sons of Israel_. 21. And said Moses to Aaron, What has done to you people that you have brought {such} a sin great? 22. And said Aaron, not Let glow the anger of my lord! You know the people, that in evil it {is}. 23. And they said Make 'Elohim who may go in front of us! As for this Moses, the man who brought us up from the land of Egypt, not we do know what has become of him. 24. And I said Whoever has gold, let them {it} tear off. And they gave {it} and I threw it into the fire and out came calf this! 25. And saw Moses the people that was uninhibited it, for had let down their inhibitions Aaron, for a derision among their enemies. 26. Then stood Moses at the gate of the camp, and said, 27. Put each one his sword on his thigh. Pass over to and fro from gate to gate in the camp. And kill each one his brother, and each one his neighbor, and each one his relative. 28. And did the sons of Levi according to word Moses. And fell of the people, on day that about three thousand men."

The author portrayed the Levites as the only people to obey Moses' command, which purposefully portrays an _us against them_ scenario. Due to the fact the _sons of Levi_ slaughtered their brothers, the action represents a civil war between a would-be Levitical faction and the Judah institution that would reign over the united monarchy. Furthermore, "E" subtly admonished the people for following the Judah-Shiloh alliance when he stated the people were out of control. This sect of priests was angry and their target is obvious. Moses came down from the mountain with the tablets of 'Elohim in his hand, which the people believed were inside the chest in the Jerusalem temple. "E" knew of this tradition and to discredit the Jerusalem monarchy, he had Moses break the tablets because of the actions of Aaron and his followers. Therefore, the tablets could not have been in the temple, which metaphorically breaks the covenant between the religious hierarchy and the deity. However, from a different perspective, the author also denigrated Jeroboam and the new government in Israel. After the death of King Solomon, Israel rebelled against his son Rehoboam, Jeroboam became king of Israel, and he said:

"27. If go up people to do sacrifices in the house of Yahweh at Jerusalem, then will return the heart of people this their lord, to Rehoboam the king of Judah, and they will kill me and return to Rehoboam the king of Judah. 28. And took counsel the king and made two calves of gold. And he said {it is} too much to go up {to} Jerusalem. Look, your 'Elohim, O Israel, which brought you up out of the land of Egypt! 29. And he set the one in Bethel, and the one he put in Dan. 30. And became thing this a sin, for went the people before the one to Dan. 31. And he made a house of high places, and made priests of the ends of the people who not were of the sons of Levi." (1 Kings 12)

Reviewing this passage unveils the author's position. Remember, the "J/I", "E", and "D" schools were or became Levites. When Jeroboam made priests who were not _sons of Levi_ , he displaced the author's religious sect. When he states:

"look your 'Elohim O Israel which brought you up from the land of Egypt."

Jeroboam reiterated the words that "E" placed in Aaron's mouth (certain scholars translate 32:4 as _they said_ , but it should state _and said_ ), which unequivocally displays the intent of the story.

The first two verses of Exodus 24 were written by "D" or a later redactor, and verses 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, and 18 are from the quoted "E" text. The remaining verses of Exodus 24 align with the unquoted text from chapter 19 perfectly. I know the following appears improbable, but if one combines the verses that I did not quote in chapters 19 and 24, minus the introductory and redactor verses, it renders the quoted text below, in which "P" was again weaving around and expanding upon the texts of the Shiloh-Judah priests. Here are the verses from chapter 19 and 24 (not already quoted), as well as the first two verses of chapter 25, from which "P" continues through chapter 31. I italicized the "P" verses.

(From Exodus 19) "2. And they traveled from Rephidim and came to the Desert of Sinai, and they camped in the desert, and camped there Israel in front of the mountain. 3b. And Moses went And called to him Yahweh from the mountain, saying, Thus you will say to the household of Jacob, and tell {it} to the _sons of Israel_ : 4. You have seen what I did to Egypt, and I carried you on wings of eagles and brought you to Me. 5. And now if surely you will listen to My voice, and will keep My covenant, you will become to Me a special treasure above all the nations, because to Me all {is} the earth. 6. And you will become for Me a kingdom of priests and a nation holy. These {are} the words which you will speak to the _sons of Israel_. 7. And came Moses and called the elders of the people, and he put in front of them all words these which had told him Yahweh. 8. And answered all the people together and said, All which has spoken Yahweh we will do. And brought Moses the words of the people to Yahweh. 9. And said Yahweh to Moses, Look, I come to you in a darkness of clouds, so that may hear the people My speaking with you, and in you they may believe forever. And told Moses to the people all the words of Yahweh. 10. And said Yahweh to Moses, Go to the people and sanctify them today and tomorrow and let them wash their clothes. 11. And be ready for the day third, because on the day third will go down Yahweh in front of all the people on the mountain Sinai. 12. And you will set limits to the people all around, saying, Watch for yourselves, {not} going up onto the mountain and touching its edge. Anyone touching the mountain surely will be killed! 13. not will touch him But a hand. Surely he will be stoned or surely he will be pierced, whether animal or man. not He will live. At the sounding of the ram's horn, they will go up onto the mountain. 14. And came down Moses from the mountain to the people. And he sanctified the people, and they washed their clothes. 15. And he said to the people, Be ready for third the day. not Do approach to a woman. 16. And it was on the day third, it being morning, it was sounds and lightnings, and a cloud heavy on the mountain, and a voice of a ram's horn strong very. And trembled all the people who {were}in the camp. 18. And Mount Sinai was smoking, all of it, because came down on it Yahweh in fire and went up its smoke like the smoke of a furnace, and trembled the mountain whole tremendously. 20. And came down Yahweh on Mount Sinai to the top of the mountain. And called Yahweh Moses to the top of the mountain, and went up Moses. 21. And said Yahweh to Moses, Go down, warn the people lest break they through to Yahweh to see, and fall of them many. 22. And also the priests, those approaching to Yahweh, will sanctify themselves, lest burst forth among them Yahweh. 23 And said Moses to Yahweh, not are able The people to come up to Mount Sinai, because You warned us, saying, set limits to the mountain and sanctify it, 24. And said to him Yahweh, Come, go down. And come up, you and Aaron with you. And the priests and the people, not will break through to come up to Yahweh, lest He burst forth among them. 25. And went down Moses to the people and spoke to them. (From Exodus 24) 3. So came Moses and told to the people all the words of Yahweh, and all the judgments. And replied all the people {with} voice one and said, All the words which has spoken Yahweh we will do! 4. And wrote Moses all the words of Yahweh. And he rose early in the morning and built an altar below the mountain, and two {and} ten memorial pillars for the two {and} ten tribes of Israel. 5. And he sent young men of the _sons of Israel_ , and they offered up burnt-offerings and sacrifices, peace-offerings to Yahweh-bulls. 6. And took Moses half of the blood, and he put in pans, and half of the blood he sprinkled on the altar. 7. And he took the book of the covenant, and read in the ears of the people. And they said, All which has spoken Yahweh we will do and we will listen! 8. Then took Moses the blood and sprinkled on the people, and said, Listen, the blood of the covenant which has cut Yahweh with you as to all words these. 12. And said Yahweh to Moses, Come up to Me to the mountain, and be there. And I will give you tablets of stone, the law, and the commands which I have written, to teach them. ("P" From Exodus 25) 1. And spoke Yahweh to Moses saying, 2. Speak to the _sons of Israel_ , and let them take for Me a heave-offering. From every man whose compels him heart. Let them take My heave-offering..."

In chapter 19, the author from the "S/J" school (as the author of Genesis 49) used the names _Jacob_ and _Israel_ to consolidate Judah and Israel. He continued through verse 9 and with verse 10, a "P" segment begins in standard "P" style. He was extremely concerned with ritual, he referred to the mountain as Sinai, and Aaron joined Moses on the scene. The "P" text continues for the remainder of chapter 19 and in chapter 24 verse 3b, the "S/J" narrative resumes exactly where it left off in chapter 19 verse 9. "P" merely placed his writing within an "S/J" story and the final redactor placed the combined text within the final narrative, although portioned.

Moving past chapter 24 into 25, there are seven chapters on the construction of the chest of the covenant, the tabernacle, and on rituals for the priests. These chapters are predominantly "P" handiwork with a few interpolations. However, segments of the text were most likely derived from extant sources.

Beginning chapter 28:

"1. And you will bring near to yourself Aaron, your brother, and his sons with him, from among the _sons of Israel_ , for his to Me serving as priest. Aaron, Nadab, and Abihu, Eleazar and Ithamar, the sons of Aaron."

Remember the "P" school claimed to have been descended from Aaron. Here in chapter 28, Yahweh unequivocally gave them the rights to the priesthood. The remainder of chapters 28 and 29 cover the rituals of the priesthood for Aaron and his sons, as in 29:9, which states their right to the priesthood was a statute never ending. Aaron is ubiquitous in this section, but there is not a mention of the Levites. The author made a loud statement on the correct order of priests ordained by the deity.

"44. Aaron and his sons I will sanctify to minister as priests to Me." (29:44)

"30. And Aaron and his sons you must anoint and consecrate them to minister as priests." (30:30)

Chapter 31 verses 12 through 16 are "P" verses on the Sabbath. Yahweh instructed Moses to command the people to observe the Sabbath. Whoever defiled it would be put to death. The people could work for six days, but the seventh was a Sabbath of rest dedicated to Yahweh. The deity made the heavens and the earth in six days, but on the seventh, he rested and was refreshed.

In verse 18:

"18. When He finished speaking with Moses on Mount Sinai, He gave him the two tablets of the testimony, stone tablets inscribed by the finger of 'Elohim."

Authorship questions regarding this verse are somewhat perplexing. The "E" and later Levitical schools refer to the mountain as _Horeb_. "P" referred to the mountain as Sinai, but he consistently referred to the deity as 'Elohim before and Yahweh subsequent to Exodus 3:15 (scholars erroneously ascribe Genesis 17:1 to "P", but it is "S/J"). Hence, he was too detail oriented for a one-time miscue. The verse is most likely from an early "S/J" text and "P" may have appropriated the name of the mountain from the earlier school, along with other phrases and the general style previously perceived.

The passage in which the deity gave the tablets to Moses was placed here in chapter 31, and then in the quoted story of Exodus 24 & 32, "E" had Moses break the tablets.

"D" commences chapter 33. Yahweh spoke to Moses and instructed him to gather the people he brought out of Egypt and travel to the land promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Yahweh would send an angel ahead of them to drive out the Canaanites, the Amorites, the Hittites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites. They were to leave for a land flowing with milk and honey, but the deity would not travel with the people because they were stiff-necked and he might be compelled to destroy them. When the people heard this, they mourned and remained stripped of their ornaments from Horeb onward. If their ornaments were in part representations of the deity, it would have been sensible for the people not to wear them if the deity would not be present. Furthermore, the gesture could symbolize the absence of Yahweh worship.

With verse 7, Moses erected a tent outside the camp and called it the _tent of meeting_. If someone wanted to consult Yahweh, they would go to this place outside the camp. When Moses entered, a pillar of cloud would descend upon the tent and remain at the doorway while Moses spoke with Yahweh. All the people perceived the pillar of cloud, i.e., witnessed the deity's presence, and they bowed to him in worship. During their encounter, Yahweh spoke with Moses face to face, as a man speaks with a friend. After Moses spoke with the deity, he would leave the tent and return to the camp, but his assistant Joshua, the son of Nun, never left the inside of the tent. In Numbers 11:28, there is an intimation of contention between Joshua, i.e., a religious sect, and a coalition in Judah, which forced peoples into Egypt and lands across the Jordan, from where the Joshua invasions occurred. Hence, an author could have written the verse with Joshua to distance him from the religious sect, if not merely a means to explain his absence in the majority of these Exodus texts (nothing was written without a reason).

Verse 12 begins an independent segment (there are multiple authors and schools represented within this stretch of Exodus). Moses spoke to the deity in reference to his instructions to lead the people, but he was unaware of who Yahweh would send with him. Moses had found favor in the eyes of the deity, who knew him by name, thus he wanted Yahweh to teach him his ways. Furthermore, the deity should consider the nation as _Yahweh's people_. After hearing the words of Moses, the deity decided his presence would travel with the people and by this, they would be distinguished from all others on the face of the earth. Hence, in this tradition, the deity traveled with the people, where in other traditions, it was merely his angel.

Moses then asked Yahweh if he could perceive his glory. The deity stated he would pass his goodness in front of him and proclaim his name _Yahweh_. However, Moses would not see his face because no one could see the face of Yahweh and live. Therefore, Moses would stand in the crevice of a rock and the deity would cover his presence with his hand until he passed by, then when the deity removed his hand, Moses would only perceive his back. Hence, Yahweh was an anthropomorphic deity.

"P" begins chapter 34 by establishing a new set of tablets to replace the broken ones. After "E" wrote the story in which Moses broke the tablets, it later became well known in Judah, which mandated a rebuttal by the "P" school.

Yahweh told Moses to cut two tablets like the former and either Moses or the deity (depending on translation) would transcribe the same words upon them. Moses was to stand atop Mount Sinai, but no one else could be seen upon the mountain and the flocks and herds could not even graze the area. Hence, Moses made the two tablets and joined Yahweh atop Mount Sinai. Yahweh approached Moses in a cloud, stood with him, and called the name _Yahweh_.

Verse 6 begins a passage that follows the text at the end of chapter 33. In the last verses of chapter 33, Moses wanted to see the glory of Yahweh, who told him the manner in which he would pass before him. With verse 6, Yahweh passed in front of Moses and called out his name _Yahweh_. The deity stated he was a merciful and gracious 'El, slow to anger and abundant in kindness and love, but who brought justice on the father's sins to the third and fourth generation. Moses bowed to the ground in worship and then implored the deity to travel with his stiff-necked people, forgive their sins, and accept them as a possession (the deity was already going to lead them in chapter 33 verse 14).

Verse 10 begins another version of the covenant, but in this story, Moses received the commands on Mount Sinai. Along with the commandments received on Mount Horeb, which included early "E" commands with later "D" amendments, in the book of Deuteronomy, an author wrote of a covenant conceived in the land of Moab.

Yahweh made a covenant with the people. He would perform wonders in their presence that had never been seen or done in any nation, thus all the people among them would see his awe-inspiring work. He would free the promised land of the Amorites, the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites. The people were not to make treaties with the inhabitants of their new land, lest they become a snare to them. They were to destroy their altars, sacred pillars, and Asherah poles. They were not to bow down to another 'Elohim because Yahweh was a jealous 'El. If the people did make treaties, they would sacrifice to foreign 'Elohim and marry the daughters of foreign nations, who would turn their sons to other 'Elohim, i.e., opposing factions and governments.

The people were not to make molten images of 'Elohim. They were to observe the festival of Unleavened Bread and eat it for seven days at the appointed time in the month of Abib. The firstborn male of every house belonged to the deity, thus the people were to redeem them, which may represent a move from an actual human sacrifice to a symbolic sacrifice. The people were not to appear empty handed before the deity, i.e., fail to bestow wealth upon the religious leadership. The people were to labor for six days, but then rest on the seventh, even during plowing and harvest time (another version of the law before _The Sabbath_ ). Three times a year all the males were to appear before Adon Yahweh, the 'Elohim of Israel, which is an amendment to the earlier written command (chapter 23 verse 17). As the text continues into later layers, the deity would expel the nations from before them and enlarge their territory. The land would be theirs, as long as they appeared three times before _Yahweh, their 'Elohim_. They were to bring the best of their first fruits to the house of _Yahweh, their 'Elohim_.

Yahweh told Moses to record his words because they were a covenant between the deity, Moses, and _Israel_. Therefore, a redactor placed the "P" story that created a second set of tablets in between two independent covenants with the deity, as the last verse does not refer to the same words or a reiteration, but a spoken first time covenant with Yahweh. The segment comes to an end with a later interpolation. Moses was with Yahweh for forty days and nights and he was without bread or water. He wrote the Ten Commandments, the words of the covenant, on the tablets.

With verse 29, there is a "P" text that serves as overt evidence of the independent traditions. In chapter 33 verse 11, when at the tent of the meeting, Yahweh spoke with Moses face to face, as a man speaks with his friend. Then in another tradition in chapter 33 verse 20, no one could see the face of the deity and live. In this section, "P" wrote his version of the encounters. When Moses descended from Mount Sinai with the two tablets of the testimony, he did not realize his face glowed due to his encounter with Yahweh. When Aaron and the _sons of Israel_ noticed Moses' face, they did not want to come near him. Moses called out to the people, thus Aaron and the leaders of the assembly approached him. After their meeting, the _sons of Israel_ also came to Moses and he told them the commands he received from Yahweh. When Moses finished speaking with the people, he placed a veil over his face, which he removed every time he went to speak with the deity. However, when he returned to the _sons of Israel_ , they again noticed his face glowed. Therefore, Moses kept his face veiled when he was not meeting with Yahweh. This "P" story not only diminished Moses' affinity with the people, it rendered him a distant, almost frightening figure.

The remaining chapters of Exodus continue with the construction of the chest and the tabernacle, as well as more rituals for the priests. In chapter 40, the author continued to establish the control of the priesthood.

"12. And you will bring Aaron and his sons near the door of the tent of meeting, and you will wash them with water.13. And you will clothe Aaron with the clothes holy. And you will anoint him, and sanctify him, and he will serve as priest for Me. 14. And his sons you will bring near. And you will clothe them{with} tunics. 15. And you will anoint them, as you anointed their father, and they will serve as priests to Me And will be for them their anointing for a priesthood everlasting for their generations."

The book of Exodus comes to an end and the workers completed the construction of the tabernacle. The deities of the ancient _Israelites_ were deities of place. Hence, once a deity of the mountain, now his cloud came over the tent of the congregation and his glory filled the tabernacle. Moses could not enter the tent because the glory of Yahweh rested upon it.

Table of Contents

On the Book of Leviticus

The book of Leviticus covers laws and rituals that deal primarily with the priests. It is a combination of "P", sparse Levitical texts, and writings from earlier eras. I merely skim through the book of Leviticus and simply touch upon points of political importance (format change moving forward).

As Chapter 1 begins, Yahweh spoke to Moses at the tent of the meeting. Therefore, the author stated the following commands came directly from deity through his greatest servant. In verses 5, 7, 8, & 11, there are directions for the sons of Aaron, which is a loud statement on who was to preside as priests in these rituals. However, within a portion of the texts, the directions were simply for the _priests_ , as opposed the sons of Aaron or the Levites. These texts originated during an earlier period prior to the power struggle between the two groups. Hence, the book continues through chapter 7 with directions for either _the sons of Aaron_ or the _priests_.

In chapter 8, Yahweh told Moses to take Aaron and his sons and anoint them as priests in front of the congregation. Combining these texts of Leviticus with the texts in the book of Exodus, in which the deity gave the priesthood to Aaron and his sons, "P" had his sect firmly established atop the religious hierarchy.

Leviticus 17 covers centralization of worship. Albeit the author wrote the text long after the temple was built, he assigned the command to an earlier era.

"2. Speak unto Aaron and his sons, and to the _sons of Israel_ , and say to them, This thing Yahweh commands saying 3. Any man of the household of Israel who kills an ox, or a lamb, or a goat in the camp, or who kills at the outside of the camp, 4. and at the door of the tent of meeting not has brought it to offer as an offering to Yahweh in front of the tabernacle of Yahweh, blood will be imputed to man that. blood He has shed, and will be cut off man that from the middle of his people."

Authors used the tabernacle or tent of the meeting to represent the temple. Therefore, when the priests instilled a new law, they could portray it as an old tradition. I explore this concept more in depth when covering the condemnation of the high places in the books of Kings and Chronicles. The importance lies in the fact the offerings went to the priests, and if the offerings were centralized at one place, one group of priests would receive them.

Chapter 18 is a Levitical text that covers prohibition against sexual practices. The text begins by prohibiting sexual intercourse with family members, women during the menstrual period, with the wife of a neighbor, or with another man. They were also not to sacrifice their children to Molech, to whom the _Israelites_ practiced human sacrifice. The punishment for the aforementioned acts was exile.

Beginning with chapter 24 verse 10, there is a Levitical text about a case of blasphemy. A son of an Israelite mother and an Egyptian father had an altercation with an Israelite man. The son blasphemed _the name_ , thus he was brought to Moses to await the word of the deity. Per the judgment of Yahweh, the people stoned the son to death. Although the author used the name _Yahweh_ , the story may have originated out of Israel and could represent the era of Solomon and Jeroboam. The name of the Israelite mother was Shelomith, a daughter of Dibri, of the tribe of Dan. The Danites, in the region of Naphtali, a name of Egyptian origin, made a stand against religious leadership. The name _Dibri_ simple means, "wordy", hence, _speaking out_ , but the name _Shelomith_ was derived from the word _Shalom_ , which is related to the name _Salem_. Due to the fact the author felt the need to mention the father was an Egyptian, this was a blatant example of racism. Thus, a portion of the Danites were considered foreigners, even though the _Joseph tribes_ were in part Edomites and Ishmaelites and _his sons_ were half Egyptian. Not coincidentally, the son who committed the blasphemy was also half Egyptian. A segment of the peoples who migrated out of Egypt later joined the Danite religious institution that allied with the Jerusalem monarchy, which displaced various sects of priests. Therefore, to denigrate the Danite religious hierarchy, the author made a case of their ancestry and stated they spoke out against the deity, which merely means they stood in opposition to the preferred leadership.

"28 You must not curse 'Elohim or curse a leader among your people." (Ex. 22:28)

Speaking out against the religious hierarchy, by an _Israelite_ or a foreigner, was punishable by death. If one perceived this militant politics anywhere but in the Old Testament, they would harshly criticize and condemn it. The chapter moves to an end with the classic _eye for an eye_ command.

Table of Contents

On the Book of Numbers

The book of Numbers begins with a census for war. The authorship came out of the Jerusalem monarchy and the records could have been sourced from any number of eras. The chapter lists the states, the leaders of the states, and the number of men of military age. The Levites were not registered for war, but they were in charge of the tabernacle. If anyone approached it, they would be put to death, i.e., leadership would execute anyone who defied this religious institution.

Numbers 2 also covers the leaders of the states and the total men registered for war. In the last chapter, an author wrote of the _tabernacle_ , but this chapter refers to the _tent of the meeting_ , which points to the coalescence of different religious establishments.

The military division of Judah camped on the east side (Levites would be in the center) of the tent of the meeting. The leader of Judah was Nahshon, the son of Amminadab (the two covered in Exodus 6), or "people of Nadab", and I discuss their fate in the next chapter. The men of Judah numbered seventy-four thousand six hundred. Issachar camped next to Judah and their leader was Nethanel, the son of Zuar. The men of Issachar numbered fifty-four thousand four hundred. Zebulun camped next to Issachar and their leader was Eliab, the son of Helon. The Zebulunites numbered fifty-seven thousand four hundred. In reviewing this camp headed by Judah, it becomes obvious the authors did not base the camps solely on geography and they were most likely in part created by political bias. The leaders of both Issachar and Zebulun are sons of Jesse (father of David) in 1 Chronicles 2:13. Therefore, they could have been governors that Judah leadership placed over the two states, if not peoples who migrated out of Judah and then later allied with a Judah government. Furthermore, Zebulun and Issachar were both _sons of Leah_ , who represents the affairs of Judah. This encampment conveys the same affiliation.

The military division of Reuben camped on the south side of the tent of the meeting. Their leader was Elizur, the son of Shedeur. Unlike the majority of scholars, I believe the first word in the name _Shedeur_ is _sadeh_ , which can refer to a country, field, land, etc. The second word in the name is _Ur_. Therefore, the _father of Elizur_ is the _land of Ur_ , i.e., the origin of the Reubenites. The men of Reuben numbered forty-six thousand five hundred. The men of Simeon camped next to Reuben. Their leader was Shelumiel, the son of Zurishaddai. The name _Shelumiel_ was derived from the word _shalom_ , which could affiliate the Simeonite leader to Salem or Jerusalem. The name _Zurishaddai_ means, "rock of Shaday", which connects him to the Shiloh priests. In 1 Samuel 8, there is possible evidence that a sect of priests in Beersheba joined a Judah-Shiloh coalition. The Simeonite men numbered fifty-nine thousand three hundred. The tribe of Gad camped next to Simeon. Their leader was Eliasaph, the son of Reuel. Eliasaph is a chief of Gershom in Numbers 3:24, which would explain his correlation with Reuel, the _father-in-law of Moses_. In reference to this encampment, both Reuben and Simeon were part of an early religious coalition in Judah, and segments of both peoples were later forced to lands across the Jordan in or near the region of Gad.

The military division of Ephraim camped on the west side of the tent. Their leader was Elishama, the son of Ammihud. Elishama _('El has heard_ ) could represent a Simeonite (former Ishmaelites- _heard of 'El_ ) migration out of Judah and into Ephraim, which is also demonstrated in the forthcoming Samuel tradition. Furthermore, Ammihud is a Simeonite leader (father of Samuel) in Numbers 34:20. The men of Ephraim numbered forty thousand five hundred. Manasseh camped next to Ephraim, which is sensible because they were sons of Joseph. Their leader was Gamaliel, the son of Pedahur. The men of Manasseh numbered thirty-two thousand two hundred. The men of Benjamin camped with the house of Joseph, which could be a product of an early coalition that was conquered by a Judah-based alliance. The leader of Benjamin was Abidan, the son of Gideoni, a name that is a variation of the name _Gideon_. The name _Abidan_ means, "father is judge", and since his father was Gideon, his father was a _judge of Israel_ (Judges 6:11). However, one can also interpret the name _Abidan_ as _father of Dan_ , and there were Edomite migrations from Benjamin into northern Israel. The Benjamites numbered thirty-five thousand four hundred.

The military division of Dan camped on the north side of the tent. Their leader was Ahiezer, the son of Ammishaddai. The name _Ahiezer_ means, "brother of help", and the name _Ammishaddai_ means, "people of Shadday". Hence, the _brother of help was the people of Shadday_ , which displays Dan's alliance with the Judah-Shiloh institution. The men of Dan numbered sixty-two thousand seven hundred. The military division of Asher camped with Dan. Their leader was Pagiel, the son of Ochran. The name _Pagiel_ means, "accident of 'El", and the name of his father implies to _bring trouble_. The men of Asher numbered forty-one thousand five hundred. The military division of Naphtali camped with Dan and Asher. Their leader was Ahira ( _brother of evil_ ), the son of Enan, which could refer to a city on the northern border of Canaan (Numbers 34:9). Although this encampment could reflect geography, it is also possible the people of Israel at one time considered these states foreign entities, and as perceived, the Levites did not hold them in high esteem.

In closing this chapter, the sum of only the men of military age was six hundred three thousand five hundred and fifty. Therefore, the authors wanted their audience to believe that almost a million men, women, and children wandered through the desert for forty years. In addition, this census was most likely sourced from various records and eras throughout the region. Although the text does not reflect the peoples exiled out of Judah and Benjamin, or the conquest of Israel by the Judah alliance, as pointed out, these events were partially intimated. However, as the author intended the census to represent part of a national _Israelite_ history that moves toward Saul, the first _king of Israel_ , he depicted a unified twelve tribes.

The "P" written Numbers 3 begins with the previously covered sons of Aaron. Nadab and Abihu, who were both childless, died when they brought unauthorized fire in Yahweh's presence (killed by Yahweh in Leviticus 10:2), thus Eleazar and Ithamar inherited complete control of the priesthood. The name _Nadab_ means, "liberal", and represents the same entity as the father-in-law of Aaron (Amminadab). The name _Abihu_ means, "father of him", i.e., priest, thus the text refers to a liberal sect of priests. In 1 Chronicles 2:28, Nadab and Abishur are descendants of Onam, an Edomite in 1 Chronicles 1:40. Then the text of 1 Chronicles, as well as Aaron's sons Nadab and Abihu, could refer to the same establishment as Genesis 38, in which Judah's son Onan was killed by Yahweh, i.e., an institution of Judah. Furthermore, the name _Ithamar_ means, "coast of Tamar", and Tamar precipitated the fall of the old coalition in Genesis 38.

In verses 5 though 10, the deity ordered the Levites to serve Aaron and perform duties before the tent of the meeting. Furthermore, the sons of Aaron were to keep the priesthood and any strangers who attempted to preside as priests were to be sentenced to death.

Verses 14 through 39 cover a Levitical census, and then verse 40 begins a segment on firstborn redemption. Yahweh told Moses to register every firstborn male among the _sons of Israel_ who were one month or older. Yahweh consecrated the firstborn of _Israel_ when he struck down those in Egypt, which means all those numbered belong to the deity. However, in place of the eldest males, Yahweh claimed the Levites as his own. The number of firstborn males who outnumbered the Levites were to be redeemed by money, which was given to the sons of Aaron.

Numbers 4 covers the duties of the Levites, which were headed by Moses and Aaron. Numbers 5 & 6 are older texts on commands, vows, and rituals to be performed by the priests. Numbers 7 covers animal offerings to the deity that were great in number and obviously not representative of a people starving in the desert. Once the united monarchy was in power, the offerings were probably mandatory taxes for each state.

Numbers 11 appears to be comprised of a few different segments. In the beginning and at the end of the chapter, there are Yahweh texts that merely refer to the assemblage as _people_. These sections were most likely written by or sourced from an early "J" school. In the middle of the chapter, one finds interpolations or later inserts that use the names Israel and the _sons of Israel_ , which were most likely a product of a "J/I" author and the discussed consolidation period of the Jerusalem monarchy. Within all the segments, the authors displayed contention between the people and the new religious leadership, the latter is represented by Moses and Yahweh. In verses 4 & 5, the _sons of Israel_ complained to Moses because they were hungry, but if one merely returns to chapter 7 and reviews the offerings, it becomes evident they should not take the majority of these stories literally.

Verse 10 begins an apparent "J" story with later amendments. In verses 16 & 30, an author referred to the leaders as the _elders of Israel_ , but in verses 24 & 25, they are the _elders of the people_ and _seventy elders_. There are also intimations of a mere _tent_ in the original tradition, but a _tent of the meeting_ in the interpolations.

The people continued complaining, thus Moses in turn complained to Yahweh. Yahweh then told Moses to gather _seventy elders of Israel_ at the _tent of the meeting_ and he would fill them with his spirit to help ease Moses' burden. Moses gathered seventy men from the _elders of the people_ and had them stand around the _tent_ , at which point the cloud of Yahweh descended upon them and they began to prophesize. However, they never prophesied again, which displays a change of guard. A new government would supplant the _seventy elders_ , i.e., the leaders of an existing _oath_ or religious coalition. While the elders were at the tent, two men who Moses called with the seventy, Eldad and Medad, remained in the camp, which intimates a division in the religious hierarchy. The spirit of Yahweh also rested upon them and they began to prophesize, which moved a young man to report Eldad and Medad to Moses. Joshua, the son of Nun, who was an assistant to Moses, insisted that Moses stop them, but Moses replied if only all the people were prophets and Yahweh would place his spirit upon them.

The majority of scholars believe the name _Eldad_ means, "El has loved", and was derived from the words _'El_ and _dod_ ( _dowd_ in Hebrew), the latter was the derivation of the name _David_ ( _Dawid_ in Hebrew). In the narratives, _dowd_ often denotes a brother or an uncle, but usually conveys love or beloved. The related Hebrew word _dud_ can denote a _boiler kettle_ , thus the _love_ aspects of the word _dowd_ could have been a figurative derivation from a more literal _boiling of emotions_ , analogous to water boiling from the effects of heat or fire, which people correlated with the sun. In addition, the name _Medad_ ( _me_ = water) can be translated as _waters of dod_ , which is a variation of the name _Dodo_ ( _Dowdow_ in Hebrew). There are various proofs, including a Moabite inscription, that the Israelites worshiped _Dodo_ (or _Dod_ ) as a solar deity. Therefore, one can translate the name _Eldad_ as _'El is Dodo_. Furthermore, in Exodus 17 and Numbers 20, the people quarreled with leadership over the lack of water, thus the deity produced water from a rock (rocks often represent religious establishments). If the original story featured Dodo, he would have afflicted the people in the desert (southern Judah settlements) with the heat of the sun, but then saved them with the _waters of Dod_. Later authors changed the story to feature Yahweh, and to convey the conflict with and later conquest of the establishment that included the would-be sons of Merari, in Numbers 20:13, an author wrote of the waters of Meribah, which means, "waters of contention".

In the same vein as the translation _'El is Dodo_ , one can translate the name _Eldad_ as _'El is Hadad_. Hadad was the supreme Aramean thunder or weather deity, but a fact not found in the writings of most historians, he was also a solar deity among the Arameans, Phoenicians, and thus the _Israelites_. Therefore, one could translate the name _Medad_ as _waters of Hadad_. Who better than a weather deity to bring water to the people? However, I have read scholars who state the name _Medad_ means, "of Hadad" (thus possibly _of Dodo_ ), which could denote an offspring of the deity.

In studying the names Eldad and Medad, one can understand they represent either the solar deity Dodo or the solar/weather deity Hadad. If the latter is the case, a common belief is the word _dad_ in the names is either a degradation (of copy) or errant recording of the name _Hadad_ , thus the name _Eldad_ should read _'El-Hadad_. However, I believe what many perceive as ambiguity or erroneous recording was a name meant to represent both Hadad and Dodo, if not a father-son relation. In ancient times, peoples and cultures constantly coalesced and they integrated the epithets and names of their deities, which is a phenomenon that began long before the written word (for those who believe the time-preserved and discovered inscriptions contain absolute truth). Moreover, when one deity, i.e., community or government, supplanted another, the victor often assumed the attributes of the defeated. Yahweh and Baal were virtually the same deity and the priests' later problem with the latter had nothing to do with the deity, but who was in control of his worship. Therefore, Eldad and Medad could symbolize the integrated worship of peoples from Aram, Phoenicia, Egypt, and Arabia. The coalition also conceived the figure of David, who originated as the personification of Dodo or Dod. The early institution and its deities, which live on in the Old Testament via the names Eldad and Medad, were later supplanted by a new Judah alliance and the _enforced_ worship of Yahweh.

Eldad and Medad were part of the seventy elders touched by Yahweh, which implies they were part of an existing _oath_ , i.e., an alignment of peoples and their deities. However, when the other elders stopped prophesying, i.e., were supplanted, Eldad and Medad prophesied alone, which intimates a division of the old coalition was part of the transformation into the new Yahweh religion. Finally, to have any disagreement or contention between Moses and Joshua is a significant event portrayed by the author. Joshua was once worshiped as the son of a solar deity, but a segment of the Joshua cult was exiled from Judah. Therefore, when Eldad and Medad prophesied, Joshua wanted Moses to stop them because they represent defectors from the old coalition that joined the new Judah alliance.

In Numbers 12, Miriam and Aaron spoke out against Moses because he married a Cushite woman. A Cushite was an Ethiopian, hence, a people with darker skin than a segment of the _Israelites_. Therefore, the story originated as a racial issue. Aaron and Miriam asked Moses if the deity only spoke through him, which caused Yahweh to gather the three at the tent of the meeting. He called Aaron and Miriam forward and said he appeared to others in dreams, but to his servant Moses he spoke mouth to mouth and openly, but not in riddles. Thus, they should be afraid to speak against his servant. The anger of Yahweh glowed and he turned away and struck Miriam leprous, which is an irony considering the story began with a racial argument. Moses cried out to Yahweh, "'El, I pray, heal her", but the deity let the disease stay for seven days to disgrace her. The deity turned Miriam _leprous as snow_ , which symbolizes the short-term alliance between peoples from Egypt and the Aramean ( _Laban_ , _white_ ) sons of Aaron. During the represented period, the "J/I" _Moses camp_ allied with the darker Cushites.

Numbers 13 & 14 consist of two interwoven texts. The first story is from the Judah monarchy, which was a re-write from an earlier tradition. The three _sons of Israel_ usages could have either been a product of consolidation or later interpolations.

"3. And sent them Moses from the Desert of Paran at the command of Yahweh. They all {were} men. heads of the _sons of Israel_ They {were}. and said to them, Go up this {way} into the Negev and go up {into} the hills, 18. and see the land what it {is}, and the people who are living on it, whether strong it {is} whether weak, whether few it {has} or many, 19. and what the land {is} which {they} are living in, whether good it {is} or bad, and what {are} the towns which {they} are living in, whether in camps or in fortresses; 20. and what the land {is} whether fat it {is} or lean, whether there is in it wood or not. And strengthen yourselves, and take {some} of the fruit of land. Now the days {were} the days of first ripe grapes. 22. And they went up into the Negev, and came to Hebron. And {were} there Ahiman, Sheshai, and Talmai, the children of Anak. And Hebron seven years had been built before Zoan in Egypt. 23. And they came to the Valley of Eshcol, and cut down from there a branch and cluster of grapes one. And they carried it on a rod by two, also of the pomegranates and of the figs. 24. place That {one} called the Valley of Eshcol, because of the cluster which cut off from there the _sons of Israel_. 25. And they returned from searching the land at the end of forty days. 27. And they reported to him, and said, We came to the land where you sent us, and indeed flowing milk and honey it {is}, and this {is} its fruit. 28. However, fierce {are} the people who live in the land, and towns are fortified {and} great very and also the children of Anak we saw there. 29. Amalek lives in the land of the Negev, and the Hittite, and the Jebusite, and the Amorite, live in the hills; and the Canaanite lives by the sea, and by the hand of the Jordan {River}. 32. And they sent out a bad report of the land which they had searched to the _sons of Israel_ , saying, The land which we passed through in, to spy out it, a land eating up its inhabitants it {is}. And all the people whom we saw in its middle {were} men of stature. 30. And stilled Caleb the people in front of Moses, and said, Certainly we will go up, and we will seize it, because surely we are able {to do} it. 8. If has delighted in us Yahweh, then He will bring us into land this and will give it to us, a land which is flowing with milk and honey.9. Only, against Yahweh not do rebel And you, not do be afraid of the people of the land, because our food they {are}. has turned Their defense away from them, and Yahweh {is} with us. not Do be afraid of them. 11. And said Yahweh to Moses, Until when will despise Me people this? And until when not they will believe in Me, for all the signs which I have done in its middle?12. I will strike it with the pestilence, and dispossess it. And I will make you a nation bigger and stronger than it! 13. And said Moses to Yahweh, Then will hear the Egyptians! For You have brought up by Your power people this from its middle. 14. And they will say to the inhabitant of land this, They have heard that You, Yahweh, {are} in the middle of people this, who eye with eye is seen. You {are}Yahweh, and Your cloud stands over them and in a pillar of.cloud You go ahead of them by day, and in a pillar of fire by night. 15. And will You execute people this as man one? Then will speak the nations who have heard Your fame, saying, 16. Because not is able Yahweh to bring people this into the land which He swore to them He has killed them in the desert. 17. And now, let be great, I beg You, the power of my Lord, as You have spoken, saying,18. Yahweh {is} slow to anger, and great of mercy, carrying away iniquity and transgression, and surely not will clear, visiting the sin of the fathers upon the sons, upon the third and upon the fourth {generation}. 19. Forgive, I pray, the sin of people this, by the greatness of Your mercy, and as You have borne with people this from Egypt even until now. 20. And said Yahweh, I have forgiven, according to your words. 21. But as I live, will be filled {with} the glory of Yahweh all the earth, 22. because all the men who are seeing My glory, and My signs, which I have done in Egypt and in the desert, and have tested Me these ten times, and not have listened to My voice, 23. not they will see the land which I have sworn to their forefathers. And all despising those Me not will see it. 24. But My servant Caleb, since there has been spirit another with him, and he is completely following Me, I will bring him into the land which he has entered, and his seed will possess it. 33. and your sons will be shepherds in the desert forty years, will carry your fornications until are wasted your carcasses in the desert. 34. By the number of the days in which you spied out the land, forty days, a day for a year, a day for a year. You will carry your iniquities {for} forty years. You will know My alienation {from you}"

In this story, Moses sent the men into the Negev, which brought them north into Hebron. Upon returning from the search of Judah, Caleb was the only man who had faith the deity would give them the land, thus he alone would enter the land of Canaan. Thus as suggested, in the original tradition, they entered the land through the Negev. Therefore, in Exodus 13, an author inserted:

"17. And it was when sent Pharaoh's the people, not did lead them 'Elohim the way of the land of the Philistines although nearer it {was}. For said 'Elohim, Lest change their minds the people when they see war and return to Egypt. 18. But caused to turn 'Elohim the people the way of the desert, {to} the Sea of Reeds."

The history of this entrance into Judah through the Negev was later blended with the traditions of Joshua, in which the entrance into the land came from east of the Jordan. Finally, the text states:

"And Hebron seven years had been built before Zoan in Egypt."

_Zoan_ was another name for the city of Tanis in Egypt. In 1075 BCE, Tanis was made the capital of the 21st dynasty and at that time, a temple to Amon was built. This date is appropriate for the construction of the city the quoted text referenced. If the city existed before this, there is not an archaeological record.

Here is the later consolidation text by "P".

"1. And spoke Yahweh to Moses, saying, 2. Send for you men, and they will search the land of Canaan, which I am giving to the _sons of Israel_. man one {by} man one for the tribe of his fathers You will send, each one a leader among them. 17. And sent them Moses to search the land of Canaan,21. And they went up and searched the land from the Desert of Zin to Rehob, to the gate of Hamath.26. And they traveled and came to Moses and to Aaron, and to all group of the _sons of Israel_ , to the Desert of Paran, to Kadesh. And they brought them word, and all the congregation, and showed them the fruit of the land.31. And the men who had gone up said, not We are able to go up against the people, because stronger it {is} than we.33. And there we saw the giants, the sons of Anak, from the giants. And we were in our own eyes like grasshoppers, and so we were in their eyes.1. And lifted up all the congregation and gave their voice. And wept the people during night that. 2. And complained against Moses and against Aaron all the _sons of Israel_. And said to them all the congregation, Oh that we had died in the land of Egypt, or in desert this! Oh that we had died! 3. And why Yahweh is bringing us into land this to fall by the sword? Our wives and our infants will become a prey! Is it not good for us to return to Egypt? 4. And they said, each to his brother, Let us appoint a head and return to Egypt!5. And fell Moses and Aaron on their faces in front of all the assembly of the congregation of the _sons of Israel_. 6. And Joshua, the son of Nun, and Caleb, the son of Jephunneh, of those who searched the land, tore their clothes, 7. and they spoke to all the congregation of the _sons of Israel_ , saying, The land which we passed through in, to spy out it, {is} a good land very much so. 10. And said all the congregation to stone them with stones. And the glory of Yahweh appeared in the tent of meeting to all the _sons of Israel_.26. And spoke Yahweh to Moses, and to Aaron, saying, 27. How long will I carry congregation evil this who {are}complaining against Me? the complaints of the _sons of Israel_ , which they {are} complaining against Me, I have heard. 28. Say to them, As live I, says Yahweh, surely, If as you have spoken in My ears, so I will do to you.; 29. in desert this will fall Your dead bodies, even all your counted ones as to whole your numbers, from old twenty years and upward, because you have complained against Me. 30. Certainly not you will come into the land which lifted up My hand to cause to live you in it, except - Caleb, the son of Jephunneh, and Joshua, the son of Nun. 31. As for your infants of whom you said, a prey They will be I will bring in them, and they will know the land which you have rejected. 32. your carcasses As for you, will fall in desert this. 35. I {am} Yahweh. I have spoken. Surely, - this I will do to all congregation evil this who are gathered against Me. In desert this they will be ended and there they will die. 36. And the men whom had sent Moses to spy out the land, and they returned and made a complaint against him, all the congregation by bringing up a bad report against the land, 37. even died those men {who} brought report of the land an evil by the plague in the presence of Yahweh. 38. But Joshua, the son of Nun, and Caleb, the son of Jephunneh, lived out of men those who went to spy out the land."

In this story, the author included Moses and Aaron, and the men who had faith in the deity and thus would enter the land promised were Joshua and Caleb. The area they searched was from the desert Zin, which is south of Judah, to Rehob and the gate of Hamath, which were places in Asher and at the entrance to Aram. "P", in his usual mode of consolidation, decided to re-write the story, include Aaron and Joshua, and cover the lands of both Israel and Judah.

Chapter 14 comes to an end and due to the complaints of the people, Yahweh allowed the Amalekites and Canaanites to defeat the _sons of Israel_ , who were struck as far as Hormah.

Numbers 16 is a complex weave that features crafty redactor work. The first of the two stories is a "P" text.

"1. And took Korah, the son of Izhar, the son of Kohath, the son of Levi, fifty and two hundred, select men of the group, 3. And they assembled against Moses and against Aaron, and said, too much You {take}, for all the congregation, all {are} holy, and is among them Yahweh. Why then do you lift yourselves above the assembly of Yahweh? 4. And heard {it} Moses and fell on his face, 5. and he spoke to Korah and to all his group, saying, In the morning will show Yahweh who are His, and him who is holy, and will draw him near even whom He may choose him will he draw to Him. 6. this Do: Take for yourselves censers, Korah and all your group, 7. and put in them fire, and put on them incense in the presence of Yahweh tomorrow. And it will be, the man whom chooses Yahweh, he will be the holy one. too much You {take}, sons of Levi! 8. And said Moses to Korah, Listen now, you sons of Levi, 9. Is it too little that has separated 'Elohim Israel you from the congregation of Israel, to bring near you to Himself, to do the service of the tabernacle of Yahweh and to stand in front of the congregation to minister to them? 10. Yes, He has drawn you, and all your brothers, the sons of Levi, with you. And will you seek also the priesthood? 11. So, you and all your group who have gathered against Yahweh and Aaron, what {is} he, that you complain against him?: 16. Then said Moses to Korah, You all your group, you be there in the presence of Yahweh, you and they, and Aaron, tomorrow! 17. And bring each one his censer, and you will put on them incense, and you will offer in the presence of Yahweh, each his censer, fifty and two hundred censers, and you and Aaron, each his censer. 18. So, they took each his censer, and put on them fire, and lay on them incense. And they stood at the door of the tent of meeting, with Moses and Aaron. 19. And assembled against them Korah all the congregation at the door of the tent of meeting, and was seen the glory of Yahweh by all the congregation. 20. And spoke Yahweh to Moses and to Aaron, saying, 21. Separate yourselves from among congregation this, and I will consume them in a moment! 22. And they fell on their faces and said, O 'El, 'Elohim the spirits of all flesh, will man one sin, and with all the congregation will You be angry?:35. And fire came forth from Yahweh, and consumed the fifty and two hundred men that offered the incense. 36. And spoke Yahweh to Moses, saying, 37. Speak to Eleazar, the son of Aaron, the priest, that he lift the censers out of the burning, and the fire scatter yonder, because they are holy, 38. the censers of sinners these against their own souls. And they will make of them beaten plates, a covering for the altar, for they brought them before Yahweh. And they are holy; and they will be a sign to the _sons of Israel_. 39. And took Eleazar, the priest, the firepans bronze, which had brought they who were burned, and they beat them {into} a cover for the altar,: 40. as a memorial to the _sons of Israel_ , so that not will come close man an alien who not of the seed of Aaron {is} to offer incense in the presence of Yahweh, and not will be like Korah, and like his company, as had spoken Yahweh through the hand of Moses to him. 41. And complained all the congregation of the _sons of Israel_ on the next day, against Moses and against Aaron, saying, You have killed the people of Yahweh! 42. And it was as was assembled the group against Moses and against Aaron, that they turned toward the tent of meeting. And, look, had covered it the cloud, and appeared the glory of Yahweh! 43. And came Moses and Aaron to the front of the tent of meeting. 44. And spoke Yahweh to Moses, saying, 45. Rise up from the middle of congregation this and I will consume them in a moment! Then they fell on their faces. 46. And said Moses to Aaron, Take the censer and put it on fire from the altar, and lay on incense, and go, hurry to the congregation, and atone for them, because has gone out the punishment from Yahweh. has begun The plague! 47. And did Aaron as had spoken Moses, and ran into the middle of the assembly And look, had begun the plague among the people! And he laid on the incense and atoned for the people. 48. And he stood between the dead and the living and was stopped the plague. 49. And were those who died from the plague four-teen thousand and seven hundred. 50. And turned back Aaron to Moses, to the door of the tent of meeting. And the plague was stopped."

The fact "P" wrote this myth is rather obvious. Korah was a Levite, and the would-be Levites lost control of the priesthood to the sons of Aaron in Judah. At this point in the narrative, one should accept the Levite displacement and realize the enmity that propelled the schools against each other. Yahweh condemned the Levites for seeking the priesthood of Aaron, thus numerous Levites were killed, the people complained against Moses and Aaron, and Yahweh began to destroy them until Aaron atoned for their sins. This event could represent the same civil war that "E" represented in Exodus 32, but from the other side of the battle. In the Exodus text, it was the Levites who obeyed the command of Moses and slayed the people due to their actions with Aaron. However, in this story, Aaron saved the people from the destruction caused by the actions of Korah and his followers. In both instances, there is unrest within the populace, which is indicative of a power struggle and a civil war.

In the next story, I italicized the inserts of the redactor.

"1. And took _Korah_ , both Dathan and Abiram, the sons of Eliab, and On, the sons of Peleth, the sons of Reuben, 2. and they arose in front of Moses, with some of the _sons of Israel_ , leaders of the group, men of reputation. 12. And sent Moses to call for Dathan and for Abiram, the sons of Eliab. And they said, not We will come! 13. Is it too little that you have brought us out of a land flowing with milk and honey, to kill us in the desert, but {that} you seize dominion over us also certainly? 14. Yes, not into a land flowing with milk and honey you have brought us, norgiven us inheritance of fields and vineyards! Will the eyes of men these you put out? not We will come up! 15. And was angry Moses very, and said to Yahweh, not Do respect their offering. not donkey one from them I have taken, nor have I badly treated one of them. 23. Then spoke Yahweh to Moses, saying, 24. Speak to the congregation, saying, Get away from around the tent of _Korah_ , Dathan, and Abiram! 25. Then arose Moses and went to Dathan and Abiram, and went behind him the elders of Israel. 26. And he spoke to the congregation, saying, turn away Please from the tents of men evil these, and not do touch anything that they have, lest you be consumed in all their sins! 27. And they got away from the tent of _Korah_ , Dathan, and Abiram around. Then Dathan and Abiram came out, standing at the door of their tents, and their wives, and their sons, and their infants. 28. And said Moses, By this you will know that Yahweh has sent me to do all works these, {and} that not {it is} from my own heart. 29. If like the death of all men die these and the visitation of all men is visited upon them, then not Yahweh has sent me. 30. But if a new thing creates Yahweh, and opens the ground her mouth and swallows them, and all that they have, and they go alive to Sheol, then you will know that have despised men these Yahweh. 31. And it was, as he finished speaking all words these, that split apart the ground which {was} under them, 32. and opened the earth its mouth, and swallowed them and their houses, and all their property. 33. And they sank, they and all they had, alive to Sheol. And covered over them the ground, and they perished from among the assembly. 34. And all Israel who {were} around them ran away at their cry, because they said, lest swallow us up the earth!"

In the prior segment, the scene was in front of the tent of the meeting, but in this story, it is in front of the perpetrators' tent. The redactor interpolated the name _Korah_ into the text in an attempt to make the two myths appear as one story. If one reviews verses 12, 25, and 27b, they will realize the author did not mention Korah in these important verses. Therefore, excluding Korah, this story is about Dathan and Abiram, who the author portrayed as descendants of Reuben. The two men rebelled against Moses, i.e., religious leadership, and ultimately Yahweh destroyed them. This text was penned during the Jerusalem monarchy (before "P") and details the downfall of an early religious faction associated with the Reubenites, which could in part represent their expulsion from Judah.

Numbers 17 continues the power struggle between the priests. Yahweh instructed Moses to have the tribes make twelve rods with the name of each household upon their respective rods. The house of Levi would write the name of Aaron upon their rod. They were to then place the rods in front of Yahweh in the tent of the meeting and he would choose one from among them by making it bloom, i.e., he would choose his priests. Aaron's rod bloomed, hence, Yahweh chose the sons of Aaron. In the last chapter, "P" condemned the Levites for "seeking the priesthood also." The motives of the "P" school become increasingly apparent the further one travels through and discerns the texts.

In Numbers 20, a "P" author placed the _sons of Israel_ in the wilderness of Zin, which was on the southern border of Judah (Joshua 15:3). They settled in Kadesh where Miriam died and she was buried. As in Exodus 17, the _sons of Israel_ quarreled with Moses because the lack of water. Yahweh instructed Moses and Aaron to produce water from a rock, but because of this uprising, the people would not enter the land promised. In Exodus 17:7, they called the place _Massah_ and _Meribah_ , but in this text, "these are the waters of Meribah." Moreover, in verse 10, Moses called the people rebels, which is the meaning of the name _Miriam_ , who not coincidentally died in this chapter. This story could symbolize the banishment of the would-be sons of Merari from the Judah religious institution.

With verse 14, Moses sent messengers from Kadesh to the king of Edom, albeit the author did not mention a name. The messengers requested passage through his land, but the king refused. The conveyed denial could have merely been an attempt to denigrate the image of the Edomites by an author from the Judah institution that conquered them.

The chapter moves to an end and the _sons of Israel_ came to mount Hor. Due to the fact both Moses and Aaron rebelled against Yahweh at Meribah, they would not enter the land promised, which is a means to consolidate these traditions with the Joshua invasions forthcoming. After Aaron passed the priesthood to his son Eleazar, he died on the top of the mountain. Then Moses and Eleazar went down to address the people.

Numbers 21 contains a series of travels (with a story in the middle) that authors sourced from the early history of Judah, but re-wrote during the Jerusalem monarchy.

King Arad of the Negev captured _men of Israel_ on the road of Atharim. Yahweh helped _Israel_ destroy the Canaanites and their cities, thus they called the place _Hormah_. As one may have noticed, certain authors with _Israel ancestry_ began to refer to the collective people as _Israel_ , while other later authors referred to them as _sons of Israel_. Later consolidation authors implemented both terms. The only two instances of the name _Israelite_ in the Old Testament are in Leviticus 24:10, in a later written case of racism, and in 2 Samuel 17:25, to describe an Ishmaelite.

Beginning in verse 4, the people spoke against Moses and 'Elohim, which has become a distinct trend in this portion of the narrative. However, the mention of _'Elohim_ is the last in the story and from here it appears as a Yahweh re-write. Although, since the story begins featuring 'Elohim and ends featuring Yahweh, and neither deity is mentioned at both the beginning and the end of the story, the author could have intimated a transformation from 'Elohim to Yahweh worship. In addition, the contention within the people implies not everyone supported the new institution. Because of this conflict, Yahweh sent poisonous snakes among the masses and many of _Israel_ died. When the people asked for forgiveness, Yahweh had Moses construct a bronze snake. He mounted it on a pole and when the people were bitten, they looked at it and recovered. This snake image was a representation of Asherah as the Snake Goddess, which an author referenced in 2 Kings 18:4, when King Hezekiah destroyed the image. The story intimates the beginning of the Yahweh institution and the Judah-Asher alliance. This Judah establishment cast out the Edomites (who were subtly denigrated in the last chapter), forced the _Joseph tribes_ (including Edomites) into Egypt (possibly referenced by the death of Miriam in the last chapter), and exiled other peoples across the Jordan, whose travels are referenced in the next segment.

Verse 10 begins a section that was sourced from peoples who were forced out of Judah and subsequently journeyed into the lands of Moab and Gilead. However, if these passages record the events of the _Joseph tribes_ that were first driven into Egypt, peoples who fled directly from Judah into these lands, or a combination of the two is impossible to discern. A later author from the Judah institution transformed the events into a _Yahweh narrative_.

The _sons of Israel_ camped at Oboth and then on the border of Moab. Next, they camped in the Zered Valley and then on the Arnon river, which was the border between Moab and the Amorites. At this point, there is a quote from the _Book of Yahweh's Wars_. As I have constantly conveyed, the texts that made it into the Old Testament were only a fraction of the stories and records of the religious factions during the represented era. Nevertheless, from the Arnon River, they traveled to Beer and the well that Yahweh revealed to Moses.

_Israel_ sent messengers to King Sihon of the Amorites and requested passage through his land. After the request was denied, the two peoples fought at Jahaz and Israel struck the Amorites from Arnon to Jabbok. Israel then lived in the Amorite villages.

Next, a song details an Amorite defeat of Moab and the people of Chemosh (a Moabite deity). Due to the fact the Amorites defeated the Moabites at cities that included Heshbon and Ar, it serves to provide _Israel_ impunity in the conquest of these Moabite lands, over which there was later contention. Furthermore, I believe Chemosh ( _Kemowos_ ) and Moses were related entities. The majority of the opinion of scholars is the name Chemosh means, "subduer", and he was worshiped as a _Fish Deity_. Hence, Chemosh was a Fish Deity and Moses was _drawn out of the water_. Moreover, Moses' greatest miracle was splitting the Sea of Reeds. In addition, in Deuteronomy 34:10, the name _Moses_ is spelled _Kemoseh_ , which is coincidentally similar to _Kemowos_. Moses, as David and many other heroes, was at one time worshiped as divinity. Then in later eras, these divine figures were transformed into mortal men while their supernatural feats were transformed into the miracles of Yahweh.

The _sons of Israel_ then journeyed to Bashan and King Og. They conquered his army and took possession of the land.

Numbers 22, 23, & 24 are comprised of three authors. There is an "E" author who referred to the deity as _'Elohim_ , an "S/J" author who referred to the deity as _'El, 'Elyown, Shaday,_ and _Yahweh_ , along with the dual use of the names _Jacob_ and _Israel_ , and a later interpolating "D" author who referred to the deity as _Yahweh_.

The _sons of Israel_ camped on the plains of Moab by Jericho and the Jordan. Balak, the son of Zippor, was the king of Moab and he was afraid of the _sons of Israel_. Due to the fact Balak is conveyed as the son of King Zippor, who an author associated with Moses via his marriage to Zipporah, this story could represent a period after the association between Judah and Moab, if not a demonstration of the opposition to the Judah-Moab alliance. Moab approached the elders of Midian (another ally of an early faction in Judah) and together they sent messengers to Balaam, the son of Beor from Pethor, and asked him to curse _Israel_. The name _Balaam_ means, "not of the people", i.e., foreigner, and I discussed Pethor in my commentary on Genesis 36.

Beginning with verse 12, the story becomes very enigmatic and contradictory, for the most part due to the different authors and layers the redactor poorly wove together. 'Elohim told Balaam not travel with the leaders of Moab and Midian to curse _Israel_ , but later told him to leave with the men and listen to his instructions, but then became angry with Balaam for going. The ambiguity continues throughout chapter 22, which ends with Balaam and Balak ascending a mountain that overlooked _Israel's_ camp.

In Numbers 23, the less than acceptable weave continues for six verses, and then with verse 7, a familiar school joins the scene.

"7. And he took up his story, and said: From Aram he has led me, Balak, king of Moab. From the mountains of the east, Come, curse for me Jacob; and come, denounce Israel! 8. How will I curse not whom has cursed 'El? And how will I rage at not whom has raged at Yahweh?"

"10. Who can count the dust of Jacob, and the number of the fourth part of Israel?"

"21. He has seen iniquity in Jacob, nor has He seen wrong in Israel."

"23. For not a spell {is} against Jacob and not fortune-telling against Israel. Now it is said of Jacob and Israel, what has done 'El!"

The same author continued in chapter 24 in the same recognizable style. Balak was furious with Balaam's blessings because he hired him to curse his enemies. However, Balaam told Balak he could not move against the commands of Yahweh, but before he left for his people, he would reveal the future of _Israel_. In verse 17:

"17. A star out of Jacob, and will rise a scepter out of Israel, and will dash the corners of Moab, and destroy the sons of Seth. 18. And will be Edom a possession and will be a possession Seir, for {its} enemies, but Israel will do in a powerful way. 19. And {one} will rule out of Jacob and will destroy the survivors from the city. 20. And he looked upon Amalek, and took up his story, and said, The first of the nations {was} Amalek, but his latter end {is} to destruction. 21. And he looked upon the Kenites and took up his story, and said, May be enduring your home and may be set in a rock your nest, 22. But will be consumed Qayin, until Asshur will carry you away."

The author stated Asshur would carry away the Kenites, who had an affinity with the Levites. _Asshur_ most likely refers to the _Assyrians_ , who deported the Reubenites in one of their earlier attacks (1 Chronicles 5:6), which could refer to the same event. Furthermore, the story displays the early prominence of the Amalekites, who may have been a product of the Edomites and Kenites. Their presence out of Judah reached as far as Ephraim (Judges 12:15, Judges 5:14, etc.), but they were superseded by a later religious alliance. An institution of Judah was the _star out of Jacob_ and the Shiloh sect was the _scepter out of Israel_. The Judah-based institution conquered the Amalekites, the Moabite lands in Gilead ( _corners of Moab_ ), the Kenites, and peoples who migrated into Judah from Egypt ( _sons of Seth_ ), which would include the Hagarites, and thus the Ishmaelites and Simeonites. These conquests explain why amidst the ambiguity, Levitical "D" changed the mood of the story, showed contempt for Balaam, and had the deity turn against him. As the story ends, Balak and Balaam returned to their lands.

The author of Numbers 25 re-wrote this story during an era of the Jerusalem monarchy. _Israel_ lived in Shittim and the people began to sin sexually with the daughters of Moab. The _people of Israel_ sacrificed to their 'Elohim and Israel aligned itself with Baal-Peor, which simply means _allied with a Moabite religious faction_. In verse 4, the author revealed the punishment for their change in allegiance.

"4. And said to Yahweh Moses, Take all the chiefs of the people, and hang them in the presence of Yahweh, in front of the sun so that may be turned the fierce anger of Yahweh from Israel."

Yahweh ordered Moses to hang the _leaders of the people_ before Yahweh in front of the sun, which displays this rebellion was against a governing religious faction that allied with Moab. However, this fact is veiled with a verse 5 interpolation, in which Moses told the _judges of Israel_ only to slay the men who joined Baal-Peor. The execution of the leaders in front of the deity, hence, the command of Yahweh, is ignored in the interpolation. The later author attempted to conceal another fracture in the would-be _sons of Israel_. However, in verse 4, Moses was ordered to perform a human sacrifice in front of a solar deity. Human sacrifice was a common ritual in the religions of antiquity, which one can perceive with this blatant command.

With verse 6, a _son of Israel_ brought a woman of Midian in front of Moses and the entire congregation, who were weeping at the tent of meeting. Phinehas stabbed them with a javelin and stopped a plague that would have inflicted the _sons of Israel_. First, Eleazar is conspicuously absent in this event. Moreover, with the lack of action on the part of Moses, it implies the condemned entities were allies of the Levites. The "P" authorship becomes evident with verse 11. Yahweh told Moses because of this event, Phinehas and his seed would have the priesthood perpetually. The names of the perpetrators were Zimri, the son of Salu, the ruler of the house of Simeon, and Cozbe, the daughter of Zur, a head of the house of Midian. Hence, the author condemned a Levitical sect and their Midianite allies. In reality, the Judah establishment exiled both peoples out of the country.

The chapter ends with an interesting interpolation. Yahweh told Moses to conquer the Midianites because of the treachery at Peor and this incident involving Cozbi. However, the women of Moab moved _Israel_ to align with Baal-Peor at the beginning of the chapter. Hence, an author subtly shifted the blame, which could imply his sect allied with the Moabites.

In Numbers 26, there is another census. These records appear to have been from an era following the "E" settlement east of the Jordan. Although this list is meant to represent a time far removed from the era of Jacob, many of the names are the same as those in Genesis 46 and Exodus 6. Therefore, to veil the fact the lists represent the same general era, the text states the _family of Hanoch_ , etc.

The sons of Reuben are consistent with those mentioned in Genesis 46:9 and Exodus 6:14. However, in this chapter, Pallu fathered Eliab, who fathered Nemuel, Dathan, and Abiram. Eliab is a son of Jesse (brother of David) in 1 Samuel 16:6, and could represent Reubenites who were forced out of Judah. The author did not mention Nemuel in the story of Numbers 16, which implies a division from the conquered Dathan and Abiram. He is listed as a son of Simeon later in this chapter. The name _Dathan_ appears to have been derived from the word _dath_ , i.e., a decree or law. Therefore, the conquest of Numbers 16 could have supplanted the _law of Abiram_. The name _Abiram_ is actually a variation of the name _Abram_ , and Abram was a descendant of Reu (Genesis 11), or a Reubenite, which explains his heir 'Eliezer. _Abram_ could represent the same entity as _Abiram_ , before the Reubenites were superseded and Abram was transformed into _Abraham_ , or the new religious hierarchy in Hebron. In a later interpolation, the text mentions the events of Numbers 16, but states the sons of Korah did not die with Dathan and Abiram.

The first son of Simeon was Nemuel, a name that could be a variation of the name _Jemuel_ , who is a son of Simeon in Genesis 46:10 and Exodus 6:15, but is absent in this text. The other descendants of Simeon are consistent with the earlier texts, except for the absence of Zohar and Ohad ( _united_ ). The name _Zohar_ means, "white", and could refer to the discussed Arameans who were exiled out of Judah. In addition, Zerah makes his first appearance as a son of Simeon and he is the same entity as the Edomite who Perez supplanted in Genesis 38.

The descendants of Gad, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun are consistent with Genesis 46.

From the descendants of Joseph, the son of Manasseh was Machir, who fathered Gilead. The descendants of Gilead were Lezer, Helek, Asriel, Shechem, Shemida, and Hepher. Hepher fathered Zelophehad, who only had daughters; their names were Mahlah, Noah, Hoglah, Milcah, and Tirzah. Since Gilead was the father (or ancestor) of Shechem, it conveys a migration from east of the Jordan into the city, as an author displayed in the travels of Jacob (Genesis 33:18). The name _Lezer_ means, "region of help", and represents the east-west alliances. In addition, Hepher was a place west of the Jordan that in Joshua 12:17 lost its king to the Joshua invasions. The figure could represent peoples who were forced out of Judah and later settled lands east of the Jordan. Hepher's son only had daughters, which implies there was not an heir for the family inheritance. The name _Zelophehad_ means, "united sides", which implies an alliance of peoples on each side of the Jordan. If this alliance was with Canaanites, Amorites, or other peoples who arrived in separate migrations than the people later deemed as _sons of Israel_ , per tradition and the deity, they would not have rights to the land, i.e., an inheritance.

The name of the first daughter of Zelophehad was Mahlah, which is a variation of the name _Mahali_ (sickness), and represents would-be conquered entities. The name of the second daughter was Noah, which was derived from a word that conveys _to wander_ , which most likely represents the movement of peoples back and forth across the Jordan. The name _Hoglah_ is the same entity as Beth-Hoglah ( _house of Hoglah_ ), an older city on the Judah-Benjamin border (Joshua 15:6). Milcah is the name of Nahor's wife in various covered verses, hence, Arameans in the region of in Gilead. Tirzah was the name of a prominent Canaanite city (Joshua 12:24) in Manasseh that became the capital of Israel and the home of several kings until the monarchy relocated to Samaria. The _daughters of Zelophehad_ represent entities the author considered foreign and that later became part of the _sons of Israel_.

The sons of Ephraim were Shuthelah, Becher, and Tahan. The descendants of Shuthelah were the Eranites.

The sons of Benjamin were Bela, Ashbel, Ahiram, Shupham, and Hupham. The sons of Bela were Ard and Naaman. In Genesis 46:21, the sons of Benjamin are Bela, Becher, Ashbel, Gera, Naaman, Ehi, Rosh, Muppim, Huppim, and Ard.

The descendants of Dan were the Shuhamites. The descendants of Asher and Naphtali are the same as in Genesis 46.

Verse 57 lists the Levite families of the Gershomites, the Kohathites, and the Merarites. However, with verse 58, there is an earlier list of the _Levite families_ , i.e., priests who came to power within an early religious coalition, before they were later placed into one of the aforementioned Levitical groups. As covered, the original sects of priests were the Libnites, the Hebronites, Mahlites, the Mushites, and the Korahites.

Amram, the son of Kohath, married Jochebed, who was a descendant of Levi born in Egypt, which consolidates these early religious sects, the "E" text on the birth of Moses, and the later texts that portray Moses and Aaron as brothers.

In Numbers 27, the daughters of Zelophehad approached Moses and told him their father had died in the wilderness, but he was not one of the followers of Korah. Moses revealed the word of Yahweh to them and declared when a man died without having a son, the inheritance transferred to his daughter, and if he did not have a daughter, it transferred to his brother, etc. This command served as a pedagogical precedence for the later statute.

Yahweh brought Moses to the Abarim mountain range to overlook the land he promised to the _sons of Israel_. Moses then passed the torch to Joshua.

Numbers 31 details a battle against the Midianites. Various authors certainly wrote countless versions of this battle and the stories would have contained the self-serving objectives of the independent factions. However, this later "P" text also served as precedence for battle procedures and the division of spoils.

Yahweh instructed Moses to execute vengeance against the Midianites. Therefore, Moses sent Phinehas and a thousand men from each tribe into battle. Due to the fact Phinehas directed the attack instead of Eleazar or Joshua, it intimates the Judah-Shiloh alliance conquered the Midianites, which an author intimated in chapter 25. When the army waged war, they killed every Midianite male, including Balaam and the five kings of Midian (Evi, Rekem, Zur, Hur, and Reba). Then they took the Midianite women and children captive, they plundered the animals and property, and they burned their cities and camps. They brought the peoples and spoils back to Moses, Eleazar the priest, and the _sons of Israel_ , who were camped on the plains of Moab beside the Jordan.

When the men returned from battle, Moses became angry with the officers and commanders because they allowed the women to live. Through the counsel of Balaam, these women moved the _sons of Israel_ to sin at Peor. However, as covered in chapter 25, it was the women of Moab who lured the people to join Baal-Peor. Then later in the chapter, a _son of Israel_ brought a Midianite woman into the camp. Both of the aforementioned events convey alliances with part of a Judah religious hierarchy. However, certain sects were not in favor of these alliances with Midian and Moab, while other factions supported one or the other, and of course, these stances would change over time. Moreover, in later eras, the leaders were consumed with prejudice, which is why Moses, i.e., the author, ordered the commanders to kill all the Midianite males and every woman who had sexual relations with a man. With this slaughter accomplished, the future Midianites in the _history of Israel_ , including those who settled across the Jordan (where the commanders brought these women), could not have been pure Midianites, but _children of Israel men_ , who carried the name and the heritage of the peoples.

The chapter ends with an interesting division of the plunder. Per the decree of Yahweh, Moses was to divide all the captured people and animals between the troops and the community. In addition, one out of every five hundred from the warrior's portion belonged to Eleazar the priest as a contribution to Yahweh. From the _sons of Israel_ , one out of every fifty belonged to the Levites who performed duties for Yahweh's tabernacle. Furthermore, the commanders approached Moses and since none of the warriors had been killed, they made an atonement offering to Yahweh and dedicated all the gold they had pillaged. Hence, of the captured people and animals, Eleazar, i.e., the sons of Aaron, received one tenth of what the Levite workers received. However, there were countless second tier Levites as compared to the few select priests. Due to the fact the commander's gold went to the house of the deity controlled by the priests, it was good to have been a Levite, but better to have been a priest.

Numbers 32 covers the settlements across the Jordan. However, it appears the author mentioned Manasseh as an afterthought within the text. Hence, he may have written the original tradition before a portion of the region of Gilead was referred to as east Manasseh ( _Joseph's son_ ). Various peoples were exiled out of Judah and they settled in the would-be lands of Reuben and Gad. Around this time, the Judah institution forced the _Joseph tribes_ into Egypt. Therefore, their entrance into the land of Gilead came after the peoples who settled Reuben and Gad.

The Reubenites and Gadites noticed the lands of Jazer and Gilead (descendant of Manasseh in Numbers 26:29) were good for grazing. They went to Moses, Eleazar, and the leaders of the assembly and stated they did not want to cross the Jordan because these lands were good for their livestock. However, Moses admonished them because they wanted to remain there while their brothers went to war. The Reubenites and Gadites agreed to keep their women, children, and livestock in the lands of Jazer and Gilead, but they would cross over the Jordan to battle with the _sons of Israel_. Therefore, Moses gave the Reubenites, Gadites, and half the tribe of Manasseh (first mention) the land of King Sihon of the Amorites and the land of King Og of Bashan.

The descendants of Manasseh's son Machir went to Gilead, captured it, and forced out the Amorites. Jair, another descendant of Manasseh, captured villages and named them _Jair's Villages_. As the story reads, the descendants of Manasseh conquered an established region of Gilead, but what people they actually displaced is another question. The last few verses were obviously a later interpolation and convey conquests that occurred after the events depicted in the original story.

In Numbers 34, the deity wanted Eleazar the priest and Joshua, the son of Nun, to divide the land west of the Jordan. They were to take a leader from each tribe to apportion the inheritances. This division of land resumes in the book of Joshua.

Table of Contents

On the Book of Deuteronomy

The book of Deuteronomy begins a "D" history that commences with a recapitulation of the travels out of Egypt. "D" used his own quill along with various extant texts to compile the book, thus it predominantly contains the ideas of one school. With a little time studying, one can become extremely familiar with the style and the objectives of the author.

Deuteronomy 1 mentions how Moses appointed leaders over thousands, hundreds, fifties, and tens, but fails to state this appointment came at the direction of his foreign father-in-law (Exodus 18:21). The author mentioned the disobedience at Kadesh-Barnea when the people displayed their lack of faith in Yahweh. Due to their actions, in verses 34 through 36, only Caleb, the son of Jephunneh, would enter the land promised (as the first quoted story of Numbers 13 & 14). Then in verses 37 & 38, the author incorporated the later tradition, thus Joshua, the son of Nun, would enter in place of Moses. The chapter moves to an end and mentions the _Israel_ defeat at the hand of the Amorites, who struck them from Seir to Hormah.

Deuteronomy 2 reflects on the journey through Seir and the territory of Edom _, their brothers_. Yahweh stated the Edomites would be afraid, but the people were not to harm them because Yahweh gave the Edomites Mount Seir as a possession. They could purchase food and water from them, but that was all and they were to pass through their land in peace. In Numbers 20:18, an Edomite king denied the request for passage through their territory.

Next the people passed by the land of Moab. Yahweh instructed them not to provoke or battle against the Moabites because Yahweh gave the land of Ar to the descendants of Lot. However, in Numbers 21, _Israel_ conquered the Amorites who had previously captured Ar from the Moabites. Obviously, the authors omitted part of the story in reference to these settlements. Nevertheless, the Emin, who were as tall as the Anakim, used to live there. The people were also to avoid the land of Ammon. The Rephaim, who were also as tall as the Anakim, used to live there, but the Ammonites called them the Zamzummim.

In an interesting verse, the Caphtorim from Caphtor destroyed the Avvim who lived in villages as far as Gaza and they settled in their place. In Genesis 10 verses 13 & 14, an author conveyed the Caphtorim as descendants of Mizraim and relatives of the Philistines. Therefore, the Caphtorim who settled as far as _Gaza_ could imply peoples who migrated from Egypt and became part of the Philistines. However, I have also read that the Philistines had a presence in Aram as the _Pulusati_ , before their sudden appearance in southern Palestine. As I have done little research on either of the aforementioned postulates, I leave the origin of the Philistines to those further versed on the subject. However, with either an Aram or an Egypt origin, it could infer the Philistines were more akin to at least a portion of the _Israelites_ than the later denigrating texts would have one believe.

The _leaders of Israel_ requested assistance from the King Sihon of Heshbon, as was given by the Moabites and the Edomites, but the Amorite king refused. The two peoples battled at Jahaz and the _sons of Israel_ destroyed the Amorites, including the women and children. Yahweh gave Israel the entire region as far as Gilead, but they did not enter the land of the sons of Ammon, the bank of the Jabbok river, or the cities of the hill.

Deuteronomy 3 moves the narrative to a battle with King Og of Bashan. The _sons of Israel_ defeated his entire army, they left no survivors, and they settled all of his cities, which was the entire region of Argob. Continuing with this less than impressive weave of sources, the people battled the two Amorite kings ( _Sihon_ and _Og_ ) across the Jordan and they conquered the land from the Arnon Valley to Mount Hermon. This land included Gilead and Bashan, which were in Og's kingdom. Og was the last of the Rephaim, who were the Rabbah of the Ammonites. Moses gave the Reubenites and Gadites the region of Aroer and half the hill country of Gilead. The other half of Gilead went to Manasseh, along with all of Bashan. The entire region of Argob and the territory of Bashan used to be called the land of the Rephaim. From another tradition, Jair (a descendant of Manasseh) conquered the entire region of Argob as far as the border of the Geshurites and Maacathites. As the chapter moves to an end, Yahweh was only angry with Moses because the actions of the people, but nothing Moses had done himself. Moses passed the torch to Joshua.

Deuteronomy 4 is a typical "D" text that warns the people not to worship other deities, but to be faithful and obey the commands of Yahweh. In the books of Kings and Chronicles, I delve further into this pseudo monotheism, which was not the belief in one deity, but the command to follow one religious institution. The people _and_ the priests believed in the existence of many deities, but Yahweh was their 'Elohim, i.e., the mandatory state deity during a later period.

Not unlike forthcoming books, segments of Deuteronomy were written after the Babylonian exile, thus one finds warnings that foretell of the event. In verses 25 through 31, there is an example of the later excerpts.

"25. When you sire, sons, and sons of sons, and you have been long in the land, and act corruptly and make a carved image in the form of anything and do what is evil in the eyes of Yahweh, that utterly you will perish soon from off the land which you are crossing over the Jordan {River} there to possess it. not You will prolong {your} days on it, but utterly will be destroyed. 27. And will scatter Yahweh you among the peoples, and you will be left few in among the nations which will lead away Yahweh you there. 28. And you will serve there 'lohiym, the work of hands men's, wood and stone, which not can see, nor hear, nor eat, nor smell. 29. But when you seek from there Yahweh your 'Elohim then will find, if you seek him with whole your heart, and with all your soul. 30. In distress when have you found all things these, in latter the days, then you will return to Yahweh your 'Elohim and will listen to His voice, 31. because 'El merciful {is} Yahweh your 'Elohim. not He will abandon you, nor destroy you, nor forget the covenant of your forefathers which He swore to them."

In verses 32, 33, and 34a, the author referred to the deity as 'Elohim. Then in the following verses, he equated the feats of 'Elohim with Yahweh, and then finally, he revealed the two deities were the same entity.

Deuteronomy 5 recapitulates the Ten Commandments and they are near verbatim of the commands in Exodus 20. Yahweh made this covenant with the people at Horeb, but he did not make the covenant with their forefathers, i.e., Abraham and the earlier patriarchs. As the chapter moves toward an end, the author wanted strict obedience of his subjects.

"32. Be careful to do as has commanded Yahweh your 'Elohim, not You must turn aside to the right or left."

Deuteronomy 6 continues with the instructions of the deity. The author incessantly spoke of the commands and statutes of Yahweh, then in later texts, he would blame past misfortunes on the people because of their failure to obey the deity. However, if they adhered to Yahweh's conditions, they would increase in a land, "flowing with milk and honey." They must love Yahweh, "with all your heart, and with all your soul." The people were to instill these commands into the minds of their children.

In Deuteronomy 7, Yahweh would remove the Hittites, the Girgashites, the Amorites, the Canaanites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites from the land promised. The people were to destroy these nations and tear down their sacred places and holy objects, including the Asherah poles, which were the same idols as the one made by Moses in Numbers 21:9. They were not to intermarry or breed with the native peoples of the land because they would turn them to other deities, i.e., other governing institutions. If one studies modern day cults or extremists, they will find this command is a standard practice. Outside thought can be nothing but detrimental to an institution that wants to brainwash their subjects and control them through fear. To groups as these, ideas were a disease, but one must look at the history and mythology this later author knew. Abraham married Sarah, who went into Egypt and Philistia and angered the deity. She also sent Hagar and Ishmael away from Abraham. Isaac married Rebekah from Padan-Aram, who helped Jacob deceive Esau. Jacob married Leah, and the new coalition in Judah conquered the Levites and their allies. Jacob also married Rachel, who stole the idols from the house of Laban. Moses married Zipporah, and then later the Moabites moved the _sons of Israel_ to worship Baal and Chemosh. These marriages, i.e., alliances with foreigners, were nothing but trouble for the _sons of Israel_ , i.e., the Levites. Therefore, the author's religious sect had learned their lesson and outside influence was to be avoided at any cost.

In Deuteronomy 9, the author mentioned the wickedness and rebellion by the people in the wilderness. Then this Levitical author made a significant statement. When the people provoked Yahweh at Mount Horeb, Moses was atop the mountain receiving the commands and the tablets from the deity. Yahweh sent Moses down because the people were acting corruptly and had cast the golden calf. Yahweh wanted to kill Aaron for his actions, but Moses prayed for him and the deity relented.

Deuteronomy 11 continues with more recapitulation and mentions the punishment of Dathan and Abiram, but conspicuously fails to mention Korah the Levite. The author continued with some standard "D" phrases in verse 9, "a land flowing with milk and honey", and verse 13, "serve Him with all your heart and with all your soul."

In Deuteronomy 12, the people were to:

"2. completely destroy all the places where served there the nations."

This command refers to the various hilly or mountainous places where people visited their deities and offered sacrifices. I unequivocally display that the worship at the high places was widely accepted until later times. With verse 5, there is an important statement.

"5. But to the place which must choose Yahweh your 'Elohim out of all your tribes, to put His name there for His home, you will seek, and you will go there. 6. And you must bring there your burnt offerings, and your sacrifices, and your tithes, and the heave offering of your hand and your votive-offerings, and your freewill- offering and the firstlings of your herd and of your flock. 7. And you must eat there in the presence of Yahweh."

The author speciously ascribed this text to Moses, thus he could not state the people were only to give offerings at the Jerusalem temple. Therefore, he stated, "the place which must choose Yahweh your 'Elohim", which placed the new command within an earlier era. The Jerusalem monarchy centralized and controlled the tithes and offerings to Yahweh, which assisted in creating political power and wealth. Thus, the author hammered the later command home in the following verses.

"11. And it will be, the place which will choose Yahweh your 'Elohim to cause to reside His name there, there {that} you will bring all that I {am} commanding you: your burnt-offerings, and your sacrifices, your tithes, and the heave-offering of your hand, and all best your votive-offerings which you vow to Yahweh."

"13. Take heed to yourself, lest you offer your burnt-offerings in every place that you see, 14. but only in the place which will choose Yahweh in one of your tribes. there You must offer your burnt offering, and there you must do all that I {am} commanding you. 15. Only, with all the desire of your soul you will sacrifice and will eat meat according to the blessing of Yahweh our 'Elohim."

"18. But in the presence of Yahweh our 'Elohim you must eat it, in the place which will choose Yahweh."

Deuteronomy 13 covers false prophets and idolatry. If a prophet of another deity prophesied correctly, the people were not to follow him because Yahweh was testing them. The people were to be faithful to the commands of Yahweh and they were to kill the prophet of the other deity. If a family member secretly enticed someone to worship other deities, the people were not to listen or show the family member pity, but instead they were to kill the guilty person. If men of a city that Yahweh gave to the people enticed them to worship other deities, the people were to destroy the city and everyone in it. The city should remain in ruins forever. At this juncture, the militant nature of this political system should be obvious.

Chapters 14 through 26 are predominantly texts on commands, rituals, and ordinances. As previously stated, a large portion of these laws and commands were from extant sources that "D" either wove within his narrative or re-wrote. I have sufficiently covered centralization of worship, which the author again mentioned in chapter 15.

"20. In the presence of Yahweh our 'Elohim you will eat it year by year in the place which will choose Yahweh, you and your household."

Furthermore, those who worshiped Asherah, the sun, the moon, the heavens, and other deities were to be executed. The author did not state the deities did not exist, but the people were not to worship them, which is exceedingly different from the monotheistic belief in one deity. "D" wanted the worship centered around one deity at one location. A country that worshiped one deity at one place was a country controlled by one religious institution and at one capital or central location. The people could only present offerings to the deity at the specified place, i.e., the taxes and wealth went to one central government. This government would suppress and execute any opposition.

The text also covers the appointment of a king. He was not to be a foreigner, nor was he to attain an abundance of horses or send the people back to Egypt to buy them. Furthermore, the king was not to have numerous wives or acquire large amounts of gold and silver. The ruler was to copy these commands and read them in front of the Levitical priests. Therefore, the king would not possess the wealth and power over the country, but it was to be in the hands of the priests, which was an ongoing battle between the priests and the heads of state.

Deuteronomy 27 begins a segment that includes some earlier texts that either "D" or the final redactor wove within the book. The chapter begins with a passage that may have been sourced from a tradition that was the origin of the Ten Commandments. Moses and the _elders of Israel_ instructed the people to keep the commands of Yahweh. When they crossed the Jordan, they were to erect two large stones and cover them with plaster. Then they were to write the laws on the stones and position them on Mount Ebal. It is not a far stretch from this simple command to the myth of Ten Commandments written on tablets of stone by the finger of 'Elohim, which is simply a display of the evolution of myth and religion.

When the people crossed the Jordan River, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Joseph, and Benjamin were to stand on Mount Gerizim to bless the people, and Reuben, Gad, Asher, Zebulun, Dan, and Naphtali were to stand on Mount Ebal to curse them. This division of the tribes is rather interesting. The only significance I can discern is the lands of Reuben and Gad were located across the Jordan, and Asher, Zebulun, Dan, and Naphtali were in northern Israel. Therefore, the states in the second grouping were a relatively remote distance from Jerusalem, which was the center of power for the united monarchy. Moreover, the author may have written this segment before the house of Joseph was designated as two states, as he only listed Joseph, not his two sons born in Egypt.

Beginning with verse 14, again after the people crossed the Jordan, the Levites were to proclaim twelve curses, which are very similar to the Ten Commandments. Along with the section above, the curses were most likely the origin of the later and well-known tradition. The curses would inflict those who made an idol or an image, who dishonored their father or mother, who practiced prohibited sexual relations (father's wife, an animal, their sister, mother-in-law), who killed their neighbor or bribed someone to kill, or who failed to practice the aforementioned laws.

In chapter 29, the text states the words in the preceding chapters were the covenant the deity commanded Moses to make with the people in the land of Moab, _in addition_ to the one at Horeb, the latter was probably a later creation. The original tradition most likely occurred in the land of Moab, but authors later changed the location to remove the prominence of Moab from _Israel's_ history, as well to have the event occur immediately after the deity liberated a unified _Israel nation_ from their oppression in Egypt. These peoples were exiled out of Judah and then they traveled different routes into Moab, before they later crossed the Jordan and allied with a Judah-based institution. Since the covenant was conceived in the land of Moab, the sect most likely arose to prominence there.

If the people abandoned the covenant, the penalty would be the same as Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, and Zeboiim. The latter two cities are also mentioned in the battle of the kings from Genesis 14. Hence, the author wrote the passage before the event merely became a story of _Sodom and Gomorrah_. Yahweh destroyed these cities because the people abandoned him, bowed down to worship other deities they did not know, and that Yahweh had not permitted them to worship.

Deuteronomy 32 contains an "S/J" written _Song of Moses_. Regardless if this "S/J" author is the same one perceived elsewhere, or if the writing style was merely passed down through the school, the manner is definitely recognizable.

The song proclaimed the name of Yahweh and declared the greatness of 'Elohim. As with this school before, the author referred to the deity by multiple names and the rock metaphors are found throughout the song. In verses 8 & 9, the author used the fashioned _Jacob_ and _Israel_ split to consolidate the two countries. In verse 15, the author used the name Jeshurun, or _upright one_ , which was a poetic epithet for the _people of Israel_. Jeshurun became fat and abandoned his 'Elowah, which means the author used the name with negative connotations. He continued to admonish _Israel_ because the people sacrificed to demons and other deities, but theirs was a vengeful 'El who would avenge the blood of his servants. The song was written by a priest who was part of a new religious hierarchy, which could point to the Judah-Shiloh alliance.

Following the song, Yahweh told Moses to ascend Mount Nebo and view the land he would give to the _sons of Israel_. Moses would die on that mountain as Aaron died on Mount Hor.

Deuteronomy 33 is an "S/J" written _Blessings of Moses_ that is similar to the _Blessings of Jacob_. Moses gave the people instructions, a possession for the _assembly of Jacob_. He became the king of Jeshurun when the leaders gathered the _tribes of Israel_.

In Genesis 49, Reuben would not excel, but in this text, the author kept it short and to the point.

"Let Reuben live and not die, but his people will be few."

Not unlike the _Blessings of Jacob_ , this author displayed his lack of support for the Reubenites, but with more subtlety, as if his sect had not completely turned against them. However, it does read as if the Judah establishment had overthrown the earlier coalition that included the Reubenites and Simeonites. With the more subtle discrediting of Reuben, the author most likely wrote this text before Genesis 49.

Yahweh would hear the cry of Judah and bring him to his people. Judah fought his own battles, but the deity would be an ally against his foes.

The Thummim and Urim of Levi belonged to his holy one. The _Thummim_ and _Urim_ were part of the attire for the High Priest; hence, the priesthood belonged to his holy one. Then the author referred to something I mentioned in my commentary on the books of Exodus and Numbers.

"You tested him at Massah and contended with him at the waters of Meribah."

The verse does not speak against the _sons of Israel_ , but Levi, i.e., the sons of Merari. As stated, the names _Meribah_ , _Miriam_ , and _Merari_ all have a similar meaning. As the blessing continues, he did not regard his parents, he disregarded his brothers, and he failed to acknowledge his sons, who kept his word and covenant. This statement blatantly speaks of an abandoned or rogue Levitical sect. Interestingly, he _disregarded his brothers_ , and if the verses refer to the "E" sons of Merari, in the Joseph narrative, his brothers betrayed him, which reads as a back and forth within the texts. His sons would teach _judgments in Jacob_ and _laws in Israel_. Then verse 11 almost reads as if the previous verses did not exist. Yahweh would bless him and destroy his enemies. Either the previous verses were a later addition or the latter portion of the blessing refers to _his sons_ as _him_. Furthermore, Levi and Simeon were brothers in the _Blessings of Jacob_ , but Simeon is conspicuously absent in this text. In Genesis 49, the author scattered and divided Levi and Simeon, but here Levi is not completely discarded and the author does not even mention Simeon. Therefore, the state of Simeon had already dissolved in Judah, but it appears as if only a sect of Levites was being admonished, where in Genesis 49, the author conveyed an antagonism toward all the Levites.

The Blessing of Benjamin has countless translations. Yahweh's beloved rested securely and shielded him all the day while between his shoulders he dwelt. The blessing could refer to the force of the united monarchy that protected or shielded the region of Benjamin. The house of Joseph rested on him to the north and he dwelt on the shoulders of Judah to the south.

With Joseph's blessing, as in Genesis 49, the text unveils the roots or ancestry of this Shiloh-Judah author. Where most of the other Blessings, excluding the predominantly negative one of Levi, were a verse or two at most, the blessing of Joseph is five verses and displays overt favor. Yahweh would bless his land with an abundance of yield and the greatest products from the mountains and hills. He would bless Joseph with the best gifts of the earth and Joseph would find favor with he who dwelt inside the bush. These blessings rested upon him, the crown prince of his brothers. His glory was as the firstborn bull that gored people to the ends of the earth. Such were the ten thousand of Ephraim and the thousands of Manasseh.

Zebulun was to rejoice in his journeys and Issachar in his tents. They summoned people to a mountain and offered sacrifices (worship of a mountain deity). They yielded wealth from the seas and treasures from the sand.

The one who enlarged the territory of Gad would be blessed. He lied down like a lion and tore off an arm and a head. He chose the best for himself because a portion of the ruler was assigned to him. This blessing appears to refer to the region's inclusion into the united kingdom.

Dan was a young lion leaping out of Bashan, which was a region east of the Jordan. Naphtali, always next to or mentioned with Dan, would enjoy the approval and blessing of Yahweh, i.e., Naphtali became a part of the new kingdom. He would take possessions to the west and south.

Asher would become blessed with children and acceptable to his brothers. The bolts of his gate would be iron and bronze and his strength would last as long as he. I would imagine the _acceptable to his brothers_ stemmed from the denigration by the Levites and other peoples who the Judah-Asher alliance displaced.

As the blessings come to an end, there was none like the 'El of Jeshurun. His dwelling place was with the 'Elohim of old, which symbolizes a change of guard and deities. _Israel_ dwelt securely and _Jacob_ lived untroubled.

The book of Deuteronomy moves to a close with chapter 34. Moses ascended Mount Nebo from the plains of Moab. He later died in the land of Moab and was buried facing Beth-Peor ( _house of Peor_ ). When in Numbers 25 _Israel_ aligned itself with Moab and Baal-Peor, the alliance may have been with this camp that created numerous early Moses traditions. Moses' burial site is unknown and unmarked, but the fact he was buried in Moab is a monumental statement by the author. Since the people worshiped a mountain deity at Beth-Peor, the greatest Israelite prophet was buried in Moab facing a prominent Moabite deity.

Table of Contents

On the Book of Joshua

This book is the handiwork of "D", who in creating the history used various extant texts, wove them together, and added and amended where he deemed necessary. Entering the book of Joshua, one should understand the people first referred to the hero as _Hosea_ , and there were certainly various traditions by multiple authors on the two figures, only a few of which one will find in the Old Testament. The book of Deuteronomy ended its synopsis on the travels of the _sons of Israel_ with the two and half tribes claiming lands east of the Jordan. In the book of Joshua, the narrative moves westward and details a conquest of the lands of Judah and Israel.

In Joshua 1, the deity instructed Joshua, the son of Nun, to cross the Jordan into the land that Yahweh promised to the people. Their territory was from the wilderness of Lebanon to the Euphrates river, including all the land of the Hittites west to the Mediterranean sea. Per the command of Moses, the Reubenites, Gadites, and half the tribe of Manasseh were ready for battle. The people were to heed the law that Moses spoke and, "not turn to the right or left." The book of the law was not to depart from their mouths, they were to meditate it, and through this medium, they would succeed. Joshua was not to be afraid because Yahweh, his 'Elohim, was with him. The people acknowledged that Yahweh was with Joshua, as he was with Moses, and anyone who resisted the word of Joshua would be killed. This transitional chapter has prepared the scene for the _Joshua invasions_.

In Joshua 2, Joshua sent two spies out of Shittim to survey the land of Jericho. During their travels, they came upon a prostitute named Rahab, which was derived from the same word as the name _Rehob_ , a place in the territory of Asher (Joshua 19:30). The king of Jericho heard news of the spies and he sent his men after them. Rahab hid the spies from the king's men, thus she beseeched kind treatment when Joshua's men crossed the Jordan to overtake the city. Because of her assistance, the spies swore to protect Rahab if she attached a scarlet line of thread to her window. This thread connects the story to the Edomites, as a scarlet thread was tied onto Zerah's arm in Genesis 38:28. Furthermore, the plural form of the name Rehob is _Rehoboth_ , a name associated with the Edomite Saul in Genesis 36:37. This story could intimate a shared ancestry for the Rehobites of Asher and the Edomites. Nevertheless, a people in Benjamin were instrumental in the conquest of Jericho. When a Judah coalition, which included an Asher element, conquered the _Saul_ or _Kish_ institution in Benjamin, there were Edomite defectors who joined the forces of Judah. Moreover, after various factions were forced out of Judah and Benjamin, a group of Edomites and other would-be Levites later returned to the region with the Joshua invasions. The scarlet thread associates the peoples in Benjamin with the invading forces, which may have only allied with the institution that controlled Jericho, as opposed to the conquest the forthcoming story depicts. Irrespective that these events move into a clearer light forthcoming, the author conveyed Rahab, i.e., a people in Benjamin, as a prostitute, which expresses an alliance of wealth. Although the army would not harm her, she was a harlot and the leaders would only allow her to live within the chosen people's inheritance.

Joshua 3 contains a section in which the later interpolating becomes obvious. It appears this and the following chapter consist of three layers, an initial _pre-Yahweh_ text, a later _Yahweh re-write_ , and final amendments by "D". Due to the fact the complete original was not included in the final product, I only placed forth part of the initial story. However, the following should suffice in portraying the substance of the original text. As the narrative moves into Joshua 4, two verses (1a & 9) belong with the composition of this chapter and the remainder of chapter 4 is a later addition.

"10. And said Joshua, By this you will know that 'El the living {is} among you. 11. Behold, the chest of the covenant of the Adon of all the earth will cross over ahead of you into the Jordan {River}. 13. And it will be, when rest the soles of the feet of the priests carrying the chest of the Adon of all the earth, in the waters of the Jordan {River}, the waters of the Jordan will be cut off, the waters coming from above. And they will stand in heap one. 14. And it was when set forth the people from their tents to cross over the Jordan, that the priests were carrying the chest of the covenant ahead of the people. 15. And when came those carrying the chest to the Jordan, then the feet of the priests carrying the chest were dipped in the edge of the waters. (And the Jordan was full, over all its banks all the days of harvest.) 16. And they stood still, the waters coming from above rose up into heap one far very above Adam, the city which {is} beside Zaretan, and those going down to the Sea of the Arabah, Sea the Salt, completely were cut off. And the people crossed over opposite Jericho. (Ch.4) 1. And it was when completely all the nation had crossed over the Jordan 9. twelve stones set up Joshua in the middle of the Jordan, in the place stood firm the feet of the priests carrying the chest the covenant. And they are there to day this."

In the original story, the author referred to the deity as both _'El_ and _Adon_ , which engenders Genesis 15 to the mind, in which Abram referred to the deity as _Adonay Yahweh_. Hence, the text of Genesis 15 could convey the later alignment of this Adon sect and the Yahweh religious institution. Furthermore, the author referred to the men of the cloth as _priests_ , and the nation as the _people_. Therefore, an author most likely wrote the original story before the formation of the Levites and before the term _sons of Israel_ would dominate the religious texts of the general era. There were countless myths like the above story that did not mention _Yahweh_ , the _sons of Aaron_ , the _Levites_ , or the _sons of Israel_. Later authors amended many of these early stories to include the aforementioned entities, while they either completely re-wrote or simply discarded other texts.

In Joshua 5, the kings of the Amorites and Canaanites heard about Yahweh's miracle at the Jordan, thus they were not ready to fight against the _sons of Israel_. From here, the text continues into a circumcision story. In verse 2, Yahweh instructed Joshua to circumcise the men _again_. Then in verses 4 through 7, an interpolating author attempted to unite this tradition with Abraham's covenant with the deity.

"4. And this {is} the reason {for} which circumcised Joshua all the people that came out of Egypt; the males all, the men of war, had died in the desert, on the way as they came out of Egypt, 5. because circumcised were all the people that came out; and all the people who were born in the desert, on the way as they came out of Egypt, not had been circumcised. 6. Because forty years had walked the _sons of Israel_ in the desert, until was consumed all the nation, the men of war who had come out of Egypt, who not did listen to the voice of Yahweh, which had sworn Yahweh not to show them the land which swore Yahweh to their forefathers to give to us, a land flowing with milk and honey. 7. And their sons He raised up in their place, them circumcised Joshua, because uncircumcised they had been, because not they had circumcised them on the way."

Beginning with verse 13, there is an intriguing passage.

"13. And it was, when was Joshua beside Jericho, that he lifted his eyes and looked. And, look, a Man stood opposite him and His sword {was} drawn in His hand. And went Joshua to Him and said to Him, Are for us You or for our enemies? 14. And He said, No, because I {am}the Captain of the army of Yahweh now I have come. Then fell Joshua upon his face to the ground, and worshiped and said to Him, What my Lord is saying to His servant? 15. And said the Captain of the army of Yahweh to Joshua, Take your shoe off your foot, because the place you are standing on holy {is}.And did Joshua so."

One should have noticed the figure who came unto Joshua was the _captain of the army of Yahweh_. In 2 Chronicles 18:18, Micaiah states:

"18. And he said, Therefore, hear the word of Yahweh. I have seen Yahweh sitting on His throne, and all the army of the heavens standing on His right and His left."

The sun was part of the army of the heavens, along with the planets and stars, which renders the figure's appearance to Joshua even more interesting. In early traditions, the people worshiped Joshua as the son of a solar deity. As stated, the hero's name was originally _Hosea_ , until Moses changed it to Joshua (Numbers 13:16). Actually, authors added the Yah contraction to the name when the institution converted to Yahweh worship. The name _Hosea_ means, "savior" or "deliverer", and he was the son of Nun, a name that figuratively means, "perpetuity", i.e., lasting forever, as a deity and the cycle of the sun. Therefore, one can translate the name _Hosea son of Nun_ as _Savior Son of God_. The author of Jeremiah condemned those who worshiped the army of the heavens, but in 2 Chronicles, Micaiah incorporated the army into Yahweh worship. In Nehemiah 9:6, "And the army of the heavens to You [ _Yahweh_ ] bows down." The early Jehudaites and Israelites did worship the army of the heavens, albeit with the birth of Yahweh worship, the new deity was atop the hierarchy.

Joshua 6 covers the famous conquest of Jericho, and like the original story of chapter 3, the author referred to the order as simply _priests_ , as opposed to the _sons of Aaron_ or the _Levites_. Besides Rahab and her family, the deity designated everyone and everything in the city for destruction. In addition, the army could not touch the silver, gold, or other precious metals because they belonged to the treasury of Yahweh. In a foreshadowing verse, if the men claimed anything designated for destruction or consecrated to the deity, they would bring a curse upon the _camp of Israel_. After the army slaughtered the people and the livestock, they burned the entire city and any man who rebuilt it would be cursed before Yahweh. He would lay the foundation at the cost of his firstborn and he would erect the gates at the expense of his youngest.

In Joshua 7, the _sons of Israel_ were unfaithful to Yahweh. Achan, the son of Carmi, the son of Zabdi, the son of Zerah, of the families of Judah, stole a share of Yahweh's spoils from Jericho. The name _Achan_ means, "trouble", and I have covered his father Carmi as an early son of Reuben. Zabdi is a Benjamite descended from Shimei in 1 Chronicles 8:19 (Solomon has Shimei killed in 1 Kings 2:46). In addition, in 1 Chronicles 27:27, an author mentioned both Shimei and Zabdi as officials under King David, which was a monarchy that yielded to the reign of King Solomon. With the mention of Zerah, who is subtly displaced in Genesis 38, correlated with a Reubenite and Zabdi, a descendant of Shimei, one should understand this coalition was destined for destruction.

Joshua sent spies from Jericho to Ai, which was near Beth-Aven and east of Bethel. The spies surveyed the land and sent word to Joshua that the people were few. Therefore, Joshua did not send the entire army and ultimately they had to retreat. However, Joshua learned that Yahweh had brought upon their downfall because someone had taken a portion of the deity's treasure, i.e., there was another power struggle between early _Israelite factions_.

Joshua had the people come forward and he selected the tribe of Judah. Next, he had the clans come forward and he selected the clan of Zerah. Then Joshua selected Zabdi as the head of his family. Zabdi's family came forward and finally Achan confessed that he stole a cloak from Babylon, as well as some silver and gold from Yahweh's treasure. Therefore, Joshua and _all of Israel_ killed Achan and his family (or the dissenting rebels), they burned their bodies, and covered them with stones, which is why the place was called the _Valley of Achor_. The name _Achor_ means, "disturbance", and was derived from the same word as the name _Achan_. The valley was most likely the place of a battle or rebellion.

In Joshua 8, Yahweh told Joshua to treat Ai and its king as they had done with Jericho and its king, but they could seize the treasures and the livestock for themselves. They were to set an ambush behind the city, lure the men of Ai out with the main force, and then the men of the ambush would come from behind and set fire to everyone and everything. During the attack, the army killed all the inhabitants except for the king, who they brought to Joshua. After _Israel_ plundered the city, Joshua hung the king of Ai on a tree until sunset (a sacrifice to the sun deity). They left the place in ruins and it was still desolate at the time of authorship.

Joshua 9 begins at a time when all the people in the land of Canaan heard about the events at Jericho and Ai, which moved them to form an alliance against _Israel_. This fictional coalition included the Hittites, the Amorites, the Canaanites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites. The inhabitants of Gibeon also heard about the feats of Joshua. They dressed themselves as poor and downtrodden with worn-out wineskins and dry provisions, then acting as travelers from a distant land, they went to Joshua at Gilgal. The men asked Joshua for a treaty, but the _men of Israel_ replied to the _Hivites_ , who authors often included in the list of peoples who would lose their land to the _sons of Israel_. Hence, the deity had already decreed their fate. The _men of Israel_ inspected their provisions, but they did not bother to seek counsel with Yahweh. Joshua established peace with the men and the leaders of the congregation swore an oath to them, which represents a time when an Israel sect allied with the Hivites in Gibeon. However, three days after the covenant, the people learned the men were their neighbors and their cities were Gibeon, Chephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-Jearim. The _sons of Israel_ (without Joshua) traveled to their cities, however, due to the oath, they did not attack them, which caused dissension among the people. The leaders saved them from the hands of the _sons of Israel_ , but they installed them as woodcutters and water carries for the community.

Beginning with verse 22, there is a later "D" interpolation. Joshua inquired of their deception, to which they answered they were fearful because they knew _Yahweh, his 'Elohim_ , had given him their land and commanded him to destroy the people who lived there. Therefore, they placed themselves in Joshua's hands to treat them as he found just, which conveys an acquiescence to their role as forced laborers. This portrayed acceptance was merely a means to justify the enslavement to later generations. Finally, in verses 26 & 27, Joshua, who was absent in verses 16 through 21, delivered them from the _sons of Israel_ and he made them woodcutters and water carriers for the community, as well as for Yahweh's altar at the _place the deity would choose_. In verse 21, the leaders spared these people and submitted them to slavery, which reveals there was an earlier version of this story that did not include Joshua.

An interesting aspect of the story is that after the initial mention of the _inhabitants of Gibeon_ , and the _Hivite_ reference in verse 7, the authors did not use either name again in the remainder of the chapter ( _they_ , _them_ , etc.). It is possible they deliberately drew a distinction between the Hivites who lived in Gibeon and the well-known Gibeon institution found in the _records of Israel_. The Levites had an affinity with the old establishment, but a number of the constituents were foreigners. In Joshua 21:17, the city is given to the sons of Aaron, and in 1 Kings 3:5, Yahweh appears to Solomon at Gibeon, which displays it was a city of great importance. However, before a Judah-based coalition possessed the city, it was the center of the Kish or Saul institution. Hence, what era the story represents and who was actually allied with or supplanted in Gibeon is purposefully ambivalent. However, as with other stories in the narratives, it is impossible to discern the number of texts that were written on the events concerning Gibeon and how they would have read.

In Joshua 10, King Adonizedek of Jerusalem heard about Joshua's conquests at Jericho and Ai, and he also leaned the Gibeonites and Israel were living together in peace. Gibeon was large like the royal cities and its men were warriors, thus the peace between _Israel_ and the Gibeonites alarmed Adonizedek. Hence, per this author, the Gibeonites allied with _people of Israel_ , as opposed to the fictional deception conveyed previously. The name _Adonizedek_ means, "lord of justice", and the name _Melchizedek_ means, "king of justice". The two names represent the same entity. In Genesis 14:20, Melchizedek and Abram exchanged wealth in ambiguous language, i.e., factions in Salem and Judah allied together, but this text covers a move into the region by peoples from across the Jordan.

Adonizedek gathered King Hoham of Hebron, King Piram of Jarmuth, King Japhia of Lachish, and King Debir of Eglon to battle against the _Israel_ -Gibeon coalition. However, due to the fact the Calebites conquered the sons of Anak and settled Hebron when the city was still referred to as _Kiriath-Arba_ (Joshua 15:13-14), it is doubtful there was a _king of Hebron_ prior to the Calebite campaign. Furthermore, Japhia, the _king of Lachish_ , which was a city on the Judah-Philistine border (Joshua 15:39), in 2 Samuel 5:15 is a son of David by a wife or concubine in Jerusalem, which represents a Judah-Salem alliance. In addition, Debir, the _king of Eglon_ , was a once prominent holy city in Judah, which could imply Debir leadership ruled over the people in Eglon. Moreover, Eglon is also conveyed as a king of Moab in Judges 3:14, which could reflect the Moabite presence in Judah. The above kings fighting against a unified _Israel nation_ is one of the many fabrications found within the Joshua narrative.

When the five Amorite kings besieged Gibeon, the men in the city called upon Joshua to defend his servants. However, this story actually represents a Judah-Salem attack on a religious faction in Gibeon. Since the author mentioned the king of Hebron, the coalition would have included the institution represented by Abraham. In Genesis 14:13, Abram has Amorite allies, but to veil the aggression between _Israelite institutions_ , this later author labeled the entire force _Amorites_ , not unlike the Amorites who conquered Heshbon (unless the peoples represented by _Abraham_ were considered Amorites). In reality, an alliance out of Judah conquered the Gibeonite cities, allied with a defecting division of the old institution, and moved to power in Benjamin, which authors intimated in the book of Judges. Furthermore, in 1 Chronicles 12:3 (or 4, depending on Hebrew manuscript), an author listed a Gibeonite and a Gibeathite (symbols) among the defectors from Saul to David.

To further complicate matters for the later Levites, it is likely that a segment of the peoples (or their ancestors) from the _Joshua invasions_ were previously exiled out of Gibeon by the Judah attack, thus they were involved in a defense of the city. The Kish or Saul institution in Gibeon was in part comprised of Edomites, and in the books of Judges and 1 Chronicles, there are intimations that a camp of Edomites settled in Kiriath-Jearim, a city of the inhabitants of Gibeon (Joshua 9:17). This realization compels one to examine the text of Genesis 36. The beginning of the chapter covers the descendants of Esau during their time in Judah, which represents the Edomite alliances in the region. One of Esau's brides was Oholibamah, which means, "tent of the high place", and there was a _great high place in Gibeon_ (1 Kings 3:4), which in itself means little. The father of Oholibamah was Anah, a name derived from a word that means, "answered", and the name _Saul_ was coincidentally derived from a word that means, "asked". In Genesis 36:24, Anah finds the lost mules while he is pasturing the donkeys of his father, and in 1 Samuel 9:3, Saul is sent out to find the lost donkeys of his father Kish. The name of Anah's father, which ties everything together, was _Zibeon the Hivite_. The other son of Zibeon was Aiah, a name connected to Saul in 2 Samuel 3:7. Even if the name Zibeon is merely coincidentally similar to Gibeon, the Hivite label connects the Edomites to this story. Esau married Oholibamah the Hivite, or the _Hivite tent of the high place_. The Edomites represented by Kish and Saul migrated into Benjamin and allied with the Hivites in Gibeon, Chephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-Jearim. However, a force out of Judah, here displayed as _Amorites_ , overthrew the house of Kish (or Saul) in Gibeon. The majority of the exiled peoples (minus defectors) fled across the Jordan while others migrated to northern Dan, which I conveyed previously ( _sons of Gershom_ ).

The later Levites in Judah not only had an affinity with the peoples conquered in Gibeon, there were certainly those who had ancestors who were part of the Gibeon downfall. However, this author was part of the Jerusalem monarchy that was attempting to create an illusion of twelve _unified tribes of Israel_. Therefore, for the sect that was once part of the Gibeon institution, the author conveyed a defense of the city due to an oath conceived by the Hivite deception. An author in the first book of Samuel used this oath to execute defectors from the house of Saul. Furthermore, due to the Judah alliance that conquered Gibeon, associated with the Joshua tribes that later allied with the Judah coalition, were in part abandoned in Israel, and whose descendants finally became part of the consolidation efforts of the Jerusalem monarchy, the author would have to completely change the history of Gibeon to encompass the aforementioned sects while maintaining a unified _Israel nation_. Therefore, he used his proverbial stone and not only does the narrative enslave those who remained in Gibeon, or the defectors, the author turned the event into a successful defense of the city, he had the _sons of Israel_ conquer the five Amorite kings, and then Joshua continued the slaughter throughout southern Palestine. Hence, the cities of Gibeon were placed under the control of the unified _sons of Israel_ , but the author portrayed the acquisition by means of fictitious events.

After the Amorite kings besieged Gibeon, Joshua attacked their armies and chased them through Beth-Horon as far as Azekah and Makkedah. Then with verse 12:

"12. Then spoke Joshua to Yahweh on the day when gave Yahweh the Amorites in front of the _sons of Israel_. And he said in front of the eyes of Israel, sun, on Gibeon stand still! And moon, in the Valley of Ajalon! 13. And {stood} still the sun, and the moon stood {still}, until {was} avenged the nation {on} its enemies. Is not it written in the Book of Yashar? And stood {still} the sun in the middle of the heavens, and not did hasten to go {down} for a day full. 14. And not has been as day that before it or after it, because listened to Yahweh the voice of a man, because Yahweh fought for Israel."

This myth originated from a pre-Yahweh tradition, but the exploit is fitting for the son of a solar-deity. Furthermore, it is again displayed that many of the stories in the Old Testament were sourced from extant traditions, in this case, the _Book of Yashar_.

The five kings hid in a cave at Makkedah and the _sons of Israel_ trapped them while they slaughtered their armies, although a few escaped to fortified cities. Afterward, Joshua executed the five kings and hung their bodies on five trees until sunset.

Joshua then conquered Makkedah, Libnah, Lachish, Eglon, Hebron, and Debir. He completely destroyed the cities and left no survivors. He then he seized the entire region from the Negev of Judah to the foothills, from Kadesh-Barnea to Gaza, from Goshen to Gibeon. These conquests were accomplished in one campaign, after which they returned to Gilgal. However, the would-be Jehudaites actually settled among and allied with the peoples of these regions. Then after a later faction of Judah became powerful, it either eradicated the earlier settlements or assimilated them under the rule of the new government.

In Joshua 11, King Jabin of Hazor heard the news of Joshua's conquests. He sent messages to a group of kings, including the kings of the Canaanites, the Amorites, the Hittites, the Perizzites, the Jebusites, and the Hivites. All their armies joined forces at the waters of Merom to attack _Israel_. Actually, this short segment represents a drawn out war for religious control in the north. However, in a mode of theatrical consolidation, Yahweh handed the enemy over to _Israel_ and the army struck them as far as Sidon and Misrephothmaim, and to the east as far as the Mizpeh Valley. Hazor was once the center of power in the north, thus Joshua captured and destroyed the city and all its inhabitants. Joshua destroyed all the kings and their cities and he left no survivors, which when correlated with the last chapter, depicts a complete extermination of the inhabitants of Canaan.

From an independent source, Joshua eradicated the Anakim (giants) from Hebron, Debir, Anab, and from the remainder of _Judah_ and _Israel_ (two distinct entities). However, there were some remaining in Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod, which were Philistine cities. Hence, the author made an allowance for the independent stories about battles with the Philistine giants. After this, the land had rest from war.

Joshua 12 recapitulates the kings and territories invaded. The text reiterates the lands and peoples conquered east of the Jordan, including King Sihon of Heshbon and King Og of Bashan. Moses and the _sons of Israel_ subdued these lands and Moses gave them to the Reubenites, Gadites, and half the tribe of Manasseh. As far as the territory west of the Jordan, Joshua and the _sons of Israel_ conquered peoples and lands from Baal-Gad in the Lebanon Valley to Mount Halak by Seir.

Joshua 13 begins by detailing the unconquered lands, including the land of the Philistines, the Geshurites, the Avvites in the south, the land of the Canaanites, and all the land of the Sidonians as far as Hamath. Hence, an interpolating author corrected the narrative that conveyed an absolute extermination of the peoples in Canaan.

In Joshua 14, instead of an inheritance, the Levites received cities to live in and pastures for their livestock. For his inheritance, Caleb, the son of Jephunneh the Kenizzite, received the city of Hebron because he had faith in the deity (Numbers 14:24). Hebron used to be called _Kiriath-Arba_ , "Arba was the greatest man of the Anakim." There was an extant tradition of Caleb in Kiriath-Arba, thus the authors had to write of him crossing the Jordan. However, his narrative ends here, albeit this event is reiterated in the book of Judges. The Calebite institution in Hebron could have included the people represented by Kish, who in part migrated into Benjamin.

Joshua 15 covers the cities of Judah. The stone of Bohan, the son of Reuben, at one time marked a Judah-Benjamin border, but this is the only mention of this son in the narratives. Hence, the Bohan relation to the Reubenites could have originated during their lost (to history) time in Judah. The Reubenite association with the Benjamin border could point to their mentioned move northward ( _Bilhah_ , the bed of his father).

As in the last chapter, Caleb, the son of Jephunneh ( _Kenizzite_ not mentioned), received the city of Kiriath-Arba, "that is Hebron, Arba was the father of Anak." Caleb expelled the sons of Anak, which an author credited to Joshua in chapter 11 verse 21. Due to the fact authors portrayed Abraham (Abram) in Hebron, he and Caleb, along with David, represent the same general period. Joshua then marched against Debir, "formerly Kiriath-Sepher", which Joshua conquered in chapter 10 verse 39. Caleb offered his daughter Achsah as a reward for the one who conquered the city. Othniel, who was the son of Caleb's brother Kenaz, captured Debir and received Achsah for a wife. In chapter 14 verse 6, Caleb is a son of a Kenizzite, or a descendant of _Kenaz_ , who is his brother in this chapter. Kenaz is an Edomite in Genesis 36:11, thus the two traditions merely display a coalition in Judah that included Edomites (Kish).

After Achsah received the lands in the Negev, she asked her father Caleb for the springs as well. She received the upper and lower springs. The name _Achsah_ (Aksah) is a variation of the name _Achish_ (Akis), who is a king of the Philistines in 1 Samuel 21, and both names are variations of the name _Lachish_ (Lakis), which I mentioned previously as a city on the Judah-Philistine border. The marriage of Othniel and Achsah displays an alliance between a camp in Judah and the Philistines. As with the stories of King Abimelech, this segment represents conquests by the Judah-Philistine alliance. Furthermore, the name _Othniel_ means, "force of 'El", and the name _Caleb_ was derived from the word _keleb_ , which means, "dogs", i.e., an attack force. These men represent allied armies in Judah that included Asherites, Philistines, Arameans, and Edomites. In closing this section, the descendants of Judah could not conquer the Jebusites who lived in Jerusalem. The Jebusites still lived there at the time of authorship.

Joshua 16 begins a section on the inheritance for the sons of Joseph. Their territory went from the Jordan River at Jericho into the hill country of Bethel. From Bethel, it went to Luz and the border of the Archites by Ataroth. The territory then descended westward as far as the border of lower Beth-Horon, and then ended at the Mediterranean Sea. Along with their own territory, Ephraim possessed cities within the inheritance of Manasseh, which implies Ephraim appropriated the cities when the state became powerful. However, the Ephraimites could not expel the Canaanites who lived in Gezer, but they were still slaves at the time of authorship.

Joshua 17 covers the inheritance for the tribe of Manasseh. His firstborn Machir received Gilead and Bashan across the Jordan. The remainder of the inheritance for the sons of Manasseh went to the descendants of Abiezer ( _father of help_ ), Helek, Asriel, Shechem, Hepher, and Shemida. In Numbers 26 verses 30 through 33, the descendants of Gilead are Lezer ( _region of help_ ), Helek, Asriel, Shechem, Shemida and Hepher. Read together, the names display a partial movement across the Jordan (east to west), which could express the migration of the Hebrews. However, Manasseh was not able to force the Canaanites out of the land, but when the state became powerful, the leaders enslaved them, which better represents the actual events of the period, as opposed to the absolute conquests that an author displayed in the earlier chapters of Joshua.

The descendants of Joseph requested more than one tribal inheritance because of their numbers. Hence, Joshua instructed Ephraim to take land in the forest from the Perizzites and Rephaim. From another source, Joshua told the descendants of Joseph, Ephraim and Manasseh, besides their original allotment, they would also have the hill country.

In Joshua 18, the _sons of Israel_ gathered at Shiloh, a city that had been subdued before, but harbored the tent of the meeting. It is possible Arameans from the _two camps_ of Mahanaim were a segment of the peoples who inhabited Shiloh. These Arameans settled among southern peoples in the region of Gilead (Genesis 31), but might have established their own settlement when they crossed the Jordan. Whether any of the exiled peoples from Judah and Benjamin would have lived with them in Shiloh is impossible to discern. Furthermore, although the author mentioned the tent of the meeting, the chest of the covenant is noticeably absent, which could imply the chest was from another tradition. Finally, the authors neglected to mention the city of Shechem in these invasions, but there is another version of the Levite conquest in the book of Judges.

Joshua instructed the remaining seven tribes to survey the land and come to him at Shiloh to make a case for their inheritance. Judah, Joseph, Reuben, and Gad had received their inheritance, which left eight sons, minus the Levites, who received the priesthood. Since Joshua made the decisions on the divisions at Shiloh, it appears the text represents an era when the Judah establishment allied with the Shiloh priests and a new governing body then controlled the region.

The borders of Benjamin included Luz, _that is Bethel_ , and Kiriath-Baal, _that is, Kiriath-Jearim_. The most prominent of the Benjamin cities were Jericho, Beth-Hoglah, Beth-Arabah, Bethel, Geba, Gibeon, Ramah, Beeroth, Mizpah, Rekem, Zela, Jebus, "that is, Jerusalem", and Gibeah. A name that stands out in this text is Bethel, which is also conveyed as a city of Ephraim in various passages. As with Jerusalem, there were constant battles over this prominent city. When Jeroboam implemented his religious government in Israel, Bethel was one of the places for worship, hence, definitely not a city of Benjamin. Bethel could have been either an Israel city lost to the Jerusalem monarchy, or a city of the monarchy that was lost to the Israel rebellion.

Regarding the cities of Gibeon, Gibeah, and Geba (the names mean _hill_ or _hilly_ ), I have read scholars who believe the names refer to the same city, as well as dogmatic reasons of why they do not. Therefore, I proceeded with my own evaluation of the region. In verses 24, 25 & 28, Gibeon, Gibeah, and Geba are cities for the sons of Benjamin. However, Gibeah is spelled _Gibat_ , which is the same spelling used in Joshua 24:33 for the burial-place of Eleazar. The word in Joshua 24 is often translated as _hill_ , as opposed to Gibeah, which is most often spelled _Gibah_. However, even though the Gibeah where Eleazar was buried was in the hills of Ephraim, I believe the author referred to the same place as the Gibeah mentioned in this chapter (same spelling), the one in Judges 19 & 20, and as the home of Saul in 1 Samuel 10:26. Although Eleazar's burial-place was in the hills of Ephraim, an author listed Bethel as a city in Benjamin, when in other texts the city is clearly in Ephraim. As stated, it is possible that regions of would-be Benjamin were part of Ephraim until the birth of the former as a state. Furthermore, the descendants of _Judah_ were not able to force the Jebusites out of _Benjamin_ , thus the Jebusites lived within the descendants of Judah (Joshua 15:63). These regions were constantly in a state of flux due to the incessant battling by the independent factions. Therefore, the written borders of the states are in no manner absolute. Moreover, in Judges 19:16, there is a man from the hills of Ephraim who dwelt in Gibeah, but the men of the place were _sons of Jemini_ , or would-be Benjamites, which connects the burial place of Eleazar to Gibeah of Benjamin. However, Gibeah may have been a place in Gibeon, as Zion was a place in Jerusalem. Gibeah was the home of Saul, but in a 1 Chronicles 8 genealogy, Saul and his father Kish are Gibeonites. Kish and Saul represent the same supplanted institution. The Gibeah in Judges 19 & 20 is the focal point of a pivotal story that references the downfall of the Gibeonites at the hands of the Judah alliance. In 1 Chronicles 23:21, Eleazar is a brother of Kish, which places him in Gibeon. If Gibeah were a place in Gibeon, it would explain why Eleazar from the Gibeon institution was buried in Gibeah. Therefore, there is an allegoric change of guard. Eleazar died and was buried in Gibeah, a city given to his son Phinehas, i.e., Judah conquered the house of Kish or Saul, and Gibeon became a city of the sons of Aaron (Joshua 21:17). Gibeon was large like the royal cities (Joshua 10:2), which means a prominent hilly region of Gibeon could easily take on its own identity as Gibeah. However, in Judges 20 verses 9 & 10, an author (or authors if verse 9 is an interpolation) used the names Gibeah and Geba to refer to the same place, which may also be the case with 1 Samuel 13 verses 2, 3, and 16. It is possible that Gibeon, Gibeah, and Geba refer to the same city, but it is also possible that Gibeah / Geba was a place in the region of Gibeon.

Joshua 19 states the inheritance of Simeon was within the territory of Judah, but as covered, the region was later appropriated by a new institution. The Simeonites who were not exiled or exterminated most likely became subjects to the Judah government. The important Simeonite cities were Beersheba (city of Judah in chapter 15 verse 28), Hormah, Ziklag, Beth-Marcaboth, Hazar-Susah, Ain, Rimmon, and all the villages surrounding these cities as far as Baalath-Beer (Ramah of the south).

The inheritance for the Danites included various cities in would-be lands of Judah and the Philistines. When the Danites lost their southern territory, they traveled north and besieged the city of Leshem, which they re-named Dan. This conquest is covered in Judges 18, but the tradition refers to the city of _Leshem_ as _Laish_.

The chapter moves to an end and for his inheritance, Joshua received the city of Timnath-Serah, which means, "portion of the sun" (fitting for the son of a solar deity).

Joshua 21 covers the cities of the Levites. The heads of the Levites approached Joshua and Eleazar at Shiloh and requested the cities that Yahweh decreed them.

From the Kohathites, the sons of Aaron received thirteen towns in Judah, Simeon, and Benjamin. The remaining descendants of Kohath received ten cities in Ephraim, Dan, and half the tribe of Manasseh. These two groups symbolize the alliance that facilitated the short-lived united monarchy. The descendants of Gershom received thirteen cities in Issachar, Asher, Naphtali, and half the tribe of Manasseh in Bashan. As stated, a division of the Gershomite priests presided in northern Dan, and in the Blessings of Moses, Dan was a lion _leaping out of Bashan_. The descendants of Merari received twelve cities in Reuben, Gad, and Zebulun.

Arriving at verse 9, the text moves into another list of the cities given to the Levites, which the redactor acquired from an independent source. The descendants of Aaron received the first lot, including Kiriath-Arba, _that is Hebron_. A later interpolation consolidates traditions and states the fields and villages of the city were given to Caleb, the son of Jephunneh. With verse 13, the redactor added another source and again the text lists the cities controlled by the sons of Aaron, which included Hebron. The allotted cities for the remaining sons of _Kohath Levites_ , or Levites who allied with the sons of Aaron, came first from the tribe of Ephraim.

Yahweh gave _Israel_ all the land he swore to their forefathers. He provided the people rest on every side and none of their enemies were able to stand against them. All of Yahweh's promises were fulfilled.

Joshua 22 is an interesting "D" text (or a Levitical text amended by "D"). Joshua sent the Reubenites, the Gadites, and half the tribe of Manasseh to their inheritance east of the Jordan. When they arrived in the land, they built a great altar beside the Jordan. However, the _sons of Israel_ assembled for war against them at Shiloh. They sent Phinehas to Gilead with ten rulers because the leaders thought the peoples across the Jordan had turned against Yahweh, which implies the altar was for another deity, i.e., the entire region was not under the dominion of the new religious coalition. The two and a half tribes replied to the rulers, "'El, 'Elohim Yahweh, 'El 'Elohim Yahweh." The tribes contended the altar was not for offerings or sacrifices, but to show their descendants that Yahweh was the _'Elohim of Israel_ , which supposedly diffused the situation. This later author attempted to instill the belief that all the tribes on both sides of the Jordan supported the new Judah-Shiloh (hence Phinehas led the assembly) government. However, in the book of Judges, one will perceive the constant contention between the divided factions. Earlier peoples who the author attempted to consolidate worshiped different deities and supported different religious factions, but he wanted centralization of worship around one deity, centered at one place, and headed by a united group of priests.

In Joshua 23, the hero gave a final address to the people. Then in Joshua 24, Joshua gathered the people at Shechem and the leaders presented themselves to 'Elohim. As an author intimated in the travels of Jacob, the prominence of various would-be Levitical sects began in religious cities east of the Jordan, for some included travels to the land of Shechem, and for others culminated in the city of Bethel. Moving the narrative back to Shechem could imply this section represents an era of Levitical prominence in the city, after they either arrived peacefully and purchased the land or took the city in a bloody slaughter.

Joshua conveyed Yahweh's words to the people. Then the text recalls the history of the _sons of Israel_ from Abraham through the Joshua invasions into the land of Canaan. Joshua then asked the people if they wanted to worship Yahweh, the older 'Elohim, or the 'Elohim of the Amorites. In the narratives, there are references to the land and daughters of Canaan, the land and daughters of the Hittites, and the land and 'Elohim of the Amorites. Although the term Canaanite was often used in a generic sense, certain Canaanites were often associated with the Tyrians and Sidonians, who were allies of a Judah institution. In addition, the Hittites were definitely a part of an early Judah-based coalition. Finally, in the book of Genesis, an author overtly conveyed an Abram (Judah) alliance with the Amorites. These _foreign_ peoples were part of early religious establishments that included would-be _Israelites_ , but appear to have been assimilated within the new nations, eliminated or exiled, or forced into servitude. This author had Joshua ask the people to choose between the older religious coalitions and the new Yahweh government centered in Jerusalem.

The book of Joshua comes to an end with the death of Joshua, the son of Nun. The people buried him at Timnath-Serah in the hill country of Ephraim. _Israel_ worshiped Yahweh throughout the life of Joshua and his generation. In addition, the bones of Joseph were buried at Shechem in the parcel of land that Jacob _purchased_ from the sons of Hamor. The burial of Joseph's bones in Shechem could convey a Levitical downfall that occurred when the city fell from prominence, which was conveyed when Jacob had the people discard their 'Elohim and leave the city for Bethel. Finally, Eleazar the priest died and they buried him at Gibeah, which had been given to his son Phinehas. As stated, this burial conveys a change of guard.

Table of Contents

On the Book of Judges

Judges 1 begins, "after the death Joshua", which is merely a means to connect the independent traditions. The _sons of Israel_ asked Yahweh who should commence the attack against the Canaanites. Yahweh answered, "Judah", which conveys a Judah-based institution began the move to power that ultimately achieved the united monarchy. Judah called upon his brother Simeon for reinforcements and for this, he would assist Simeon in establishing his territory. In the narrative prior this point, after their generation passed, every text has referred to the descendants of the twelve sons, not the sons themselves. Therefore, many translations change the verse to read tribes or descendants of Judah and Simeon. This segment is definitely from an independent tradition in which the brothers were still an active part of the narrative.

When Judah attacked, Yahweh handed the Canaanites and Perizzites over to him at Bezek. Judah captured Adoni-Bezek, cut off his thumbs and big toes, and brought him to Jerusalem where he died. Adoni-Bezek referred to the severing as being a common practice of his, thus 'Elohim repaid him for his actions. As previously mentioned, a border mark for Judah and Benjamin was the _stone of Bohan, a son of Reuben_ (Joshua 15:6). The name _Bohan_ is a variation of the word _bohen_ , which the author used in verse 7 to denote _big toes_ and _thumbs_. This attack could represent the defeat of a Reubenite camp that had migrated into Benjamin.

In verse 8:

"8. Fought the sons of Judah against Jerusalem, and captured it, and struck it with edge the sword and the city set on fire."

This attack on Jerusalem represents the same assault on the city as the one by David forthcoming. An author already gave Joshua credit for this conquest in Joshua 10 & 12, which presents a conspicuous display of different traditions. Moreover, Judah moved against the Canaanites living in Hebron, formerly _Kiriath-Arba_ , and like Caleb and Joshua in the book of Joshua, Judah struck Sheshai, Ahiman, and Talmai. From there, Judah marched against Debir, formerly _Kiriath-Sepher_ , which was also conquered in the book of Joshua.

Verse 16 leaves one with more questions than answers. The sons of the Kenites _, father-in-law of Moses_ , went from the city of the palms (Jericho- Deuteronomy 34:3) with the _sons of Judah_ to the desert of Judah and lived among the people. In the preceding verses, _Judah_ conquered the lands of Hebron, Debir, and the Negev of Judah. Not only has the region changed, but the nomenclature as well. It is obvious this verse is either an interpolation or a passage that belongs elsewhere in the narratives. However, why would the author write that the two peoples left Jericho? In the book of Joshua, the people conquered the city, but the active participants in the story were the _sons of Israel_ , not the sons of Judah. If the author attempted to align this story with the events of Joshua, he should have inserted the verse before Judah began the attacks in the south. Moreover, in chapter 3, a Moabite, sons of Ammon, and Amalekite coalition conquers and attains control over the city of Jericho. Since the _sons of Judah_ left Jericho with the Kenites, who were related to the Amalekites, it does prepare the scene for a Judah alliance to conquer the city in chapter 3. Although, since there were Kenites in southern Judah, it is possible that an author simply wanted to include the Kenites in the people's consolidated entrance into the land from across the Jordan. However, why did the author referred to the Kenites as the _father-in-law of Moses_. Numerous scholars correlate this verse with Exodus 2 & 3 and erroneously deduce that the Kenites were a Midianite kin group. However, the Kenites, who appear to have migrated from Aram, were not Midianites, the Midianites were Arabians. Moreover, Moses took a Cushite wife in Numbers 12:1, which means more than one people were portrayed as Moses' _father-in-law_ (relations represents alliances, not blood or ancestral relatives). In addition, when Moses married a daughter of Midian, the names for his father-in-law were _Reuel_ , which represents the Edomites, and _Jethro_ , which represents the Ishmaelites. Then one would naturally inquire if there were a reason to associate the Kenites with the Midianites, the Ishmaelites, or the Edomites. Moreover, what connection between these peoples would necessitate an interpolation at a point in the narrative where it is obviously out of place? It is possible the author had an unknown agenda.

After the ambiguous verse 16, Judah went with his brother Simeon, attacked the Canaanites who were living in Zephath, and completely destroyed the town, which they named Hormah. The name _Zephath_ means, "watchtower", and was most likely an important Canaanite garrison. Hormah was a Simeonite city (Joshua 19:4), which is why the author included Simeon in this attack. In Numbers 21:3, the _sons of Israel_ conquered areas in the Negev of Judah and they named one of the places _Hormah_ , which refers to the same event. Judah then captured Gaza, Askelon, and Ekron, which were Philistine cities. This statement is either a case of over-exaggeration (as within the Joshua crusades), or it could intimate a Judah-Philistine alliance gained control of these lands. Finally, Judah gave Hebron to Caleb, who conquered the three sons of Anak (Judah accomplished this in verse 10), which was obviously woven in from another source.

Moving north, the sons of Benjamin could not expel the Jebusites who were living in Jerusalem (as with Judah in Joshua 15:63) and they still lived with them at the time of authorship.

When the house of Joseph conquered Bethel, formerly Luz, they received assistance from a man in the city who was allowed to escape the attack. He then went to the land of the Hittites and built a town he named Luz. Furthermore, when Jacob arrived in Luz, built an altar (temple), and renamed the city _Bethel_ , it most likely refers to the same conquest. The chapter moves to an end and lists the peoples that the Jehudaites and Israelites could not displace from the land, including some kings who an author mentioned in the Joshua invasions.

In Judges 2, the angel of Yahweh went from Gilgal to Bochem to address the _sons of Israel_. In this interpolation or later written segment, there is a theme that can be found throughout the rest of the narratives. The author condemned the people for worshiping other deities and for making covenants with foreign peoples, then he placed forth repercussions for the lack of total obeisance to Yahweh. He wrote the passage in an attempt to centralize and control the people's worship, i.e., their sacrifices and tithes. Because of their disobedience, Yahweh would not displace the other nations from the land, which caused the _sons of Israel_ to weep. They called the place _Bochem_ , which means, "weeping".

Although he passed in Joshua 24:29, in verse 6, Joshua sent the people to their inheritance, he passed away, and he was buried in the hills of Ephraim at Timnath-Heres ( _Timnath-Serah_ in Joshua 24:30).

After the death of Joshua, the subsequent generations did not know Yahweh or his works. I have already placed forth an abundance of evidence that displays the _Israelites_ were not a monotheistic group that worshiped one deity. However, when the author stated the _sons of Israel_ worshiped the Baalim and the Ashtoreths, he merely spoke out against alliances that not only forced various factions out of power, they also impeded attempts to obtain power and control through one central government.

Due to the infidelity of the people, Yahweh handed _Israel_ over to their enemies. He occasionally brought forth judges to save them, but when the judges died, the people returned to their corrupt ways. This short segment has prepared the narrative for the _era_ _of the judges_. A redactor sourced several of the following segments from more comprehensive traditions on each of the figures, which originated within religious establishments that did not worship Yahweh. Although later authors re-wrote the stories during a Yahweh period in Jerusalem, there are remnants of _'Elohim_ texts.

Since _Israel_ disobeyed the deity, Yahweh decided not to eradicate the nations that Joshua left when he passed. However, in Joshua 21 verses 43 through 45, Yahweh had fulfilled all his promises and the people had peace at all their borders. The text now states that Yahweh left these nations to test _Israel_ , which is why he did not expel them immediately. The author not only conveyed the Joshua conquests were rather exaggerated, he placed forth an explanation for the wars and battles found in the book of Judges.

Judges 3 continues the infidelity theme. Yahweh left the five lords of the Philistines, the Canaanites, the Sidonians, and the Hivites to test _Israel_ and teach them how to fight in a battle. In reality, the majority of these peoples, including the Sidonians and Philistines, became allies of a Judah-based institution. The people also lived in the middle of the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the Perizzites, and the Jebusites. However, the entire land was conquered, _leaving no survivors_ , in the book of Joshua, not to mention Yahweh handed the Canaanites and Perizzites over to Judah in chapter 1 verse 4. This author subtly conveyed the true settlement of the land, which was predominantly race tolerant until later times. Furthermore, and even more detrimental to the author, is the people intermarried and worshiped the 'Elohim of these nations. One finds the same frame of mind in radical sects of religion today. It is not the supposed evil of a foreign people that is troublesome, but the detrimental effect their cultures can have on an institution that wants to control the populace through censorship and fear.

With verse 7, the narrative begins the stories of the judges. When the people continued to worship the Baalim and Asherah, Yahweh sold them into the hand of Cushan-Rishathaim, the king of Aram-Naharaim, and the _sons of Israel_ served him for eight years. The name _Cushan-Rishathaim_ means, "Cushan of double wickedness". Cushan represents a region of Arabia. The name _Aram-Naharaim_ means, "Aram of two rivers", which refers to the Tigris and Euphrates. Therefore, _Cushan-Rishathaim, king of Aram-Naharaim_ , most likely represents an Aramean-Arabian coalition that for a time controlled the region of Judah. As covered, segments of the Arameans were exiled across the Jordan, Abraham sent away Arabians in Genesis 25, and Phinehas nearly exterminated the Midianites in Numbers 31.

Yahweh sent Othniel to deliver the people from their oppressors. In Joshua 15:17, Othniel conquered Debir, which may have been settled by the aforementioned coalition. In this chapter, Othniel, the son of Kenaz, the younger brother of Caleb, defeated Cushan-Rishathaim, the king of Aram-Naharaim.

Once again, the _sons of Israel_ did evil in the sight of Yahweh, who sold them into the hand of Eglon, the king of Moab. Eglon convinced the Ammonites and the Amalekites to join him in a war against _Israel_. The coalition took possession of the City of Palms (Jericho) and Israel served Eglon and Moab for _eighteen_ years. This control over Jericho was actually by a Judah-based establishment that allied with Ammon and Moab. Eglon was the name of a city in Judah (Joshua 15:39), and the Amalekites had a presence in an early Judah coalition, thus the author may have tacitly conveyed the Judah involvement.

The _sons of Israel_ cried out to Yahweh, who gave them Ehud, the son of Gera, the son of Jemini, a man left-handed, as a deliverer. In this verse, the _son of Jemini_ , i.e., son of the south (an early name for people in the region), is usually translated as _Benjamite_. In addition, the name _Ehud_ means, "united", and is not a historic figure, but represents a coalition out of Benjamin. Moreover, an author does not mention that a man is left-handed in mere happenstance, regardless if he was referring to Ehud or his ancestry. In the following story, Ehud concealed an _eighteen_ inch double edged sword in his _right_ thigh, which he used with his _left_ hand. In Hebrew, the terms _left_ hand and _right_ hand can also imply the _north_ and _south_ respectively. The stressing of these _hands_ within the story could represent a coalition (Ehud) of peoples from both regions. Ehud's double-edged sword represents duplicity.

The _sons of Israel_ sent Ehud to bring an offering to the king of Moab. He strapped an _eighteen_ inch sword under his right thigh and went to King Eglon, who was a fat or plentiful man. If one combines this statement with the _eighteen_ years he ruled over _Israel_ , the _eighteen_ inches of his sword, the _eighty_ years of peace in _Israel_ at the end of this section, and the fact all three numbers were derived from the word _shamen_ , i.e., rich, fat, robust, or plenteous, it is likely the author made a statement about this era of greed (Cushan-Rishathaim, ruled _eight_ years). Ehud presented the tribute to Eglon and was dismissed with the people who carried it, but at the idols or images at Gilgal, he turned around and went back to see the king. After the attendants left them alone, Ehud approached Eglon in his upstairs room with a word for him from 'Elohim. When Eglon arose from his throne, Ehud reached with his _left_ hand, took the sword from his _right_ thigh, and stuck it in the king's belly or _middle_. Ehud then escaped the scene, crossed over the Jordan, and reached the town of Seirah in Ephraim. He blew the ram's horn and the _sons of Israel_ in the hills assembled and captured the passages of the Jordan leading to Moab. After they executed ten thousand Moabites, Moab became a subject to _Israel_.

In the actual events concerning Jericho, a force out of Judah was part of the coalition that conquered the city. In 1 Chronicles 8:6, an author stated the sons of Ehud, or members of this coalition in Benjamin, were exiled to Moab. Therefore, this battle against Moab could have occurred during the conflict that exiled Ehud's sons across the Jordan. However, authors often portrayed separate events from different eras within one story. This conflict could have been one of numerous battles in the region and the victory (if it was truly a victory) most likely had nothing to do with Jericho, which in the story was not part of the battle and was not recovered by _Israel_. Although Joshua 6 conveyed a conquest of Jericho, a sect represented by the Joshua invasions allied with the Judah-based institution that controlled the city. Jericho then became a conquest of Joshua, as was the case with the towns of Hebron and Debir.

The chapter ends with one verse on the next judge of _Israel_. Shamgar, the son of Anath, judged _Israel_ and he struck down six hundred Philistines with an oxgoad. The name _Anath_ , or _Anat_ , was the name of a Goddess worshiped throughout Palestine. As with Hadad, there is plenty of literature on her if one wants to delve further into the subject. The Benjamin city of Anathoth (plural of Anath), a city of priests, was most likely a city of Anat. The name _Shamgar_ , her son, was most likely the title of a religious or military leader, not unlike the man in Jeremiah 39:3. There were obviously various stories about Anath and her mortal leader, but as perceived throughout the narratives, many of these traditions arose out of opposing religious factions that were conquered by or assimilated into the later Yahweh institution. Furthermore, many of the stories contradicted or were not in harmony with the later dictum or ideology of the Yahweh governance, in which case authors shortened the stories and merely gave them a respectful appearance.

Judges 4 moves the narrative to a prophetess and judge named Deborah. The story (originally from a pre-Yahweh era) begins with the _sons of Israel_ again doing evil in the eyes of Yahweh. Therefore, the deity sold the people into the hand of King Jabin of Canaan. He ruled in Hazor and Sisera was the commander of his forces. In Joshua 11, the king of Hazor commanded kings from the Judean foothills to northern Israel. This story refers to the same coalition.

The name _Deborah_ has an affinity with the name _Debir_ , which means, "sanctuary" or "oracle", and Deborah was a prophetess, or one who _speaks_ with the deity. In addition, the name _Deborah_ can denote a _swarm of bees_ , from a correlation with _spoken commands_ that move _orderly motion_ , which could represent her army. Due to the bee affiliation, scholars have identified her with the Egyptian Goddess Neith.

Deborah, who could have been either the Goddess of Debir or a mere representation of the city, was a:

"4... a woman, a prophetess, wife Lapidoth's."

Due to the fact she was a prophetess and a wife, it is obvious the figure was a woman, thus the feminine aspect of the entity is stressed within the verse. Looking back to Genesis 35:8, _Deborah_ was the name of Rebekah's nursing mother who died in Bethel and was buried under an oak tree, which I mentioned was odd for a mere nurse. Rebekah represented an Aramean element of the peoples, thus Debir may have also contained an Aramean element, which would explain the correlation with Rebekah, as well as the female emphasis in this story. When Deborah passed away in Genesis 35, it represents the end of Debir's prominence, if not the destruction or conquest of the city.

Deborah dwelt under a palm tree between Ramah and Bethel in the hill country of Ephraim and the people came to her for judgment. Debir was in Judah, but the author placed the palm tree of Deborah in the hills of Ephraim. Although the story conveys the physical presence of a person, it could symbolize an alliance between Debir and leadership in Ramah and Bethel, the latter may have still been referred to as _Luz_ at the time. When Debir and Bethel were later conquered by another coalition, Debir lost its political prominence, or Deborah died in Bethel. If Deborah was the Goddess of Debir, her worship would have been supplanted by Asherah, which coincides with the Judah-Asher alliance that conquered Judah and Israel. Deborah's palm tree may represent the former name of the city, which was _Kiriath-Sanaah_ (Joshua 15:49). The word _kiriath_ means, "city", and authors used the word _sanaah_ to denote the fruit stalk of the date palm, hence, _city of the palm_. However, another name for the city was _Kiriath-Sepher_ (Joshua 15:15), which means, "city of books". When the _sons of Israel_ went to Deborah for judgment, it could imply a religious center or capital, which would have been an appropriate standing for a city of books.

Barak was the son of Abinoam from Kedesh-Naphtali. The name _Barak_ means, "lightning", and the name _Lapidoth_ (Deborah's husband- who has no role in _this_ story) means, "torches" or "lighting flashes". The two men could reflect a consolidation of different versions of the story in which authors referred to the entity by different names. With the reference to lightning, the figure could have represented a sky or storm deity (possibly _Hadad_ ). Deborah inquired of Barak because Yahweh ordered him to assemble men from Naphtali and Zebulun to battle against Sisera and the forces of Jabin. However, he would not march into battle unless she went, to which she replied she would, but his pursuits would be without honor, as Yahweh would sell Sisera into the hand of a woman. The author may have been denigrating Naphtali and Zebulun leadership for their association with Debir.

With verse 11, Heber the Kenite had divided from Cain, from the sons of Hobab, the father-in-law of Moses, and he pitched his tent beside the oak of Zaanannim, which was near Kedesh. This verse engenders verse 16 of chapter 1 to the mind. The chapter 1 interpolation places the Kenites in Judah and associates them with Moses. Then verse 11 of this chapter reiterates the connection with Moses, associates the Kenites with Heber, and then has Heber pitch his tent in Naphtali, where there was a war for religious supremacy in the north. Furthermore, after this verse, it is Heber's wife that has a significant role in the story. However, there were surely numerous texts and traditions that covered these same events that were not included in the Old Testament. If one possessed other writings, these verses may take on a completely different light. That said, as to the intent of the chapter 1 interpolation, the only reference to Cain thus far in the narratives is his exile in the book of Genesis. Therefore, an author could have added the verse to place the Kenites back in Judah to align with this story. Returning to verse 11, the author associated the Kenites with the sons of Hobab, the _father-in-law of Moses_. In Numbers 10:29, Hobab is the son of Reuel the Midianite, which would make him a brother-in-law to Moses, as opposed to a father-in-law. However, the use of the name _Hobab_ could have occurred from an errant passing of tradition, if not from another tradition altogether.

The peoples represented by Moses entered the Negev of Judah and allied with an existing coalition, which included Arameans (Kenites, Reubenites, etc.), Asherites, Edomites, Midianites, and Ishmaelites. Since an author portrayed the Kenites as the first son of man, either they were the first of the referenced peoples to settle in Judah or they ascended to leadership above the others. This chief Kenite presence was in part displayed by the early city of Hanoch in Judah. Therefore, when the _Moses tribes_ settled and allied with the Kenite coalition, the aforementioned peoples became his father-in-law. This associative phenomenon also explains why his father-in-law was portrayed as a Midianite with an intimation of the figure being an Ishmaelite and an Edomite in separate texts. When the early coalitions were eradicated in Judah, various encampments fled to the south and to lands east of the Jordan, but a segment of the peoples, represented by Heber the Kenite, divided from the others. His northward migration could in part represent the Edomites who conquered the city of Laish. Moreover, since the name _Heber_ means, "community", _Heber the Kenite_ could refer to a Kenite community that again included other Arameans, Edomites, Midianites, Ishmaelites, and Asherites (Heber is an Asherite Genesis 46:17). _Heber the Kenite_ aligned with the leadership of King Jabin, and this coalition in the north may have united with a later Judah institution, which authors would have veiled for obvious reasons.

Jabin's general Sisera ascended Mount Tabor with his chariots and the entire army. Deborah then told Barak it was time to attack because Yahweh would hand Sisera over to him. Barak overpowered and pursued Sisera, who escaped on foot to the tent of Jael, the wife of Heber the Kenite, because there was peace between Jabin and the house of Heber. However, the wife of Heber deceived Sisera and killed him when he fell asleep from exhaustion. According to this author, Heber's wife (or _ally_ ) assisted in the conquest of the northern alliance. The word _jael_ denotes a _mountain goat_ , but is a variation of the word _yaal_ (from the ascending), which means, "to benefit" or "profit". The marriage of Heber and Jael could symbolize an alliance of _wealth_. Furthermore, since the Danites conquered the city of Laish and a Judah coalition expanded into Israel, allied with the Danite institution, and ascended to power over the united monarchy, it could explain Jael's new stance toward the northern coalition. There had previously been peace between Jabin and the house of Heber, but a Judah-based establishment (most likely after the rule of King Jabin) later attained complete control in the north, which included control over institutions of Israel that had battled King Jabin. Irrespective of the depicted betrayal, in a mode of consolidation, later authors portrayed these events that transpired over time with the _sons of Israel_ on both sides of the battle, as an event by a unified _sons of Israel_ under their one deity Yahweh who helped them defeat the Canaanite General Sisera.

As the chapter ends, 'Elohim (ending from an earlier version) subdued King Jabin of Canaan before the _sons of Israel_ , but they did not defeat him. The power of the _sons of Israel_ continued to increase over time until they destroyed him, which means this story originated as merely a battle. In Joshua 11 verses 10 & 11, Joshua defeated the king of Hazor, he burned Hazor to the ground, and he killed all the inhabitants. However, as with many of the Joshua conquests, the author merely consolidated his text with the extant tradition of battles against the king of Hazor. In addition, in 1 Samuel 12:9, Yahweh sold the _sons of Israel_ into the hand of Sisera, the commander of the army of Hazor, but later sent Barak (slightly denigrated in this story) to save the _sons of Israel_. However, the 1 Samuel text does not mention the judge Deborah or the heroine Jael, which suggests the latter two figures were not included in other versions of the myth, as Barak's role was insignificant in this rendering of the story.

Judges 5 contains another account of the battle against Sisera. Not unlike the last chapter, the song is a _Yahweh_ re-write. Although chapter 4 begins by stating King Jabin of Hazor had oppressed _Israel_ for twenty years, that was merely a preface for a battle that featured his commander. In this song, however, Sisera takes the stage alone and the author does not even mention King Jabin. The absence of Jabin is the mere beginning of the inconsistencies that scholars outline within the two accounts. However, due to the fact this was a depicted battle within a longer war and the author simply neglected to reference to the bigger picture, there is not truly an inconsistency. Furthermore, with the poetic style of this song, one should understand that to the poet, the message and vision of the poem or song are more important than portraying the events accurately.

The fact this story had an early origin is evident with verse 20, when the stars from the heavens fought against Sisera. The reference to the _army of the heavens_ came from an era of religious tolerance when other deities were an accepted part of the _Israelite_ religion.

Another interesting segment of the song is the division of the tribes that begins with verse 13. The battle began and Yahweh's people came down with the warriors. There were those from Ephraim with roots in Amalek, which most likely represents a time before the later held antipathy toward the Amalekites. Benjamin joined in the battle, leaders came down from Machir, and Zebulun and Issachar were with Deborah and Barak. However, there was a great search of heart within the people of Reuben. Gilead remained beyond the Jordan, Dan lingered at her ships, and Asher remained at the seashore. In Numbers 26:29, Machir is conveyed as the father of Gilead, but here Machir went to battle and Gilead remained beyond the Jordan. It is possible that Machir, the _son of Manasseh_ , here represents the region that would become west Manasseh, which is not represented in this song. If the people of Machir were exiled out of Israel and they became prominent across the Jordan, it could explain why Machir was portrayed as the father of Gilead (northern Gilead / east Manasseh). Furthermore, since Gilead is mentioned as a state or province, it could represent a time before the region was portioned into Gad and east Manasseh (neither are represented in the song). Finally, Asher and Dan did not march into battle, and the author did not even mention Judah or Simeon. Heber the Kenite had an alliance with King Jabin (4:17), thus it is possible that ruling factions in Judah were allied with Jabin's kingdom and only the leadership in Debir was aligned with Barak, which may not have been popular with everyone in the north, because if _Deborah_ went to combat with Barak, he would lose his glory to a woman (4:9). Therefore, Judah and Simeon would not have been expected to join Barak's forces if they were on the other side of the battle. Moreover, Reuben is stated to have remained by the sheepfolds listening to pipes, which portrays the people as ineffectual and reflects a time after they had been removed from religious prominence (they were the beginning of Jacob's strength in Genesis 49:3). As far as the other entities that did not join Deborah and Barak, there was Simeon in the desert (later exiled out of Judah), along with the provinces of Gilead, Asher, and Dan, which were allies of the Judah-based coalition that would conquer Israel.

Judges 6 continues the infidelity theme. Although there are traces of an "E" author (the name _'Elohim_ ), a later author wrote the majority of this story, which is evident with the _Yahweh your 'Elohim_ in verse 10. The _sons of Israel_ did evil in the eyes of Yahweh, who surrendered them into the hand of Midian for seven years. These Midianites could have once been a part of the coalition in southern Judah. In verses 2 through 4, Midian, Amalek, and the sons of Qedem destroyed _Israel's_ entire means of sustenance. However, in Numbers 31:

"7 And they warred against Midian, as commanded Yahweh, Moses, and killed every male. 8. And the kings of Midian they killed, besides their slain."

"10. And all their towns, their habitations, and all their towers they burned with fire."

"17. And now, kill every male among the infants. And every woman who has had sexual relations with a man by lying with a male you must kill."

If the above event truly occurred, the Midianites would have been exterminated.

The angel of Yahweh dwelt under an oak tree (religious institution) in Ophrah, which belonged to Joash, the Abiezrite ( _father of help_ ). His son was Gideon, who was the next _deliverer of Israel_. Yahweh told Gideon he would defeat the Midianites. However, Gideon showed a lack a faith until the angel of Yahweh performed a miracle to gain his belief. When Gideon realized the being was the angel of Yahweh, he said he had seen the angel of Yahweh _face to face_ , which brings to mind the encounter in Peniel with Jacob and 'Elohim.

Gideon built an altar to Yahweh and called it _Yahweh Shalom_ , which could convey an alliance with the Yahweh institution in Jerusalem (Shalom / Salem). Yahweh then moved Gideon to dash the altar of Baal and cut down the Asherah pillar. Gideon was afraid of the men in the city, thus he destroyed the sacred entities secretly at night, which intimates a furtive move against a ruling faction.

Another name for Gideon was Jerubbaal, which means, "Baal will contend". The name is an obvious sign of Baal worship, but the author placed forth a feeble attempt to mask this in verses 31 & 32.

"31.And said Joash to all who stood against him, You, will you contend for Baal? Or, you, will you deliver him? {He} who contends for him will be killed by the morning; if a 'Elohim he {is} let him contend for himself, because one has smashed his altar. 32. And {was} called to him on day that Jerubbaal, saying, Let contend against him Baal, because one has smashed his altar."

The later author attempted to explain the extant tradition of a hero named Jerubbaal and make his name compatible with a later enforced Yahweh worship. Jerubbaal was most likely the original name of the hero. The name _Gideon_ means, "to cut down", and may have been changed when an author created the story that he cut down the symbols of Baal and Asherah.

At this time, the Midianites, the Amalekites, and the sons of Qedem crossed the Jordan and camped in the Jezreel Valley. Gideon assembled the Abiezrites, along with men throughout Manasseh, Asher, Zebulun, and Naphtali, and he prepared them for battle. The chapter ends with a passage from an earlier "E" text, in which 'Elohim performed a couple of miracles with a fleece, albeit not golden.

Judges 7 covers the battle between Gideon's men and the Midian coalition. The army of Jerubbaal, _that is Gideon_ , camped at the well of Harod while the camp of Midian was to the north below the hill of Moreh. Yahweh decided to slim down the army of Gideon, who was ultimately left with three hundred men. That night Yahweh told Gideon he had given the camp of Midian into his hands, but if he was afraid, he could march into battle with his servant Purah. The name _Purah_ could be a variation of the name _Puah_ , the Hebrew midwife in Exodus 1:15, which would imply at least a division of the "E" camps from Egypt had made a move into Israel.

Gideon divided the army into three companies and attacked the Midianite camp. The enemy fled to Beth-Shittah in the direction of Zererah as far as the border of Abel-Meholah. Then Naphtali, Asher, and Manasseh all pursued the Midianites. Gideon sent messengers into the hills of Ephraim and the Ephraimites joined the battle and gained control of the waterways as far as Beth-Barah and the Jordan. They captured and killed Oreb and Zeeb, the princes of Midian, and brought their heads to Gideon across the Jordan.

In Judges 8, the men of Ephraim asked Gideon why he did not request their assistance in the fight against Midian, which is a direct contradiction to verse 24 of the last chapter.

"24. And messengers sent Gideon to all the hills Ephraim, saying, Come down to meet Midian, and capture before them the waters as far as Beth-Barah and the Jordan. And was mustered every man of Ephraim, and they captured the waters as far as Beth-Barah, and the Jordan {River}."

Gideon replied to the men of Ephraim and said the yield of Ephraim was better than the yield of Abiezer, not to mention that 'Elohim handed the Midian princes over to them, which supposedly diffused their anger.

Following the battle, Gideon went to the men of Succoth to request food and assistance because he and his forces were in pursuit of Zebah and Zalmunna, the kings of Midian. The men of Succoth denied assistance because they felt the Midianite kings were already in his hands. Gideon left them with a threat and a curse and he moved on to Penuel. When the men of Penuel also refused to assist him, he told them he would tear down their tower upon his return. Correlating this contention with the _face to face_ reference in chapter 6 verse 22, it could imply an "E" camp from across the Jordan joined Gideon in Ophrah, while other camps remained in Succoth and Peniel, which appears to have bred dissension between the religious factions. In addition, an "E" author who had affiliations with Midian wrote that Succoth and Peniel were on the travels of Jacob, thus it is possible the two cities were on the side of the Midian coalition.

Zebah and Zalmunna were with the remaining men from the army of Qedem, when Gideon made a surprise attack, the kings of Midian fled, and Gideon captured them and overwhelmed their forces. When he returned from the battle, he disciplined the men of Succoth and tore down the tower of Penuel. Then Gideon questioned the Midianite kings about the men who they had killed at Tabor. When he realized the men they killed were his brothers, he asked his firstborn Jether to kill the two kings. The name _Jether_ is a variation of the name _Jethro_ , the Midianite father-in-law of Moses. The relation between these figures explains why Jether was afraid to kill the Midianite kings, as he most likely represents peoples from the south who were among the forces of Gideon. Moreover, since Jether is an Ishmaelite in 1 Chronicles 2:17, and the text refers to the enemy as _Ishmaelites_ later in this chapter, the author subtly conveyed a split in the old southern coalition. Some of the peoples were with Gideon in Ophrah, others remained across the Jordan in Succoth and Peniel, while the majority probably remained part of the Midianite and Ishmaelite nations. Inevitably, Gideon killed the Midianite kings and took their crescent ornaments, which were a symbol of the people and their religion.

After his conquests, the _sons of Israel_ asked Gideon and his descendants to rule over them, but he refused and told them Yahweh would rule. However, Gideon did ask the people to give him an earring from their spoils, and the enemy had earrings because they were Ishmaelites. Gideon received forty-three pounds of gold, including what he acquired from the Midianite kings. He then took the gold and made an ephod, adorned it in Ophrah, and the _sons of Israel_ worshiped it. This action became a snare for Gideon and he was subdued before the _sons of Israel_ , who no longer lifted their heads before their enemies. An author from a religious faction that opposed the institution in Ophrah obviously wrote the last segment. Furthermore, an ephod was the girdle wore by the high priest, thus it appears that Gideon was acting as king and priest. However, the author wanted his readers to believe that Saul was the first _king of Israel_ , which explains the supposed denial of the kingship. Finally, the _ephod_ represents the religious institution in Ophrah, but if the idols and earrings first belonged to the Ishmaelites and Midianites, the religious institution contained an Ishmaelite and Midianite element. Hence, in Numbers 31, an author may have exterminated the Midianites in an attempt to preclude their inclusion in the _Israel nation_.

In a couple verses that are out of place, Midian was subdued before the _sons of Israel_ and the land was at peace for forty years during the days of Gideon. Jerubbaal, _that is Gideon_ , went back to his home.

From another tradition or later source, Gideon had seventy sons, and his concubine in Shechem gave him a son named Abimelech. In 2 Samuel 11:21, an author referred to the father of Abimelech as _Jerubbesheth_ , which means, "contend of shame", and may have been a symbolic name for a religious establishment. The name _Abimelech_ means, "father is/of the king", and is merely a generic name that authors used to conceal stories of the same entity in different periods (as was the case for the Philistine king with the same name).

After Gideon passed away, the _sons of Israel_ worshiped Baal, i.e., _continued_ to worship Baal. Gideon, or Jerubbaal, never brought an end to Baal and Asherah worship, which were prevalent deities for the entire history of Judah and Israel. Obviously, the people's choice of worship was to the displeasure of later authors who were moving toward absolute control over the people. Therefore, authors changed the name of the hero to Gideon, placed forth a specious reason for the name Jerubbaal, and then had him dash the image of Baal and cut down the Asherah pillar. Once the Gideon-Jerubbaal narrative was complete, the author could write that Baal and Asherah worship returned.

Judges 9 is an "E" text on King Abimelech, who went to Shechem and the people of his blood for support. They took seventy pieces of silver from the temple of Baal-Berith ( _Baal of the Covenant_ ), used the money to hire men, and together they went to Ophrah and killed his seventy brothers upon one rock. The Hebrew word for _seventy_ , _shibim_ , is a plural form of _sheba_ , thus the author intimated an old religious alliance was eliminated. Subsequently, the leaders of Shechem assembled with the house of Millo at the oak of Shechem and assisted Abimelech in his ascension to the kingship. He ruled as king in Israel for three years.

Abimelech's youngest brother was named Jotham. He had hidden himself from the would-be king and escaped the slaughter of his brothers. After Abimelech was anointed, Jotham climbed to the top of Mount Gerizim and cursed him and the leaders of Shechem. He then fled from Abimelech to Beer, which was a place in Moab mentioned in Numbers 21:16. When a son escapes the slaughter of his brothers, it usually intimates he would eventually supersede leadership. However, if the entity represented by _Jotham_ did rise to power, authors failed to portray it overtly in the narratives.

During the rule of Abimelech, a man named Gaal, the son of Ebed, started a revolt against the king and the leaders of Shechem because 'Elohim sent an evil spirit between them. The author was not supportive of this institution in Shechem. However, the name _Gaal_ means, "loathed", and the name _Ebed_ means, "servant", which implies this tradition came out of a sect that supported the king; the revolt was incited by _loathed servants_. The rebels wanted the people to serve the men of Hamor, the father of Shechem, and in Genesis 34, it was Shechem, the son of Hamor, who humbled Dinah, which moved Levi and Simeon to conquer the city and slaughter its men. The two stories obviously refer to the same event. Abimelech's commander helped thwart the revolt and after the rebels were driven out of Shechem, Abimelech captured the city and killed all the inhabitants, which an author may have depicted with the Simeon and Levi massacre. The lords of Shechem escaped the carnage and fled to the temple of 'El-Berith, but Abimelech and his followers set fire to the temple and everyone inside perished. The mention of the name _'El-Berith_ reveals there are two stories interwoven in this chapter, as an author previously referred to a temple of _Baal-Berith_.

During an Abimelech battle, the enemy hid within a tower in Thebez. Abimelech and his men surrounded the place, but a woman threw a rock from the tower and fractured his skull. The king did not want to die by the hand of woman, thus he had one of his men kill him, which could convey a subversive element within his institution. When a woman in Thebez strikes Abimelech, it implies a new alliance relegated Shechem from prominence. This event was also conveyed when Jacob left the city for Bethel, and forthcoming when Jeroboam assumed control from Rehoboam in Shechem, but then established his religious institution in the cities of Dan and Bethel. Besides in correlation with this event, Thebez is silent within the biblical narratives and it is doubtful that a city of Thebez existed. However, the name Thebez, or _Tebes_ in Hebrew, could have been derived from the Aramaic _Tebirah_ , which means, "brittle" or "to break", which could not only refer to Abimelech's head, but symbolically the kingdom in Shechem.

Judges 10 begins with a leader named Tola, the son of Puah, the son of Dodo. He was from Issachar, but lived in Shamir in the hill country of Ephraim. In Genesis 46:13, Tola and Puah are sons of Issachar, and in Genesis 46:14, Zebulun has a son named _Elon_ , who is a judge from Zebulun in Judges 12. The sons in Genesis 46 represent the same entities as the judges in this book. Tola's father _Puah_ could represent the same entity as the Hebrew midwife in Exodus 1:15, hence, peoples exiled out of Judah and into Egypt. Puah's father _Dodo_ represents the previously discussed deity. Tola judged Israel for 23 years and when he died, he was buried in Shamir.

Jair the Gileadite judged after Tola; _he had thirty sons who rode on thirty donkeys and they had thirty towns in Gilead_ , which were called _Jair's Villages_ at the time of authorship. In Numbers 32:41, Jair (descendant of Manasseh) captured villages in the land of Gilead and named them _Jair's Villages_ , which obviously refers to the same event. The italicized segment is an example of the use of corresponding numbers and tales that aided the memory process before or in place of the written word. When Jair died, he was buried in Kamon.

In verse 6, the _sons of Israel_ worshiped the Baalim and the Ashtoreths, along with the 'Elohim of Aram, Sidon, Moab, the sons of Ammon, and the Philistines (all allies of a Judah institution). Yahweh was angered, thus he submitted the _sons of Israel_ into the hands of the Philistines and the sons of Ammon, who subdued them for _eighteen_ years in Gilead. In a mode of consolidation, the text states the sons of Ammon also crossed the Jordan to fight against Judah, Benjamin, and Ephraim. As the battle approached, the sons of Ammon camped in Gilead and the _sons of Israel_ camped in Mizpah.

Judges 11 continues the story from the last chapter. The _sons of Israel_ were looking for a deliverer to lead them against the sons of Ammon. The Gileadites would appoint the man they found as the leader of their people.

Jephthah was the son of Gilead and a prostitute, i.e., men of Gilead and an unfavorable or foreign ally. To maintain their father's entire inheritance, the sons of Gilead's wife forced Jephthah into the land of Tob, where he gathered with worthless men. However, when the _sons of Israel_ found themselves at war with the sons of Ammon, the leaders of Gilead came to Jephthah for support. He agreed to assist them, but if the campaign were successful, he would become their leader. This oath was witnessed by Yahweh at Mizpah. Later in the story when Jephthah returns from battle, his home is in Mizpah, which could imply he represents a faction in Mizpah and the _land of Tob_ represents allies of the faction.

_Jephthah_ was also the name of a city in Judah (Joshua 15:43), thus the figure could represent Arameans who were exiled to the region of Gilead. In 2 Samuel 10:6, the sons of Ammon called upon camps of Arameans (including men from Maacah and Tob) for assistance against the _sons of Israel_ , and in this chapter, Jephthah was called from the land of Tob to fight against the sons of Ammon. These men from Maacah and Tob were Arameans who settled across the Jordan. Jephthah's mother and Gilead's wife, the prostitute, most likely symbolizes people from Aram. They settled in the region of Gilead and not unlike peoples west of the Jordan, they became involved in constantly battling religious factions. An author from the other side of the battle denigrated Jephthah's mother, i.e., an Aramean element in the region. Furthermore, as stated, the Solomon institution that would rule over the united monarchy allied with the sons of Ammon. To veil the fact a Judah establishment allied with the Ammonites against other _factions of Israel_ , Levitical authors wrote of an Ammonite defeat and downplayed the importance and future of these Arameans. In 2 Samuel 10, the Ammonites and the men of Tob were defeated by _Israel_ , and the Arameans never assisted Ammon again. In this chapter, Jephthah from Tob defeated the sons of Ammon, but he ultimately sacrificed his only child. Due to the fact the elders of Gilead made Jephthah the leader over their people, his lack of offspring displays this movement in Gilead was without a future. In both stories, authors attempted to remove these Arameans from future _matters of Israel_.

The Gileadites and the sons of Ammon had a dispute over boundaries and land acquired by the _sons of Israel_ when they came out of Egypt. This contention escalated into a battle between the two entities. Jephthah made a vow to Yahweh that if the deity delivered the sons of Ammon into his hand, he would sacrifice the first thing he seen upon returning home. He struck the sons of Ammon from Aroer to the entrance of Minnith, and as far as Abel-Keramim. When he returned from the battle, his virgin daughter, who was his only child, came out to meet him. He allowed her two months to weep for her virginity and then he sacrificed her to the deity as promised. Afterward, the daughters in Israel went into the hills for four days to give thanks.

"40. from days to days, go up the daughters of Israel to tell again of the daughter of Jephthah the Gileadite, four days in the year."

Although I believe this sacrifice was symbolic and meant to display the sacrifice of a people by an _Israelite_ institution, the blatant representation in the story, as well as the fact there was an _Israelite_ tradition in recognition of the event, displays human sacrifice was an accepted part of ancient _Israel's_ religion. Furthermore, since Jephthah's daughter was a virgin, the event is consistent with commands pertaining to sacrifices.

Judges 12 unveils the strife between the men of Ephraim and those across the Jordan with Jephthah, the men of Gilead. The men of Ephraim asked the leaders of Gilead (as they did with Jerubbaal) why they did not request their assistance when Jephthah battled the sons of Ammon. Jephthah replied that he asked Ephraim, but the Ephraimites could not deliver Gilead, thus Yahweh gave the sons of Ammon into his hand. The author implied the deity favored Gilead over Ephraim. Moreover, if one combines this event with the fact Ephraim had contention with Jerubbaal, it displays a complete lack of unity within the alleged _Israel Nation_. The author further conveyed this contention with verse 4.

"4. Jephthah gathered the men of Gilead. And defeated Ephraim, because Ephraim had said, 'You Gileadites are Ephraimite fugitives in the territories of Ephraim and Manasseh.'"

The Gileadites captured the fords across the Jordan and they killed Ephraimites who attempted to cross if they pronounced _Shibboleth_ as _Sibbolet_ , which displays the different ethnicity of the two peoples. The texts have clearly displayed that the _Israelites_ were not a unified people with a united ancestry.

Jephthah the Gileadite died and was in buried Gilead. The next _judge of Israel_ was Ibzan of Bethlehem. _He had thirty sons, thirty daughters, and he brought in thirty daughters from outside for his sons_ (a forbidden act a time later). Ibzan died and he was buried in Bethlehem. Elon the Zebulunite judged _Israel_ after him. He died and he was buried in the land of Zebulun. Abdon, the son of Hillel the Pirathonite, was the next to judge _Israel_. _He had forty sons and thirty grandsons who rode on seventy donkeys_. Abdon died and he was buried in the land of Ephraim, in the hill country of the Amalekites.

In Judges 13, Yahweh sold the _sons of Israel_ into the hands of the Philistines. This conveyed subjugation moves the narrative to the birth of Samson, who was born of the Danites (southern Dan). The name _Samson_ means, "sunlight", and there is a possibility the people worshiped the figure as a solar deity or demigod.

There was a man by the name of Manoah who lived in Zorah. The name _Manoah_ means, "rest", and could convey the early settlement in southern Dan. The angel of Yahweh appeared to Manoah's barren wife and revealed she would have a son who would become a Nazirite to 'Elohim. A _Nazirite_ was a man consecrated to the deity who could not drink or eat unclean foods. The woman later gave birth to Samson, who Yahweh began to move in Mahaneh-Dan, i.e., camp of Dan, between Zorah and Eshtaol.

In Judges 14, Samson traveled to Timnah where he found a Philistine woman who he wanted for a wife. The parents of Samson asked him why he could not marry one of their own, but Samson was adamant about marrying this woman. However, Samson's desire was brought on by a plan of Yahweh to bring upon the downfall of the Philistines, who ruled over _Israel_. The latter statement veils the Judah-Philistine alliance, but also aligns with upcoming texts in which _Israel_ battles the Philistines.

Samson and his parents traveled to Timnah, where he ripped open a lion with his bare hands, but he never revealed the event to anyone. He then went to speak with the _woman_ ( _Philistine_ not mentioned), who again brought pleasure to his eyes. When Samson later returned, he found that bees had made honey in the lion carcass. Although he ate some and shared it with his parents, he did not tell them from where it came.

Samson's father went to the _woman_ and held a customary feast for his son. The men of the town then brought thirty companions to stand beside him, which represents an alliance between the religious sect represented by Samson and a faction in Timnah. During the feast, Samson made a wager with the people to see if in seven days they could unveil the meaning of his riddle.

"Out of the eater came something to eat, And out of the strong came something sweet."

After three days, the Timnites could not answer Samson's challenge. Therefore, they went to Samson's wife and threatened the _house of her father_ (again, no mention of _Philistines_ ). Samson's wife then went and wept before him. She questioned his love for her because he had proposed a riddle to the _sons of her people_ , but had not shared the secret with her. Samson replied that he had not even told his parents, but then he disclosed the meaning to his wife, who ultimately revealed it to the Timnites. They answered Samson:

"What is sweeter than honey? And what is stronger than a lion?"

To which he replied:

"If you had not plowed with my heifer, You would not have found out my riddle."

He then went down to Askelon, a Philistine city, and killed thirty men to pay his wager. When the angered Samson returned to the house of his father, he found his wife was with his companion, who used to be his friend. Thirty Timnites stood as Samson's companions at his wedding feast, thus the story implies a sect of Timnites turned on the Edomites in southern Dan and most likely allied with the _Perez uprising_ in Judah.

After an author stated Samson's future wife was a daughter of the Philistines (verses 1 though 4), neither she nor her people are referred to as Philistines in the remainder of the chapter (albeit translators do add the label). Moreover, when Samson loses a bet to the _sons of his wife's people_ , he leaves Timnah and travels to a Philistine city, where he slaughters men to pay off the debt. Hence, he attacks the Philistines for the actions of his wife and the men of Timnah. The Judah-Philistine alliance obviously displaced the sect represented by Samson, but authors wrote segments of the layered story before an era in which almost all the blame for the conquest was placed upon the Philistines. Hence, Samson's wife was later changed from a _Timnite_ to a _daughter of the Philistines_. Judah and the Philistines had turned on the Danites and albeit in passages the antipathy toward the Philistines is displayed, authors also conveyed a betrayal by a camp of Timnites, who would become people of Judah.

In Judges 15, Samson returned to visit his wife, but _her_ father thought Samson hated her and thus he gave her to Samson's companion. The father then tried to give him the younger daughter in her stead. In the last chapter, Samson went to _his_ father's house and found his wife was with his companion, but the text did not state her father gave her away. Hence, it appears this segment is from a different version of the narrative. Nevertheless, the offer to give Samson the younger daughter could express an attempt to canvass him toward a new alliance.

After the interaction with the woman's father, Samson declared he would be blameless for his acts against the Philistines, even though the Timnite gave his wife away. He burned the Philistine grains fields, olive groves, and vineyards. When the Philistines asked who was responsible for the destruction, they were told it was Samson, the _son-in-law of the Timnite_. Hence, not only is the Philistine label for his wife and her people blatantly absent, the author portrayed them as foreigners to the Philistines. Furthermore, when the Philistines learned the _Timnite_ caused the rage of Samson, they burned the girl and her father to death, which clearly separates the two peoples. In Joshua 19:43, Timnah is a city of the Danites, thus the attack on the Timnite could reflect the seizure of the Danite territory. In Joshua 15:57, Timnah is a city of Judah, which displays the change of possession. Moreover, because the Philistines killed the woman and her father, who actually moved Samson to burn the Philistine fields, Samson told the Philistines he would be avenged, but then he would cease. He struck the Philistines with a great slaughter and then went to dwell in the cleft at the rock of Etam. Hence, Samson was avenged, but then he ceased because Judah and the Philistines eventually displaced the Danites. The move to the rock of Etam could imply a camp of Edomites escaped to their Simeonite relatives, as Etam is a village of Simeon in 1 Chronicles 4:32.

In their pursuit of Samson, the Philistines camped in Judah and spread out in Lehi. The men of Judah asked the Philistines why they had come over to their land, but when they learned the Philistines came for Samson, Judah decided to hand the Danite over to them. Interestingly, when the men of Judah approached Samson and told him of their intentions, he asked them to swear that they would not be the ones to harm him. The men of Judah swore they would not kill him, and then bound Samson with two ropes and went to deliver their prisoner. When Samson arrived to the Philistines at Lehi, the ropes fell off him as if they were burned with fire (sun). He grabbed a jawbone of a donkey and killed a thousand men. Samson judged _Israel_ for twenty years in the days of the Philistines.

When Samson asked the men of Judah to swear as to their true intentions, it subtly intimates and also veils the true events of the time. The Judah institution and the Philistines conquered and split the territory of southern Dan. Hence, the mere question to the men of Judah implies the contention between Judah and the Danites, as well as the known or reported events in the region. However, when the men of Judah swore not to kill him, the story contends the accounts had been misrepresented, which corresponds with the later consolidation efforts in Judah.

Judges 16 begins another layer of the Samson tradition. In the end of the last chapter, _he judged Israel for twenty years in the days of the Philistines_ , which is how the authors ended their stories on the reign of a judge.

Samson traveled to Gaza, where he went to bed with a harlot. When the Gazites heard that he was in their city, they surrounded the place and waited at the city gates to ambush him in the morning. However, at midnight Samson stole the city gates, placed them upon his shoulders, and carried them to the top of a mountain opposite Hebron. Hence, Samson displayed the gates of Gaza to the institution of Judah, which comes across as a declaration against the Judah-Philistine alliance.

Samson then fell in love with Delilah, who lived in the Sorek Valley. The Philistine lords asked Delilah to ascertain the source of Samson's strength. After learning his hair was that source, Delilah had it cut and then revealed his weakness to the Philistines. When Samson was vulnerable, the Philistines captured him, gouged out his eyes, and they took their prisoner to Gaza. However, his hair grew back in time and while the Philistines were displaying their prisoner in the temple of Dagon, Samson decided to die with them. He called out to Adonay Yahweh and pushed down two pillars. The building collapsed upon its occupants and killed more Philistines than when he was alive. His family buried him between Zorah and Eshtaol in the tomb of Manoah his father. He judged _Israel_ for twenty years.

In Judges 17, there was a man from the hills of Ephraim named Micah. Micah stole his mother's eleven hundred silver pieces, but when he heard his mother curse them, he returned the silver to her. With two hundred of the pieces, she had a goldsmith make a graven image and a molten image and it was in the household of Micah. Since the text states it was in the household of Micah, either the molten image or the graven image could be an interpolation.

In verses 1 through 4, the name Micah is found twice and both times the author spelled it _Mikayehu_ , which means, "who is like Yah". This segment either was an interpolation or sourced from a different tradition than the remainder of the Micah narrative, in which authors spelled the name _Mikah_. Scholars state the name Mikah is a contraction of Mikayehu. However, due to the fact this introduction was most likely a later written passage, I believe the name Mikah could be a variation of the name Mikael, which means, "who is like 'El".

Verse 5 begins a different version of the story. Micah (spelling change) owned a house of 'Elohim and he made an ephod and household idols. He consecrated one of his sons to be his priest. Then with verse 7, a Levite from Bethlehem of the family of Judah became a priest for Micah. Albeit a later interpolation, the verses are another example of the "J/I" move from Judah to Israel. In the next chapter, the priest is only referred to as a _Levite_ twice in interpolations that were probably written at the same time as verses 7 through 13. Finally, entering the next chapter, the ephod and household idols in this segment and the molten and graven images from the first four verses are all integrated into the story.

Judges 18 continues the narrative on Micah. As with the last chapter, there are obvious interpolations in the text, as well as passages that could merely be a product of ambiguous writing. The chapter begins during a time when there was not a king in _Israel_ and the Danites were looking for their inheritance. The text states they had not yet captured territory as the other _tribes of Israel_ , but in Joshua 19, they had settled the territory in southern Dan. The author may have been attempting to veil the fact they were forced out of their conveyed _inheritance_.

The Danites sent five men from Zorah and Eshtaol to find a land for their people to settle. When they arrived near the house of Micah, they recognized the voice of the young _Levite_. The Danite men asked him to inquire of 'Elohim if they would be prosperous on their endeavor, and the priest told them Yahweh was with them in their pursuits. This interpolated segment could convey author support for the Danite invasion, if not merely an attempt to maintain the integrity of the twelve tribes. After the favorable word from the deity, the men came to Laish, where they found the people living securely and quiet in the custom of the Sidonians. With all the invasions and battles that involved the Jehudaites and Israelites, this is the first time an author has portrayed the native inhabitants of a land in a good light. This author obviously did not support the Danite invasion.

The five men returned to their clans and told the people the land was spacious and the inhabitants were peaceful. Therefore, they should invade the city because 'Elohim had given them a land that did not leave a want for anything. The Danites then sent out six hundred men from Zorah and Eshtaol with weapons of war. On the way to Laish, the six hundred men camped in Kiriath-Jearim, which is why they called the place _Mahaneh-Dan_. However, in Judges 13:25, Samson was directed by Yahweh in Mahaneh-Dan. Hence, this camp was not a mere stop during their travels, but it represents an Edomite settlement in the region. This encampment conveys an additional migration out of the Gibeonite cities into northern Dan that probably occurred with the fall of the Kish or Saul institution. In 1 Chronicles 8:34, Saul has a grandson named Micah, which represents the northward move by a division of the house of Saul.

In route to Laish, the Danites came to the hills of Ephraim near Micah's house. The five men who had previously been there told their brothers there was an ephod, household idols, a graven image, and a molten image in the house. Thus, the Danites went to the home of the young _Levite_ and the house of Micah. With verse 16, the six hundred Danites stood at Micah's entrance gate while the five men took the carved image, the ephod, the household idols, and the molten image. At this time, the _priest_ stood at the gate with the six hundred warriors. Then with verse 18, _these men_ went into Micah's house and took the carved image, the ephod, the household idols, and the molten image. The Danites convinced the priest it would be better to preside over a tribe and a _family of Israel_ than merely the house of one man. This prospect pleased the heart of the priest, thus he took the ephod, the household idols, and the graven image, which reads as if the priest was the one who took the idols and images. Furthermore, in verse 27, the men took Micah's idols and his priest and went to Laish, which one could interpret as the priest was taken captive, as opposed to the account that he went willingly in verse 20. Moreover, for the first time, the molten image is missing when the priest took Micah's ephod and idols. If the original story only included the graven image, an author may have added the molten image to align with the later story of Jeroboam and his golden calves. Moving forward to verses 30 & 31, the Danites only raised the graven image in their new city. Hence, as conveyed, several of these referenced verses could merely be a product of ambiguous writing, but it is more likely the chapter consists of interwoven stories.

Micah went to retrieve his 'Elohim and the priest, but the Danites threatened his life and were able to turn him away. The Danites then marched against Laish, who again the author stated were a people quiet and secure, and they attacked the people and burned the city. In reference to Laish:

"there was no deliverer, because far it {was} from Sidon, they had no dealings with people, it was in the valley near Beth-Rehob."

After the Danites burned the city, they rebuilt it and named it Dan after their father who was born in _Israel_ , "but Laish was the name of the city formerly." However, the former name of the city is not new information, as at least one author referred to the place as _Laish_ throughout the story. Nevertheless, the Micah narrative comes to an illuminating ending.

"30. But raised for themselves the sons of Dan the graven image. And Jonathan, the son of Gershom, the son of Moses, he and his sons were priests for the tribe of the Danites until the day of the captivity of the land. 31. And they set up for themselves graven images Micah's, which he had made, all the days {that} was the house of 'Elohim in Shiloh."

One cannot be certain if this Jonathan is the priest or Levite who authors wrote about throughout the story, or if the entity is from a third tradition. However, an author unequivocally connected the priests to Moses. If the author was a proponent of the Danite institution, the _Moses_ reference is a sign of religious credulity and connects the priests to the deity's greatest prophet. If an antagonistic author wrote the verse, he included Moses to denigrate a sect of Levites. Certain Hebrew manuscripts read, "the son of Gershom, the son of Manasseh", which would still speak of a rogue Levitical sect. Moreover, due to the fact a graven image is raised in verse 30, Micah appears to have been mentioned as an afterthought in verse 31, in which the people worshiped Micah's graven image all the days the house of 'Elohim was in Shiloh. Hence, Micah may have been a later addition to the original tradition. Furthermore, the previous verse stated the descendants of Moses were priests for the Danites until the captivity of the land. Then one must inquire why the time reference has changed, since the house of Shiloh fell long before the northern exile. After the Judah coalition displaced the Shiloh religious institution, the new alliance centered its government in Benjamin, allied with Jeroboam in Israel, and Jeroboam instituted his golden calves in the cities of Dan and Bethel. The author could have intimated the new Jeroboam government replaced the idols and religion of Micah. An author may have depicted the same event when Jacob had his people discard their idols at the oak of Shechem and then leave the city for Bethel.

Judges 19 is an enigmatic text that leaves a good deal to translation. When the narrative arrives at these interesting points, I attempted to place forth all pertinent interpretations. The focal point of the story is peoples from the region of Benjamin, which brings to mind the myth of Sodom and Gomorrah.

The story begins during a period before there was a king in _Israel_ , which merely prepares the scene for the specious tradition of Saul, the _first king of Israel_. A Levite from the mountains of Ephraim took a concubine, a woman, or a wife from Bethlehem of Judah, which symbolizes an alliance. How one translates the label of the entity can have an impact on how one perceives the story; a concubine or mere woman would not carry the significance that a wife would (I have seen the verse translated as all three). However, in verse 2, the woman is referred to as a concubine and she committed harlotry against the man and left for the house of her father. The fact she committed an act of betrayal suggests the Bethlehem establishment severed its ties with the would-be Levites in Ephraim and aligned with another religious institution. The new ally of Bethlehem was a coalition out of Hebron, which is later displayed when David the Bethlehemite moves to power in the city.

After the woman was in Bethlehem for four months ( _arba: Hebron_ ), the man and his servant burdened a couple of donkeys and went to Bethlehem to bring her back to Ephraim. When the man, who has not been referred to as a Levite since verse 1, arrived at the house in Bethlehem, her father detained them for three days, during which they partook in feasts of food and drink. On the fourth day, the man and the woman arose to leave, but her father again detained them with food and drink and was able to persuade them to stay a fourth night. They arose on the fifth day and again her father attempted to detain them, but the man refused. This act of stalling could represent an attempt to canvass the man toward the new religious alliance. However, the attempt was all for naught, and the man and the woman departed from Bethlehem and came as far as Jebus, _that is Jerusalem_. His servant suggested they lodge in the city, but the man did not want to stay with _people not of Israel_ , which points to a time before a Judah-based institution conquered the city and named it _Jerusalem_. He instead suggested they lodge in Gibeah or Ramah. At sundown, they arrived in Gibeah of Benjamin, but they could not find lodging and they were forced to settle in the open city. Later that evening, a man from the mountains of Ephraim, who dwelt in Gibeah, came out from the fields to them, but the author stated the men who lived in the region were _sons of Jemini_. Numerous scholars translate the name as _Benjamites_ , _tribe of Benjamin_ , or even _sons of Belial_ , but this is not how the author wrote the verse. In an earlier verse, the text states Gibeah belonged to Benjamin, but here the people are _sons of Jemini_ , which connects the story to the house of Kish (1 Samuel 9:1).

The man from Gibeah asked the travelers from where they had come and to where they were headed. They told him they were from Bethlehem of Judah and as far as the mountains of Ephraim, but they were traveling from Bethlehem to the house of Yahweh. This verse also begets diverse translations, including a complete omission of the name Yahweh, a change to _house of 'Elohim_ , and presupposing they were traveling to Shiloh because in Joshua 18:1, the tent of the meeting is there. All the same, the man invited the travelers into his home, but the men of the town, sons of Belial ( _sons of worthlessness_ ), pounded on the door and asked for the traveler because they wanted to _know him_. The man of Gibeah would not submit his guest, but instead offered his virgin daughter and the man's concubine to appease their desires. These men took the concubine and had sex with her the entire night until she passed. The next morning, the man placed her dead body upon his donkey and returned to his home. Upon arriving in Ephraim, he cut her corpse into twelve pieces and sent them to the twelve tribes.

This death represents the demise of an Ephraim-Bethlehem coalition. Furthermore, the event transpired at a home in Gibeah, which was also the home of Saul, as well as the burial place of Eleazar. This chain of events brought upon the downfall of the Gibeonite religious institution. Finally, the assistance received from the man who dwelt in Gibeah could intimate support for the old coalition, and the _sons of Belial_ could represent the sect that defected to the Judah alliance.

Judges 20, which is clearly more than one story or layer, continues with the reaction to the abomination depicted in the last chapter. The _sons of Israel_ from Dan to Beersheba (a common term), as well as from the region of Gilead, gathered together as one before Yahweh at Mizpah. The _leaders of Israel_ assembled at 'Elohim's congregation and they armed four hundred thousand foot soldiers. The sons of Benjamin (not _sons of Jemini_ \- later authorship) heard the _sons of Israel_ had gathered in Mizpah and they readied for the encounter. When asked about the horrific act, the man, once again a Levite (later authorship), told the people what the citizens of Gibeah had done to his concubine. His story incited the people to stand as one against the city, which is clearly an attempt to maintain a unified _Israel nation_. The _tribes of Israel_ then sent word throughout Benjamin and asked the people to deliver the sons of Belial. However, the sons of Benjamin gathered for war instead. Benjamin's army numbered twenty-six thousand men from their cities, besides seven hundred from the inhabitants of Gibeah, who were chosen left-handed men. This statement is rather interesting. As the narrative moves forward, the Benjamites battle out of Gibeah, which is the institution the _people_ conquer, but then why separate the men of Gibeah from the other Benjamites? The _seven_ _hundred_ men could imply an _oath_ between a sect of Gibeonites and the faction rising out of Judah. Moreover, they were left-handed, i.e., from the north, and Gibeah was given to Phinehas, who was a Shiloh priest (from the north). Although the narrative displays Eleazar and Phinehas as father and son, the relation actually conveys a change of guard that transpired with this war.

In verse 18, the _sons of Israel_ inquired of 'Elohim at Bethel.

"Who will go up for us at the beginning of the battle with the sons of Benjamin? And said Yahweh, Judah at the beginning."

The people inquired of 'Elohim at Bethel, where they worshiped 'Elohim, and Yahweh answered the _sons of Judah_ , who worshiped Yahweh. The quote conveys the separate institutions and the deities they worshiped. Furthermore, the city change from Mizpah (verse 1) to Bethel (verse 18), the latter became an ally of the united monarchy, displays the succession of power for the cities of Israel. Moreover, it was known that a Judah-based institution conquered Benjamin and their territory, which is why Yahweh answered _Judah at the beginning_ , but later authors were consolidating when they portrayed a linear and unified history of these peoples, who were obviously constantly at war with each other. To render the Judah conquest compatible with later traditions, authors created the story that condemns the _sons of Belial_ (last chapter), has the deity send Judah against Benjamin (this chapter), and that re-unites Benjamin with the other tribes (next chapter).

The _sons of Israel_ camped against Gibeah to battle Benjamin. The men of Benjamin came out of the city and killed twenty-two thousand _men of Israel_. Therefore, the people inquired of Yahweh, who told them to assemble against Benjamin again. The _sons of Israel_ battled Benjamin on the second day and lost eighteen thousand men. Then all the people went to Bethel, wept before Yahweh, and submitted offerings. The chest of 'Elohim was in Bethel in those days, due to the addition of Phinehas to the story. _Phinehas, the son of Eleazar, the son of Aaron_ , stood before the chest and asked about the battle with Benjamin. Hence, the move against Benjamin failed until Judah allied with the Shiloh priests and a faction in Bethel, the latter may have been a later occurrence. In response to Phinehas' inquiry to the deity, Yahweh would deliver Benjamin into the _hands of Israel_. The army arranged an ambush at Gibeah on the third day, but the soldiers arrayed themselves as before. The sons of Benjamin were drawn away from the city, and then the men in ambush attacked and killed twenty-five thousand one hundred men of Benjamin.

With verse 36b, there is another version of the ambush. In this version, eighteen thousand men of Benjamin were killed and the remainder fled to the rock of Rimmon, where they stayed for four months. The _rock of Rimmon_ could represent a temple or cult of the deity Rimmon. Moreover, there was a Simeon village named after Rimmon (1 Chronicles 4:32), which may imply the author in part referred to Simeonites. Furthermore, in Joshua 19:45, there is a city in southern Dan (would-be Philistine territory) named Gath-Rimmon, and both the Edomites and the Simeonites had a presence in Benjamin. There were defectors from Benjamin who allied with the forces of Judah, and in the next chapter, the Benjamites at the rock of Rimmon become part of the Judah-Shiloh alliance.

Judges 21 completes the book of Judges and contains two different accounts of how the tribe of Benjamin was reunited with the other tribes. The authors wrote the following stories to veil the Judah-based coalition's conquest of Benjamin and to maintain the appearance of a united _Israel Nation_.

The _men of Israel_ had sworn an oath to Yahweh at Mizpah that they would not give their daughters to the men of Benjamin. The people then gathered at Bethel and sat before 'Elohim and wept. They asked Yahweh, the _'Elohim of Israel_ , why there was a tribe missing from their numbers. The next day the people built an altar and gave offerings to the deity. Due to the oath with Yahweh at Mizpah, the people were looking for an accepted manner in which to find wives for the remaining men of Benjamin. Hence, the text intimates male survivors who needed to marry or breed back into the twelve tribes. One could surmise all the women were killed, but actually, the new institution (and defectors) created new alliances, or in this story, had to find new wives, which are always alliances in the narratives. The people of Jabesh-Gilead had failed to appear at the assembly at Mizpah, which displays a lack of support for an old religious coalition. Therefore, the leaders sent warriors against them and killed every man, woman, and child. However, they spared every female who had not been with a male and found four hundred virgin wives for the sons of Benjamin. They brought them to the camp at Shiloh in the land of Canaan. The congregation then sent word to the sons of Benjamin at the rock of Rimmon and declared peace. The men from Benjamin returned to their inheritance and the leaders gave them the virgins from Jabesh-Gilead for wives. Since a portion of the people, who are represented as female virgins, married the survivors from Benjamin, i.e., joined the new institution, it conveys an alliance between a sect in Jabesh-Gilead and the new Judah establishment in Benjamin, which included a sect of Shiloh priests. It is not a coincidence the virgins of Jabesh-Gilead were brought to the camp at Shiloh.

With verse 14b, a short interpolation connects the independent traditions. The verse states there were not enough women for the men of Benjamin, and then another version of the reintegration begins. The people were upset for Benjamin because Yahweh, i.e., Judah, had caused a breach in the _twelve tribes of Israel_. As in the previous segment, the men of Benjamin needed wives, but the remaining tribes were not to give them their daughters. However, there was an annual feast for Yahweh at Shiloh, which was on the north side of Bethel, east of the road to Shechem, and to the south of the city of Lebonah (in Ephraim). Interestingly, the text reads as if Shiloh was not a part of the peoples and the readers or listeners would not even know the location of the city. While the festival was transpiring, the sons of Benjamin were to hide in the vineyards and kidnap the daughters of Shiloh. Then they were to take them for wives in the land of Benjamin, where the Shiloh priests would preside over the new government. However, since the men were to _abduct the daughters of Shiloh_ , only a division of the priests joined the Judah alliance. Furthermore, the author attempted to conceal the fact the city was an outside entity, hence, the men of Shiloh would not be guilty when their daughters married the sons of Benjamin because they were not submitted voluntarily. The sons of Benjamin and their wives returned to their land and the men rebuilt their cities, i.e., the new institution began its reign. The chapter ends with an interpolation that once again prepares the scene for the story of King Saul, "in those days, there was not a king in Israel."

Table of Contents

On the Book of Ruth

The book of Ruth begins in the days of judges when there was a famine in the land. A man and his wife gathered their two sons and left Bethlehem to live in the fields of Moab. His name was Elimelech, which means, "'El the king" (generic name like _Abimelech_ ), and her name was Naomi, which is a variation of the name Naaman, a Benjamite in 1 Chronicles 8:7.

"And they exiled them to Manahath. 7. And Naaman and Ahiah, and Gera, he exiled them. And fathered Uzza and Ahihud. 8. And Shaharaim fathered {children}in the field of Moab."

Naaman and his brothers were exiled to Moab, which refers to the same chain of events as this story of Ruth. A religious institution in Bethlehem, which is represented by _Elimelech_ , allied itself with one out of Benjamin, which is conveyed by his marriage to _Naomi_. As with the same coalition discussed in Judges 19, the author tacitly expressed this alliance was waning when he revealed the names of the couple's two sons, i.e., the future of the movement. Their names were Mahlon, which means, "sickness", and Chilion, which means, "consumption" or "failure".

After Elimelech passed away, the two sons married Moabite women named Orpah and Ruth. The name _Ruth_ means, "neighbor", which refers to the Moabite allies of Judah. Scholars surmise the name _Orpah_ was derived from _oreph_ , which authors in part used to denote _stiff-necked_ or _stubborn_. Although stories refer to the rebellious people who traveled out of Egypt as stiff-necked, the name Orpah is intentionally similar to the name _Ophrah_ , which was the home of Gideon in west Manasseh (Judges 6:11).

The two sons eventually passed away, which left Naomi alone with her daughter-in-laws. Naomi decided to return to Bethlehem, thus the three women left on the road that went to Judah. However, Naomi then instructed the women to return home to find themselves husbands and secure their future. Orpah kissed Naomi goodby, but Ruth clung to her mother-in-law and the two left for Bethlehem. Since Orpah remained in Moab, she could represent a camp that migrated across the Jordan and settled west Manasseh as part of the Ophrah religious institution. After Abimelech slaughtered _his brothers_ , the survivors, who an author represented as _Jotham_ , fled east to Beer in the land of Moab (Judges 9:21). Hence, _Orpah_ lived in the land of Moab.

When the two arrived in Bethlehem and the people recognized Naomi, she asked them to call her Mara, for Shaday had dealt with her in bitterness. She left the area full, but Yahweh brought her back empty. Yahweh passed judgment against her and Shaday had afflicted her. This segment is from a later layer of the narrative. The author changed _'El Shaday_ to _Yahweh_ and _Shaday_ , thus the Shiloh priests had allied with the Judah institution. In addition, the name _Mara_ could connect this camp to the _sons of Merari_ , as both names are related and mean, "bitter". However, the time frames of the events in these stories are quite convoluted because authors depicted multiple events from different eras in one narrative. Nevertheless, the origins of the Ruth story (from ancient records) arose from a sect that migrated to and coalesced with people in Moab, and then later returned to Bethlehem with Moabite blood. The sect later allied with the hierarchy in Hebron. Authors represented these events in the David narratives. However, this later version of the story was a two-fold endeavor. The author conveyed the Moabite element within Judah, while subtly revealing the events of Judges 19 & 20, i.e., the conquest by the Judah-Shiloh alliance.

With verse 22, the original story resumes. Naomi and Ruth returned from Moab and came to Bethlehem at the time of harvest. In verse 19, they had already arrived in Bethlehem, which unveils the three-verse interpolation that began at that point.

Elimelech had a relative named Boaz, which was a name on a pillar of the Jerusalem temple (1 Kings 7:21). The figure of _Boaz_ symbolizes the achievement of a Jerusalem monarchy. Boaz ultimately redeemed Ruth; however, he gave the _family redeemer_ the first chance, who relinquished his right to the girl and Elimelech's property, i.e., the Bethlehem establishment. With verse 9 in chapter 4, there is an obvious testimony in reply to unknown accusations.

"9. Witnesses You {are} today that I have bought all that {belonged} to Elimelech, and all that {belonged} to Chilion and Mahlon, from the hand of Naomi. 10. And also Ruth, the Moabitess, the wife of Mahlon, I have bought for myself for a wife to raise up the name of the dead {man} upon his inheritance. And not will be cut off the name of the dead {man} from among his brothers, and from the gate of his place."

The death of Elimelech represents a change in the Bethlehem power structure. However, the new government that spawned from Ruth the Moabitess and Boaz, who was family to Elimelech, i.e., part of the old hierarchy, aligned with leadership in Hebron and later ascended to power over a Jerusalem monarchy. Therefore, the people of Bethlehem were not cut off from their brothers and they became part of the new religious kingdom.

After the two were married, Ruth gave birth to Obed, the father of Jesse, the father of David. The book of Ruth moves toward an end with the generations of Perez.

"Perez fathered Hezron, 19. and Hezron fathered Ram, and Ram fathered Amminadab, 20. and Amminadab fathered Nahshon, and Nahshon fathered Salmon, 21. and Salmon fathered Boaz, and Boaz fathered Obed, 22. And Obed fathered Jesse, and Jesse fathered David."

The above genealogy moves from the beginning of this Judah coalition to the era of the kings.

Table of Contents

On the First Book of Samuel

1 Samuel 1 begins with a man from Ramathaim-Zophim in the hill country of Ephraim. His name was Elkanah, the son of Jeroham, the son of Elihu, the son of Tohu, the son of Zuph, an Ephrathite. _Ephrath_ was another name for Bethlehem (Gen. 48:7), thus the verse expresses a move from Bethlehem to Ephraim (Elkanah was from Ephraim, but his great... grandfather was an Ephrathite). In Exodus 6:24, Elkanah is a son of Korah, i.e., a group of would-be Levites who were exiled out of Judah. Hence, the passage not only displays a Levitical move from Judah to Israel, it portrays a Levitical amalgamation in the house of Joseph.

Elkanah had two wives named Hannah (means favored), who was barren, and Peninnah, who may represent the city of Peniel. Hence, the story could again convey the division of religious sects on opposite sides of the Jordan. Once a year Elkanah left his home to worship and sacrifice to Yahweh of Armies at Shiloh, where the two sons of Eli, Hophni and Phinehas, were the reigning priests of the deity. The name _Eli_ means, "lofty", i.e., high priest, and an author features his two sons in the next chapter. When Elkanah sacrificed, he gave portions to Peninnah and her children, but double portions to Hannah. Elkanah's _favor_ toward Hannah moved Peninnah to mock her because she was barren. Hannah was greatly distressed and she prayed to Yahweh for a son. If he answered her prayer, she would devote her son to the deity. Eli was sitting by the doorpost of Yahweh's temple (usually translated as _tabernacle_ ), but when he perceived Hannah's silent prayer, he thought she had consumed too much wine. When he learned of her plight, he gave Hannah his blessing that the _'Elohim of Israel_ would grant her petition. Elkanah and Hannah returned to their home in Ramah, where Hannah later gave birth to a child she named _Samuel_. When he was old enough, Hannah brought him to Eli at the temple in Shiloh and dedicated him to Yahweh.

Most scholars believe the name _Samuel_ means, "heard of 'El". In Numbers 34:20, there is a Simeonite leader named Samuel, and the name Simeon means, "hearing". In verse 13, Hannah prayed to the deity and her lips moved, but her voice could not be _heard_. Moreover, Samuel received his name because his mother _asked_ the deity for a child, which is the meaning of the name _Saul_ , and Simeon has a son named Saul in Genesis 46:10. Although the name Samuel most likely had a different origin or meaning, there are intentional connections to the name Simeon to subtly display the Simeonite migration from Judah to Ramah of Israel. There was a Ramah of the south in Simeon territory (Joshua 19:8), and a camp of Simeonites migrated to Ramah of the north, which explains the use of Ramathaim-Zophim ( _dual Ramah watchers_ ), which is a one time occurrence in the narratives. In addition, a sect of Simeonites became Levites, and Korah _the Levite_ was the father of Elkanah, the father of Samuel.

1 Samuel 2 begins with the _Song of Hannah_. Albeit a Levitical author wrote the previous chapter, a Shiloh author wrote this song in a familiar style with rock metaphors and multiple names for the deity. Yahweh was praised and bold against her enemies. There were none as holy as Yahweh, _no rock_ like her 'Elohim. Yahweh was an 'El of knowledge and the bows of the mighty were shattered. Yahweh would judge to the ends of the earth and give strength to his king.

Beginning with verse 12, an author denigrated Hophni and Phinehas. Hophni is a new character within the narratives, but I have covered Phinehas, the _grandson of Aaron_ , rather extensively. Entering the story, the sons of Eli were worthless and did not know Yahweh. They were stealing portions of the sacrifices and dishonestly dealing with the people at the Shiloh temple. This statement is a direct denigration of the Shiloh priests who later joined the Judah-based institution. The name _Hophni_ is a grammatical variation of the word _chaapuwy_ , which means, "to cover" or "veil". However, I have also read those who surmise the name was derived from _chopen_ , which can denote _handfuls_ ; in either instance, the text implies sleight of hand or thievery. _Hophni_ does not represent a person, but the author stated the renowned priest Phinehas, or the religious sect headed by Phinehas, was secretly sweetening his or their share.

Samuel began ministering before Yahweh. During this time, Eli blessed Elkanah and his wife and Yahweh gave them three sons and two daughters. The support for Samuel and his parents displayed by Eli, as well as texts on Hannah by both Levitical and Shiloh authors, displays an early but impermanent alliance between a sect in Ramah and the Shiloh religious institution.

When Eli heard the deplorable news about his sons, he admonished them to no avail, "for desired Yahweh to put them to death", which is not a subtle statement. During the conflict between Eli and his sons, Samuel grew in stature and received support from both Yahweh and men. Samuel, or a division of the Simeonite Levites, and the Shiloh priests would part ways. The chapter moves to an end and unequivocally predicts the destiny of the priesthood.

"30. Therefore, says Yahweh 'Elohim Israel, Indeed I said, Your household and the household of your forefather, should walk before Me until forever. But now, says Yahweh, far be it to Me! For those who honor Me, I will honor. And despising Me will be light. 31. Look, days come when I will cut off your arm, and the arm of the household of your forefather, that will be no old man in your house. 32. And you will see a foe {in My} habitation, in all that he does good with Israel. And not there will be an old man in your household all the days. 33. And the man not I will cut off of yours from My altar {will be} to cause to fail your eyes and to grieve your soul, and all the increase of your household will die {young} men. 34. And this to you the sign that which will come upon two your sons, on Hophni and Phinehas. In day one will die both of them. 35. And I will raise up for Myself a priest faithful. as in My heart and in My soul He will do. And I will build for him a house sure. And he will walk before My anointed all the days. 36. And it will be that everyone left in your household will come to bow to him for a wage of silver and a loaf of bread. And will say, admit me, Please, into one of the priest's offices, to eat a bit of bread."

In 1 Samuel 3, Samuel was serving Yahweh before Eli in Shiloh. In those days, the visions were seldom and the word of Yahweh was rare, as it has been throughout the narratives. However, if the word was rare and visions were infrequent, it extremely elevated the importance and supreme word of Samuel.

Samuel was sleeping in the temple of Yahweh where the chest of 'Elohim resided ( _temple_ usually translated as _tabernacle_ ). Yahweh appeared to Samuel and told him the house of Eli would atone for the sins of his sons forever. Samuel conveyed these words to Eli, who replied Yahweh would carry out what was good in his eyes. The religious torch, according to this author, had been passed. The deity was with Samuel and _all of Israel_ , from Dan to Beersheba, recognized him as a prophet of Yahweh.

1 Samuel 4 begins with a battle against the Philistines, who were fighting Israel as allies of a faction in Judah. Israel camped beside Ebenezer ( _stone of help_ ) and the Philistines camped in Aphek. The Philistines defeated Israel in the first encounter, thus Israel took the _chest of Yahweh_ of Armies into battle. In verse 4, the sons of Eli were with the _chest of 'Elohim_ , which displays interwoven stories. When the chest came into the Israel camp, the people erupted in cheers, which caused the Philistines to ask about the great clamor in the camp of the _Hebrews_. In the second battle, the Philistines were again victorious and killed thirty thousand soldiers. Moreover, Hophni and Phinehas were killed and the chest of 'Elohim was captured. In reality, Judah and the Philistines captured the chest and a division of the Shiloh institution had joined the forces of Judah. A man from Benjamin ran to Shiloh and informed Eli what had transpired. When he revealed the chest of 'Elohim had been captured, Eli, or the Shiloh religious institution, suddenly died. Eli judged Israel for forty years. It is not a coincidence that a man from Benjamin would pass the news to Eli about his sons and the chest, because the Shiloh priests and the chest would ultimately reside in Benjamin.

The chapter moves to an end with the wife of Phinehas in labor. After she heard the news about her husband and the chest of 'Elohim, she gave birth to a child she named Ichabod, which means, "inglorious", which is not a subtle condemnation of the descendants of Phinehas.

The intriguing and somewhat confusing aspect of this battle is besides the death of Eli and his sons and the capture of the chest, the narrative does not reveal the fate of Shiloh. There was a temple in Shiloh, but after this battle, the city of Shiloh becomes almost silent for the remainder of the narratives. In 1 Kings 14:2, Jeroboam instructs his wife to disguise herself and travel to Shiloh because the prophet Ahijah was there. However, the figure could merely represent a sect of Shiloh priests that did not join the Judah alliance. The Shiloh priests obviously survived, but does this imply the city survived? Psalms 78:60 speaks of an angered Yahweh who left his dwelling place at Shiloh. Does the verse imply the city still existed, but in ruins, or at best a mere shadow of its once greatness? When Judah and the Philistines captured the chest and the deity left the city, religious prominence shifted to Benjamin. At this time, leaders centralized the Yahweh government over the short-lived united monarchy, hence, the death of Shiloh, regardless if this represents the complete destruction of the city, or merely the end of its power and prominence.

1 Samuel 5 was a necessary story that explains how the enemy could have captured the chest of 'Elohim, when later it was in _Israel's_ possession. To remedy this dichotomy, authors created a story in which misfortunes befell upon the Philistines when the chest was in their possession. After the Philistines captured the chest of 'Elohim, they brought it from Ebenezer to Ashdod, and then into the house of Dagon, where the idol of Dagon kept falling to the ground. Yahweh continued to plague the Philistines until they decided to bring the chest to Gath. Yahweh also plagued Gath and the same went for Ekron. 'Elohim brought a great wrath upon the Philistines until they decided to return the chest to _Israel_.

1 Samuel 6 has the chest in Philistia for _seven_ months, which could intimate the _oath_ between Judah and the Philistines. The Philistines prepared a cart to return the chest and carry a box for a guilt offering. Two cows pulled the cart toward Beth-Shemesh, or the _house of the sun_ , and it later arrived at the field of Joshua, the Beth-Shemite, which associates the house of the sun with the son of a solar deity. Interestingly, this story is the only instance in the narratives in which an author referred to Joshua as a _Beth-Shemite_. The Levites took down the chest and the box with the guilt offerings and they placed them upon the stone of Abel. They were still there in the field of Joshua, the Beth-Shemite, at the time of authorship.

In verses 19 though 21, which appear to be a continuation from another version of the story, [not stated] struck down a number of the men from Beth-Shemesh for looking into the chest of Yahweh. The people mourned because of this great slaughter, thus they sent messengers to the men of Kiriath-Jearim and asked them to take the chest to their city. The slaying at Beth-Shemesh could symbolize the downfall of an early cult and temple of the sun in Judah, which was associated with Joshua. This sect was exiled out of Judah and later represented in the Joshua invasions from across the Jordan. Therefore, Joshua was no longer a _Beth-Shemite_. As far as the chest of the deity, religious prominence would follow the sons of Aaron and the Judah alliance to Benjamin.

In 1 Samuel 7, the men of Kiriath-Jearim brought the chest to the house of Abinadab ( _father of Nadab_ ) and his son Eleazar was sanctified to host it. In Exodus 6:23, Aaron married Elisheba, the daughter of Amminadab ( _people of Nadab_ ), and one of their sons was _Eleazar_ , which refers to the same religious institution. Kiriath-Jearim was a Gibeonite city (Joshua 9:17), and in 1 Chronicles 23:21, Kish and Eleazar are brothers. Therefore, after the Judah alliance captured the chest, and after the same alliance conquered the Kish institution in Gibeon, the Judah establishment ascended to power in Gibeon and its territories. Eleazar could represent the defectors from the Kish institution in Gibeon (possibly Jonathan from the Saul Narrative), thus he became the father of Phinehas. However, as stated, authors could have created the father-son relation in a mode of consolidation. The faction of Kish and Eleazar the priest, or Saul and Jonathan the priest (who defects to David, but is killed), first came to power in the Gibeonite cities, but the forces behind Solomon and the sons of Aaron later conquered the Gibeon kingdom, which is why Eleazar died in Gibeah and the city was given to Phinehas.

In a standard Levitical passage, if the people return to Yahweh with all their hearts and turn away from foreign 'Elohim and the Ashtaroth, Yahweh would deliver them from the Philistines. Thus, the _sons of Israel_ removed the Baalim and the Ashtaroth from the land and served Yahweh exclusively. However, the _Israelites_ were never a monotheistic people who worshiped one deity, but later authors portrayed a different reality to obtain obeisance and control of the people.

The Philistines and Israel prepared for battle again. Samuel submitted an offering to Yahweh, who created a great thunder and confused the Philistines. The men of Israel came out of Mizpah and struck the Philistines as far as Beth-Car. Samuel then placed a stone between Mizpah and Shen and the people called it _Ebenezer_. In 1 Samuel 4, the _sons of Israel_ camped at Ebenezer and were subsequently defeated by the Philistines. This battle and defeat of the Philistines probably never took place, but was merely a display of the benefits of obeying Yahweh, as well as to glorify Samuel. Hence, the author stated the hand of Yahweh was against the Philistines all the days of Samuel and the cities the Philistines had captured were restored to Israel. The Philistines were subdued and did not enter the border of Israel again, but they do in a few chapters.

In an interesting verse 14b, there was peace between _Israel_ and the Amorites. The authors placed forth various contradictory texts regarding the Amorites, which range from complete extermination (including women and children) to Abram's covenant with them. An author wrote this verse during an era when there was peace between the two peoples.

The chapter moves to an end and Samuel judged Israel his entire life. He had an annual circuit that went from Bethel to Gilgal and Mizpah, and then he would return to his home in Ramah, where he built an altar. One cannot help but notice that Shiloh is conspicuously absent from his circuit, which could imply the destruction of the city. However, it is more probable that Samuel was not a part of the original Shiloh tradition. His father Elkanah was from Ramah, and Elkanah and his wife only visited the temple in Shiloh. In addition, since Elkanah is a son of Korah in Exodus 6:24 and Samuel is a Simeonite in Numbers 34:20, these peoples were or would become Levites. Having Samuel serve under Eli was not only a means of consolidation, it conveyed the temporary alliance between a sect of Levites and the Shiloh priests, which was an affiliation that may have begun across the Jordan (also displayed by the relation of Aaron and Miriam).

1 Samuel 8 begins with a few informative verses. Samuel was old and his sons Joel and Abijah judged in Beersheba. The name _Joel_ means, "Yah is 'El", and the name _Abijah_ means, "father of Yah", i.e., priest. This story is not about Samuel's sons, it blatantly refers to the priests of Yahweh and intimates the beginning of the Yahweh era. Moreover, the Samuel traditions were from Israel, but Beersheba and his sons were in southern Judah and one must wonder why the scene has changed. Yahweh worship began in Judah, which the text implies, but the story may also reveal the fate of the Simeonites in the south.

"1. And it was, when was old Samuel, that he made his sons judges over Israel. 2. And was the name of his son firstborn Joel, and the name of his second Abijah, judges in Beer-sheba. And not 3. did walk his sons in his ways, but turned aside after dishonest gain, and took a bribe, and perverted judgment."

However, who was actually presiding in Beersheba is difficult to discern. As previously covered, Beersheba was a Simeonite city until a new Judah institution appropriated their territory. I have associated Samuel and the Simeonites, not only via the meaning of their names and the Ramah connection, but also because Simeon had a descendant named Samuel. Hence, a division of the priests in Beersheba may have allied with the new Judah establishment, which would explain the accusation of dishonest gains and bribes. If the priests who allied with the Yahweh institution were part of a younger or new religious sect, it would explain why they were the _sons of Samuel_ , i.e., the _descendants_ of the older Simeonite sect that in part migrated to Ramah. It is obvious this author was not supportive of this religious institution in Beersheba, which may have forced the Hagarites and Ishmaelites out of Judah and a camp of Simeonites into Israel.

Probing a little deeper into Samuel's son Joel, or _Yah is 'El_ , the name originated within a Judah cult that converted to Yahweh worship and consolidated with the priests of 'El. Authors used the label to either represent the new consolidated cult or the leaders of the religious movement. Not only is _Joel_ the name of Samuel's firstborn, a priest in Beersheba, the name leads off the descendants of Reuben across the Jordan in 1 Chronicles 5:4 (after the sons that represent entities in Judah), and is listed as one of David's heroes in 1 Chronicles 11:38. In addition, a Joel was a leader of the house of Simeon (1 Chronicles 4:35), and chiefs of Gad (1 Chronicles 5:12), Issachar (1 Chronicles 7:3), and Manasseh (1 Chronicles 27:20) were named Joel. Hence, the beginning of this movement included a faction that ascended to power in Judah (David), Simeonite defectors who joined the new establishment, leadership in Issachar- a tribe portrayed as a _son of Leah_ in Genesis 30:18 and that camped with Judah in Numbers 2:5, a faction in Manasseh (west)- from where in 1 Chronicles 12:19 defectors joined David and the Philistines in the war against Saul, and finally Gad and Reuben across the Jordan, which could represent their addition to the dominion of the new kingdom.

The author used the sons of Samuel to achieve another objective. The _elders of Israel_ came to Samuel at Ramah. He was late in his years and his sons were corrupt, thus they wanted a king to judge over them like the other nations. Since Beersheba was in southern Judah and Ramah was in the hills of Ephraim, the people of the latter would have little care of what was transpiring in the remote south. This story appears senseless, unless the author merely used the corrupt sons of Samuel to make it appear the people then wanted a king. Jerubbaal and Abimelech were kings, and there were certainly kings elsewhere, as the one referenced in the _Song of Hannah_. What the author indicated with this request for a king is a move toward the united monarchy. When an aspiring kingdom arose out of Judah, the centralization of power and prominence were soon to follow. The support for the sons of Kohath ( _sons of alliance_ ) was well intact and other religious sects were surely eliminated. In addition, the united monarchy was short-lived and when the unified kingdom split, the institution that gained control in Israel did not support a sect of Levites (or would-be), and definitely not other priests whose voices are not heard in the narratives. The unified kingdom, the move toward represented by this request for a king, was the beginning of the downfall of many religious sects, including that of this author, which is why the request displeased Samuel. Samuel prayed to Yahweh, who told him the people had not rejected Samuel, but had rejected him from being their king. Like the people had done since Yahweh brought them out of Egypt, they had forsaken him and worshiped other 'Elohim. Samuel warned the people that a king would place their sons in his army, he would appoint commanders to make his weapons, he would force people to be his servants, he would seize a portion of their vineyards and olive groves, and he would appropriate a portion of their flocks. In essence, a king and the government would want to control and collect everything that was already in the hands of the priests and religious cults. Authors display this power struggle between the priests and the state throughout the remainder of the narratives.

1 Samuel 9 moves the narrative to Saul, the son of Kish, a mighty man of Benjamin. In 1 Chronicles 23 verses 21 & 22, Kish is a descendant of Merari (the _Levite_ ) and the brother of Eleazar, who only had daughters and who the sons of Kish married, which represents the consolidation of religious cults in Gibeon. However, in 1 Chronicles 23, Kish and Eleazar are sons of Mahli ( _sickness_ ), i.e., a movement destined for failure. These cited verses are from a time before or separate from the tradition of Aaron, the father of Eleazar, the father of Phinehas, i.e., before authors consolidated the successions of the _Israelite_ establishments.

In 1 Chronicles 9, the genealogy of Kish reads:

"35 In Gibeon Jeiel the father of Gibeon lived, and his wife's name was Maacah, 36 and his firstborn son [was] Abdon, then Zur, Kish, Baal, Ner, Nadab, 37 Gedor, Ahio, Zechariah and Mikloth. 38 Mikloth fathered Shimeam. And they lived before their brothers in Jerusalem with their brothers. 39 Ner fathered Kish, and Kish fathered Saul."

Kish the Gibeonite refers to the same entity as Kish the Levite. They settled _before their brothers in Jerusalem_ because peoples from the region of Judah, hence, brothers, settled both religious cities. However, if the Gibeon and Jerusalem factions were allied at this time is difficult to discern. In 1 Chronicles 24:29, Kish the Levite is the father of Jerahmeel, who in 1 Chronicles 2:42 is a brother of Caleb, who settled Hebron. Moreover, Kiriath-Jearim is a descendant of Caleb in 1 Chronicles 2. The Kish/Saul institution in Gibeon/Gibeah was at least in part settled by peoples (including Edomites) who migrated north from Hebron.

Returning to this current chapter, in at least his third genealogy, Kish was the son of Abiel, the son of Zeror, the son of Becorath, the son of Aphiah, the son of a _man of Jemini_. A man of Jemini was from the south, which confirms the southern origin of Kish. In addition, an author referred to the people from the region of Benjamin as _sons of Jemini_ in Judges 19:16, which is part of a three chapter story that indirectly portrays the downfall of the Kish/Saul institution.

There are definitely two traditions within the Saul narrative. In an earlier tradition, the authors mostly praised him, but in other texts, authors moved some denigration toward the figure.

A number of Kish's donkeys were missing, thus he sent Saul and a servant out to find them. Saul passed through the hill country of Ephraim, Shalishah, Shaalim, and Benjamin, but had no success in finding them. When they arrived in Zuph (ancestor of Elkanah), Saul suggested they turn back. However, his servant knew of a man of 'Elohim, for which he had a fourth of a shekel of silver for his assistance. In those days, when a person wanted to inquire of 'Elohim, they went to a _seer_ , who the people later referred to as _prophets_. Saul and his servant traveled a slope toward the city and came upon a woman who told them the seer was ahead of them, but they were to hurry because the people were sacrificing at the high place and could not eat until the seer blessed the sacrifice. The day before Yahweh had told Samuel he would encounter a man from Benjamin and he was to anoint the man as ruler over the people. Saul continued toward the high place and stopped to ask a man if he knew the whereabouts of the seer, to which Samuel answered he was the seer, and not to worry, because the donkeys had been found.

The Saul narrative continues in 1 Samuel 10. Samuel anointed Saul with oil per the word of Yahweh. He then informed Saul that when he left for his home, he would find two men at Rachel's grave, who would tell him the donkeys had been found, but his father was still concerned. From there he would arrive at the oak of Tabor and meet three men on their way to 'Elohim at Bethel. One of these men would have three goats, a second loaves of bread, and the third a skin of wine, of which he would accept two loaves of bread. Finally, he would arrive at the hill of 'Elohim where the Philistines had a garrison. He would meet a group of prophets coming down from the high place and the spirit of Yahweh would then transform him into a different person. At that point, he was to do whatever was required, because 'Elohim would be with him.

An author used verse 8 to establish an event in which Saul would disobey the deity and inevitably lose the kingdom to the forces rising out of Judah.

"8. And you will go before me {to} Gilgal. And listen, I will come down to you to offer burnt-offerings, to sacrifice offerings of peace. Seven days you will wait until I come to you and make known to you what you will do."

Although a Judah coalition overthrew the Gibeon institution, this is not what later consolidation authors wanted to portray. The authors who created the unified _history of Israel_ were forced to deal with contradictory traditions that came from both sides of the battle. Therefore, when the Judah alliance conquered the Shiloh institution, authors conveyed the battles as Philistine attacks. To explain the Judah conquest of Saul in Benjamin, the authors again made use of the Philistines, but also portrayed an internal battle in which the deity chose David over Saul. Verse 8 was a vehicle used by one of these authors.

'Elohim changed the heart of Saul when he arrived in Gibeah, thus he prophesied with a group of prophets. The people who witnessed this event asked if Saul was also one of the prophets, to which a man asked of the other prophets' fathers, which distinctly displays the prominence and tradition of Kish.

Samuel summoned the people to Yahweh at Mizpah. They were to present themselves before him by clans and he would reveal their new leader. Out of the twelve tribes, Samuel selected the tribe of Benjamin. This is not an insignificant selection, as Samuel judged in Bethel, Gilgal, Mizpah, and his home of Ramah. The story has conveyed a change in the seat of power, which is another reason why Samuel was not pleased with the new kingship. After Benjamin was selected, the Matrite clan was selected, and finally, Saul the son of Kish was selected. At first, the people did not see him, but when he came into view, Saul stood taller than all of the people, who shouted, "Long live the king!" Samuel wrote the rights of the kingship on a scroll and then sent the people to their homes. Saul also went to his home in Gibeah and those men whose hearts 'Elohim had touched went with him.

In verse 21, the author referred to Kish as a _Matrite_. A Matrite was an inhabitant of Matred. In Genesis 36:39, in a list of Edomite kings, Hadad reigned and his wife was Mehetabel, the daughter of Matred, which again connects Kish to the Edomites.

1 Samuel 11 begins with some intrigue. Nahash the Ammonite attacked Jabesh-Gilead. However, all the men, women, and children of Jabesh-Gilead, excluding virgins, were killed in Judges 21:11. Irrespective of the time-line, the men of Jabesh-Gilead wanted to make a covenant with the Ammonites (allies of Judah) to preclude an attack, but Nahash only agreed if he could gouge out the right eye of everyone in _Israel_. The word used to denote _right_ is _jamin_ , as in _sons of the south_. There were southern peoples ( _Kish_ / _Saul_ ) in Gibeon, and the Ammonites had contention with southern camps over lands east of the Jordan. The elders of Jabesh-Gilead wanted _seven_ days, or an _oath_ , to see if anyone would save them, if not, they would surrender to the Ammonites. If a camp from Jabesh-Gilead allied with the Ammonites and a Judah coalition, it would explain their division in Judges 21. Those of Jabesh-Gilead who sided with the Judah alliance were represented by the spared virgins given to the men of Benjamin (the new coalition). Those who sided with Saul were eliminated with the old government.

Saul was plowing in the fields with his oxen, but when he heard the conditions of Nahash, the spirit of 'Elohim excited him to cut the oxen in pieces and send them throughout _Israel_. Whoever did not join his call would suffer the same fate. The fear of Yahweh fell upon the people and they united. Saul counted the men at Bezek, who numbered three hundred thousand men from Israel and thirty thousand from Judah. They slaughtered the Ammonites to the point where one could not find two together. The Ammonites were a significant ally of Judah and had a long history in Palestine, thus the author could not exaggerate and convey a complete extermination of them.

1 Samuel 12 contains a speech by Samuel. He addressed the people and told them he had listened to their request and placed a king over them. He was growing old, but his sons were there with the people. In chapter 8, the sons of Samuel were in Beersheba, not to mention they were corrupt. If the two chapters were from the same tradition, Samuel would not have told the people his sons were there with them, because it implies succession. Then Samuel stated the people should bring charges before Yahweh if he had taken a donkey, ox, or a bribe from anyone. In essence, the author called out the people who did not support his religious sect. Later in the narratives, authors blamed misfortunes on the people because they _asked_ Samuel for a king. Samuel then recapitulated the individuals who Yahweh had sent to deliver _Israel_. However, the masses did an evil thing and requested a king rule over them when Yahweh, their 'Elohim, was their king. If the people disobeyed and rebelled against Yahweh, both they and their king would be swept away.

1 Samuel 13 continues the reign of King Saul and introduces Jonathan into the narrative. In forthcoming texts, Jonathan is the son of Saul, but here the author failed to mention the relation, which could imply it was a later creation.

Saul chose three thousand men of Israel to be his guard. Two thousand were with Saul at Michmash and in the hill country of Bethel and one thousand were with Jonathan at _Gibeah_. He sent the remaining troops to their homes. Jonathan attacked the Philistine garrison at _Geba_ , which induced the Philistines to assemble for battle. The troops gathered to Saul at Gilgal, but they soon went into hiding, while numerous Hebrews fled across the Jordan to the lands of Gad and Gilead. Due to the fact the Hebrews entered Israel from that region, the verse could convey an escape to their former settlements, or it could represent an initial expulsion out of Benjamin. During this chaos, Saul remained at Gilgal as Samuel had instructed in 1 Samuel 10:8. However, Samuel did not show on time and the troops began to disperse. Since Saul thought the Philistines would descend upon him, he placed forth the offerings instead of waiting for Samuel. Samuel proclaimed Saul's _reign over Israel_ would have been permanent, but since he failed to keep the command of Yahweh, his 'Elohim, Yahweh found another to rule over his people.

Samuel went from Gilgal to _Gibeah_ of Benjamin, and Saul registered the six hundred men who were with him. Saul, his son Jonathan (first mention of relation), and the troops stayed at _Geba_ while the Philistines camped at Michmash. The Philistines sent a military division toward the Ophrah road leading to Shual, a second toward Beth-Horon, and a third down the border road overlooking the Zeboim Valley.

In 1 Samuel 14, a Philistine outpost had taken control of the pass at Michmash (last verse of chapter 13), thus Jonathan decided to cross over to the Philistines on the other side. However, Jonathan's move was unbeknown to Saul, who was still at the outskirts of _Gibeah_ under a pomegranate tree. Since Jonathan moved without the knowledge of Saul, it immediately reveals a possible separation or lack of unity within the ranks. At this time, Ahijah, the son of Ahitub, the brother of Ichabod, the son of Phinehas, the son of Eli, the priest of Yahweh at Shiloh, was wearing an ephod. An author wrote of the death of Phinehas and named his son _Inglorious_ , but there was a prominent tradition of the Phinehas line of priests. Therefore, to consolidate the denigrating texts with the extant tradition of Phinehas, the author made Ichabod (son of Phinehas) the brother of a well-known Shiloh / Aaron priest. After this short announcement (an interpolation), the battle continues. Jonathan was moving toward the Philistine garrison through a passage in the hills. There were sharp cliffs on either side named Bozez and Seneh, which were situated over Michmash and _Gibeah_.

In verses 6 through 10, an author spelled the name Jonathan as _Yehownatan_. Thus far in the Saul and Jonathan narrative, authors have spelled the name _Yownatan_ , as it is in the remainder of the chapter after verse 11. A later author merely added the _Yah_ contraction to the name. The word _natan_ most likely denotes a priest.

Jonathan and his men made a surprise attack on the Philistines. When the lookouts in _Gibeah_ noticed the Philistines were dispersing, Saul counted his men and realized Jonathan had left the camp. He then told Ahijah to bring him the chest of 'Elohim, because the chest was with _Israel_ at that time. However, Judah and the Philistines captured the chest from Shiloh, and if there were only one chest, or one metaphorical chest that represented the hierarchy of the _Israelite_ religion, its move to Kiriath-Jearim would have been after the fall of the Kish or Saul institution. This author placed the chest in Saul's possession to maintain the unity of the twelve tribes.

While Saul talked to the priest, who is not mentioned by name, the commotion increased, thus he told him to withhold his hand, which means he made a decision to march into battle without the chest. Moreover, the Hebrews who were once with the Philistines were now with _Israel_ , Saul, and Jonathan. This statement is unequivocal evidence that at least a segment of the people allied with the Philistines, albeit the author attempted to veil a long term or significant union. Instead, he conveyed the Israel and Judah allies of the Philistines turned against them and Yahweh delivered a united Judah-Israel front from the Philistine army. However, the story probably refers to those who were once part of a coalition in Judah that included Philistines. These people were exiled out of Judah, migrated to lands east of the Jordan, and then returned the region as the _Hebrews_ and allied with Saul. The author merely noted their change in allegiance (at least a faction of them). Finally, when the men who were hiding in the hills of Ephraim heard the Philistines were in retreat, they also joined in the battle. Yahweh delivered _Israel_ that day and the army pursued the Philistines beyond Beth-Aven.

The Israel army was exhausted after the battle because Saul had placed the men under an oath. The man who ate food before the evening would be cursed, which appears to represent a religious sect that believed they could placate the deity by fasting. However, Jonathan had not heard the command of Saul and he ate some honey from the end of his staff. The honey brightened his eyes, which displays a move against fasting for practical reasons. These verses read as a liberal sect against a conservative institution. Nevertheless, of greater importance is the split in Saul's camp. Jonathan, or a religious sect, was moving some contention within the house of Saul. Saul inquired of 'Elohim about the war with the Philistines, but the deity failed to answer him. The deity had left Saul, but he believed the absence was caused by the act of Jonathan. Saul wanted to kill Jonathan, but the people stood beside him and rescued him from death.

Verse 47 begins a section that praises the feats of Saul. He took over the _kingdom of Israel_ and fought against the enemies on every side. He defeated Moab, the sons of Ammon, Edom, the kings of Zobah (from _Aram_ ), the Philistines, and the Amalekites. This passage is a perfect display of independent objectives. There is a tradition in support of Saul and this Benjamin institution, which is accompanied by later texts that unite the history with the traditions of David and Judah. Moreover, this section reads as the end of an earlier Saul narrative. It is no small occasion that an author wrote of him defeating the Philistines, because in later traditions, the Philistines brought upon his demise.

In 1 Samuel 15, Yahweh of Armies wanted to punish the Amalekites for their actions against _Israel_ when they came out of Egypt. Saul was to utterly destroy the Amalekites and kill the men, women, children, infants, and animals. He gathered his army in Telaim, which numbered two hundred thousand men, along with ten thousand men of Judah. Because they showed kindness to the _sons of Israel_ when they came out of Egypt, Saul instructed the Kenites to leave the region to avoid the slaughter. A religious faction exiled the Kenites out of Judah, and the author intimated the same event here when Saul instructed the Kenites to leave the Amalekites, i.e., leave southern Judah. The Levites supported the Kenites, thus the author transformed the exile into a voluntary migration to avoid war.

Saul defeated the Amalekites from Havilah to Shur and captured their King Agag, but he spared his life. Furthermore, although the army destroyed the Amalekite people, they spared the best of their flocks and goods. Since Saul and the army spared King Agag and the best of his possessions, it is possible this expresses a covenant with a division of the Amalekite leadership. Saul and Kish were Edomites, and in Genesis 36:12, Amalek is a descendant of Esau. However, this coalescence may have occurred when the _Kish Edomites_ were still in Hebron. The name _Agag_ was derived from the name _Agee_ , who in 2 Samuel 23:11 is the father of one of David's warriors. In the verse, Agee is referred to as a _Hararite_ , or simply a _mountain dweller_. The son of Agee the Hararite is _Shamma_ , the name of an Edomite in Genesis 36:13. Therefore, it appears camps of Edomites and Amalekites were a part of an early coalition in Judah, but part of their divisions may have later ascended to power in Benjamin, which would place Amalekites in the camp of Saul. Moreover, when these peoples were in Hebron, they would have displaced other factions in Judah, if not in Israel and Benjamin when they moved north. These possible events would explain the vociferous antipathy toward the Amalekites perceived in the narratives, as well as Samuel's harsh instructions to Saul.

When Samuel learned of Saul's disobedience, he confronted Saul because he rejected the word of Yahweh. Therefore, Yahweh gave his kingdom to his neighbor who was better than he was. Samuel then took his sword and cut Agag to pieces before Yahweh at Gilgal, which could depict the Amalekite expulsion in the north. Samuel, who never seen Saul again, returned to his home in Ramah and Saul returned to Gibeah.

In 1 Samuel 16, Yahweh reproved Samuel because he was lamenting over Saul. He then instructed him to visit Jesse, the Bethlehemite, because Samuel was to anoint one of his sons as king. The name _Jesse_ means, "extant". In Ruth 4:10, in reference to the descendants of Elimelech:

"And not will be cut off the name of the dead {man} from among his brothers, and from the gate of his place. witnesses You {are} today."

_Jesse the Bethlehemite_ represents the extant institution in Bethlehem, which was the genesis of David, i.e., the new Judah establishment. Therefore, the descendants of Elimelech were not cut off from their brothers. The first son of Jesse brought before Samuel was Eliab. In Numbers 16, two of his sons rebelled against Moses and were killed by Yahweh, i.e., Judah, thus Eliab's move for power in Judah was unsuccessful. The second son brought before Samuel was Abinadab ( _father of Nadab_ ), but the liberals were also superseded, which is represented by the death of Nadab. The third son brought before Samuel was Shamma (Edomite in Genesis 36:13), and authors displayed the ultimate fate of the Edomites in Judah. Jesse passed seven sons (only three mentioned) in front of Samuel, but none of them was chose by Yahweh. Finally, Samuel anointed the eighth son David as king. The first _seven_ sons, or the early _oaths_ or coalitions of Judah, were supplanted by the new monarchy.

As covered, the name _David_ is a variation of the name _Dodo_. Yahweh and many other ancient deities were perceived as kings over their people. Therefore, when Yahweh worship supplanted the old religious cults, it was an easy transformation from the divine Dodo to the mortal king David, whose story represents an era of generations as opposed to the life of one man.

As the chapter comes to a close, the spirit of Yahweh came upon David and departed from Saul, who had an evil spirit of Yahweh terrorize him. Saul's servants realized he had an evil spirit of 'Elohim upon him, thus they brought in a harp player to sooth him. David was that harp player.

Chapter 17 begins with the Philistines gathering for battle against _Israel_ in Socoh, which was a city of Judah (Joshua 15:48). Saul and the _men of Israel_ were camped in the Elah Valley when the champion of the Philistines, Goliath ( _exile_ ) from Gath, came out between the two camps and challenged _Israel_ man against man for servitude. There were countless oral myths about heroes that existed long before the conception of David, and later authors attributed many of their accomplishments to him. The battle and defeat of a Philistine giant most likely originated as an oral tale from an early Bethlehem faction that battled the Philistines. Then when this later uprising in Judah took hold of the country, the encounter became a feat of David.

Beginning with verse 12, there is a different version of the narrative. David was the son of an Ephrathite from Bethlehem of Judah, whose name was Jesse, the father of eight sons, which is information learned in the last chapter. The three eldest sons of Jesse (again given names) followed Saul into battle, but David went back and forth from Saul's camp to tending the flocks of his father. Since David's brothers, or better stated as the _sons of Jesse_ , went to battle with Saul, it conveys the ephemeral alliance between the Benjamin institution and a sect in Bethlehem (Judges 19 & 20).

Jesse sent David to his brothers to bring them food and to receive word of their welfare. When he greeted his brothers at the battle lines, Goliath again presented his challenge. David called to the people for a champion to arise, but was reproached by his brother Eliab. Since no one accepted the challenge, David went forward with a mere sling and five stones. He killed Goliath and then took the sword of the Philistine and cut off his head. He brought the head of the giant to Jerusalem, but he placed his weapon in his own tent, i.e., Judah received military aid (possibly iron) from the Philistines. Jerusalem has been silent in this portion of the narrative, thus when David took the Philistine's head to the city, which David takes from the Jebusites forthcoming, the author could have had an unknown intent that may correlate with a story-line not included in the narratives.

1 Samuel 18 moves the narrative toward Saul's demise. After the events with the giant, Jonathan became bound to David, but Saul did not let David return to the house of his father. This statement could convey Saul wanted him to stay with his army, but may also subtly intimate that David could no longer return to Bethlehem because Saul had moved a military presence into the city.

Jonathan made a covenant with David and gave him his robe and weapons, i.e., David received the support of his religious sect (robe), along with military assistance. David prospered in all his endeavors and Saul made him the head over the men of war, which pleased Saul and the people. This author wanted to portray a unified evolution of the _Israel nation_ , as opposed to a Judah conquest of Benjamin. However, when David returned from battling the Philistines, the women would sing:

"Saul has slain his thousands, And David his ten thousands."

The new coalition in Judah was gaining support from the people of Benjamin, which caused the relationship between David and Saul to deteriorate. Then an evil spirit of 'Elohim came upon Saul, which moved him to carry out two failed attempts on David's life.

Saul became afraid and jealous of David, but all of Israel and Judah loved him, which unveils a subtle change within the narratives. Almost entirely after the book of Genesis, authors have wrote of the _sons of Israel_ and _Israel_ , but as the narrative moves back to the matters of the early south, authors referred to the people of _Israel_ and _Judah_ , as perceived previously with the number of military men from each country. In certain texts, they are no longer the _twelve tribes_ or _sons of Israel_ , but two separate nations, which is not an insignificant change. Obviously, certain events portrayed in the books of Samuel predate events covered in earlier books.

Saul wanted to give his eldest daughter Merab to David for a wife, but David would have to fight Yahweh's battles, thus the Philistines would be against him. However, when David declined out of humility, Saul gave her to Adriel the Meholathite. Saul also had a younger daughter named Michal who loved David. For Michal's hand in marriage, Saul wanted one hundred Philistine foreskins as a dowry, which he thought would bring forth the demise of David. The servants of Saul talked David into marrying Michal, he acquired the dowry, and thus David received Saul's daughter for a wife. The name _Michal_ is a variation of the name _Micah_ , who an author featured in the story of the Danite invasion of Laish.

1 Samuel 19 continues the _internal struggle_. Saul ordered Jonathan and his servants to kill David, but since Jonathan found pleasure in him, he spoke to Saul about all David had done for him and Israel. Saul then swore he would not execute David and he brought him back into his presence. However, when war broke out again, David went to battle and defeated the Philistines. This victory created more envy within the heart of Saul. After another failed attempt on David's life, Saul sent assassins to his house. However, Michal revealed the plot to David and helped him escape through a window. She then placed a household idol in his bed to deceive the killers. I find it quite interesting that Michal used a household idol to save David, and in the Judges 18 invasion of Laish, Micah's idols became the focus of the religion in northern Dan. There is definitely a correlation between the two events. _Micah_ and _Michal_ could represent a religious cult, which in this story came to the aid of _David_.

David fled to Samuel at Ramah, but someone informed Saul of his whereabouts and he left to pursue him. When Saul arrived in Ramah, he began prophesying, thus the people said, "is Saul also one of the prophets", which is a quote also found in chapter 10 verse 11.

1 Samuel 20 covers another covenant between David and Jonathan. David fled from Saul at Ramah and went to Jonathan. He told Jonathan his life was in danger, thus the two devised a plan. David was expected at King Saul's feast of the new moon, but he would wait in the field until the third evening. If Saul mentioned David's absence, Jonathan would tell him that David had gone to Bethlehem to sacrifice. If Saul became angry, they would know there was evil in his heart. With Yahweh as a witness, Jonathan would tell David the disposition of his father. Yahweh would be with David as he was with Saul, but David should show Jonathan kindness, spare his life, and never cut off the benevolence toward his family, even after Yahweh had destroyed all of David's enemies. On the third day of the feast, David waited by the stone of Ezel for Jonathan to shoot three arrows as a sign. If they were on the Jonathan side of David, it was safe, but if they were beyond him, it was not. When David did not arrive at the feast and Jonathan told Saul he had gone to Bethlehem, Saul became angry and said as long as the son of Jesse lived, neither he nor his kingdom would be established. When David received the sign from Jonathan, they parted ways and reaffirmed their covenant. Yahweh would be a witness between the two of them and their descendants forever. As the events of Jonathan and David unfold, I cannot help but feel the authors over-emphasized Jonathan's love for David and the covenant between them. It appears Jonathan placed his trust and future in the hands of David, i.e., Judah.

In 1 Samuel 21, David went to Nob and the priest Ahimelech ( _brother of the king_ ), who is connected to the Shiloh priests forthcoming. Nob was a city in Benjamin (Nehemiah 11:32), thus the verse displays the Shiloh priests' migration into the region. Ahimelech came forward fearfully to meet David, who told the priest he was on a secret mission for King Saul, which intimates impunity for Ahimelech, as he was unaware of the contention between the two. During this meeting, a servant of Saul named Doeg, the Edomite chief of Saul's shepherds, happened to be in the vicinity. Hence, the author conveyed there was a witness to this event, as well as a purposeful display of an Edomite presence in Saul's camp. David asked Ahimelech for a sword or spear, because he had left in haste and neglected to bring his weapons. The priest told David the sword of Goliath was wrapped in a cloth behind the ephod (in 17:54, David placed the sword in his own tent), which symbolizes the union between a faction of Judah, their Philistine allies, and a sect of Shiloh priests.

David continued his escape from Saul and went to King Achish of Gath. The servants of Achish recognized David and knew the songs of his renown, thus David pretended to be crazy so the Philistines would not fear him. If the stories of David and the Philistines actually occurred, they would have instantly killed him. Writing of his insanity was a feeble attempt by the author to reconcile the fact that David, i.e., a faction of Judah, allied with the Philistines.

In 1 Samuel 22, David escaped to the cave of Adullam. The last time an author mentioned Adullam was in Genesis 38, in which Judah eventually moved a line of descendants that lead to King David. The household of David's father joined him in Adullam, which conveys an alliance between peoples in Adullam and Bethlehem (house of his father). Along with his family, those in distress or those who were not content with the current religious hierarchy also joined the emerging alliance. This coalescence created an assembly of four ( _arba_ ) hundred men, which intimates this group would move to power in Hebron.

From Adullam, David went to Mizpah of Moab (travels depicted in the stories of Judah and Ruth) and beseeched the king for a place for his family to reside until he knew the plan of 'Elohim. David left his family with the king the entire time he was at the Moabite stronghold. Then per the word of the prophet Gad, David left the fortress and went to the forest of Hereth in Judah.

Saul was sitting beneath a _tamarisk_ tree in Gibeah when he heard the whereabouts of David. He called out to his men and asked who would side with him against the son of Jesse. At this time, Doeg the Edomite informed Saul of David's dealings with Ahimelech, the son of Ahitub, the priest in Nob. In 1 Samuel 14:3, Ahitub is the father of Ahijah, as well as the brother of Ichabod, the son of Phinehas, which places him within the Shiloh line of priests. In this chapter, Ahitub is the father of Ahimelech, but in 1 Chronicles 6:8 and 2 Samuel 8:17, Ahitub is the father of Zadok, a prominent priest from the sons of Aaron tradition. The authors intentionally connected Ahimelech to the Shiloh priests, as well as the sons of Aaron.

King Saul summoned Ahimelech the priest, the son of Ahitub, and the entire household of his father at Nob. He stated, _listen son of Ahitub_ , which stresses the Shiloh and Aaron lineage, and he asked him why he conspired with the son of Jesse. Ahimelech contended he did not know of the contention between the two, but Saul vehemently disagreed. He ordered his guards to execute the priests, but they were unwilling. Therefore, the king passed the order to Doeg the Edomite, who slaughtered eighty-five men of the cloth. He struck the city of priests and killed the men, women, children, and infants, as well as the livestock. The author shifted the blame for the massacre to a foreign people, but actually the true ancestry of Saul and a segment of the people from this Benjamin institution. The event probably represents an attack on the city of Nob and the Judah-Shiloh alliance.

In verse 20, a son of Ahimelech named Abiathar escaped the slaughter at Nob and fled the scene to David. The author claimed Abiathar was the only Shiloh priest to avoid the execution, thus after Solomon exiled Abiathar from his institution (1 Kings 2:26), the priests who did serve under the Jerusalem monarchy would not have a legitimate claim to the Shiloh priesthood, which I believe was the origin of the sons of Aaron. One religious sect attempted to discredit the other. The name _Nadab_ (Aaron's son) means, "liberal", and the name _Abiathar_ means, "father of abundance", i.e., "liberal", and it appears the stories of Nadab and Abiathar refer to the same political downfall.

In 1 Samuel 23, David stuck the Philistines and delivered the people of Keilah. When Saul heard that David was in the city, he gathered his men for war. David had Abiathar bring him the ephod and he inquired of Yahweh, the _'Elohim of Israel_ , and asked if the lords of Keilah would surrender him to Saul, to which Yahweh revealed they would. David and six hundred men departed from Keilah and stayed in the wilderness of Ziph, a city southeast of Hebron. Jonathan went to David at Ziph and they made another covenant. David would be the _king of Israel_ and Jonathan would be his second, i.e., David would rule with the support of this religious faction or sect of priests.

The Ziphites went to Saul at Gibeah and told him David was at the fortress at Horesh, on the hill of Hachilah, which was on the south of Jeshimon. Saul and his men surrounded David, but they had to cease their attack due to trouble with the Philistines, which allowed David to escape to a stronghold in Engedi. If one sifts through the myth, David never struck the Philistines to deliver Keilah, but a Judah faction possibly raided the city or sought recruits there, which would explain why the lords of Keilah would turn him over to Saul. A Benjamin army was pursuing this threat in southern Judah and the Philistines either came to their aid or attacked the Benjamin forces on another front, which caused the army to retreat from their pursuit.

1 Samuel 24 begins at a time when Saul returned from fighting the Philistines and he was told David was in Engedi. He left to pursue David upon the rocks of the wild goats. When he came to the sheepfolds, he stopped to relieve himself in a cave. David and his men were hidden in the cave and David could have killed him, but he merely cut off a piece of Saul's robe as evidence. After Saul left the cave, David showed him the piece of robe from a distance. Saul praised David's righteousness and stated he would certainly become king. However, as with Jonathan, Saul had David swear by Yahweh that he would not cut off his descendants and destroy his name from the house of his father. The author wanted his readers to take heed of the later actions by the Judah institution.

1 Samuel 25 begins with the death of Samuel. He died, all _Israel_ gathered and mourned, and he was buried at his house in Ramah.

David traveled to the desert of Paran. In Numbers 13:3, Moses, another figure with a Moabite affinity, sent spies north into Hebron from the desert of Paran, which was most likely a move by this camp. Then David sent messengers to a wealthy man by the name of Nabal ( _foolish_ ), who was a Calebite, but lived in Maon and worked in Carmel. His wife was a beautiful and intelligent woman by the name of Abigail. David's men beseeched Nabal for assistance, to which he declined, thus David decided to destroy his entire household. However, before David and his men could return, a young man went and told Abigail about his messengers. They had greeted Nabal with kindness, but he was harsh in return, thus David's men had plotted evil against him. Abigail then gathered gifts of food and wine and went to entreat the will of David. She approached him before the attack, thus David accepted the gifts and he sent her home in peace. Nabal was holding a feast, but the next morning when she revealed her actions, he became dead inside. Ten days later Yahweh ( _forces of Judah_ ) took his life.

After the death of Nabal, David married Abigail ( _father of gil_ ), who is his sister in 1 Chronicles 2:16. The 1 Chronicles 2 genealogy moves into the region of Gilead a few verses later, and _gil_ is a contraction of Gilead. Abigail could represent peoples who settled across the Jordan and allied with a religious faction in Judah. Furthermore, Nabal the Calebite was killed, but his household was spared, which displays an alliance between factions in Bethlehem (David) and Hebron (Calebites). In Joshua 15:55, Maon (where Nabal Lived), Carmel (where Nabal worked), and Ziph are listed as part of the inheritance for the sons of Judah. These recent events convey the conquest of southern Judah, which would culminate with religious control in Hebron. Authors represented the same events in the book of Joshua and the first chapter of Judges.

David also married Ahinoam of Jezreel, but Saul gave David's wife Michal to Phalti, the son of Laish from Gallim. Ahinoam is the wife of Saul in 1 Samuel 14:50, which expresses a defection from _Saul_ to _David_. In addition, Saul's daughter _Michal_ represents the same entity as _Micah_ from the Danite invasion of Laish, and here Michal is given to the son of Laish for a bride, which represents the same event. The name _Phalti_ means, "escape", and represents a refugee sect that migrated north.

1 Samuel 26 consists of another story in which David spares Saul's life, which is an attempt to place this early Judah institution in shades of innocence. As in the first story, the Ziphites went to Saul in Gibeah and told him the whereabouts of David. After Saul arrived in Ziph, David asked Ahimelech the Hittite and Joab's brother Abishai, the _son of Zeruiah_ , if one of them would accompany him into Saul's camp. Ahimelech in David's camp displays the same association with the Hittites as the affiliation between sons of Heth and Abraham. However, Abishai was the man who went with David. The house of Zeruiah was in Bethlehem (2 Samuel 2:32), hence, the narrative has subtly shifted and here David represents a faction that would come to power in Hebron and align with the hierarchy in Bethlehem, as opposed to the Hittites, which is displayed when Abishai went with David instead of Ahimelech.

When the two men approached Saul, they caught him sleeping in his camp. Once again, David spared his life, but took a spear and a jug of water from next to him and left unnoticed. David crossed to the other side of the mountain, called out to Saul's commander Abner, and told him that he failed in guarding his king. Saul recognized the voice of David and blessed him in his pursuits.

In 1 Samuel 27, David again escaped to the land of the Philistines. He lived with King Achish of Gath and was accompanied by Ahinoam the Jezreelitess and Abigail the Carmelitess (Nabal worked in Carmel, but was a Calebite). These entities formed an alliance, thus when Saul heard David was living in the land of the Philistines, he quit pursuing him, which implies the coalition was in firm control over the land of Judah.

King Achish gave David the city of Ziklag to live in, which still belonged to Judah at the time of authorship. One should realize a king gives a city to an ally, not an enemy or a servant. However, since the author called Ziklag _a gift_ , it could intimate the Philistines assisted Judah in conquering the city. In Joshua 19:5, Ziklag was in Simeon territory, and in Joshua 15:31, it belonged to Judah, which is recognition of the state of Simeon dissolving. Moreover, the Philistines were also instrumental in Judah's settlement of Beersheba, which was another one-time Simeonite city. The two events were not a coincidence and are another sign of the two peoples' allied involvement in the conquest of southern Palestine.

While David was living in the land of the Philistines, he:

"made a raid to the Geshurites, and the Gezrites, and the Amalekites. For they {were} the inhabitants of the land which {were} from the past. {As} you come to Shur and to the land of Egypt. 9. And struck David the land, and not let did live man or woman, and took sheep, and oxen, and donkeys, and camels."

However, David told Achish the raids were against the Negev of Judah, the Negev of the Jerahmeelites, and the Negev of the Kenites. Achish then thought David was viewed poorly by his own people and thus he would be a servant forever. Over time, the raids included the Amalekites and the Kenites. Amalek was a descendant of Esau, the brother of Jacob, i.e., kin to the _Israelites_ , which means both the Amalekites and Kenites have a history in the early records of the would-be _Israelites_. However, the author's ancestors were either descendants of Kenites and Jerahmeelites, or a part of their religious establishment. Therefore, he would not have one believe that his hero conquered the old coalition. Finally, in this version of David and the Philistines, the author did not attempt to conceal the alliance by having David feign madness. Their association obviously was an alliance and the coalition raided and conquered areas in southern Judah.

In 1 Samuel 28, the Philistines gathered for war against Israel. King Achish asked David and his men to accompany him, and then he appointed David as keeper of his head (bodyguard). The Philistines camped in Shunem and Saul and Israel camped in Gilboa. Shunem was a city of Issachar (Joshua 19:18), a _son of Leah_ , thus the Judah-Philistine alliance had already gained a foothold or at minimum support in the country of Israel. Saul became afraid of the Philistine camp and he decided to seek a medium at Endor. He called upon Samuel because 'Elohim had left him, but his efforts were in vain. The deity had given the kingdom to David because Saul did not execute Yahweh's vengeance against Amalek.

1 Samuel 29 is a specious text that attempts to make it appear the Judah institution never battled against Israel with the Philistines. The Philistines camped at Aphek; where in the last chapter, they camped at Shunem. In 1 Samuel 4:1, the Philistines camped at Aphek to battle Israel, after which they captured the chest of 'Elohim. Hence, the passage could pertain to another battle and the later author merely blended the separate traditions. Israel camped at a spring near Jezreel, where in the last chapter, Saul and Israel camped at Gilboa. David and his men were proceeding into battle with Achish, but the commanders of the Philistines asked what the Hebrews were doing among them, because in battle they could become adversaries. Achish supported David because he had been loyal for years, but the commanders continued:

"Is this not David, of whom they sing in the dances, saying, 'Saul has slain his thousands, And David his ten thousands'?"

Achish finally told David that he had been upright and pleasing in his sight, as an angel of 'Elohim, but his commanders would not march into battle with him. He sent him away in peace back to the land of the Philistines. However, in 1 Chronicles 12:19:

"19. And some from Manasseh fell to David when he came with the Philistines against Saul to battle. (But not they helped for them, by counsel sent him away the lords of the Philistines, saying, with our heads He will fall to his master Saul)."

One cannot help but realize the latter half of the verse is a later interpolation.

In 1 Samuel 30, David and his men arrived in Ziklag and found the Amalekites had made a raid on the Negev and overthrown his city. David already attacked the Amalekites and killed the men, women, and children. Hence, this story may have been from an earlier tradition that a redactor misplaced in the narrative. Interestingly, the Amalekites kidnapped both the old and the young, including David's wives Ahinoam and Abigail, instead of putting them to death, unlike the _Israelite_ tactic of complete extermination. David had Abiathar the priest bring him the ephod and he inquired of Yahweh, who told him to pursue the raiders because he would surrender them into his hands. David pursued the Amalekites with six hundred men and came to the brook of Besor, where he let two hundred men stay behind due to fatigue. During their pursuit, they came across an Egyptian who was abandoned by his Amalekite master. He told David of their raids on the Negev of the Cherethites, lands of Judah, and the Negev of Caleb. He also mentioned they had burned Ziklag. In 2 Samuel 15:18, the Cherethites are Philistine allies of David. Therefore, the author conveyed an attack on the Judah and Philistine southern domains. The Egyptian, who represents peoples out of Egypt who once allied with or lived under an Amalekite coalition, brought David and his men to the enemy, who were then slaughtered, except for four hundred young men who escaped on camels. These four hundred escapees, from the familiar word _arba_ , could represent an Amalekite sect in Hebron that I mentioned in chapter 15, when Saul spared the Amalekite king and the best of their possessions.

David rescued all the captives and he recovered everything the Amalekites had confiscated. However, this raid was probably not a recovery mission, but an attack on territories of a Judah coalition that included Amalekites. Since none of the spoil was missing, Judah attained the wealth and livestock of the lands conquered. Moreover, the men herded the captured livestock ahead of the other livestock, which the people stated was _David's spoil_ , i.e., his seized wealth. This story represents the same attack on the Amalekites as the one portrayed in chapter 15, and to reiterate, the king and possessions spared by Saul most likely represent the same camp as the four hundred men who escaped on camels in this chapter.

David returned to the two hundred men who stayed behind at the brook of Besor, but the wicked and worthless men who were with him did not want them to share in the spoils. David proclaimed the shares of spoil should be the same for those who march into battle and those who stay behind with the property. This command became an ordinance in _Israel_ and was still in order at the time of authorship.

When David returned to Ziklag, he sent a portion of the enemy spoils to the elders of Judah. However, if the Amalekites had stolen the property and cattle from David's coalition, he would not have considered the goods _enemy spoils_. Actually, _David_ conquered an Amalekite coalition in Judah and shared the wealth with their current and would-be allies. The shared riches went to Bethel, Ramath of the Negev (one time land of Simeon), Jattir, Aroer, Siphmoth, Eshtemoa, Racal, the cities of the Jerahmeelites and Kenites (both later exiled if not victims of this attack), Hormah, Bor-Ashan, Athach, and Hebron. David and his men roamed in these places, i.e., these were cities that allied with the uprising establishment. However, although a segment of the conquered peoples were certainly Amalekites, there were most likely would-be Israelites ("J/I") among them. In a later period of consolidation, to veil another battle between the _Israelites_ , the author referred to the entire enemy force and populace as _Amalekites_. An author accomplished the same in Judges 3, when he wrote that Moab, the sons of Ammon, and the Amalekites conquered Jericho, when in reality a Judah establishment most likely headed the coalition.

In 1 Samuel 31, the Philistines (and Judah) attacked and many of Israel's soldiers fell on Mount Gilboa. Hence, the Israel army was defeated where they camped in chapter 28, not in Jezreel, where they camped in chapter 29. Nevertheless, the Philistines also killed Saul's three sons, who the author listed as Jonathan, Abinadab, and Malchishua (in chapter 14 verse 49, his sons are Jonathan, Ishvi, and Malchishua). If _Jonathan_ represents a sect of priests and these priests were no longer held in favor by a later government, then it would make sense that an author wrote of his death, because David was to rule and Jonathan was to become his second. The spelling of the name, _Yehownatan_ , reveals later authorship, and this sect of priests may have fled Benjamin to later rule in the city of northern Dan.

"And Jonathan, the son of Gershom, the son of Moses, he and his sons were priests for the tribe of the Danites." (Judges 18:30)

Saul's daughter married the son of Laish, which represents the same event. Moreover, this defeat also contributed to the downfall of the liberals, i.e., the death of _Abinadab_ , _Saul's second son_. Finally, the third son Malchishua, the _king of wealth_ , came to pass, as the kingship shifted to the Judah-Shiloh alliance.

A Philistine arrow hit Saul, thus he asked a companion to kill him because he did not want to die by the hand of an uncircumcised. The companion declined and Saul inevitably fell on his own sword. When the men of Israel from the other side of the valley and across the Jordan realized Saul and the army had been defeated, they abandoned their cities and the Philistines lived in them.

When the next day the Philistines came to the battlefield for their spoils, they realized Saul and his sons had fallen on Mount Gilboa. They cut off Saul's head and stripped his weapons to parade in front of their people. Then they placed the weapons in the temple of Ashtaroth and they hung his body on the wall of Beth-Shan, a place in Manasseh (Joshua 17:11).

The first book of Samuel moves to a close. When the people of Jabesh-Gilead heard the fate of Saul and his sons, they sent a night raid and recovered their bodies, burned their corpses, and buried them under a _tamarisk_ tree at Jabesh. In the book of Judges, when the Judah coalition conquered this same institution, the forces slaughtered the people of Jabesh-Gilead, excluding the virgin women, and this story confirms they were killed because they sided with the old Benjamin establishment.

Table of Contents

On the Second Book of Samuel

2 Samuel 1 continues with the aftermath of the 1 Samuel 31 battle. An Amalekite from the camp of Saul escaped and went to David. He revealed that Saul and Jonathan (later spelling of name) were dead, albeit he had killed Saul upon his request after Saul leaned on his own sword. In 1 Samuel 31, Saul's request to be killed was denied, regardless, is dying by the hand of an Amalekite any different from dying by the hand of a Philistine? What if the author had a different agenda? A Judah-Philistine alliance conquered Saul and his forces, but if an Amalekite killed the _first king of Israel_ , the story would absolve David of any guilt. Therefore, David tore his clothes and grieved when he heard the news of the death of his enemy. Then he had the Amalekite killed for killing the anointed of Yahweh. However, since the Amalekite who killed Saul was in his camp, the story aligns with the Amalekite-Saul alliance discussed in chapters 15 and 30. Furthermore, after the Amalekite killed Saul, he went to David, thus the story could also express more Benjamin defectors who joined the Judah establishment. When later authors wrote that Judah leadership executed northern defectors, it was a symbolic means to kill those who betrayed their ancestors.

In 2 Samuel 2, David asked Yahweh if he should move to one of the cities of Judah, after which Yahweh told him to travel to Hebron. David brought Ahinoam, Abigail, and his men into the city. In Hebron, the men of Judah came forward and anointed David their king. When David heard the men of Jabesh-Gilead had buried Saul, he sent messengers to wish them good will and valor in their endeavors, while letting them know he was the new king of Judah, which was a call for an alliance (spared virgins in Judges 21:12).

While David was being crowned in Hebron, Abner, the commander of Saul's army, brought Saul's son Ishbosheth to Mahanaim and made him king over Gilead, Asher, Jezreel, Ephraim, and Benjamin. The name _Ishbosheth_ means, "man of shame". In the last chapter, Saul only had three sons, but in 1 Chronicles 8:33, he has a fourth son named _EshBaal_ , or _man of Baal_ , which refers to the same entity as Ishbosheth. Furthermore, Abner was the son of Ner, who in 1 Chronicles 9:36 is the brother of Kish. In a later addition to the 1 Chronicles genealogy, after authors brought Saul into the narrative, Ner became the father of Kish (8:33 & 9:39). However, the move by Abner was not necessarily a sequential event to the fall of Kish or Saul and could in part represent the same series of events.

Abner left Mahanaim and he and the servants of Ishbosheth met Joab and the servants of David by the pool of Gibeon. Twelve men for Ishbosheth and twelve men for David arose before their leaders in a contest of might. Each man killed his opponent by the edge of the sword, thus the place was called Helkath-Hazzurim, which was a place in Gibeon. Scholars have translated the name Helkath-Hazzurim as _field of swords, field of blades, field of stones, inheritance of the strong_ , and countless other interpretations that resemble these. Furthermore, related peoples executed the senseless killing, thus the twelve against twelve expresses the fighting between the twelve tribes. These internal and to some pointless wars ravaged the land of Canaan. The name _Helkath_ was derived from a word that can denote a field, a _plot, a portion, parts_ or _divisions_. _Hazzurim_ is a plural word for rocks, which were often used to represent religious establishments. The sons of Aaron and the Judah alliance conquered the institution in Gibeon, thus the field of futile killing, or _Helkath-Hazzurim_ , symbolizes the _battlefield_ and thus the _division_ of two opposing religious _institutions_ , i.e., the sons of Aaron and the would-be Levites.

Zeruiah had three sons, who were Joab, Abishai, and Asahel. During an ensuing battle, Asahel pursued Abner relentlessly. When Abner noticed who was pursuing him, he told Asahel to pursue one of the younger men and their spoils instead, but Asahel would not break off his pursuit. Abner again instructed Asahel to cease due to their affinity for his brother Joab, but Asahel still refused and Abner inevitably killed him. All the men stood still at the place where Asahel fell, while Joab and Abishai pursued Abner all the way to the hill of Ammah, which was by the wilderness of Gibeon. The sons of Benjamin gathered behind Abner and after a few words from across the hilltops between Abner and Joab, Abner and his men went through the Arabah, crossed the Jordan, and came to Mahanaim. After Asahel was buried in the tomb of his father in Bethlehem, Joab and his men returned to Hebron. These were the two institutions, Bethlehem and Hebron, that allied together and supplanted an institution in Benjamin.

2 Samuel 3 states there was a long war between the house of Saul and the house of David. However, Judah was becoming more powerful. While in Hebron, David had children by various wives.

"Firstborn was Amnon, by Ahinoam the Jezreelitess; Chileab, by Abigail (the widow of Nabal the Carmelite); Absalom the son of Maacah, the daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur; Adonijah the son of Haggith; Shephatiah the son of Abital; Ithream, by David's wife Eglah."

The name _Amnon_ is a variation of the name _Ammon_ , i.e., the Ammonites, a major ally of a Judah institution. Therefore, the list could refer to a period before Lot was forced out of Judah. Moreover, the name _Ahinoam_ means, "brother of noam", and _noam_ is the word Naomi and Naaman were derived from, hence, peoples exiled across the Jordan, as _Lot_ of the Ammonites. Finally, Jezreel was in the Negev of Judah, where a segment of the Arameans settled before they were exiled out of the region.

The name _Chileab_ ( _Kilab_ ), whose mother was the ex-wife of _Nabal the Calebite_ (1 Samuel 25:3) or _Carmelite_ (above), is a variation of the name _Caleb_ ( _Kaleb_ ), who conquered the region of Hebron, where David was crowned king.

I cover Absalom more extensively forthcoming. His mother _Maacah_ represents alliances with Arameans who settled the regions of Judah and Gilead. She is also the wife of Gibeon's father in 1 Chronicles 8:29. In Numbers 13:22, her father Talmai is one of the three sons of Anak from Kiriath-Arba. Talmai and his brothers were forced out of Hebron and presumably across the Jordan. Furthermore, authors often mentioned the Maacathites and Geshurites together in Gilead (Deuteronomy 3:14, Josh. 12:5, & Joshua 13:11-13), and here Maacah is the daughter of the king of Geshur. In 1 Samuel 27:8, David raided the Geshurites in southern Judah, who then fled eastward. I have read scholars who believe the name _Geshur_ means, "bridge" or "land-bridge", which could intimate their move across the Jordan. I discussed both Geshur and Maacah in my commentary on Genesis 22.

Adonijah, or _Adonay Yahweh_ , as an author referred to the deity in Genesis 15, makes a move for the kingship in 1 Kings 1.

The name _Shephatiah_ was derived from the names _Yahweh_ and _Shaphat_ , the latter a leader of Simeon in Numbers 13:5, and a Simeonite official under David in 1 Chronicles 27:29. This son could convey an era when the Simeonites were allied with the Hebron establishment.

The name _Ithream_ was derived from _am_ (people) and _yether_ , the latter was also the derivation of the name Jethro, hence, _people of Jethro_ (father-in-law of Moses). _Ithream_ displays the presence of the Midianites and Ishmaelites in the Hebron institution, before they were both forced out of Judah. The name of his mother, _Eglah_ , is a variation of the name _Eglon_ , which is the name of a city in Judah (Joshua 15:39), as well as a king of Moab (Judges 3:12), which conveys the Moabite element in Judah (further displayed by the ancestry of David).

Abner was gaining strength in the house of Saul and he was with one of Saul's concubines, _Rizpah the daughter of Aiah_ , which angered Ishbosheth. In Genesis 36:24, Aiah is a descendant of Seir, which was a mountain range in Edom. Furthermore, Aiah the Edomite was the brother of Anah (son of Zibeon), who I connected to Saul in my commentary on Joshua 10. The name _Rizpah_ can imply _coal_ , thus it appears Abner was making a move for some Edomite coal supplies. In addition, a captain of David and Solomon was named Benaiah, the son of Jehoiada (2 Samuel 8:18). However, one can translate the name _Benaiah_ as _Son of Aiah_ , which is not intended to convey a father son relation, but points of migration. In 1 Chronicles 11:22, _Benaiah, the son of Jehoiada_ , is the son of a brave man from Kabzeel. Per Joshua 15:21, Kabzeel was on the Judah-Edom border, as was the mountain range of Seir. Therefore, _Benaiah_ represents Edomites from Aiah who joined a Judah coalition. Since the move on the coal of Aiah upset Ishbosheth, Abner said he would establish the _kingdom of Israel_ for David. However, David would not speak with Abner until he returned his wife Michal. In a contradictory verse 14, David sent messengers to Ishbosheth and requested the return of Michal, when Abner contacted David in hopes of devising a covenant. Ishbosheth had his men take Michal from Paltiel, the son of Laish, who followed her weeping all the way to Bahurim, where Abner ordered Paltiel to return home. In verse 10 of this chapter, Yahweh would:

"establish the throne of David over Israel and over Judah, from Dan even to Beer- sheba."

Hence, an alliance with or control over Dan was of the utmost importance. It appears the Judah institution allied with an order of Edomites, who may have been represented by Abner or Ishbosheth (depending on the tradition), which would explain the ambiguity in the story. However, the insistence on the return of Michal does not necessarily imply a physical move, it could merely represent a change in the Danite allegiance.

Due to the anger of Ishbosheth, Abner canvassed the _elders of Israel_ to support David. Then he and twenty of his men went and had a banquet with the leaders in Hebron. David sent Abner away in peace, but when Joab learned of his recent departure, he sent messengers after Abner, who was brought back from the well of Sirah ( _departure_ ). When Abner arrived in Hebron, Joab killed him for the blood of his brother Asahel. Due to the murder, David pronounced his innocence and cursed Joab and the house of his father. Then with verse 30 (possibly an interpolation), Joab and Abishai killed Abner because the death of Asahel at the battle of Gibeon. Abner was buried in Hebron.

To recapitulate, Abner defected from the house of Saul, and then he met with the king of Judah in Hebron, but the captain of the Judah army killed him. As with a fair portion of the narratives, shades of gray surround these events. There was a defection to Judah by a leader of a northern faction, but it is possible the united Hebron-Bethlehem establishment had different ideas on alliances. When the coalition became powerful, it appears they turned on several of their former allies. Subsequently, a later author whose sect was subdued unequivocally blamed this on Joab, the son of Zeruiah, and thus on a Bethlehem division of the institution. Finally, as with Saul, someone is killed in connection with David, but the author would have one believe he is innocent.

"37. And knew all the people, even all Israel on day that, than not it was from the king to put to death Abner the son of Ner."

David rebuked the sons of Zeruiah and wanted Yahweh to repay their evil with evil. The _house of Zeruiah_ represents a faction that would not move forward with new monarchy. Forthcoming, Joab supports Adonijah over Solomon in a battle for the kingship.

In 2 Samuel 4, Ishbosheth and the people of Israel were terrified because of the death of Abner. _Saul's son_ (as the text refers to him) had appointed two captains of the raiders named Baanah and Rechab. They were sons of Rimmon, the Beerothite from Benjamin. A _Beerothite_ is someone from Beeroth, a Gibeonite city in Joshua 9:17. Moreover, Baanah is the father of one of David's warriors in an early written 2 Samuel 23:29. _Baanah_ could represent an early sect in Judah that made a move into Benjamin. Furthermore, Rechab is the origin of a camp of Kenites in 1 Chronicles 2:55, which implies at least a segment of the referenced peoples were from Aram. In Judges 20:45, men from Benjamin escaped to the discussed rock of Rimmon after a Judah attack, and in Judges 21:13, these Benjamites were subsequently integrated into (allied with) the Judah-Shiloh monarchy. In this story, the author again displayed their allegiance to David, i.e., a Judah-based institution.

Then the story pauses with verse 4. When Jonathan died, he had a five-year-old son named Mephibosheth. The child fell and became lame when he and his nurse fled after hearing the news of Jonathan's death. An author refers to the figure of Mephibosheth as Merib-Baal in 1 Chronicles 8:34.

With verse 5, the initial story continues and the sons of Rimmon killed Ishbosheth redundantly in verses 6 & 7 (different versions of the story). They cut off his head and brought it to David. The author would again have one believe that David had nothing to do with the death of a member of an opposing religious faction. When the sons of Rimmon brought David the head of his enemy, he gave orders to have the men executed. The head of Ishbosheth was then buried in the grave of Abner in Hebron. Although the deaths of Abner and Ishbosheth most likely represent the same chain of events, there is quite the pool of blood surrounding the throne of David. Moreover, as mentioned with the Amalekite in chapter 1, it is possible that later authors felt the need to symbolically kill the defectors (here the sons of Rimmon from Beeroth) who joined the Judah institution.

2 Samuel 5 begins with _all of Israel_ coming to David at Hebron. Even when Saul was king, David commanded them into battle, thus the _elders of Israel_ made a covenant with David and proclaimed him king.

David went on to invade and capture Jerusalem (would have been _Jebus_ at the time) from the Jebusites, which is the same event achieved in the books of Joshua and Judges. However, I do question if the new institution ever conquered the Jebusites, who may have merely become allies of a Judah coalition. After conquering Jebus, David captured the stronghold of Zion, which they called the _city of David_.

The narrative moves to the previously discussed alliance between a kingdom of Judah and King Hiram of Tyre. The _name_ Hiram was derived from a word that means, "pale" or "white", which is a theme that authors once again attributed to the Phoenicians. It is becoming rather evident the authors and thus the _Israelites_ drew a distinction between the different peoples. Hiram sent cedar trees and workers to assist David in building a house or palace, but the story could actually refer to the construction of a temple in Jerusalem (covered forthcoming).

After David arrived in Hebron, he took wives and concubines from Jerusalem, i.e., created new alliances in Jerusalem, and these women gave birth to several sons, including Solomon. At this time, albeit who was actually fighting the Philistines is difficult to discern, the Philistines assembled in the valley of the Rephaim, but David defeated them at Baal-Perazim (from an era of Baal worshiped). They named the place because Yahweh _broke through_ their enemies. The name _Perazim_ is a variation of the name _Perez_ , the son of Judah in Genesis 38. This story-line or tradition could have been the genesis of Perez in the narratives. In a second encounter, the Philistines were defeated from Geba to Gezer.

In 2 Samuel 6, David gathered the people and left to bring the chest of 'Elohim back from Baal-Judah. The city of Kiriath-Jearim was also referred to as _Kiriath-Baal_ (Joshua 15:60), which is an obvious sign of Baal worship. Since the chest was taken to Kiriath-Jearim in 1 Samuel 7:1, it is safe to assume Baal-Judah refers to the same place. Hence, the people were moving the chest from Kiriath-Jearim and as they left Abinadab's house, his sons Uzzah ( _strength_ ) and Ahio (or _Uzzah and his brothers_ ) were leading the cart. When they came to the place of Nachon, the chest became unstable, Uzzah reached out to stabilize it, and the deity killed him for his error. David became angry about Yahweh's outburst against Uzzah, thus they named the place Perez-Uzzah. A would-be Levitical sect was attempting to take control of the chest, i.e., the religious hierarchy, but they failed due to the lack of power, which is symbolized by the death of _Uzzah_ , the name that means, "strength". In addition, the name _Nachon_ could be a variation of the name _Nahshon_. In Exodus 6:23, Nahshon is the son of Amminadab ( _people of Nadab_ ), and in this story, Abinadab's ( _father of Nadab_ ) sons were moving the chest. In my Exodus 6 commentary, I stated it was possible the Nashon religious order was supplanted, which this story appears to support. The faction ultimately moved the chest to the house of Obed-Edom the Gittite, which is the second tradition that places the chest in the hands of the Philistines.

After the fall of Saul, suddenly _Israel_ decided to move the chest out of a city that belonged to Gibeon, the house of his father. This move from Kiriath-Jearim actually symbolizes the consolidation of the Jerusalem and Gibeon religious institutions. In 1 Samuel 4, Judah and the Philistines, who were assisted by a sect of Shiloh priests, seized the chest from Shiloh. Then the chest was moved to Kiriath-Jearim, either physically by the Judah alliance that overtook the Gibeon coalition, or metaphorically to place it within the possession of Saul, the _first king of Israel_. Finally, there was a failed move to the city of David (though to where is actually not mentioned), after which it was moved to a Philistine city. The death of Eli and his sons from Shiloh and the death of Saul and his sons on Mount Gilboa represent the same war (not singular battle), thus the downfall of two prominent religious institutions. Moreover, the events portrayed at the end of the book of Judges represent the same events as the fall of King Saul from Gibeah. After these events, the chest was moved to Gath before it arrived in Jerusalem, which subtly reveals the Philistines were instrumental in this move to power. Since the house in Gath belonged to Obed-Edom, or _servant of Edom_ , there were Edomites among the peoples who gained religious control, which was intimated with the name Benaiah ( _son of Aiah_ ), who was in charge of the David's Philistine warriors (2 Samuel 8:18). He was also appointed the captain of Solomon's army (1 Kings 2:35). _Benaiah_ could represent Edomite defectors from the Gibeon institution who joined the Judah alliance.

The chest remained in the house of Obed-Edom for three months and Yahweh blessed him and his household. When David heard of this good fortune, he brought the chest to the city of David. David was wearing a linen ephod when the people brought the chest to his city, which implies he was a king who was also presiding as priest. He blessed the people in the name of Yahweh of Armies. However, Saul's daughter Michal (as the text refers to her) was angered when the chest was finally brought to the city of David. Michal went childless all of her days, i.e., the new religious establishment supplanted the ancient cult.

2 Samuel 7 continues the consolidation. David went to Nathan to inquire about erecting a temple because the chest of 'Elohim resided in a tent. Yahweh in turn responded to Nathan, not to David. Therefore, the author, a priest or prophet, conveyed the king needed mediation to divine the words of the deity; a time removed from the last chapter, in which David was acting as priest. This event moves the narrative to an interesting section beginning with verse 13, which places forth a prediction for David's son.

"13. He will build a house for My Name, and I will establish the throne of his kingdom until forever. 14. I will be to him for a father, and he will be to Me for a son. **When he sins, then will I chasten him with a rod of men and with strokes of the sons of men. 15. But My kindness not will depart from him, as I took {it} away from Saul, whom I removed from in front of you. 16. And will be sure your house and your kingdom until forever before Me. your throne will be established until forever**."

In verse 13, David's son would build a house for the deity, and the deity would establish the throne of his kingdom forever. Hence, the author conveyed a covenant between the deity and David's son. His son's kingdom would last forever, but David (earlier institutions) was not able to achieve a dominant kingdom. Then with verse 14b, there is the bold-type section that is an obvious interpolation. In verse 15, the deity would not take the kingdom away from Solomon, i.e., Judah, as it was from Saul, and in verse 16, he would establish the throne of _David_ forever. These verses express a subtle change in the direction of the covenant from Solomon to David. King Solomon and the united monarchy would abandon or exterminate several sects of priests, most notably a group of Levites. Therefore, a Levitical author later changed the covenant between the deity and Solomon's throne to a Davidic covenant. Assyria destroyed Israel and the only hope for the Levites was the kingdom of Judah, which is why the author kept the covenant between the deity and the throne in Jerusalem.

David recited a prayer of reverence to the deity. Like the story of Genesis 15, the author in this prayer repeatedly referred to the deity as _Adonay Yahweh_ , which could point to the same era and establishment. This author may have been a part of the Adonijah faction referenced previously. In addition, he also referred to the deity as _Yahweh 'Elohim_ , which is a term only found a couple of times after the story of the man and Eve. This prayer most likely originated during an era when authors were consolidating deities.

2 Samuel 8 lists the conquests of David, as he once again defeated the Philistines and the Moabites, who became his servants. Then he defeated Hadadezer, who was the son of Rehob, the king of Zobah. When the Arameans of Damascus came to help Hadadezer, David killed twenty-two thousand Arameans and made them his servants. He took the gold and bronze from his spoils and brought the treasures to Jerusalem. The spoils came from Aram, Moab, the sons of Ammon, the Philistines, Amalek, and from Hadadezer. However, a faction in Judah had alliances with Aram, Moab, Ammon, and the Philistines. Judah's allies certainly changed over time, but what is also evident is the hyperbole in this section. The spoils from these nations could actually refer to the spoils of the alliances. David also placed garrisons in Edom and the Edomites became his servants (another one-time ally of Judah).

Verse 16 begins a section on David's officers. The controversial Joab, the son of Zeruiah, was over the army, but David cursed his family when he killed Abner. The inclusion of Joab is another example of texts that were written by different political factions, with independent objectives, and during different eras. The priests were the mentioned Zadok, the son _of Ahitub_ , and Ahimelech, the _son of Abiathar_. In a possible error in the records, the court secretary was Seraiah, which is a variation of the name _Zeruiah_ ( _Serayah_ and _Seruyah_ ), and they both fathered a Joab (Seraiah in 1 Chronicles 4:14). In 1 Chronicles 18:16, which is from a near identical list that comes after the same conquests by David, the court secretary is _Shavsha_. The recently referenced Benaiah, the son of Jehoiada, was over the Cherethites and the Pelethites. Finally, the sons of David were Priests, which points to an era before the Levites and sons of Aaron anointed themselves control over the priesthood. In 1 Chronicles 18:17, an author changed David's sons from _priests_ to _chief officials_ for the aforementioned reason.

The author of 2 Samuel 9 had David ask:

"{Is there} not yet a man to the household of Saul, that I may do with him the kindness of 'Elohim."

The passage continues David's _unbelievable_ benevolence toward the house of Saul. There was a servant of Saul named Ziba, who told David about Jonathan's son Mephibosheth. For the sake of Jonathan, David told Mephibosheth he would restore the land of Saul to him and he would dine at the king's table regularly. David made Ziba's household servants to Mephibosheth, who had a son named Mica. The name _Mica_ is a variation of the names _Micah_ and _Michal_ (Saul's daughter). Jonathan and his descendants became priests for the Danites in Laish, where the people worshiped _Micah's_ idols, and Jonathan's grandson _Mica_ conveys the same circumstances from a different perspective. As the story comes to an end, Mephibosheth lived in Jerusalem and he was lame in both feet.

2 Samuel 10 contains a story about another battle with the Ammonites, who called upon the Arameans for assistance. The king of the Ammonites died and his son Hanun became king in his stead. The Ammonites have been constantly battled and vehemently defeated according to recent authors, but here David went to the new king to show him kindness as his father Nahash had shown David. However, in 1 Samuel 11:2, Nahash wanted gouge out the right eye of _everyone in Israel_. The name _Hanun_ was derived from the word _hanan_ , as was the name _Techinnah_ , a descendant of Judah who fathered the city of Nahash in 1 Chronicles 4:12. The story again references peoples from Judah who were exiled across the Jordan, later settled the land of Ammon, and then ultimately allied with the Solomon institution. However, the sons of Ammon certainly battled with other factions in the region.

The Ammonite princes convinced Hanun that David sent his messengers to spy the land of Ammon, thus Hanun shaved off half their beards and cut off half of their garments and sent them away. When David heard of this, he told his men to stay in Jericho until their beards grew back. The word used to denote _half_ was derived from the word _chatsah_ , which means, "to divide". This event could represent another division in the _Israelite_ numbers. Since David's men stayed in Jericho, it could represent an Ammonite attack on the city (Judges 3:13) as allies of a Judah institution. However, in this version of the events, Joab and _Israel_ defeated the Ammonite-Aramean alliance (covered in Judges 11). However, the narratives clearly display the contention between David and Joab, i.e., opposing religious factions, and Solomon orders the execution of Joab in 1 Kings 2:29. Therefore, the figure of Joab battling the Ammonites when another faction in Judah allied with them is not an inaccurate or non-feasible event.

2 Samuel 11 consists of the well-known story of David and Bathsheba. In the spring when the kings march out to battle, David sent the army to combat, but he stayed in Jerusalem. Under Joab, _Israel_ attacked the sons of Ammon and besieged the city of Rabbah. However, while the army was at battle, David slept with a married woman named Bathsheba, which means, "daughter of an oath", and she became pregnant. Ultimately, David had the Ammonites kill her husband, Uriah the Hittite, by placing him in the front lines and having the army retreat behind him.

In 1 Chronicles 3:5, the author referred to this mother of Solomon as Bathshua, which means, "daughter of wealth". In this chapter, Bathsheba's father is Eliam, or _'El of the people_ , where in 1 Chronicles 3:5, Bathshua's father is Ammiel, or _people of 'El_. In 1 Chronicles 2:3, Judah had three sons named Er, Onan, and Shelah with Bathshua the Canaanitess. In Genesis 38, which pertains to Judah and these same three sons, Judah conceived with the daughter ( _bath_ ) of a Canaanite man named Shua, i.e., _Bathshua_. This text of 2 Samuel 11 is denigrating to David, i.e., a Judah institution, as is subtly the Genesis 38 text. One should realize the two stories refer to the same chain of events. In 1 Chronicles 7:32, Shua ( _wealth_ ) is a daughter of Heber, who is a descendant of Asher. The authors implied the alliance between Judah and the Asherites was an oath of wealth. In addition, Abraham bought the field in Hebron from the sons of Heth, and in this text, Bathsheba is married to a Hittite. The Hittites migrated into Canaan from north of Phoenicia, but a Judah institution that allied with Asherites and Ammonites ultimately displaced them, as is evident in this text. This story could represent the meaning behind Abraham's _purchase_ from the Hittites.

The author of Genesis 38 subtly conveyed the events of a Judah conquest, which reveals he belonged to the Jerusalem monarchy. However, the author of this 2 Samuel text was part of a once abandoned religious faction. Bathsheba becomes the wife of David and the mother of Solomon, but David's actions with her are harshly condemned as an oath of wealth and greed between the Asherites, the Ammonites, and the new Judah-based institution. As covered, the name _Sarah_ , Asher's daughter, is also the name of Abraham's wife, which displays the same alliance from an independent perspective. In addition, Solomon allied himself with the Ammonites via marriage, and the hand of the Ammonites killed Uriah.

David inquired about building a temple because the chest of 'Elohim resided in a tent. The temple government ultimately forced several sects of priests out of power. Therefore, the author placed these words in the mouth of Uriah.

"11. And said Uriah to David, The chest, and Israel, and Judah dwell in booths. And my lord, Joab, and servants my lord's, on the surface of the field {are} camping. And I, will I go to my house to eat, and to drink, and to lie with my wife? {By} your life and the life of your soul, if I will do thing this."

This decision led to the death of Uriah because he would not enter his home, thus he could not have been the father of David's child.

In the following chapter, 2 Samuel 12, Nathan the prophet admonished David for his actions with Bathsheba. The way the author presented this is rather intriguing. Nathan told David a story in which a rich man stole from a poor man, but David was the rich man. Because of this sin, Yahweh would create evil in David's household, he would give his wives to his companions- who would _know them_ in broad daylight, and the child born to him would die. This punishment was delivered because the new institution in Judah became greedy for money and power. _Bathsheba_ means, "daughter of an oath", but _Bathshua_ means, "daughter of wealth", and again, all is consistent.

The son of David and Bathsheba became ill, which moved David to inquire of 'Elohim, but the deity killed the child as foretold. David comforted Bathsheba and was _with her_ again. She later gave birth to a son they named Solomon. Yahweh loved the child and sent word through Nathan, who called him Jedidiah, which means, "beloved of Yah". The word used to denote _beloved_ is related to the word _dowd_. _Jedidiah_ was a symbolic name for the institution of Solomon that represents the coalescence of the worship of Dodo and the new Yahweh religion.

The chapter moves to an end and _Israel_ utterly defeated the resilient Ammonites. Joab fought against Rabbah and captured the water supply of the city. He then messaged David to either assemble the troops and seize Rabbah, or submit the glory of victory, as well as the name of the city. David then gathered the troops and he captured Rabbah, took the crown from the king, and made slaves of all the people. He accomplished the same with the remaining Ammonite cities, which conveys an absolute defeat and complete enslavement of the Ammonites. As with certain battles against the Philistines, this story could be fictional. However, the battle could depict an attack against and possibly a subjugation of the Ammonites by a religious faction that was later overthrown by the Solomon monarchy. Not only did Solomon marry an Ammonitess (1 Kings 14:21), he worshiped their deities (1 Kings 11:7), i.e., allied with their government.

2 Samuel 13 continues with the author admonishing this institution. As the Genesis 38 story of Judah and the daughter of Shua ( _Bathshua_ ) is followed by a story of Tamar, the story of David and Bathsheba is followed by another story of Tamar, which is not a coincidence. Absalom, the son of David, had a virgin sister by the name of Tamar, who his brother Amnon loved. The name _Tamar_ means, "erect", and denotes a _palm tree_. In addition, the name _Ithamar_ means, "coast of Tamar", which could intimate an affinity between the two entities.

Amnon, who represents the Ammonites, had a shrewd friend named Jonadab, who was the son of David's brother Shimeah. The name _Shimeah_ was derived from the word _shama_ ( _hearing_ ), which is found in the names _Ishmael_ and _Simeon_. _Shimeah_ represents a sect of Simeonites, which is sensible as a brother of David, i.e., Judah. In 1 Chronicles 4:20, Amnon is a son of Simeon, i.e., would-be Ammonites at one time lived in Simeon territory before it was appropriated by Judah. _Jonadab_ probably represents a sect of Simeonite priests.

Amnon revealed his love for Tamar to Jonadab, who devised a way for Amnon to be with her alone and thus he was able to defile her. After Amnon slept with his stepsister, his love turned to hate. He had Tamar removed from his presence, thus she tore her virgin garment and put ashes upon her forehead. When Absalom noticed the condition of his sister, he asked her if she had been with her brother, but when he learned the truth, he instructed her to keep it a secret as he plotted to kill Amnon. Tamar went on to live in disgrace in the house of Absalom.

Absalom had sheep shearers in Baal-Hazor, which was a city near Ephraim. He invited the king and his servants to join him there and although the king declined, Amnon and the rest of his brothers joined him. Absalom ordered his servants to murder Amnon, but the report came to David that Absalom had killed all of his sons. When David realized only Amnon was dead, Absalom fled to Talmai, the king of Geshur (his grandfather), and was there for three years.

Absalom killed Amnon (the _Ammonites_ ) because of the attack on Tamar. In Deuteronomy 34:3 and 2 Chronicles 28:15, authors referred to Jericho as the _City of Palm Tree_ s. If _Tamar_ represents Jericho, _Ithamar_ could represent the priests in the city, which became a possession of the new Judah coalition; hence, Ithamar was a son of Aaron. However, Jericho would not remain a religious center of the united monarchy, which is why Judah never slept with Tamar again (Genesis 38:26), and Ithamar fell in prominence to Eleazar (1 Chronicles 24:4). In Judges 3:13, the king of Moab:

"13. gathered to him the sons of Ammon and Amalek. And went and struck Israel, and they possessed the city of palm trees."

An author conveyed Moab and Ammon as relatives of Abraham, i.e., Judah, who were conceived of incest, which correlates well with the story of Amnon and Tamar. As stated, I believe Moab and Ammon assaulted Jericho as allies of a faction in Judah. Jericho was a city of Benjamin on the border of Ephraim. When Absalom's men killed Amnon at Baal-Hazor ( _Village of Baal_ ), which was near Ephraim, the author most likely referred to a battle at Jericho, which was _near Ephraim_. An _Absalom_ institution controlled the city of Jericho, which is why Tamar lived in his house, but the Judah coalition conquered the city, thus Absalom fled to Geshur.

In 2 Samuel 14, Absalom and the _king_ are reunited in Jerusalem. Joab understood the heart of the king missed Absalom, thus he had a wise woman from Tekoa approach him and ask a series of questions involving two of her sons, one of which killed the other. The woman's family had stood against her and demanded she hand over the guilty son, which was the only heir to her dead husband. As the king defended the woman against her family, he realized his own transgression against his exiled son. He understood her presence was the work of Joab, therefore, he asked him to bring Absalom back from Geshur. Joab fell to the ground and paid homage to the king because he had granted the request of his servant. Then Joab left for Geshur and brought Absalom back to Jerusalem, but the king did not want to see him. The author displayed Joab's desire for the return of Absalom to be quite significant, but Joab's support for Absalom is conspicuously absent in forthcoming texts.

With verse 25, a redactor wove in a segment from an independent Absalom narrative. The consolidation of the two traditions created a father and son relation between him and David. Not unlike the stories of the rise and fall of Saul, there is praise woven within the rise and fall of Absalom. He was the most handsome man in _Israel_ and from the sole of his foot to the crown of his head there was not a defect. He had a full head of hair that he cut once a year that weighed out at two hundred shekels. Absalom had three sons and a beautiful daughter named Tamar. His daughter Tamar again represents the city of Jericho; the author did not mention her beauty merely to convey esthetics. His _daughter_ may represent the Absalom institution's control over Jericho before the aforementioned coalition conquered the city.

The name _Absalom_ can be translated as _father of shalom_. Due to the fact the word _shalom_ was derived from the same word as Salem, _Absalom_ probably represents a religious institution that moved to power in the city. However, the name _Solomon_ was also derived from the word _shalom_. Therefore, one can translate the name _Absalom_ as _father of Solomon_ , or the leader or king in Salem before the Solomon institution. When authors later ascribed generations of history to the figure of David, in part due to consolidation, David became the father of Solomon, i.e., the king or institution that preceded the Solomon monarchy in Jerusalem.

Absalom lived in Jerusalem for two years without seeing the king. In his efforts to see his father, he sent messages to Joab, who did not respond, which incited Absalom to set the fields of Joab on fire. The story makes it appear that Joab wanted to keep the two apart, but he was the one who brought them together, which again displays independent traditions. The contention between Joab (Bethlehem) and Absalom (Salem/Hebron) could have been sourced from a more extensive tradition of warring factions during the represented era.

Joab finally told the king that Absalom wanted to see him. Absalom came to the king and prostrated himself in obeisance. However, what is intriguing in this chapter is the author never referred to the king as _David_ , but merely _the king_. In all the other chapters concerning David, he is predominantly referred to as _David_ or _King David_ , hence, the change is significant. This segment of the story was most likely derived from an independent tradition that was later consolidated with the David narratives.

In 2 Samuel 15, Absalom canvassed the _people of Israel_ and he increasingly stole their loyalty. After forty years, he told _the king_ that when he was in Geshur of Aram, he made a vow to Yahweh of Hebron. If the deity brought him back to Jerusalem, he would become the deity's servant. Therefore, _the king_ sent him in peace to Hebron.

Absalom left Jerusalem for Hebron, where he will be crowned king, then make a move back into Jerusalem, and force David out of the city. As stated, David is not a historic figure and merely represents different eras and various institutions (often opposing) that preceded the short-lived united monarchy. Absalom was the _father of Salem_ , i.e., the father of the move by a Judah-based institution into Salem, which the Solomon monarchy supplanted. David represents sects in Bethlehem and Hebron that allied together, centered their government in Hebron, and then made the _same_ move into Salem, or Jerusalem. Due to the fact the figures in part represent the same events, authors made Absalom a son of David and had him flee from the king to Geshur of Aram, which most likely refers to the Geshurites from Aram who settled in the region of Gilead (Absalom's mother was Maacah, i.e., the Maacathites). Therefore, he fled across the Jordan, but later returned and thus brought an Aramean element back into Hebron (Rebekah and Rachel), from where he made a move into Jerusalem, as David already accomplished.

Absalom arrived in Hebron and the people declared him king. He brought a number of men with him, but they went along innocently and unaware of the revolt against _the king_. Absalom then sent for Ahithophel the Gilonite, who was David's counselor. From this point on, the texts predominantly refer to the king as _David_ , with layers of a _king_ narrative interwoven. The name _Ahithophel_ appears to have been derived from the words _ach_ and _taphel_ , or _brother of foolishness_ , which is a curious name for a counselor.

The support for Absalom increased and David, who recently had most of Palestine under his yoke, left the city of Jerusalem. The king departed with his servants and the people of his household, but he left ten concubines behind to keep the palace. As they were leaving Jerusalem, all the servants of David passed before him, including the Cherethites, the Pelethites, and the Gittites, who numbered six hundred from Gath. In several instances of numbered troops (1 Samuel 23:13, Judges 18:11, 1 Samuel 30:9, 1 Samuel 14:2, etc.), authors used the number _six hundred_ because the number six was derived from a word that means, "surplus", or beyond the five fingers on the hand. Hence, _six hundred troops_ merely means a _surplus of troops_. Therefore, a significant army from Gath came to the aid of David. These texts of the Old Testament have placed the Judah-Philistine alliance right out in the open for those who are willing to accept it. However, as with all aspects of the narratives, there is always the other side of the battle and those who were against the Philistines. Thus, David asked Ittai the Gittite why he was joining them, but Ittai was with him for life or death. The king and all the people passed over the Kidron Brook.

Zadok and the Levites left with David and brought the chest of 'Elohim. They placed it on the ground and Abiathar came forward until all the people had left the city. David then told Zadok to return the chest to Jerusalem and if he found favor in the eyes of Yahweh, the deity would reunite him with the chest. However, this symbol of religious power was not actually in their possession. This camp represented by David was another group exiled across the Jordan, only they would return as allies of the united monarchy.

David instructed Zadok the priest to return to Jerusalem with his son Ahimaaz and Jonathan, the son of Abiathar, and David would wait for their word. He then traveled to Mount Olives, where he later heard Ahithophel was one of Absalom's conspirators. He asked Yahweh to render his council foolish ( _brother of foolishness_ ). When David arrived at the summit where they worshiped 'Elohim (a mountain deity), he seen Hushai the Archite. David instructed Hushai to return to Absalom and pretend to serve him, but instead he would thwart his counsel. Whatever he heard he would report to Zadok and Abiathar, who would tell Ahimaaz and Jonathan, who would return the news to David.

2 Samuel 16 continues the David and Absalom narrative. During his escape from Jerusalem, David came across Ziba, who had food, wine, donkeys, and other assistance for the king. David asked him the whereabouts of his master's son, i.e., Mephibosheth, which is an interesting change of perspective that omits Jonathan. Ziba informed him that Mephibosheth stayed in Jerusalem because he thought his father's kingdom would be restored to him. However, Saul's kingdom was in Gibeah, not Jerusalem. The king then gave Ziba everything that belonged to Mephibosheth.

David arrived at Bahurim and a man from the house of Saul came out to meet him. When Michal was returned to David from Laish, her husband followed her weeping all the way to Bahurim, which could imply a point of resistance between religious factions. The man who came out to meet David was Shimei, the son of Gera. He was cursing and throwing stones at David due to the blood of the house of Saul. Abishai, the son of Zeruiah, wanted to kill him, but the king rebuked him and the sons of Zeruiah, which continues his unbelievable benevolence toward his enemies (who usually inevitably die). The name _Shimei_ is found numerous times in the narratives, but it is likely the instances refer to the same entity. Shimei, from the now familiar _shama_ , was a Reubenite (1 Chronicles 5:4), a Simeonite (1 Chronicles 4:26), a Ramathite (1 Chronicles 27:27), and various Levites, and all the aforementioned were exiled out of Judah. _Shimei_ most likely represents a camp of Simeonites (would-be Levites) that migrated north.

After Absalom and his followers arrived in Jerusalem, he asked Ahithophel for council on the affairs with David. Ahithophel advised Absalom to sleep with the concubines who his father left to care for the palace. This act would move _Israel_ to realize he was detestable to his father, thus Absalom's followers would be encouraged. Absalom moved on this advice in front of _all of Israel_ , which could represent an attempt to align himself with the allies of the banished king. The chapter ends by conveying the advice of Ahithophel was regarded as the word of 'Elohim to both Absalom and David, thus the name was changed to harbor negative connotations.

In 2 Samuel 17, Ahithophel wanted to take twelve thousand men and pursue David in a surprise attack while he was weak and on the run. He would only kill David and then return the people back to Absalom, which he thought would bring peace throughout the kingdom. Ahithophel impressed Absalom and the _elders of Israel_ with his advice, but Absalom also summoned Hushai the Archite. Hushai advised Absalom to instead gather all the men from Dan to Beersheba and then march into battle with them. They would attack and eliminate David and his men regardless of where they fled. Due to the design of Yahweh, Absalom preferred the advice of Hushai the Archite. After he left the new king, Hushai went and told Zadok and Abiathar about the counsel that both men gave to Absalom. Therefore, they were to instruct David not to spend the night on the plains of the Jordan, but his people should cross over to avoid their demise.

Jonathan and Ahimaaz were in hiding at En-Rogel, where a servant girl would bring them information, which they in turn would bring to King David. However, an informant seen them and they had to escape to a house in Bahurim (pivotal city). The two hid in a courtyard well while the woman of the house told Absalom's servants they had fled toward the water. After the coast was clear, they informed the king to cross the Jordan immediately because Ahithophel had counseled against him. However, when Ahithophel realized his advice had _not_ been followed (independent traditions), he returned home, set his affairs in order, and he hung himself. He was buried in the tomb of his father.

David and his people had crossed the Jordan by daybreak. By the time Absalom and the _men of Israel_ crossed, David had arrived at Mahanaim. At this time, Absalom appointed Amasa over the army in place of Joab. Amasa was the son of an _Israelite_ named _Ithra_ , which is a variation of the name _Jether_ , and in 1 Chronicles 2:17, _Jether the Ishmaelite_ is the father of Amasa. He could represent the southern coalition covered previously. In addition, the fact the author referred to him as an _Israelite_ is not an insignificant occasion. In the texts thus far, authors have referred to the people of Judah and Israel as being from their respective cities or regions, as a Ramathite, Ephraimite, Gadite, Gileadite, etc., and as discussed, this instance is only the second time an author used the term _Israelite_ , as opposed to the _sons of Israel_ collectively. Therefore, the author may have referred to Ithra as an _Israelite_ to either conceal the fact he was a foreigner, or to display he had foreign ancestry, but was now an Israelite. However, due to the Ishmaelite ancestry of Jether in 1 Chronicles 2, certain texts (Septuagint) state Ithra was an Ishmaelite. Furthermore, and to add ambiguity to the chapter, Ithra married Abigail, the daughter of Nahash, and she was the sister of Zeruiah, the mother of Joab. The author conveyed Nahash, an Ammonite king, as the father of David's sister without mentioning the relation to David. The 1 Chronicles 2 passage on the descendants of Jesse reads:

"David seventh. 16. Their sisters were Zeruiah and Abigail. Zeruiah's three sons: Abishai, Joab, and Asahel. 17. Amasa's mother was Abigail, and his father was Jether the Ishmaelite."

After reading this quote, it becomes obvious the two passages refer to the same entities. However, since the narrative as of late has been a weave of _David_ and the _king_ traditions, one can understand why the author failed to mention a relation between Nahash and David. However, due to the antipathy toward the Ammonites harbored by certain peoples, as well as the verses in 1 Chronicles 2, certain texts state Abigail is the daughter of Jesse. Furthermore, as covered in 1 Samuel, Abigail (Jether's wife) is also portrayed as a wife of David. Since _Jether_ represents the same coalition as _Jethro_ , it places him in Judah during the period when the southern alliance conquered the region. Authors depicted the same conquests in 1 Samuel, thus David in part represents the same entity as Jether, which explains why in independent traditions both David and Jether married Abigail. However, where do Nahash and the Ammonites fit in? In 1 Chronicles 4:12, a descendant of Judah named Techinnah fathered Nahash. As authors continuously conveyed, peoples from Benjamin and Judah were exiled across the Jordan to the region of Ammon and Moab. However, a segment of these people could have _fathered_ the neighboring region of Gilead, thus Nahash fathered Abigail, or the _father of Gilead_.

Absalom and _Israel_ camped in Gilead while David and his men were in Mahanaim. At this time, Shobi (the son of Nahash from Rabbah), Machir (the son of Ammiel from Lodebar), and Barzillai the Gileadite brought food, beds, and other assistance to David and his men. The name _Shobi_ was derived from a word that can denote _captives_. In 2 Samuel 12, David conquered and enslaved the sons of Ammon, but here the Ammonites from Rabbah came to his aid.

Absalom is defeated in 2 Samuel 18. David reviewed his troops and appointed commanders over hundreds and thousands with a third under Joab, a third under Abishai, and a third under Ittai the Gittite. With the leaders in place, David wanted to join the battle, but his people advised against it. However, he told his three commanders to treat Absalom gently, which was a deleterious order heard by all the people. The verse could symbolize the mood of a sect from across the Jordan that went to battle against their former comrades, if not a later author merely playing both sides of the battle.

Even though the two armies crossed the Jordan, David's forces engaged Israel in the forest of Ephraim, which could have been a Hebrew move into the region that authors represented in the Joshua invasions. David's army defeated Israel in a great slaughter, but the forest took more victims than the sword. During the fighting, Absalom was riding on his mule when his head ( _leadership_ ) became caught in the branches of an oak tree (the _religious institution_ ). A soldier informed Joab of Absalom's predicament, but Joab admonished the soldier for not killing him immediately. Joab went and thrust three spears into the heart of Absalom while he was still alive in the tree. Then ten of Joab's armor-bearers surrounded and killed him.

Joab blew the ram's horn and the troops ceased their pursuit. They took Absalom's body, threw it into a pit, and piled a mound of stones over him. However, when Absalom was alive, he erected a pillar in the King's Valley that the people called _Absalom's Monument_ , which was still there at the time of authorship.

After the death of Absalom, Zadok's son Ahimaaz (stressing the _Aaron_ lineage) wanted to inform the king about their victory. However, since the king's son had passed, Joab wanted a Cushite to reveal the news instead. Ahimaaz persisted and Joab relented, but told the priest he would not receive a reward for his report. Ahimaaz outran the Cushite and came into first view of the watchman. David was sitting between the gates (of what city or place?) when the watchman reported a lone person running. David thought it meant good news. When the second man came into view, the king viewed it in the same manner. When he arrived to the king, Ahimaaz revealed the news of their victory, but denied knowledge of the state of Absalom. When the Cushite later revealed his fate, the king entered the gate chamber and wept. The _gate chamber_ conveys an upper room and one is left to wonder if they were in a temple, a palace, or a citadel. The ambiguity could stem from the redactor, who only included parts of separate stories in the final product. Furthermore, the author clearly denigrated the Aaron line of priests, as he intimates Ahimaaz wanted a reward for bearing the good news and declined to reveal the bad news to the king. Certain peoples of an early Judah coalition were allies of the Cushites and the author appears to have made a judgment in reference to members of the government moving forward. The story moves one to reflect on Numbers 12, in which Aaron and Miriam contended with Moses after he married a Cushite.

2 Samuel 19 is another ambiguous text in which the kingdom is restored to David. The king was continually weeping over Absalom, which was bad for the moral of the people and the men who fought for his victory. Joab went to David and told him to encourage the soldiers before he lost all their support and came upon trouble not seen since his youth. After Joab's advice or warning, the king took his seat at the _gate_ and the people came into his presence. During this time, _Israel_ had fled to their tents and the tribes were at a loss for leadership. David had delivered them from their enemies and the grasp of the Philistines. However, David fled from Absalom, who had been killed, but the king had not been restored to his place above the people. David sent word to Zadok and Abiathar and told them to ask the _elders of Judah_ why they were the last to restore their flesh and blood to his palace. Furthermore, Amasa was also David's flesh and he would become the commander over the army in place of Joab. After his message through Zadok and Abiathar, the king won over his servants and David began his return to Jerusalem. The author intimated a reluctant union between the peoples of Israel, Judah, and those across the Jordan. Due to the fact the path to the united monarchy was hostile and would displace or obliterate many peoples and factions, the event is a rather accurate though indirect portrayal by the author.

When David arrived at the Jordan, the men of Judah, as well as Shimei and Ziba, came to Gilgal to escort him across the river. Shimei, a Benjamite, claimed he was the first of the house of Joseph to greet the king, which merely displays the Simeonite presence in both regions. Abishai, the son of Zeruiah, wanted to execute Shimei, but David again admonished the sons of Zeruiah and swore that Shimei would not die.

Saul's son Mephibosheth left Jerusalem and went down disheveled to greet the king because he had not cared for himself in waiting for David's safe return. David asked Mephibosheth why he did not join him, but Mephibosheth in turn blamed it on Ziba. The king declared the two were to divide Saul's land. However, since his lord the king had returned in peace to his house (he has not in this version), Mephibosheth gave all the land to Ziba. The fact an author again omitted Jonathan in a story on Mephibosheth is rather perplexing because in 2 Samuel 9:7, for the sake of Jonathan, David restored Saul's land to Mephibosheth and said he would dine regularly at the king's table.

Barzillai the Gileadite came down from Rogelim to accompany the king to the Jordan. He provided for David in Mahanaim, but instead of joining him in Jerusalem, due to his age, he decided to die in his own city. However, before returning home, he gave David his servant Chimham. Jeremiah 41:17 references a place called Geruth Chimham, which was near Bethlehem. The figure could represent a partial settlement in Bethlehem by this group from across the Jordan, not unlike Ruth's return to Bethlehem from Moab. If the presence of _Ruth_ in the name _Geruth_ is anything more than coincidence, I cannot discern. The word _ger_ can denote an _immigrant_ , thus name _Geruth_ may imply an _immigrant friend_ or _neighbor_ , i.e., Moabites in Chimham.

The king and Chimham went on from Gilgal and all the troops of Judah and half from Israel escorted him, which conveys support in each country for the new alliance. Then the author placed forth a curious contention over the king between the men of Israel and Judah, but he stated Judah's words were harsher than those of Israel. However, I am compelled to inquire if they were actually fighting over the history of David, i.e., Judah, which was the history of both peoples due to the exiles from Judah who settled in Israel ("J/I").

In 2 Samuel 20, there is another story about a rebellion in Benjamin. There was a worthless or _belial_ man from Benjamin named _Sheba_ ( _oath_ in Benjamin), who was a son of Birchi. Sheba blew the ram's horn and told the people they had no portion in David, no inheritance in the son of Jesse. The men of Israel, who in the last chapter stated they were first to restore the king, followed Sheba, but the men of Judah, from the Jordan to Jerusalem, remained loyal to David. After the contention over David in the last chapter, it should be obvious this rebellion is out of place in the narrative. A redactor wove another tradition within the accounts of David, but one should not view the rebellion as a chronological occurrence in _Israel's_ history.

When David arrived in Jerusalem, he placed the ten concubines he left to care for the palace under guard and was never intimate with them again, which implies forced labor, imprisonment, or death for those who sided with the opposing institution. He then told Amasa to assemble the men of Judah and return to him in three days. Amasa took longer than the allotted time, thus David placed the men of Joab, the Cherethites, and the Pelethites under Abishai and they left Jerusalem to pursue Sheba. Amasa joined the forces of Judah when they were at the great stone in Gibeon, which coincidentally became his tombstone. The _stone of Gibeon_ symbolizes the religious institution, which displaced a sect from Jerusalem when the two religious centers consolidated. Joab acted as if he was going to kiss Amasa, the commander of the Jerusalem army, but stabbed him with his sword instead. Amasa was lying on the road writhing in blood and all the men who encountered him stopped at that point. Therefore, one of Joab's men moved him off the road and covered him with a blanket, after which the men of war passed the body and continued to follow Joab. He and Abishai pursued Sheba through all the tribes of Israel to Abel Beth-Maacah, where the Berites gathered and joined him. Joab and his men were besieging Sheba at Abel Beth-Maacah when a woman implored him not to destroy a mother city of Israel. Joab relented, thus the people of the city cut off Sheba's head and delivered it him, i.e., allied with the new institution.

The chapter moves to an end with some familiar information.

"Joab commanded the army of Israel, Benaiah, the son of Jehoiada, was over the Cherethites and Pelethites, Adoram was in charge of forced labor, Jehoshaphat, son of Ahilud, was court recorder, Sheva was court secretary, Zadok and Abiathar were priests, and Ira the Jairite was a priest for David."

Adoram, or the _lord of Ram_ , was over the forced labor. I have previously associated _Ram_ with the country of Aram, which could imply the Aramean element of the institution at one time enslaved the common man of Palestine. Albeit authors would have one believe all the slaves in _Israel_ were foreigners, other texts clearly display this was not the case. The name _Sheva_ was derived from the word _shav_ , which means, "false" or "deceitful". In 1 Chronicles 18:16, the court secretary is _Shavsha_ , a name an author may have changed to _Sheva_ when the entity was displaced in this religious establishment. Finally, Ira the priest represents an era before the priests had to be Levites or sons of Aaron.

2 Samuel 21 is an interesting text concerning a famine in the days of David. Yahweh brought on the famine because Saul and his house, in a _zeal for the sons of Israel and Judah_ , killed the Gibeonites, who had made an alliance with Joshua (Joshua 9). Verse 2 states the Gibeonites were not _sons of Israel_ , but a remnant of the Amorites. However, in 1 Chronicles 8, Kish and Saul are from Gibeon, and the _Edomites_ in the Gibeonite cities allied with the Hivites (Joshua 9:7), who the author failed to mention in this story. Furthermore, an army of Judah conquered the Gibeonite cities, which included ancestors of the would-be _sons of Israel_. Hence, moving forward, I attempt to discern the intent of this already specious text.

David called upon the Gibeonites, who asked for requital via seven sons of the house of Saul. They would expose these sons before Yahweh in Gibeah. Saul was a Gibeonite, and the _seven sons_ actually symbolize people who made an _oath_ with another entity against the house of Saul, who is intentionally absent in the Joshua 9 text (for obvious reasons). In verse 7, David spared Mephibosheth because of his oath with Jonathan, but this verse is most likely an interpolation by an author who supported _Mephibosheth_ , as opposed to the author who mentioned the name while omitting the name Jonathan. After the interpolation, David gathered Armoni and Mephibosheth, the two sons of Saul and Rizpah, who was the daughter of Aiah, as well as the five sons of Merab (daughter of Saul) and Adriel, who was the son of Barzillai the Meholathite, and he gave them to the Gibeonites, who executed them before Yahweh during the time of harvest. The name _Armoni_ was derived from a word that means, "citadel" or "palace". Hence, one can interpret the first two men executed as the _Palace of Mephibosheth_ , which is the same entity an interpolating author had David spare. The Palace of Mephibosheth was a product of a sect that defected from the Gibeon institution and joined the Judah alliance. Armoni and Mephibosheth were the sons of Saul and Rizpah (the daughter of Aiah), the latter slept with Abner (2 Samuel 3:7), who later defected to Judah (then he was also killed). The other five executed, though the author failed to mention their names, the total number had to be _seven_ to express the _oath_ with Judah, were the sons of Saul's eldest daughter Merab and her husband Adriel. His father Barzillai the Meholathite came to the aid of David i.e., Judah, in 2 Samuel 17:27, and greeted him at the Jordan in 2 Samuel 19:31. Actually, Barzillai the Gileadite came to David, but Abel-Meholah was in Gilead, thus the two names refer to the same entity. The seven men executed from the house of Saul were associated with entities that either assisted or defected to the Judah institution that conquered the Gibeon establishment. The author noted and defamed the defectors, though it was accomplished in an indirect manner to maintain a unified _sons of Israel_.

In early traditions, authors did not portray Jonathan as a son of Saul. Nevertheless, Jonathan defected to David, i.e., the Judah-based institution. In 2 Samuel 16:3, David asked Ziba, "where is the son of your master", and an author referred to Mephibosheth as _Saul's son_ in 2 Samuel 19:24. These verses refer to the original Mephibosheth, _the_ _son of Saul_ , who was executed in verse 9 of this chapter. However, an author who supported the entity created a new character in the _Israelite_ history and made him a son of Jonathan, _the son of Saul_. He introduced the new Mephibosheth into the narratives in 2 Samuel 4:4 at a place where the passage obviously did not belong. Then David engendered the figure in 2 Samuel 9, but as stated, it was the original Mephibosheth who appeared without a mention of Jonathan in chapters 16 & 19. Furthermore, to explain Mephibosheth's change in fate, the new character was declared lame, and in antiquity, only the best of the herd or flock was sacrificed to the deity.

"21. And a man when brings near a sacrifice of peace-offerings to Yahweh, to complete a vow, or of a freewill-offering of the herd, or of the flock, whole, it will be to be acceptable any blemish not must be in it. 22. Blind, or broken, or maimed, or having a flow, or scurvy, or scabbed, not you must bring near these to Yahweh." (Leviticus 22)

After David surrendered the house of Saul for execution, he retrieved the bones of Saul and Jonathan from Jabesh-Gilead, gathered the bones of those executed, and buried them all in the tomb of Kish, which continues the gratuitous benevolence by David toward his enemies, and in this case, those who he relinquished for execution.

The following short passages about conflicts with the Philistines appear to have originated during an era that probably pre-dated the David narratives. The Philistines waged war against _Israel_ , but David became exhausted. Ishbi-Benob, who was Rapha's (the _giant_ ) descendant, wanted to kill David, but Abishai, the son of Zeruiah, killed the Philistine. The name _Ishbi-Benob_ means, "his dwelling is Nob", and it was in Nob that David received the weapons of Goliath, i.e., aid of the Philistines. There was an early faction in Bethlehem that an author represented with these events, but the later leaders of Bethlehem coalesced with the institution in Hebron that allied with the Philistines. Furthermore, a division of the old Judah hierarchy was exiled out of the region, but their ancestors later returned and the histories of various peoples from opposing religious sects were later consolidated under a unified _Israel Nation_ , which created the apparent dichotomy with David and the Philistines. Another battle with the Philistines was at Gob, where Elhanan, the son of Jaare-Oregim the Bethlehemite, killed Goliath the Gittite. In 1 Chronicles 20:5, the text states _brother of Goliath_ , which accommodates the later story that gave credit to David for this accomplishment.

In 2 Samuel 24, due to his anger at the _sons of Israel_ , Yahweh, i.e., Judah, moved David to number the people, which in reality was for draft and tax purposes. David told Joab to number the troops from Dan to Beersheba, but Joab was against the census, i.e., against the institution that would arise to power over the united monarchy. Joab and his commanders left to register the people. They crossed the Jordan to Aroer and proceeded toward Gad and Jazer. Then they went to Gilead, to land of the Hittites, to Dan-Jaan and Sidon, to Tyre and the cities of the Hivites and the Canaanites, and finally to Beersheba in the Negev of Judah. The author mentioned the land of the Hittites and the cities of the Hivites and the Canaanites, even though the deity purportedly gave their land to the _sons of Israel_ and authors constantly wrote of their demise. In this text, it appears Joab numbered the peoples of these lands as part of the _sons of Israel_. At the end of nine months, Joab and his men returned to Jerusalem and they had numbered eight hundred thousand men of war from Israel and five hundred thousand from Judah. Interestingly, the author again displayed the countries as two distinct entities, as opposed to members of the twelve tribes, which he did not even mention in the areas traveled.

David was troubled after the census and he asked Yahweh to remove his guilt. The author played both sides of David; Yahweh prompted him to number the people, but David still felt guilty and thus the author was against the new centralized government (displayed when Samuel was against the kingship). Yahweh instructed the prophet Gad to approach David and offer him three choices for the penalty of his actions. The choices were three years of famine in his land, three months fleeing from his foes, or three days of a plague in his land, the latter of which David chose. Yahweh sent a plague upon the _land of Israel_ and seventy thousand men died from Dan to Beersheba. The seventy thousand, from the familiar word _sheba_ , could represent the Judah alliance that conquered the lands of Judah and Israel. The story of the plague most likely symbolizes the religious wars that ravaged the region during a time that preceded the united monarchy. However, when the angel (thus far absent in the story) extended his hand to destroy Jerusalem, Yahweh relented his destruction and told the angel to withdraw his hand. At that point, the angel was at the floor of Araunah the Jebusite, which was the future location of the temple in Jerusalem. Hence, per the story, the religious wars brought death upon the land of Canaan until the region was unified under the short-lived united monarchy.

With verse 17, a later layer or amendment to the story begins. When David perceived the angel's hand of death, he asked Yahweh to punish him instead of the innocent _people of Israel_ , even though Yahweh had already ceased the carnage in verse 16. Then the prophet Gad told David to erect an altar on the floor of Araunah the Jebusite, which the author clearly had him purchase. The Jebusite wanted to give David the threshing floor and oxen for a sacrifice, but like with Abraham and the field in Hebron, David assisted on purchasing them. David legally purchased the future home of the deity, thus it was the rightful possession of the new institution. After David rendered offerings to Yahweh, the deity answered his prayers on behalf of the people and the plague over _Israel_ ended.

Table of Contents

On the First Book of Kings

1 Kings 1 moves the narrative to the history of the kings of Israel and Judah.

David was growing old and Abishag the Shunammite cared for him, but he _never knew_ her. At this time, Adonijah, the son of Haggith, made a move for the kingship. Adonijah aligned himself with Joab and Abiathar the priest. However, Zadok, Benaiah, Nathan the prophet, Shimei, Rei, and David's mighty men (Philistines) supported Solomon. I covered these advocates of Solomon previously, except for _Rei_ , which means, "neighbor", and most likely refers to the Ammonites and/or Moabites. In addition, _Shimei_ represents a group of Simeonites who were forced out of Judah, migrated into regions of Ephraim and Benjamin, and for a time allied with the united monarchy. Due to these separate religious factions, it becomes obvious that certain authors denigrated Joab because he supported the _other_ institution. There is not a version of the Adonijah movement in the Chronicles history.

Adonijah declared himself king, but his father never discouraged him, which means he had the support of at least one Levitical sect. Adonijah prepared sacrifices near the stone of Zoheleth by En-Rogel. He invited the royal family, the men of Judah, and the servants of the king. However, he did not invite Nathan the prophet, Benaiah, David's mighty men, or his brother Solomon. After hearing of these actions, Nathan went to Bathsheba and told her Adonijah had declared himself king unbeknownst to David. Therefore, Nathan sent Bathsheba to David. She was to tell him that he swore Solomon would become king and then ask why Adonijah had taken the throne. At that point, Nathan would enter the room and confirm her words. When Bathsheba informed David of Adonijah's actions, she added that if Solomon did not succeed David on the throne, the new leaders would treat her and her son as criminals, which most likely implied their execution. Nathan arrived right on schedule and reiterated the words of Bathsheba, thus David decided to declare Solomon king. He asked Zadok the priest, Nathan the prophet, and Benaiah to be summoned. Solomon was to ride on David's mule to Gihon, where Zadok and Nathan would anoint him the _king of Israel_. Then Solomon would join David upon the throne.

Zadok the priest, Nathan the prophet, Benaiah- the son of Jehoiada, the Cherethites, and the Pelethites went down and declared Solomon king. They blew the ram's horn and all the people proclaimed, "Long live King Solomon!" The uproar was loud enough to hear at the feast of Adonijah. When Jonathan, the son of Abiathar, informed Adonijah that Solomon had been anointed by Zadok the priest and David had declared him king, his guests fled and he became afraid. Solomon told Adonijah if he were a man of character, he would not be harmed. Adonijah paid homage to Solomon, who then sent him to his home.

In 1 Kings 2, David instructed Solomon on the fate of Joab, the son of Zeruiah. Solomon was to show kindness to the sons of Barzillai the Gileadite, whose grandsons David submitted for execution in 2 Samuel 21:8, but to beware of Shimei, who David swore would not be killed in 2 Samuel 19:23. Hence, a priest from a different religious movement (than the author of the referenced verses) obviously wrote this segment of the history.

David passed away and he was buried in the city of David, which displays a geographical move of prominence from Hebron, where Abraham, Jacob, and other figures of importance were buried. Solomon was on the throne with his kingdom firmly established, but then Adonijah asked Bathsheba to persuade Solomon to give him Abishag for a wife. The authors portrayed Bathsheba, or _Judah's oath of wealth_ , as an entity with power. She moved David to murder and it was her child who became king. In fact, Solomon bowed to her when she came in his presence and he placed a throne for her at his right hand. The Levitical school never supported this figure, but here she beseeched Solomon in the name of Adonijah. In Joshua 19:18, Shunem (Abishag was a Shunammite) is a town of Issachar. Issachar camped with Judah in Numbers 2, and the Philistines camped in Shunem when the Judah alliance prepared to attack Israel (1 Samuel 28:4). Therefore, Shunem was a pivotal northern ally of Judah in its move toward control over the united monarchy. Adonijah wanted to obtain this consort and gain a foothold in northern Israel. The name _Abishag_ means, "father of error", and Adonijah's petition was an error and would cost him his life. To Adonijah's request, Solomon replied:

"Also ask the kingdom for he my brother older is, even for him, and for Abiathar the priest, and for Joab the son of Zeruiah."

Solomon sent Benaiah to kill Adonijah, and then he exiled Abiathar the priest (the liberals) to the fields of Anathoth:

"to fulfill the word of Yahweh concerning the house of Eli at Shiloh."

The quoted text is most likely an interpolation. The author wanted to discredit the Shiloh priests who presided under Solomon by stating Abiathar was the only surviving priest of Shiloh, but Solomon exiled him from the new institution. Judah and the Philistines conquered the Shiloh religious establishment, but a division of the Shiloh priests allied with the Judah coalition. Then, a liberal sect of priests supported Adonijah over Solomon, thus he exiled them to Anathoth. Due to the fact Anathoth was a city to the Goddess Anat, the passage could imply her cult was cast out of the united monarchy.

When Joab learned of the death of Adonijah, he fled to Yahweh and grasped the horns of the altar. Solomon sent Benaiah to execute Joab because he had taken the lives Abner and Amasa. Then the king appointed Benaiah as the commander over the army in the place of Joab, and he appointed Zadok as priest in the place of Abiathar. In the texts leading to this event, Zadok and Abiathar presided as priests together, but this author would have one believe that Abiathar was the priest and Zadok was appointed in his place. This change in the priesthood from Abiathar to Zadok actually represents a movement of religious supremacy from the would-be Levites to the sons of Aaron, which may have occurred with the consolidation of the Gibeon and Jerusalem institutions. The texts in which the two men presided as priests together could display a one-time alliance between the two sects, if not merely the consolidation of the Jerusalem and Gibeon histories.

Finally, Solomon called for Shimei. He told him to build a house in Jerusalem and not to leave the city; the day he crossed over the Kidron Brook is the day he would die. This is the same Shimei who cursed David, but it appears these Simeonites supported the new monarchy, which an author implied when Shimei greeted David during his return to Jerusalem. At that time, Abishai wanted to kill him due to his seemingly convenient change in allegiance. Furthermore, in the lasts words of David, he conveyed his distrust toward Shimei. When the author moved him into Jerusalem, but commanded him not to leave the city, he conveyed these reservations with an implied threat. This condition was agreeable to Shimei, who for a time lived in Jerusalem. After about three years, two of Shemei's slaves escaped to Achish, the son of Maacah, the king of Gath. The name Maacah mentioned in association with a Philistine king could point to a Judah-Philistine coalition that included Arameans (covered Gen. 22). When the servants of Shimei fled to Gath, it implies a division of the house of Shimei remained allied with the Judah-Philistine coalition, while the remainder rebelled against the new alliance. Therefore, King Solomon commanded Benaiah to execute Shimei, and then the kingdom was firmly established in his hands.

1 Kings 3 is an earlier text that a later Levitical school amended. Solomon made an alliance with Egypt by marrying a daughter of Pharaoh, which an author may have conveyed when he wrote of Abram and Sarai in Egypt. Then, in verse 2:

"Only the people were sacrificing in high places, for not had been built a house for the name of Yahweh until days those."

There was a temple in Shiloh, and there were certainly religious houses in Shechem, Bethel, Hebron, Beersheba, Bethlehem, and in cities across of the Jordan. However, this author attempted to explain why the people's ancestors sacrificed at the high places when later institutions condemned them.

Solomon loved Yahweh and he walked in the statutes of his father David, except he sacrificed and burned incense at the high places. Verse 2 offered a reason for these places of worship, but this author subtly condemned them. High places were a standard and accepted part of _Israel's religion_ until later times when the government was implementing centralization of worship. This early acceptance becomes apparent when Solomon went to Gibeon to sacrifice, "that was a great high place", which an author obviously wrote during an era when the high places were an important aspect of the religion. This act of Solomon did not displease the deity, as Yahweh appeared to him in a dream and when Solomon asked for the ability to judge his people, Yahweh blessed him with great wisdom.

In the narrative, this chapter represents a period before the construction of the temple, and Solomon sacrificed at the _great high place in Gibeon_. Therefore, the story subtly points to a time when the sons of Aaron and a Judah coalition were still presiding in Gibeon. The new temple actually represents the coalescence of the Jerusalem and Gibeon establishments, hence, the crowning achievement that was the united monarchy.

1 Kings 4 includes a list of twelve officers who were in charge of provisions for Solomon's household one month out of the year. If at this time the _twelve tribes of Israel_ existed as they are known today, these officers would have been designated as an officer from each state, which is not the case. I only cover seven of the officials.

The first officer was Ben-Hur, i.e., _son of Hur_ , in the hill country of Ephraim. This officer represents a camp from Aram that allied with the sons of Aaron and the Judah-based institution. The Hur in this chapter represents the same people as the companion of Aaron in Exodus 17 & 24, as well as a son of Caleb and Ephratah in 1 Chronicles 2:19. The implied _whiteness_ , as opposed to the darkness of the Egyptians, Arabs, and Ethiopians (Cushites), displays the mixed ethnicity of this early institution.

Ben-Abinadab ( _son of the father of Nadab_ ) was the officer in the region of Dor, which was an ancient Canaanite city that later belong to west Manasseh (Joshua 17:11), but may have been appropriated by Ephraim (1 Chronicles 7:29). He married Taphath, the daughter of King Solomon. This official symbolizes a sons of Aaron sect that allied with the kingship, hence, the marriage to the daughter of Solomon.

Ben-Geber was the official over Ramoth-Gilead, the towns of Jair in Gilead, and the region of Argob in Bashan.

Ahinadab ( _brother of Nadab_ ), the son of Iddo, was the officer in Mahanaim across the Jordan. He represents peoples in Gilead who allied with the united monarchy. In 2 Chronicles 9:29, Iddo was a seer who wrote about the matters of the reign of King Solomon.

Ahimaaz was the officer over the region of Naphtali. He married Basemath, the daughter of King Solomon. Ahimaaz is a son of Zadok the priest in 2 Samuel 15:36, thus part of the sons of Aaron alliance, which is also displayed by his marriage to the daughter of Solomon. Basemath is portrayed as a daughter of Ishmael in Genesis 36:3, and of Elon the Hittite in Genesis 26:34, both of whom Esau married (same event). Ahimaaz was an official in Naphtali and a sect of Edomites migrated to this northern region.

Shimei, the son of Ela, was the officer over Benjamin. Solomon ordered Benaiah to execute Shimei in chapter 2. His father _Ela_ ( _oak_ ) denotes a religious institution in Benjamin, which Shimei was a part of when he cursed David. As with Abiathar, it is difficult to discern exactly when some of these factions parted ways or were overthrown by the Jerusalem monarchy.

Geber, the son of Uri, was the officer in charge of the land of Gilead. In verse 13, Ben-Geber, or the _son of Geber_ , was in charge of Ramoth Gilead, the towns of Jair in Gilead, and the region of Argob in Bashan. The two instances (verses 13 & 19) of officers over the land of Gilead convey a change of status in the region, with one being a later interpolation. Geber, the son of Uri, was in charge of:

"the country of Sihon king of the Amorites and of Og king of Bashan; and [he was] the only deputy who [was] in the land."

1 Kings 6:1 states this era was four hundred and eighty years _after_ the enslavement in Egypt. Per the narratives, shortly after the supposed emancipation, the _sons of Israel_ conquered the land of Gilead. If the time frame were accurate, this author would not have referred to the land as the _country of Sihon and Og_. Hence, verse 13 displays the later Israelite conquest of the Amorites (the two lived in peace in 1 Samuel 7) across the Jordan. A camp of _Israelites_ and these Amorites were once allies, before the latter were eradicated or subdued into slavery. The verse again places a completely new time-line on the events of the Old Testament.

Verse 20 begins a section that praises King Solomon and his accomplishments. The people of Judah and Israel (two distinct entities) were as numerous as the sand on the shore. Solomon ruled from the river (probably Euphrates), to the land of the Philistines, to the border of Egypt, and all the people brought him tribute. 'Elohim granted him wisdom that surpassed all those from Egypt and the east. He was wiser than Ethan the Ezrahite, Heman, Calcol and Darda, the sons of Mahol, and his fame was without boundaries. He created thousands of proverbs and songs, while peoples and kings from the entire earth came to hear his wisdom. This segment has a vastly different tone than the later Levitical texts that denigrate Solomon.

1 Kings 5 notes the alliance between King Hiram of Tyre and the Solomon monarchy. Hiram sent messengers to Solomon because the Tyrian had been a friend of David. Solomon told Hiram that David was not able to build a house for Yahweh, his 'Elohim (Levite terminology), thus he intended to build the deity a temple. Solomon wanted Hiram's servants to fall cedars from Lebanon and in return, he would pay wages for their work. Hiram agreed to Solomon's request. His servants would bring the timber down from Lebanon by the sea. Hiram supplied Solomon with all the cedar and cypress he desired and Solomon provided him with food and olive oil. There was peace between the two and they cut a covenant.

Solomon used forced laborers from _all of Israel_ numbering thirty thousand men. He sent them to Lebanon by ten thousand; they would spend a month in Lebanon and two months at home. Other laborers quarried costly stones to lay the foundation. The builders of Solomon and Hiram, as well as the Gebalites, cut and prepared the stones and timbers for the temple.

In 1 Kings 6, construction of the temple began in the four hundred and eightieth year after the _sons of Israel_ came out of Egypt. The details, materials, and measurements of the temple and Solomon's palace continue through chapter 7. In verse 8b of chapter 7, the laborers also built living quarters for the daughter of Pharaoh, who in 1 Kings 3 Solomon brought to live in the city of David until the workers finished his palace. This marriage, i.e., alliance, was of the utmost importance to this institution, as the authors did not mention other wives or concubines.

In 1 Kings 8, Solomon assembled the _leaders of Israel_ at Jerusalem to bring the chest of Yahweh, the tent of the meeting, and the holy utensils from the city of David, _that is Zion_ , to Jerusalem. The priests lifted the chest and brought it into the inner sanctuary. When the priests came back outside, the cloud of the Yahweh filled the temple and they were not able to continue ministering. Then, in verses 12 &13:

"12. Then said Solomon, Yahweh has said, that {He} would dwell in the thick cloud. 13. Surely I have built a house of loftiness for You, a settled place for You to abide forever."

In 2 Samuel 7 and Psalms 78:

"6. For not I have lived in a house since the day I brought up the _sons of Israel_ from Egypt, even to day this, but I have been moving about in a tent, even in a tabernacle."

"59. Heard 'Elohim and was angry. And He rejected utterly Israel. 60. And He left the tabernacle of Shiloh, the tent He lived in among men."

After reflecting on these verses, one can understand the deity resided within the religious house, regardless if it was a tent or a temple. When Yahweh left the tabernacle in Shiloh, the story referred to the downfall of the Shiloh religious institution. In this chapter, Solomon built the deity a place of residence, which he entered and filled with his glory.

Solomon blessed the people, but the author focused on David more than Solomon, which points to Levitical authorship. This Judah government abandoned a sect of would-be Levites, thus the author bestowed all the credit for the prosperity in Jerusalem to David, a non-historic figure that represents an era before the Levitical downfall. Hence, Yahweh spoke to David, he chose David to _rule over Israel_ , and it was the desire of his father David to build a temple for Yahweh, the _'Elohim of Israel_ , etc.

Arriving at verse 27, there is a later interpolation, which is a retreat from verses 12 & 13 discussed above.

"12. Then said Solomon, Yahweh has said, that {He} would dwell in the thick cloud. 13. Surely I have built a house of loftiness for You, a settled place for You to abide forever."

"27. But in truth will dwell 'Elohim on the earth? Behold, the heavens and the heavens of the heavens not can contain You. How much less house this which I have built!"

An author who wrote after the Babylonian exile would have had a good reason to change the tradition because the Babylonians destroyed the Jerusalem temple and the chest of the deity would disappear forever. Hence, with verse 46, when the people sin against Yahweh and he hands them over to their enemies, their captors take them into a hostile country, and when they come to their senses in the foreign land, Yahweh would forgive them and they would find compassion in the eyes of their captors (which _Israel_ did not bestow upon their enemies). This statement is a direct reference to the Babylonian exile.

1 Kings 9 is a standard prophetic text in which an author placed forth a warning or a command, and then later in the narrative, he detailed the repercussions for the people's lack of obedience. The author wrote both the warnings and the condemnations after adverse events transpired and thus the texts are precise and extremely efficacious. After Solomon finished building the temple and other projects, Yahweh appeared to him and told him if he followed his commands, the deity would forever establish Solomon's throne over the _kingdom of Israel_ , as he promised David. However, if he or his sons turned away from Yahweh and worshiped other 'Elohim, he would reject the temple and displace _Israel_ from their land.

With verse 10, there is another instance of master wordplay. After Hiram supplied Solomon with timber and gold for the temple and palace, Solomon gave him twenty cities in the land of Galilee. However, Hiram did not approve of these cities, thus they were called the _land of Cabul_. The name _Cabul_ ( _Kabul_ ) was derived from the word _kebel_ , which means, "fettered", and can imply stagnant or sterile. However, _kebel_ can also imply _to twine_ , i.e., unite, and the Levites did not approve of the Judah-Tyre alliance. In addition, directly after this section on Cabul, Hiram sent Solomon one hundred and twenty talents of gold, which would have been odd if he disapproved of the cities. An author whose sect was supplanted by the Judah-Tyre alliance attempted to diminish the affinity between the two entities.

Solomon used forced labor to build the temple of Yahweh, his Palace, Millo, the wall of Jerusalem, Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer. He enslaved the descendants of the Amorites, the Hittites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites who escaped the hand of the _sons of Israel_. In addition, Solomon did not enslave the _sons of Israel_. Both of the aforementioned are most likely half-truths. As intimated in various texts, members of these nations were most likely part of the religious hierarchy of Solomon's government. However, these leaders were from the religious elite and the institution would have used the common people for slave labor. Furthermore, the same division between the religious elite and those submitted to forced labor was the case for the preferred race of _Israelites_. An author already wrote of the laborers used to build the temple in Jerusalem and he did not convey they were all foreigners. Moreover, forthcoming, the Israel populace complains about the heavy labor burden that Solomon placed upon them.

After the daughter of Pharaoh left the city of David and went to Jerusalem, Solomon built the Millo citadel, which could imply it was fortified with Egyptian forces that may have assisted Solomon's move from Gibeon to Jerusalem.

1 Kings 10 begins with the well-known story of the queen of Sheba. In Genesis 10, Sheba is the son of Joktan, an Arabian Patriarch, as well as a descendant of Cush. Therefore, the story refers to peoples in the lands of Arabia and Ethiopia.

The queen of Sheba heard about the fame of Solomon and she came to test his wisdom. She arrived with a large and ostentatious entourage that carried spices, gold, and precious stones. Solomon answered all of her questions, thus she perceived his great wisdom. She gave him an abundance of gold, spices, and precious stones. King Solomon also gave great gifts to the queen, who then returned to her own land with her servants.

The chapter moves toward an end with an exaggerated list of Solomon's riches, including shields of beaten gold, an ivory throne overlaid with gold, and gold drinking cups and utensils. Besides Hiram's ships, Solomon had ships from Tarshish at sea that brought gold and silver, as well as ivory, apes, and peacocks to Jerusalem. King Solomon became the wealthiest king on earth and all peoples desired to be in his presence to hear the wisdom 'Elohim gave him. Solomon had fourteen hundred chariots and twelve thousand horsemen and he made silver as common as stones in Jerusalem. He imported horses from Egypt and Kue, as well as chariots from Egypt by the same means they were exported to the kings of the Hittites and Arameans.

In 1 Kings 11, a Levitical author made use of his earlier warnings. Solomon loved many foreign women, besides the daughter of Pharaoh, which placed that alliance in a different light. However, this text also included the Edomites, who the author listed with the Moabite, Ammonite, Sidonian, and Hittite women. All these countries were at one time an ally of Judah. These women inclined Solomon to foreign deities, which is why the unified kingdom inevitably fell asunder. Remember that King David came from the ancestral lineage of Ruth, a Moabitess, he married a Hittite's wife, and the wives of Moses, Isaac, Jacob, and Abram were foreigners. These marriages, i.e., alliances, displaced many religious factions. Hence, the author did not only denigrate Solomon with this condemnation, he warned the rulers of his time not to create alliances with other countries, which could dilute the influence and power of his religious sect.

Solomon had hundreds of wives and concubines and his heart was not devoted to Yahweh, his 'Elohim, as the heart of David. He worshiped Ashtoreth of the Sidonians, as well as Milcom of the Ammonites. He also built high places for Chemosh and Molech (deities of Moab and Ammon) on a mountain in Jerusalem. The people of Israel and Judah worshiped multiple deities for their entire history. However, in this passage, the mentioned worship symbolizes Solomon's alliances with Sidon, Ammon, and Moab, thus the religious coalition that displaced the author's predecessors.

Yahweh became angry with Solomon because he turned away from the _'Elohim of Israel_. The deity commanded Solomon not to worship other 'Elohim, but since he did not keep the covenant and statutes of Yahweh, the deity would divest him of his kingdom and bequeath it to his servant. However, because of his father David, the deity would not take it from of the hands of Solomon, but from the hands of his son. Moreover, because of David and Jerusalem, where Yahweh chose to be worshiped, the entire kingdom would not be lost and one tribe, i.e., Judah, would remain under the sons of Solomon. Due to the fact the monarchy was still united when Solomon came to pass, the author blamed the division on Solomon, but because of David, Yahweh would not divide the countries during his reign. Furthermore, after the split of the united kingdom, the author's sect of priests seldom had the support of the kings in either country. Subsequently, Assyria seized the land of Israel. Therefore, the author kept his ambitions directed toward the temple in Jerusalem, which explains Yahweh's affection for the city.

Yahweh brought adversaries against King Solomon because of his unfaithfulness. One of these entities was King Hadad of the Edomites. When David's commander Joab killed every male in Edom (from a story not included in the narratives), a young Hadad fled to Egypt with his father's servants. These men went to Midian, gathered men from Paran, and from there went to Pharaoh, who furnished them with food and land. Pharaoh also gave Hadad the sister of his wife Tahpenes, who bore him Genubath. After the death of David, as the story goes, he returned to his own land. However, the author did not mention a battle and the Edomites would remain under the control of Judah for a time longer.

The name _Tahpenes_ is a variation of the name _Tachpanches_ , the latter a city in ancient Egypt. In addition, the name _Genubath_ was derived from a word that means, "theft", which implies these peoples left Egypt with stolen goods. These Edomites who escaped into Egypt, who received food and land from Pharaoh, and who supposedly married into the Egyptian hierarchy, only to return a time later, were at least a segment of the peoples from the Joseph narratives (the events should ring familiar). Furthermore, if they left Egypt with ill-gotten wealth, it would explain why the Egyptians pursued them when they left the country. In addition, when Hadad and his men went to Midian on their way to Pharaoh, it could represent the same event as when Moses married a Midianite woman (daughter of _Reuel_ ) and then returned to Egypt. Furthermore, the fact Hadad gathered men in Paran, where Ishmael lived in Genesis 21:21, again connects the Joseph tribes to the Ishmaelites ( _Jethro_ , i.e., _Jether the Ishmaelite_ ). Moreover, in Genesis 37, when Joseph was forced into Egypt, both the Ishmaelites and the Midianites were involved in the event (interwoven stories), which conveniently aligns with the events in this chapter. Finally, the stories of Hadad and Joseph represent the same events as the Jeroboam narrative, which begins in the next segment.

With verse 26, the narrative moves to Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, who the author stated rebelled against King Solomon. In Genesis 36:3, Esau took a wife named Basemath, who was the daughter of Ishmael and the sister of Nebaioth, a name derived from _Nebat_ , which connects Jeroboam to the Edomites and the Ishmaelites. Basemath is portrayed as a daughter of Solomon in 1 Kings 4:15, thus I believe Jeroboam was an ally of the Solomon monarchy. I have associated Jeroboam with the stories of Joseph and a peoples entrance into Israel from east of the Jordan, and these travels are mirrored by the stories of Jacob when he traveled to Succoth, Peniel, Shechem, and finally into Bethel. Jeroboam was an Ephrathite, i.e., Bethlehemite (Genesis 48:7), from Zeredah, which was near Succoth (2 Chronicles 4:17) and places his roots amidst the travels of Jacob. His mother was Zeruah, which is a name derived from the word _tsara_ , or _leprous_ , and in Numbers 12:10, Yahweh struck Miriam (travels out of Egypt) leprous, which is not merely a coincidence.

Solomon built the city of Millo and repaired the breaches of the city of David. While Solomon was amidst his building projects, he noticed Jeroboam was a valiant warrior and he appointed him over the labor force for the house of Joseph, which displays the alliance previously conjectured.

Jeroboam was leaving Jerusalem, albeit this was possibly a metaphor for fleeing an earlier Jerusalem monarchy, when the prophet Ahijah the Shilonite came to him and foretold the split of the kingdom. Ahijah revealed to Jeroboam that one tribe, or Judah, would remain under the son of Solomon, but he would become the king of Israel. Because of this ominous prophecy, Solomon, who would not have known of the meeting with Ahijah, sought to kill Jeroboam, who then fled to Shishak, the king of Egypt, which is an event authors represented in the stories of Joseph and Hadad. The Pharaoh Shishak is often identified with the Pharaoh Sheshonk or Shoshenq from the 10th century BCE. In the three stories of Joseph, Hadad, and Jeroboam _escaping_ into Egypt, the narrative of Jeroboam is the only one that actually mentions the name of a Pharaoh, because all three stories refer to the same event.

The Solomon narrative ends, but his achievements and wisdom were recorded in the _Book of the Acts of Solomon_. He passed away and he was buried in the city of David. His son Rehoboam became king in his stead.

In 1 Kings 12, Rehoboam went to Shechem to accept the kingship, but why does he travel to Shechem when the capital of the monarchy was in Jerusalem? Moreover, the last significant mention of Shechem was in the book of Judges when Abimelech allied with the house of Millo and became king. _Abimelech's_ alliance was actually with the Millo in Jerusalem. When Rehoboam traveled to Shechem to accept the kingship, it displays an attempt to continue the alliance between religious sects in Jerusalem and Shechem. However, when Rehoboam arrived there, probably metaphorically, the people of Israel summoned Jeroboam from Egypt and he and the assembly asked Rehoboam if he would lighten the heavy labor burden that Solomon placed upon them. Remember that Solomon placed Jeroboam in charge of the labor force for the house of Joseph, but Jeroboam rebelled against him, albeit no battle is mentioned. Then Jeroboam confronted Solomon's son about the labor laws that he himself had governed or implemented. This fact strengthens my belief that Jeroboam's rebellion did not occur during the reign of Solomon, but only after his death.

Rehoboam sought council from the elders who served Solomon. They instructed him to show kindness to the people, but he listened to the advice of his youthful peers and told the people he would only increase their burden. The people answered Rehoboam in near verbatim of what Sheba stated when he rebelled against David.

"What portion do we have in David? We have no inheritance in the son of Jesse."

Rehoboam sent his labor officer to Israel and Jeroboam, but the people stoned him to death. Israel was still in rebellion against Judah at the time of authorship, which reveals this layer or segment of the story was written before the Assyrian invasion of Israel.

The following three figures represent the same chain of events. Abimelech moved to power in Shechem with the help of an ally in Ophrah, but a woman killed him in Thebez. Jacob traveled from east of the Jordan to Shechem, but then had his people discard their idols at an oak tree (religious institution) and they left the city for Bethel. Finally, Rehoboam traveled to Shechem to accept the kingship over Judah and Israel, but Jeroboam confronted him there, Israel rebelled against Judah, and Jeroboam established his religious centers in the cities of Dan and Bethel. However, I believe Solomon allied with Jeroboam, and the latter implemented his houses of worship in union with the united monarchy, which explains the various stories of Jacob's move to prominence in Bethel. Then after the death of Solomon, Jeroboam made his move for power. In Genesis 34, there was a Levitical move into Shechem, which is also perceived in the travels of Jacob and the story of Abimelech. However, when the institution in Shechem was overthrown and power was moved to Bethel, it is likely that only a division of the priests from Shechem joined Jeroboam, while other sects with dissenting voices were not as fortunate.

When Jeroboam became king of Israel, Rehoboam mobilized an army to fight against him, but the word of 'Elohim came to Shemaiah, a man of 'Elohim, who told Rehoboam not to attack. The author left the actual extent of the war between the two countries intentionally silent.

Jeroboam fortified and then lived in the city of Shechem. He also rebuilt the city of Penuel, where Jerubbaal tore down a tower and Jacob had a meeting with 'Elohim. Jeroboam's ancestry came from Zeredah, near Succoth, and authors portrayed both he and Jacob in the cities of Penuel (or Peniel) and Shechem. Then the narrative arrives at a noteworthy event that I already discussed. Jeroboam feared the people would travel to the festivals and the temple in Jerusalem, thus he erected golden calves in the cities of Dan and Bethel. However, as stated, he originally instituted these places of worship as part of the united monarchy power structure, which explains why authors placed the same words in the mouth of Aaron when he made the calf at Horeb (Exodus 32:4), and Jeroboam when he erected the calves at Dan and Bethel (verse 28 in this chapter). Jeroboam's actions were a sin because the people went to worship before the one in Dan. Most of the conjecture on this verse is there are some words missing and the condemnation should include both places. However, Bethel was a holy place in Ephraim where Jacob had a revelation with 'Elohim. Hence, the constituents may have been a sin, but at the correct location.

"30. And became thing this a sin, for went the people before the one to Dan. 31. And he made a house of high places, and made priests of the ends of the people who not were of the sons of Levi."

I connected a camp of Edomites to Joseph and Jeroboam, and I conveyed an Edomite migration into northern Dan. These _sons of Gershom_ in the north allied with the united monarchy when other sects of priests were displaced. Besides his association with Solomon and the Jerusalem monarchy, Jeroboam's ascension to power in Israel was a product of allied religious sects in northern Dan and Bethel. However, after the rebellion, these priests presided over the Israel government, thus their words were not as vociferous as the abandoned sects. Furthermore, and a poignant matter, Joseph and Jeroboam represent the same peoples. Therefore, when Jeroboam displaced a Levitical sect of priests, he betrayed his own blood. This battle for power was intense and although various religious factions were subdued, including those whose voices are silent in the Old Testament, the cries heard in the narratives are from a bitter group of priests who were once prominent. This displaced sect did not succumb without a fight and its members harbored antipathy toward the acts of Jeroboam for centuries.

In 1 Kings 13, Yahweh sent a man of 'Elohim from Judah to Bethel. Jeroboam was at the altar burning incense when the man of 'Elohim arrived. He proclaimed a son born of the house of David named Josiah would sacrifice the priests of the high places on that very altar. Jeroboam attempted to have the man arrested, but after he performed a couple of miracles, Jeroboam asked the man to travel home with him, where he could refresh himself and accept a gift. However, Yahweh had instructed the man of 'Elohim not to eat bread or drink water in Bethel, nor was he to turn back the way he came.

At this time, there was an aged prophet living in Bethel who heard about the words and feats of the man of 'Elohim. One should instantly inquire of why the author referred to one entity as a _prophet_ and the other a _man of 'Elohim_. As with other oddities in the narratives, nothing was written by happenstance. The meaning of the term man of 'Elohim is self explanatory, but _prophets_ , or _nabi_ in Hebrew, were formerly _seers_. Furthermore, the name _Nebat_ (Jeroboam's father) was derived from the word _nabat_ , which means, "to see". The prophet from Bethel could represent the religious sect that gave birth to Jeroboam. This aged prophet found the man of 'Elohim under an oak tree and persuaded him to return to his home in Bethel. However, he deceived the man of 'Elohim by falsely conveying the request came from the angel of Yahweh. While the two were later dining, the word of Yahweh came to the prophet, who told the man of 'Elohim that because he disobeyed the commands of the deity, his corpse would never reach the grave of his fathers. The man of 'Elohim was killed by a lion on his journey home. The prophet later retrieved his corpse and placed it in his own grave in Bethel. He asked upon his own death to be buried with him. This extremely ambiguous story appears to reference a sect of priests who migrated from Judah and joined a group in Bethel, but never made it out of the city alive.

After the confrontation, Jeroboam still failed to change his ways and he continued to ordain priests from every class of people. This defiance was the sin that caused the deity to remove the house of Jeroboam from the face of the earth. The last statement may have arisen from a different tradition than the one that denigrated the calves at Dan and Bethel.

1 Kings 14 continues with the reign of Jeroboam. His son Abijah became ill, thus he instructed his wife to disguise herself and seek a prophecy from Ahijah, the prophet of Shiloh who foretold his ascension to the kingship. When she arrived in the city, the prophet denounced Jeroboam and revealed there would be disaster upon his house. When his wife returned home, the child would die. However, the prophet told Jeroboam's wife that Yahweh found good in Abijah out of all the house of Jeroboam. The name _Abijah_ means, "father of Yah", i.e., priest of Yahweh, but the Yahweh institution in Jerusalem was part of an enemy kingdom. Therefore, Abijah was not truly the name of Jeroboam's son. The name could represent priests who supported the Jerusalem monarchy and thus they were cast out by Jeroboam when Israel rebelled.

On the surface, Jeroboam's son represents the people of Israel, which makes sense because Jeroboam was the leader of the country. His son was sick, i.e., the deity would destroy Israel because of Jeroboam's religious establishment. Ahijah reproved Jeroboam and stated his son would die because:

"made for yourself 'Elohim other and casted images to provoke Me to anger, and Me you have cast behind your back. 10. Therefore, behold, I am bringing evil to the household of Jeroboam."

The child died when Jeroboam's wife returned to their house at Tirzah, which moves the narrative to the end of his reign. Jeroboam ruled for twenty-two years and when he passed, his son Nadab ruled in his place.

The events of Jeroboam were written in the:

"Book of the Matters of the days of the kings of Israel."

At this point in the Kings history, the majority of the information on the remaining rulers is limited, with a few exceptions, and the narrative becomes more of a judgment on their reigns, _good_ or _evil_ , determined by the political support the priests received. However, the denigrated monarchies certainly supported other sects of priests and their scribes would have written an entirely different account of the respective kings. Moreover, the Levites created a weary truce with the sons of Aaron during the reign of Hezekiah, and then arose to a greater prominence a couple generations later under King Josiah, thus the narratives are predominantly comprised of the texts from these two religious groups. If writings from other religious sects did survive, the reigning priests would have altered them to align with their new censorship policies and political agenda.

The redactor wove the histories of Judah and Israel together, hence, with verse 21, the narrative returns to Judah and King Rehoboam. His mother was Naamah the Ammonitess, which displays the alliance with the Ammonites previously referenced.

In the fifth year of King Rehoboam, King Shishak of Egypt went to war against Jerusalem. Authors have conveyed nothing but peace between Egypt and Judah, thus Rehoboam had a propensity for making enemies. As the chapter moves to an end, there was war between Rehoboam and Jeroboam throughout their reigns. Rehoboam was buried in the city of David and his son Abijam ruled in his place.

1 Kings 15 begins with Abijam's reign over Judah. His mother was Maacah, the daughter of Absalom. Abijam walked in the ways of his father and was not with Yahweh like David. Although this chapter covers the reign of Abijam, the author stated there was war between Rehoboam and Jeroboam throughout their reigns. There was also war between Abijam and Jeroboam. Abijam came to pass, was buried in the city of David, and his son Asa became king.

Asa acted in accord with the commands of Yahweh, thus he either supported the author's religious sect, or the author may have approved of his political decisions. Although Asa did not remove the high places, he removed the cult prostitutes and his father's idols from the land. He also banished his mother (or grandmother) Maacah from the throne because she had made an image of Asherah, which probably intimates an alliance with the Phoenicians. If his mother allied with the Phoenicians and he ceased the affiliation when he supplanted her rule, it may explain the support he received from the priests. There was war between Asa and Baasha throughout their reigns, albeit the last mentioned king of Israel was Nadab.

Baasha went to war against Judah and rebuilt Ramah to deny access to King Asa, which was most likely to deter defectors from Israel to Judah. Asa then sent money to Ben-Hadad, the king of Aram from Damascus, who broke his treaty with Baasha and invaded Israel. This attack moved Baasha to cease his project at Ramah and remain in Tirzah, which appears to have superseded Shechem as the capital of Israel. King Asa used the materials that Baasha left behind and he built Mizpah and Geba of Benjamin. Asa developed a foot disease in his later years. When he came to pass, he was buried in the city of David and his son Jehoshaphat ruled.

Albeit a segment misplaced in the narratives, Israel's King Nadab, the son of Jeroboam, did evil in the sight of Yahweh. Baasha of the house of Issachar conspired against Nadab and killed him at Gibbethon while Nadab and Israel were battling the Philistines. Then according to the word of Yahweh spoken through Ahijah the Shilonite, Baasha killed the entire house of Jeroboam. As with the majority of the kings, there was war between Asa and Baasha throughout their reigns.

Baasha became the king over Israel and he reigned in Tirzah. Therefore, after Jeroboam established the worship at Dan and Bethel, Shechem lost its status as a prominent city of Israel. However, the fact does not explain the authors' silence on Bethel.

1 Kings 16 finishes the reign of Baasha. Yahweh spoke to Jehu, the son of Hanani, and condemned Baasha because he walked in the manner of Jeroboam. Therefore, as the house of Jeroboam, the house of Baasha would come to an end.

After Baasha was buried in Tirzah with his fathers, his son Elah became king. The prophet Jehu spoke out against Baasha (again/weave) because of the evil he had done, because he became like the house of Jeroboam, and because he eradicated Jeroboam's household. However, the deity decreed the fate of Jeroboam's house, which is another blatant example of the contradictory texts that permeate the narratives.

King Elah of Israel was getting drunk in the house of Arza when Zimri, the commander of half the army chariots, killed Elah and became king in his place. Upon becoming king, Zimri executed the entire house of Baasha, including family and friends. This slaughter was done per the word of Yahweh through Jehu the prophet.

Zimri had been king for seven days in Tirzah, but the army was still camped against Gibbethon of the Philistines. When the troops heard Zimri had killed the king, a commander named Omri and a division of the Israel army marched from Gibbethon and besieged Tirzah. When Zimri realized the city had fallen, he burned the royal palace as well as himself. Of course, he died because he did evil in the sight of Yahweh and followed the example of Jeroboam.

At this time, the country of Israel was divided between Omri and a man named Tibni of Ginath. Omri and his supporters prevailed and he became the king of Israel. He reigned in the city of Tirzah, but then he purchased a hill from a man named Shemer, a name that implies wine. He rebuilt the city and named it Samaria after the former owner. King Omri did evil in the eyes of Yahweh, though worse than those who preceded him. He followed the ways of Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, and provoked Yahweh, the _'Elohim of Israel_ , with worthless idols. He was buried in Samaria and his son Ahab became king.

Ahab became the king of Israel in the thirty-eighth year of King Asa of Judah. Ahab was evil in the eyes of Yahweh, but more than all who preceded him. Beyond following the ways of Jeroboam, he married Jezebel, the daughter of Ethbaal, the king of the Sidonians (allied with the Sidonians). In addition, he erected an altar for Baal and raised an Asherah pole in Samaria. However, Israel (and Judah) worshiped Baal and Asherah for their entire history. The author's condemnation was certainly incited by politics.

In 1 Kings 17, an author introduced his readers to the prophet Elijah, who performed a few miracles in this and the following chapters, thus cementing his status as a man of 'Elohim. In 1 Kings 19, Elijah fled from Jezebel, not Ahab but Jezebel. He met Yahweh on Mount Horeb and the deity instructed him to anoint Hazael as the king over Aram, Jehu as the king over Israel, and Elisha as the prophet to succeed him.

1 Kings 20 covers a war between Israel and Aram. Ben-Hadad of Aram gathered thirty-two kings to battle against Samaria. Ahab assembled the rulers of his provinces and defeated Ben-Hadad in the hills, but he escaped. Then the servants of King Hadad told him the 'Elohim of Israel were 'Elohim of the mountains, but the Arameans would be victorious if they fought on the plains. The two armies fought again and Israel was also victorious in the second encounter, but the author harshly censured Ahab for fashioning a covenant with Ben-Hadad. This sect of priests did not agree with the political choices of Ahab. They wanted Hazael to become the king over Aram and they wanted all opposition destroyed.

In 1 Kings 21, Ahab wanted a vineyard that was owned by Naboth the Jezreelite. As a replacement, Ahab was willing to give him a vineyard that exceeded his in value, but the man refused. In 1 Kings 16:24, King Omri bought a hill in Samaria from Shemer, a name that can denote _wine_ , and due to the fact the vineyard in this chapter was beside Ahab's palace in Samaria, the story most likely refers to the same place. Therefore, the institution forcibly took the hill mentioned in 1 Kings 16, not unlike the earlier story of Shechem. Inevitably, Jezebel had Naboth killed by having men testify that he cursed 'Elohim and the king, thus Ahab took possession of the vineyard. However, since Omri was stated to have purchased the hill, the change of possession most likely occurred during the rule of Omri and it was attributed to Jezebel by deception to denigrate Ahab and his alliance with the Sidonians. In 1 Kings 19, Elijah fled from Jezebel, and in this chapter, it was Jezebel that eliminated Naboth. The author placed the power of this alliance in the hands of the Sidonians, who he obviously despised.

Due to the death of Naboth for the means of a vineyard, Yahweh would render the house of Ahab as that of Jeroboam and Baasha. However, because Ahab was humbled, Yahweh would not bring the disaster in his lifetime, but during that of his son.

1 Kings 22 completes the first book of Kings. There had been three years of peace between Israel and Aram when Jehoshaphat went to visit the king of Israel, who the author only referred to as _Ahab_ once in this story. The land of Ramoth-Gilead belonged to Israel but was under the control of Aram. The king of Israel asked Jehoshaphat to help him recover the region, to which Jehoshaphat agreed. With verse 19, Micaiah perceived Yahweh sitting on his throne with the army of the heavens by his side. Yahweh asked who would entice Ahab to march against and thus fall at Ramoth-Gilead, hence, the author placed Ahab within the story and Yahweh decreed his death. The king of Israel (no longer Ahab) and Jehoshaphat, the king of Judah, traveled to Ramoth-Gilead. The king of Israel disguised himself, but told Jehoshaphat to dress in his royal attire. The king of Aram had ordered his commanders to only battle against the king of Israel, thus the Aram army turned back when they perceived Jehoshaphat's identity. However, one man drew his bow and pierced the king of Israel, who died that evening. This ending is rather ambiguous and of most certainty, the story was not about Ahab. He probably died of old age and with a successful kingdom, which the Levites would not have wanted to convey.

The events of Ahab and all his accomplishments, including his ivory palace and the cities he built, were written in the records of Israel's Kings. The story of Ahab leaves one to ponder the true success and popularity of his reign. He was one of the few kings of Israel who was not assassinated. Moreover, the alliances, as perceived with King Solomon, are another sign of political acumen and thus stability, which Israel obviously lacked. The denigration of Ahab was the product of a displaced sect of priests and their contempt for Ahab's political decisions, most notably his alliance with the Sidonians. Ahab rested with his fathers and his son Ahaziah became king.

Jehoshaphat, the son of Asa, became the king of Judah. He walked in the ways of his father and did what was right in the eyes of Yahweh. Although he removed the remaining prostitutes from the land who were left from the days of his father, the people still sacrificed at the high places. He also made peace with the king of Israel, which certainly engendered disdain from the Levites. The rest of the events of Jehoshaphat, including how he waged war, were written in the records of Judah's Kings. His son Jehoram ruled in his place.

The first book of Kings moves to an end and Ahaziah, the son of Ahab, became king of Israel in Samaria. He worshiped Baal and provoked Yahweh, the _'Elohim of Israel_ , by walking in the manner of his father, his _mother_ , and Jeroboam, the son of Nebat.

Table of Contents

On the Second Book of Kings

2 Kings 1 continues the narrative during the reign of King Ahaziah. After the death of his father, Moab rebelled against Israel. During the rebellion, King Ahaziah fell through the lattice of his upper room window in Samaria. Consequently, he sent messengers to inquire of Baal-Zebub, the 'Elohim of Ekron, to ask if he would recover. Albeit this story is fictional, Israel was most likely having military troubles with Moab, and King Ahaziah went to the Philistines of Ekron for support. Since Ahaziah inquired of the Baal-Zebub instead of Yahweh, the deity destined him for death.

King Ahaziah died without sons, thus _Jehoram_ became the king of Israel in the second year of King _Joram_ of Judah. However, in 2 Kings 3:1, Ahab's son _Joram_ began his reign in the eighteenth year of King Jehoshaphat of Judah. Moving forward, the texts on this king of Israel are by no means consistent and the translators used the names _Jehoram_ and _Joram_ at their own discretion. The different versions of the name in the actual Hebrew text are a product of interwoven histories. Finally, one should assume the death of Ahaziah was not caused by a literal fall, but the fall of his government.

2 Kings 2 passes the prophetic torch from Elijah to Elisha. The chapter ends with a short story that would not be read in Sunday school. Elisha left Jericho for Bethel and he was walking along a path when some young men began to mock him. When he cursed them in the name of Yahweh, two female bears came out of the forest and mauled forty-two of them. Although the last segment of this chapter makes little sense in modern times, the author wanted to display the supreme, unquestionable, and unyielding power of the prophet, i.e., the leader of his religious sect, which in this case was not supported by the government.

In 2 Kings 3, Ahab's son _Joram_ became king of Israel and he did evil in the eyes of Yahweh, but not as severely as his mother and father, albeit he still clung to the sins of Jeroboam. King Mesha of Moab paid tribute to Ahab, but with Ahab's death, he rebelled against the king of Israel. King _Jehoram_ (spelling change verse 6) then mobilized the Israel army and asked King Jehoshaphat of Judah to battle beside him. After verse 6, the author referred to the Israel monarch as the _king of Israel_ for the remainder of the chapter.

The king of Israel decided to travel through Edom, therefore, the kings of Judah, Israel, and Edom (deputy king in 1 Kings 22:47) set forth with their armies. After Yahweh provided the thirsty armies with water, _Israel_ conquered the Moabites and all of their good land. The only Moabite structures that remained were the stones of Kir-Hareseth. When the king of Moab realized he was in trouble, he unsuccessfully tried to break through to the king of Edom. Finally, he took his firstborn and future king and sacrificed him on the city wall, which brought great wrath upon the _Israel forces_ , thus they retreated and returned to their land. Human sacrifice was a common practice in antiquity, and this author not only conveys the act as a common occurrence, he believes it was efficacious, as it drove off the _Israel attack_.

The texts of 2 Kings 4 into chapter 8 cover miracles performed by Elisha. The mentioned feats are standard exploits that one can find throughout the religious texts of antiquity.

With 2 Kings 8:7, King Ben-Hadad of Aram was sick. He heard a man of 'Elohim was in Damascus, thus he sent Hazael to Elisha to inquire about his destiny. Elisha instructed Hazael to deceive Ben-Hadad and tell him that he would recover, but actually, the king of Aram was destined for death. Elisha began to weep while he was conveying this, because Hazael would become the king of Aram and ravage the country of Israel. He would set fire to the fortresses, slay the men by the sword, dash the little ones to pieces, and rip open the pregnant women. Ben-Hadad later came to pass and Hazael ruled in his stead. In 1 Kings 19:15, Yahweh directed Elijah to anoint Hazael as the king of Aram, which reflects authors from opposing religious factions.

Jehoram, the son of Jehoshaphat, became the king of Judah. He reigned eight years in Jerusalem, but he followed the actions of the kings of Israel and the house of Ahab; he married his daughter. During his rule, Edom revolted against Judah and placed their own king over the people. Libnah also rebelled at this time. Jehoram came to pass and he was buried in the city of David. His son Ahaziah became king.

King Ahaziah of Judah was the son of Athaliah, the granddaughter of King Omri of Israel. He was evil in the eyes of Yahweh and walked in the manner of the house of Ahab. He went to battle with King Joram of Israel against King Hazael in Ramoth-Gilead. During the battle, the Arameans wounded King Joram. Afterward, Ahaziah went to visit him in Jezreel.

In 2 Kings 9, Elisha sent a young prophet to anoint a man named Jehu as Israel's next king. He was the son of Jehoshaphat, the son of Nimshi, and he was a commander of the Israel army (1 Kings 19:18, Elijah was to anoint Jehu, the son of Nimshi). When the young prophet anointed Jehu, the servants of his lord proclaimed him the new king, which was an ominous sign for the existing ruler. The author displayed the absolute word of the prophets, i.e., the leaders of his religious sect. Therefore, when a prophet made a declaration on a political or religious matter, there was historical precedence that not only was his word the word of the deity, it superseded the word of the king. Moreover, it is apparent the author's sect supported this coup, which arose from a military division.

In the last chapter, King Joram of Israel was injured in battle and King Ahaziah from Judah went to visit him. In this segment, Jehu proceeded to Jezreel to have an encounter with the two kings. A watchman noticed Jehu's army approaching and twice King Joram sent out a rider to meet them, but both men joined the ranks of the approaching forces. When they realized Jehu commanded the troops, Joram and Ahaziah approached him at the plot of Naboth the Jezreelite. Jehu shot an arrow in Joram's back and upon his death, his body was symbolically thrown on the plot of Naboth. King Ahaziah fled toward Beth-Haggan, but he was shot at Gur Pass near Ibleam. He passed away in Megiddo, but his body was carried to Jerusalem and buried in the city of David.

2 Kings 10 continues the slaughter by the Levitical supported Jehu. Ahab had _seventy_ descendants in Samaria. Jehu sent letters to the elders of Israel and those who were faithful to Ahab's house and asked them to prepare to fight for the throne. The leaders became terrified because Jehu had already defeated two kings. Therefore, the heads of the palace, the rulers of the city, and the elders of Israel sent a message to Jehu and declared their allegiance. Jehu responded and instructed them to bring the heads of their lord's sons to Jezreel. The great men of the city cared for the king's sons, thus they slaughtered them, placed their heads in a basket, and sent the basket to Jehu, who piled the heads at the city gate. In the morning, Jehu told the people they were innocent because he had conspired against and killed his master, but he asked who executed the king's sons. They should know that Yahweh merely fulfilled his promises against the house of Ahab. Jehu then killed the remainder of Ahab's descendants, all of his mighty men, his close friends, and all of his priests. He left no survivors.

Jehu left for Samaria and went to Beth-Eked of the Shepherds, where he encountered and massacred the relatives of King Ahaziah of Judah. When Jehu arrived in Samaria, he killed the remaining people who were faithful to Ahab until his house was completely destroyed. Finally, Jehu told the people of Israel that Ahab may have served Baal, but he would truly serve him. Then he gathered all the prophets, servants, and the priests of Baal and had them executed.

Verse 28 caused me to pause. Jehu is said to have eliminated Baal worship from Israel, which is doubtful, but he did not turn away from the sins of Jeroboam, the son of Nebat. When Jeroboam implemented his new government in Israel, he was an ally of the Jerusalem monarchy. Obviously, the Levite displacement was a devastating blow, since generations later they were still bitter and denigrating Jeroboam's places of worship. However, with all the assassinations, coups, and changes in leadership, the same religious sects could not have still been presiding over Israel's government. Furthermore, Israel had constantly battled against the Jerusalem monarchy; therefore, the religious centers in Israel no longer represented the same alliance. Every king of Israel, even the Levite supported Jehu, is said to have clung to this sin. There were obviously temples and places of worship in Tirzah, Samaria, and other cities in Israel, but then why the severe antipathy toward the worship at Dan and Bethel? This lingering animosity must have arisen from the fact that Jeroboam betrayed people of his blood. Jeroboam's new institution was the downfall of a radical and vocal religious sect. These Levites had once been prominent, which meant their displacement marked the beginning of a long and arduous battle to reclaim their religious eminence. Unless this sect was brought back to absolute power in Israel, their voices condemned every king to Jeroboam's sins. Verse 31 reiterates verse 28 (possible weave), and Jehu did not turn away from the sins of Jeroboam.

Around this time, Israel began to lose its territory, although the author states Yahweh began to reduce the size of the country. King Hazael defeated Israel from the Jordan eastward, including all the land from Gilead to Bashan.

Jehu died and he was buried in Samaria. His son Jehoahaz became king in his stead. Reflecting on the reign of Jehu, he killed the kings of both Israel and Judah, as well as the relatives of Ahaziah, but then merely left Judah to its own design. Something feels misplaced here, and coincidentally, an author supported coup was forthcoming in Judah.

2 Kings 11 moves the narrative to the events following the death of King Ahaziah of Judah. After she realized Ahaziah had passed, his mother Athaliah killed all the royal heirs to the throne and became queen. However, Jehosheba ( _oath of Yahweh_ ), a sister of Ahaziah, rescued one of his sons named Joash and hid the child in the temple for six years while Athaliah ruled. Then in the seventh, Jehoiada the priest triggered the coup, had Athaliah executed, and placed the son of the king upon the throne as a puppet ruler. He then made an _oath with Yahweh_ , the new king, and the people of the country. They tore down the temple of Baal, broke his altar and images, and killed his priest Mattan.

As the chapter ends, _Jehoash_ was seven years old when he became the king of Judah. After verse 2, in which an author referred to him as _Joash_ , the ruler is referred to as _the king_ or _son of the king_ for the remainder of the chapter until the last verse.

2 Kings 12 continues the narrative on King Jehoash of Judah. In verse 2:

"2. And did Jehoash, that which {was} right in the eyes of Yahweh all his days in which taught him Jehoiada the priest."

Jehoash was only seven years old when he began to rule, thus the author's sect supported him because Jehoiada the priest was actually the ruler. A sect of priests aligned with a child who they claimed had legitimacy to the throne and used him to usurp power. Hence, Jehoash did what was right in the eyes of Yahweh, except he did not remove the high places.

Per a declaration by Jehoash, all the money brought to the temple of Yahweh was to be used for temple repairs. However, after twenty-three years, _the priests_ had not repaired the temple. Therefore, Jehoiada took a chest and had it filled with money that was only used for the temple restoration. There were not any articles of silver or gold made for the temple with this money, it was given to those doing the work. However, there were no records kept because the men who received it worked with integrity, which sounds like another testimony. The restitution and sin offerings still belonged to the priests.

During the reign of Jehoash, King Hazael of Aram captured Gath and was about to attack Jerusalem, but Jehoash sent him tribute and he withdrew. In the end, his servants Jozabad, the son of Shimeath, and Jehozabad, the son of Shomer, assassinated him at Beth-Millo on the road to Silla. He was buried in the city of David and his son Amaziah became king.

In 2 Kings 13, Jehoahaz, the son of Jehu, became the king of Israel in Samaria. He did evil in the eyes of Yahweh and followed the sins of Jeroboam, the son of Nebat. However, Jehu also followed these sins, but a Levitical sect supported his takeover and subsequent slaughter. Nevertheless, because he followed the sins of Jeroboam, Yahweh surrendered Israel over to the Aramean armies of Hazael and Ben-Hadad during their reigns. The king did beseech favor from Yahweh, who delivered Israel from the Arameans, but they still clung to the sins of Jeroboam and the Asherah pole remained standing in Samaria. Due to the attacks by Aram, the army of Jehoahaz was reduced to ten thousand foot soldiers, as well as some chariots and horsemen.

Jehoahaz passed away and he was buried in Samaria. His son _Jehoash_ became the king of Israel. He did evil in the eyes of Yahweh and followed the sins of Jeroboam, the son of Nebat. At this time, King Hazael died and his son Ben-Hadad became the king of Aram. _Jehoash_ recovered the cities from Ben-Hadad that Hazael had captured from his father, albeit an author stated Israel's army was decimated. _Joash_ passed away and he was buried in Samaria. His son Jeroboam became king.

In 2 Kings 14, Amaziah became the king of Judah. He was upright in the eyes of Yahweh like his father _Joash_ , but not like his ancestor David. The people still sacrificed and burned incense at the high places. Amaziah executed the servants who killed his father, but he did not kill their children because of the law that Yahweh commanded to Moses, which stated:

"Fathers must not be put to death because of children, and children must not be put to death because of fathers; instead, each one will be put to death for his own sin."

Where has this author been throughout these narratives? Not only were the sons of Ahab killed for the sins of their father, but all of his friends and relatives were killed as well. These narratives have been a virtual slaughterhouse. However, Amaziah may have been in on the assassination of his father. If a younger faction supported him and they collectively blamed the servants of Joash for the murder, it would explain why Amaziah did not execute the children of the conspirators.

King Amaziah killed ten thousand Edomites in the valley of salt. He also conquered Sela and renamed it Joktheel. Then he sent messengers to King _Jehoash_ of Israel and asked for show of might. When they faced off at Beth-Shemesh, Jehoash captured Amaziah, he attacked Jerusalem, and then stole the treasure from the temple of Yahweh. _Jehoash_ died and he was buried in Samaria with the kings of Israel. His son Jeroboam became king in his stead (in chapter 13, _Joash_ died and his son Jeroboam became king).

The rest of the events of Amaziah include a conspiracy against him in Jerusalem. He fled to Lachish where he was executed, but he was brought back to the capital and buried in the city of David. His sixteen-year-old son Azariah became king. He rebuilt Elath and restored it to Judah after Amaziah rested with his fathers.

Jeroboam became king of Israel in Samaria. He acted evil in the eyes of Yahweh and followed the sins of Jeroboam, the son of Nebat. During his reign, the affliction upon the _sons of Israel_ was bitter and Yahweh did not want to erase them from under the heavens, thus he delivered them by Jeroboam's hand. The rest of the events of Jeroboam, including how he recovered Damascus and Hamath, were written in the records of Israel's kings. He rested with his fathers and his son Zechariah became king.

2 Kings 15 begins with the reign of King Azariah of Judah. He acted righteous in the eyes of Yahweh, but he did not remove the high places. After Yahweh afflicted Azariah with a skin disease, his son Jotham governed the land. Azariah was buried with his fathers in the city of David and his son became king.

Zechariah was the king over Israel for six months. He acted evil in the sight of Yahweh and did not turn away from the sins of Jeroboam, the son of Nebat. Shallum, the son of Jabesh, publicly murdered Zechariah and became king in his place.

In the thirty-ninth year of King Uzziah of Judah, Shallum became king of Israel in Samaria ( _Uzziah_ was most likely another name for _Azariah_ ). King Shallum had reigned a month of days in Israel when he was killed by Menahem. Then Menahem attacked the inhabitants of Tiphsah and ripped open all the pregnant women. Menahem reigned over Israel for ten years in Samaria and he did evil in the eyes of Yahweh, not because he ripped open the pregnant woman, but because he did not turn away from the sins of Jeroboam, the son of Nebat. The demise of Israel was looming near during the reign of Menahem. He had to pay tribute to King Pul of Assyria to keep him from invading Israel. Menahem rested with his fathers and his son Pekahiah became the king of Israel.

Pekahiah became king in Samaria and he reigned over Israel for two years. He was evil in the sight of Yahweh because he did not turn away from the sins of Jeroboam, the son of Nebat. His officer Pekah conspired against him with Argob, Arieh, and fifty men from Gilead. They killed him in his Samarian palace.

Pekah became the king of Israel and he was evil in the eyes of Yahweh because he followed the sins of Jeroboam, the son of Nebat. During his reign, the infamous King Tiglath-Pileser of Assyria captured Ijon, Abel-Beth-Maacah, Janoah, Kedesh, Hazor, Gilead, Galilee, and the land of Naphtali. He then deported the people to Assyria, which was still more humane the Israelite mode of complete extermination. Then Hosea, the son of Elah, assassinated Pekah and became king in the twentieth year of King Jotham of Judah.

Jothom, the _son of Uzziah_ , became king of Judah and he was upright in the eyes of Yahweh, except the high places were still in use. At this time, Yahweh began sending King Rezin of Aram and King Pekah of Israel against Judah. Jotham came to pass and he was buried with his fathers in the city of David.

2 Kings 16 begins with the reign of Judah's King Ahaz, the son of Jotham. He acted evil in the eyes of Yahweh, his 'Elohim, by walking in the manner of the kings of Israel. He made his son pass though fire and he burned incense at the high places and under every green tree in Jerusalem. During his reign, King Rezin of Aram and King Pekah of Israel waged war against Judah. Ahaz requested military assistance from Tiglath-Pileser, who captured Damascus and executed King Rezin. He then deported the people to Kir. King Ahaz came to pass and he was buried with his father in the city of David. His son Hezekiah became king.

2 Kings 17 begins with Hosea, the son of Elah, the king over Israel in Samaria.

"And he did the evil in the eyes of Yahweh. Only, not as the kings of Israel who were ahead of him."

The author did not condemn Hosea as harshly as his predecessors because the king planned a revolt against King Shalmaneser of Assyria. The foreign ruler made Hosea his servant and Israel was paying him tribute. However, when Shalmaneser learned of the planned conspiracy, he arrested Hosea and placed him prison. Then Shalmaneser marched against Samaria and besieged it for three years. In the ninth year of Hosea's reign, the king of Assyria captured Samaria and deported the people of Israel. Then with verse 7, "D" continued his agenda that he began in the book of Genesis.

"7. And it was, had sinned the _sons of Israel_ against Yahweh their 'Elohim who brought up them out of the land of Egypt, from under the hand of Pharaoh the king of Egypt, but they feared 'lohiym other, 8. and walked in the statutes of the nations that had expelled Yahweh from the face of the _sons of Israel_ , and of the kings of Israel that they made. 9. And did secretly the _sons of Israel_ things that {were} not right against Yahweh their 'Elohim and built for themselves high places in all their cities, from the tower of the watchmen to the city fortified. 10. And they set up for themselves Asherim and pillars on every hill high, and under every tree green. 11. And burned offerings there in all the high places, like the nations that he removed Yahweh from their face. And did things evil to provoke Yahweh, 12. and served the idols, of which had said Yahweh to them, not You will do thing this. 13. And testified Yahweh against Israel, and against Judah, by the hand of all His prophets, {and} every seer saying, Turn back from your ways evil, and keep My commands, My statutes, according to all the law that I commanded your forefathers, and that I sent to you by the hand of My servants the prophets. 14. And not they did listen, and hardened their necks, like the necks of their forefathers, who not remained faithful to Yahweh their 'Elohim. 15. But rejected His statutes and His covenant that He cut with their forefathers, and His testimonies that He testified against them, and went after the vain thing, and became vain, and after the nations that surrounded them of whom had commanded Yahweh them not to act like them. 16. And they abandoned all the commandments of Yahweh their 'Elohim and made for themselves casted images two calves, and made Asherah, and bowed themselves to all the army of the heavens, and served Baal,17. and caused to pass through their sons and their daughters the fire and practiced divination and used spells. And sold themselves to do the evil in the eyes of Yahweh, to provoke Him. 18. So that was angry Yahweh very with Israel and removed them from His presence. Not one was left, only the tribe of Judah alone. 19. Also Judah not did keep the commandments of Yahweh his 'Elohim, and walked in the statutes of Israel that they had made [written post exile]. 20. And rejected Yahweh all the seed of Israel, and them abased and gave them into hand the plunderers', until He had thrown them out from His presence. 21. For He tore Israel from the household of David, and they made king Jeroboam the son of Nebat and lured Jeroboam Israel from following Yahweh, and caused them to sin a sin great. 22. And went the _sons of Israel_ in all the sins of Jeroboam that he did. not They did turn aside from them. 23. Until turned away Yahweh Israel from His presence, as He spoke by the hand of all His servants the prophets. And was exiled Israel from off its land to Assyria to day this."

Here is where the Levitical author brought all his warnings to fruition. The people had been warned for hundreds of years and their disobedience yielded their demise. In verse 9, the author again condemned the high places, but as stated, the ordinances against them were from a far later era. "D", as "P", made a move for absolute power by mandating centralization of worship. In verse 16, he condemned the golden calves, the army of the heavens, Asherah, and Baal worship. Thus, it is extremely apparent that Israel never practiced monotheism from the conception of the country to the time of the Assyrian invasion, thus the author used this fact to blame the exile on a jealous deity.

2 Kings 18 moves the narrative to a king who unknowingly assisted in shaping the entire scope of the Old Testament. During the reign of King Hosea of Israel, Hezekiah became the king of Judah. Hezekiah was upright in the eyes of Yahweh, as his ancestor David, and he religiously followed the commands that Yahweh gave to Moses. He trusted in Yahweh, the _'Elohim of Israel_ , and there was not a king like him in Judah either before or after his reign.

Hezekiah rebelled against the king of Assyria, and he also defeated the Philistines, which is a standard accomplishment for all the praised kings. He removed the high places from Judah and he dismantled the sacred pillars, cut down the Asherah poles, and destroyed the bronze serpent that Moses made for the _sons of Israel_. They burned sacrifices to it and called it _Nehushtan_. The fact Hezekiah was the first king to outlaw the high places reveals he was the first ruler of the region to vehemently enforce a statewide centralization of worship. It was centralization of worship and the alliance between the religious sects and the state that inspired authors to create an illusion of a unified _Israel nation_ that was governed by one jealous deity. This undertaking instilled both fear and unity within the populace and assisted in maintaining obeisance and unconditional control over the country.

King Sennacherib of Assyria attacked the fortified cities of Judah. Therefore, Hezekiah gave him all the silver and gold in the temple of Yahweh, which is an act authors attributed to multiple kings. However, Hezekiah even stripped the gold from the doors and doorposts.

Sennacherib sent his military officials and a massive army to Hezekiah at Jerusalem. The officers called out for the king, but Eliakim, who was in charge of the palace, the court secretary Shebnah, and the court historian Joah came out to meet the Assyrian forces. The chief military official made a speech in Hebrew and asked the people if they were going to trust in Hezekiah, in Egypt, or in Yahweh, their 'Elohim, who wanted to be worshiped in Jerusalem. The foreign leaders wanted the people to make a covenant with Assyria, because Yahweh had sent them to destroy the land. Eliakim, Shebna, and Joah reported the ultimatum to Hezekiah.

2 Kings 19 continues with the Assyrian conflict. Hezekiah sought the counsel of Isaiah, who sent him a favorable word from Yahweh. As with Nathan and David, another favorite king of the priests, the king needed mediation from a priest or prophet to divine the word of the deity. That evening, the angel of Yahweh struck down one hundred eighty-five thousand Assyrians, the army dispersed, and Sennacherib returned to Nineveh. Subsequently, he was worshiping in the temple of Nisroch when his sons murdered him and escaped to Ararat. When Yahweh assaulted the Assyrians, the event most likely symbolized an attack against them on another front (Babylonians), if not the rebellion by his sons back home.

In 2 King 20, the king became terminally ill. Isaiah told him to place his affairs in order, but Hezekiah prayed to Yahweh, who added fifteen years to his life. In addition, the deity would deliver him from the hand of Assyria _for the sake of David_ , which is a subtle disparagement and displays a change in author from chapter 18 verse 5.

"5... not a king of Judah was like him, either before or after."

King Merodach-Baladan of Babylon sent letters and a gift to Hezekiah because of his illness, which displays an alliance. The king of Babylon came to visit Hezekiah, who showed him all the wealth in the palace and the entire realm. Once again, Isaiah revealed the word of Yahweh to Hezekiah. Because of this folly, raiders would carry off to Babylon everything in his house and all that his fathers had stored, including some of his descendants. However, Hezekiah did not care as long as there was peace in his lifetime, which is a denigration of Hezekiah's alliance with the Babylonians (definitely not the author that vehemently praised him). Hezekiah rested with his fathers and his son Manasseh became king in his stead.

2 Kings 21 begins with the reign King Manasseh, the son of Hezekiah. He acted evil in the sight of Yahweh by rebuilding the high places, reestablishing the altars for Baal, bringing back the Asherah, and worshiping and serving the armies of the heavens. However, if Hezekiah removed all these forms of worship, there would not have been groundbreaking reforms left for King Josiah to accomplish. Therefore, the author may have written that this king brought back the above-mentioned deities so Josiah could remove them again.

King Manasseh provoked Yahweh with an excess of evil actions. He placed an image of Asherah in the temple and caused _Israel_ to stray more than the nations that Yahweh destroyed. Furthermore, Manasseh shed enough blood to fill Jerusalem from one end to the other, thus Yahweh would bring destruction upon the city. Manasseh rested with his fathers and he was buried in the garden of Uzzah. His son Amon became king.

King Amon acted evil in the eyes of the Yahweh by serving the idols and abandoning the 'Elohim of his ancestors. His servants killed him in his own palace. Then the people of Judah executed his conspirators and made his son king, which is nothing more than another coup by a religious sect, who blamed the assassination on another group or faction, then placed their puppet king upon the throne. Amon was buried in the garden of Uzza and his son Josiah became king.

2 Kings 22 moves the narrative to King Josiah, who was a son of eight years when he became king. He was upright in the eyes of Yahweh and walked in the ways of his ancestor David:

"not veering to the left or to the right."

This action is in perfect compliance with the command in Deuteronomy 5:32, which the author wrote at the same time.

"32. And you will be careful to do as has commanded Yahweh your 'Elohim, not You must turn aside to the right or left."

With the young age of King Josiah, Hilkiah the high priest ruled the country.

King Josiah sent the court secretary to Hilkiah the high priest. He wanted his workers to make temple repairs with the money the priests collected. This is the same command that an author previously attributed to King Jehoash of Judah, and as with the previous story, no accounting was necessary because the men worked with integrity.

During the reign of Josiah, Hilkiah the high priest found Moses' book of the law in the house of Yahweh and he brought it to the king. This _book of the law_ was at least a portion of the book of Deuteronomy, the majority of which "D" compiled during Josiah's reign. The institution skillfully employed the advantageous discovery to frighten and condition the people. The court secretary Shaphan read the book to the king, who tore his clothes upon hearing the words. He then told Hilkiah the priest and his inner circle to inquire of Yahweh because their ancestors disobeyed the commands of the deity. The men went to a prophetess named Huldah ( _mole_ or _weasel_ ), who foretold of impending doom for Judah, but since Josiah humbled himself, it would not come during his lifetime.

In 2 Kings 23, Josiah read the specious book of the law to the people.

"Stood the king by the pillar, and cut a covenant in the presence of Yahweh, to walk after Yahweh, and to keep His commands, and His testimonies, and His statutes, with all {his} heart, and with all {his} soul."

Josiah ordered the priests to remove the articles of other deities from the temple, including those for Baal, Asherah, and the army of the heavens. However, if one assumes the prior religious practices of the people ceased during the reign of Josiah, they should realize it would have been enforced by the government. The people were not ready to relinquish their own beliefs.

"6. And he brought out the Asherah from the house of Yahweh outside Jerusalem to the brook Kidron, and burned it."

"11. And he made cease the horses that had given the kings of Judah to the sun, at entrance the house of Yahweh's, by the room of Nathan-Melech the eunuch that {was} in the courts. And the chariots of the sun he burned with fire."

The people and priests of Israel and Judah worshiped numerous entities. However, "D" censured the people for worshiping other deities, he blamed prior kings and their priests for having pagan articles in the temple, and he blamed other sects of priests for not serving Yahweh exclusively. Then who was monotheistic? If the people, the kings, and other groups of priests worshiped multiple deities, should not one be compelled to believe the Hebrew religion was like all others in antiquity? These authors had a clear and unequivocal objective. They wrote prophetic warnings that stated Yahweh chose the _sons of Israel_ and would be their savior, but he was a jealous deity who would inflict punishment on the people if they were unfaithful. There was a power struggle for the control and wealth of Judah. If the Jerusalem government allowed the people to worship other deities, there would have been more than one place for the people to bring the mandatory offerings and sacrifices, which means other groups of priests would receive them. The worship of other deities was prevalent in the region, but other religious sects often controlled the places of worship. Think of different deities, or even the worship of the _correct_ deity at a place other than the Jerusalem temple, as different factions of government. If one supported the wrong deity or religious institution, they would be executed. Moreover, when the texts refer to the state or tutelary deities of different countries, think of the deities as symbolic allies of the government. If one did not approve of the ally, they would harshly condemn the alliance and thus the symbol, as the Levites definitely did.

"13. And the high places that {were} in front of Jerusalem, which {were}of the right hand of the Mount of Corruption which had built Solomon the king of Israel for Ashtoreth the idol of the Sidonians, and for Chemosh, the idol of Moab. And for Milcom the disgust of the sons of Ammon, defiled the king. 14. And smashed pillars and cut down Asherim, and filled their place {with} the bones of men." (Kings 23:13-14)

When the priests ordered the people not to worship other deities, in essence, they instructed them not to support or bestow wealth upon other religious factions, which the state would prevent by force. Religion and politics brought wealth and power, and this institution wanted to control the state through fear.

"6. When will entice you your brother, the son of your mother, or your son, or your daughter, or the wife of your bosom, or your friend who {is} like your own soul secretly saying, Let us go and serve 'lohiym other! Which not you have know, the 'lohiym of the people who are around you, who are near to you, who are far off from {one} end of the earth even to the {other} end of the earth, 8. Not You must consent, and not listen, and not must have pity your eye, and not you must spare, and not you must hide him. 9. But surely you must kill him!" (Deuteronomy 13:6-9)

"4. because he will turn away your son from after Me, and they will serve 'Elohim other. And will glow the anger of Yahweh against you, and He will destroy you quickly." (Deuteronomy 7:4)

"3. and has gone, and served 'Elohim other and worshiped them, or the sun, or the moon, or {any of} all the host of the heavens, which not I have commanded, 4. and it is told to you and you have heard and have searched carefully, and, look, it is true, and is confirmed the thing, {that} has been done abomination this in Israel, 5. then you must bring out man that or woman that who has done thing evil this, to your gates, the man or the woman, and you must stone them with stones, and they will die!" (Deuteronomy 17:3-5)

"20. But the prophet who presumes to speak a word in My name, which not I have ordered to speak, and who speaks in the name of 'lohiym other, even will die prophet that!" (Deuteronomy 18:20)

The author supported a militant government that would destroy any opposition to the state.

"20. And he slaughtered all the priests of the high places who {were} there by the altars, and burned the bones of men upon them, and returned to Jerusalem." (2 Kings 23:20)

The priests of the highs places could have worshiped Yahweh or 'Elohim, because when authors referred to the priests of Baal, they mentioned them by name. The problem was not which deity the people worshiped, but who was in control of the worship.

Per the book of Moses, the king ordered the people to keep the Passover and they performed the celebration as never before. Josiah also removed the mediums, spiritualists, household idols, and every other detestable thing from the land of Judah and Jerusalem. There was not a king before Josiah who turned to Yahweh with all his heart and strength according to the law of Moses, and not one arose after him.

During the reign of Josiah, Pharaoh Neco marched his army to assist the king of Assyria at the Euphrates. Josiah went to confront him at Megiddo, but Neco inevitably killed him. He was buried in his own tomb in Jerusalem.

After the death of Josiah, his son Jehoahaz became king and he did evil in the eyes of Yahweh. Pharaoh Neco imprisoned him, made Josiah's son Eliakim king, and changed his name to Jehoiakim. He also did evil in the eyes of Yahweh.

2 Kings 24 brings the narrative to the beginning of the Babylonian deportation. Nebuchadnezzar attacked Jehoikim and Judah became a vassal state of Babylon. After three years, Jehoikim rebelled. Then Yahweh sent Chaldean, Aramean, Moabite, and Ammonite raiders against Jehoiakim to destroy Judah according to his words through the prophets. Yahweh would not forgive Manasseh and he intended to remove Judah from the land because of his sins. It appears Yahweh was not able to abide by the law he commanded to Moses.

Jehoiakim rested with his fathers and his son Jehoiachin became king. At this time, Egypt stayed in their territory due to the king of Babylon. During Jehoiachin's short reign, the army of Nebuchanezzar besieged Jerusalem and the king of Judah surrendered. The Babylonians took Jehoiachin captive and they seized the all the treasure in the temple and the king's palace. Then they deported the people of Jerusalem to Babylon, except for the poorest of the land, which was again more humane than _Israel's_ practices. The king of Babylon appointed a new ruler over Judah named Mattaniah and changed his name to Zedekiah. Zedekiah acted evil in the eyes of Yahweh, who was about to banish Judah from his presence. Zedekiah also rebelled against the king of Babylon.

2 Kings 25 moves the history of the Kings to an end. In the ninth year of the reign of Zedekiah, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem with his entire army. They built a wall around the city and continued the attack into the eleventh year. During the siege, a famine broke out, the people were starving to death, the fortifications of the city fell, and all the warriors fled by night. The Chaldean army pursued what was left of the Judah forces and overtook them on the plains of Jericho. They seized the king and brought him to the king of Babylon, who slaughtered his sons and blinded Zedekiah. Nebuzaradan, a commander and servant of the king of Babylon, entered Jerusalem and burned the temple of Yahweh, as well as the king's palace and the great houses and structures of Jerusalem. Then he deported the remainder of the people to Babylon, but left the lower class to work the land. Afterward, the Chaldean army brought all the treasures of the temple and the palace back to Babylon (again). Finally, the commander captured the high priests and leading officials who were part of the rebellion and took them to the king of Babylon to be executed. Judah was now in exile.

Nebuchadnezzar appointed Gedaliah over the common people in Judah. When all the commanders of the Judah army heard of this appointment, they came to him at Mizpah. Gedaliah told the people if they were loyal to the king of Babylon, they would live well and could exist in peace. However, by now one should realize what was destined to happen.

In the seventh month of the new government, Ishmael, the son of Nethaniah, the son of Elishama of the royal family, came with ten men and assassinated Gedaliah, as well as the Judeans and the Chaldeans aligned with him at Mizpah. Then the people old and young, as well as the commanders of the army, fled to Egypt because they were afraid of the Chaldeans. Hence, there were Judeans living in peace and allied with the foreign leadership, but a radical religious sect, as they had done for centuries, turned to a murderous attack because they were not in power. As a passage reveals forthcoming, conditions were not necessarily difficult for the masses under foreign leadership.

The Kings history moves to an end and Jehoiachin was pardoned by Evil-Merodach, the new king of Babylon. He released him from prison and placed Jehoiachin's throne over other kings who were with him in Babylon. He dined regularly in the presence of the king and he was given a regular living allowance.

Table of Contents

On the First Book of Chronicles

The books of Chronicles are predominantly a history of Judah (Benjamin became part of Judah) that commences with a series of genealogies.

Chapter 1 begins with the first man and continues with Seth and Enosh, i.e., the arrival of the Egyptians, who are followed by Kenan ( _Qenan_ ), a name that is a variation of the name Cain ( _Qayin_ ). After the Kenites, there is Mahalalel and Jared, an author represented the latter in the Calebite era of Judah (1 Chronicles 4:18). This coalition in Judah also included entities portrayed as Hanoch ( _Enoch_ ), Methuselah, and Lamech. Hanoch was an early religious center that included the Kenites, the Edomites, and the Amalekites, i.e., Lamech. One can translate the name _Methuselah_ as _man of Selah_ , and the figure most likely represents the same entity as the son of Judah covered in Genesis 38 (and elsewhere). In the book of Genesis, this early tradition of peoples in Judah was separated from later traditions by the story of Noah and the flood.

After the sons of Noah, the narrative lists Abraham's sons Isaac and Ishmael, as well as his sons born to Keturah. The chapter moves to a close with the sons of Ishmael, the sons of Isaac (Israel and Esau), the sons of Esau, and a list of Edomite kings.

1 Chronicles 2 begins with the _twelve_ _sons of Israel_ and continues into a compilation of early genealogies mixed with later traditions.

Judah fathered Er, Onan, and Shelah with Bathshua the Canaanitess, but in this chapter, Yahweh only killed Er. Perez and Zerah, who were born to Judah and Tamar, round out this list of Judah's sons.

I covered Perez and his sons Hezron and Hamul. The sons of Zerah the _Edomite_ were Zimri, Ethan, Heman, Calcol, and Dara. In 1 Kings 4:31, the texts states Solomon was wiser than Ethan the Ezrahite, Heman, Calcol, and Darda, the sons of Mahol. I believe these two near identical lists of names display the influence of a sect of Edomites in the early history of Judah, as well as in the government of King Solomon. As far as the name not included in 1 Kings 4, Zimri was a Simeonite who brought a Midianite woman in front of the congregation and he was subsequently killed by Phinehas (Numbers 25:14). As covered, it is sensible the author connected the Simeonites to the Edomites, since both peoples settled in southern Judah and produced divisions of the would-be Levites.

With verse 7, Carmi's son was Achar, who stole a portion of the spoils set apart for destruction. In this chapter, Carmi is listed without a father, but in Joshua 7:1, which conveys a theft of Yahweh's treasure, the author referred to Achar as _Achan_ , and Carmi as the son of Zabdi, the son of Zerah. A redactor most likely added verse 7 to keep this Judah genealogy consistent with the text of Joshua 7.

Azariah, a priest under King Solomon in 1 Kings 4:2, was a son of Ethan, the son of Zerah, which again connects a sect of Edomites to Solomon and places the time-line in perspective.

Perez's son Hezron fathered Jerahmeel, Ram, and Chelubai ( _Kelubay_ ), the latter name is a variation of the name _Caleb_ (or _Kaleb_ ), the son of Hezron forthcoming in verse 18 (different traditions). These sons symbolize an institution in Hebron that would in part migrate into Benjamin and become the house of Kish. The text continues with the descendants of Ram and mirrors the genealogy in the book of Ruth (Ram fathered Amminadab, Amminadab fathered Nahshon, Nahshon fathered Salma, Salma fathered Boaz, Boaz fathered Obed, and Obed fathered Jesse).

In this chapter, unlike 1 Samuel 16, the text lists all the sons of Jesse, but the author portrayed David as the seventh son instead of the eighth (1 Samuel 16:10). Moreover, Shimea in this chapter appears to symbolize the same entity as _Shammah_ in 1 Samuel 16. The daughters of Jesse were Zeruiah and Abigail. The sons of Zeruiah were Abishai, Joab, and Asahel. Finally, Abigail and Jether the Ishmaelite were the parents of Amasa.

Verse 18 is rather ambiguous and generates various translations. The verse addresses the descendants of Hezron's son Caleb. He either fathered sons with Azubah and Jerioth, or fathered sons with Azubah, the wife of Jerioth. The name _Azubah_ means, "forsaken", and refers to an early institution in Hebron. The sons of the above possibilities were Jesher, Shobab, and Ardon. The name _Jesher_ was derived from the word _yashar_ , which means, "upright". Due to the fact he was firstborn, Jesher may have been a symbolic name for the religious establishment. However, since the name can imply _arrogance_ , it could imply the downfall of a prideful institution in Hebron ( _forsaken_ ). Shobab is also the name of a son of David in 2 Samuel 5:14 and the entities represent the same era and institution in Hebron. In addition, the name _Shobab_ is a variation of the name _Shobal_ , an Edomite (Genesis 36:20), a son of Judah (1 Chronicles 4:1), and a son of Hur later in this chapter. The author portrayed Shobab without children, thus he displayed the fall of the Edomites in Hebron. However, with another camp of Edomites portrayed as Shobal, the son of Hur, it conveys an Edomite migration into Kiriath-Jearim, who Shobal fathers later in this chapter. Moreover, in Judges 18:12, the Edomites in southern Dan camped in Kiriath-Jearim on their way to Laish (not a coincidence). Finally, the name _Ardon_ is a variation of the name _Ard_ , a son of Benjamin in Genesis 46:21, which intimates the migration from Judah into the house of Kish previously referenced.

Azubah died and Caleb married Ephrath, who gave birth to Hur, a prominent figure discussed at length. Since Hur was from a Calebite tradition, it could explain why the former arrived on the scene unannounced in the book of Exodus.

When Hezron was sixty, he slept with the daughter of Machir, the father of Gilead, and she gave birth to Segub, who fathered Jair. Jair had twenty-three villages in Gilead. Hezron is the first son of Reuben in Genesis 46:9 (and elsewhere); hence, this segment could display the Reubenite move across the Jordan. In another verse that begets numerous translations, after Hezron died in Caleb-Ephrathah, his wife Abijah gave birth to Ashhur, the father of Tekoa. The names _Caleb_ and _Ephrathah_ represent Hebron and Bethlehem respectively, and the two names mentioned together convey the alliance between the two cities. Regardless of how one translates the verse, it displays the decline in the prominence of Hezron and the ascension of the cities of Hebron and Bethlehem.

The sons of Jerahmeel (Hezron's firstborn) were Ram, Bunah, Oren, Ozem, and Ahijah. As covered, _Ram_ (son of Hezron in verse 9) most likely refers to people from Aram who were represented by the figure of _Abram_ ( _father of Ram_ ), whose migration I connected to the Reubenites, the _first father of Hezron_. Jerahmeel's other wife Atarah gave birth to Onam, who is an Edomite in 1 Chronicles 1:40. The Jerahmeelites, Kenites, and Edomites were part of an early coalition in Judah.

This second list of Ram's sons is not consistent with the list of his descendants that began in verse 10, which was a broad outline of the history of Judah. In this segment, the sons of Ram were Maaz, Jamin, and Eker. The name _Jamin_ represents peoples from the south, and the name _Eker_ can refer to _descendants_. Although the meaning of the name _Maaz_ at the time of authorship is debatable, the sons clearly reference events regarding _southern descendants_.

The sons of Onam were Shammai and Jada, and the sons of Shammai were Nadab and Abishur. In Leviticus 10:2, Yahweh killed Nadab and Abihu, thus a segment of these peoples were eradicated or suppressed. The sons of Nadab were Seled and Appaim. Seled died without children, which conveys the same message as the death of his childless father at the hands of Yahweh, i.e., Judah. The son of Appaim was Ishi, a name that means, "saved", thus the ephemeral continuation of a sect of liberals. Ishi fathered Sheshan, and Sheshan fathered Ahlai.

Jada was the brother of Shammai, the father of Nadab. The sons of Jada were Jether and Jonathan. Jether died without children, i.e., this line was also supplanted. _Jether_ represents the Ishmaelite and Midianite element of this institution. The sons of Jonathan were Peleth and Zaza. The descendants of Peleth were the Pelethites, who were the Philistine allies of David (2 Samuel 15:18). The new coalition became _abundant_ at this time, which is the meaning of the name Zaza. Verse 33 states, "these are the descendants of Jerahmeel", but with verse 34, the family tree continues.

Sheshan (the son of Ishi, the son of Appaim, the son of Nadab) only had daughters, but he had an Egyptian slave named Jarha (enter peoples from Egypt). The descendants who spawned from Nadab's lineage (probably Aram) and Jarha (Egypt) include some prominent entities found elsewhere in the narratives, including Nathan, Obed, Jehu, Azariah, Shallum, and Elishama.

The sons of Caleb (brother Jerahmeel) were Mesha, the father of Ziph, and the sons of Mareshah, who fathered Hebron. The Ziphites first supported Saul (1 Samuel 23:19), who I connected to Jerahmeel via Kish (son of in 1 Chronicles 24:29), but Ziph became the territory of the later Judah institution in Hebron (Joshua 15:55). In other traditions, Hebron was the inheritance of and/or conquered by the Calebites. As stated, the name _Caleb_ implies an _attack_ _force_ , and this army in Judah conquered Ziph and Kiriath-Arba, the latter was renamed Hebron.

As covered, the sons of Hebron were Korah, Tappuah, Rekem, and Shema. Rekem fathered Shammai, who is the father of Nadab in verse 28. The son of Shammai was Maon, who fathered Beth-Zur ( _house of Zur_ ). In 1 Chronicles 8:30, Kish, Zur, and Nadab are brothers. The two lists refer to the supplanted Hebron coalition (covered in Genesis 17) that would in part ascend to power in Benjamin. Zur is a Midianite king conquered by Phinehas and the army in Numbers 31:8, and in 1 Samuel 25:38, Yahweh, i.e., Judah, killed Nabal the Calebite, who lived in Maon (father of the _house of Zur_ ). The separate traditions convey the same conquests in Judah.

In verse 46, Caleb had a concubine by the name of Ephah, a son of Midian in Genesis 25:4, which is another display of the connection between the Midianites and the early Hebron establishment.

The sons of Jahdai, a figure included without parentage, were Regem, Jotham, Geshan, Pelet, Ephah, and Shaaph. The name _Jahdai_ (transliterated as _Ya-he-day_ ) appears to have been derived from the words _Yahweh_ and _Shaday_ , and it could intimate the beginning of the Judah coalition that included Shiloh priests. The first son Jotham escaped the slaughter of his brothers at Ophrah and later spoke out against King Abimelech in Shechem (Judges 9). The Judah alliance superseded the Shechem monarchy. In 1 Chronicles 12:3, an author listed Pelet as a defector from Saul to David, and the old Benjamin institution also fell to the Judah alliance. Ephah is a concubine of Caleb in verse 46, and Shaaph is the daughter of Maacah (Arameans) in verse 48. The _sons of Jahdai_ appear to have been early supporters of the coalition that would ascend to control over the united monarchy.

Maacah, here Caleb's concubine, was the mother of Sheber and Tirhanah. Not only were the Maacathites forced out of Judah, Maacah's son Absalom was conquered by David. Either event could explain the name _Sheber_ , which means, "fracture" or "breach". In what appears to be a segment from another tradition, Maacah was the mother of Shaaph, Madmannah's (city of Judah- Joshua 15:31) father, and of Sheva ( _deceitful_ \- official under David in 2 Samuel 20:25), the father of Machbenah and Giba.

Hur was the first-born of Ephrathah, where in verse 19, he was the son of Caleb and Ephrath ( _Ephrath_ and _Ephrathah_ were names for Bethlehem). He was the father of Shobal, an Edomite who fathered Kiriath-Jearim. In verse 51, with no parentage, Salma fathered Bethlehem, where he fathered Boaz in the covered Perez or Ram genealogy, in which his ancestry led to Jesse, i.e., the _extant_ Bethlehem institution (all is consistent).

The sons of Salma were Bethlehem, the Netophathites, Atroth-Beth-Joab, half of the Manahathites, the Zorites, and the families of scribes who lived in Jabez, who were the Tirathites, Shimeathites, and Sucathites. These were the Kenites who came from Hammath, the father of Rechab's family. I covered the fate of the Kenites, and a couple of Netophathites are mentioned among the early warriors of David in 2 Samuel 23. Atroth-Beth-Joab, or _crown of the house of Joab_ , refers to an early kingship in Bethlehem, the home of the sons of Zeruiah. This kingship could have been the monarchy that an author represented by Elimelech, who was exiled to and died in the land of Moab. These _sons_ symbolize peoples who were supplanted in Judah.

1 Chronicles 3 begins with the names of David's sons (and his daughter Tamar) who were born in Hebron and Jerusalem. With verse 10, the text lists the kings of Judah from the reign of King Solomon to the Babylonian exile.

1 Chronicles 4 covers more traditions from the early settlements of Judah, as well as migrations from the region of Judah into lands east of the Jordan. A redactor compiled these genealogies using various records from different eras. The chapter refers to many of the same entities covered in chapter 2 and elsewhere in the narratives.

The sons of Judah (different tradition than 1 Chronicles 2) were Perez, Hezron, Carmi, Hur (four entities covered previously), and Shobal. In Genesis 36:23, Shobal is an Edomite who fathered Alvan, _Manahath_ , Ebal, Shepjo, and Onam. In 1 Chronicles 2 verses 52 & 53:

"52. And were sons to Shobal, the father of Kiriath-jearim: half of the Manahethites. 53. And the families of Kirjath-jearim {were} the Ithrites, and the Puhites, and the Shumathites, and the Mishraites. From these came the Zareathites, and the Eshtaulites."

The Shobal in verse 52 is the son of Hur, thus the Edomite and the Judah/Hur Shobal represent the same entity, which should not be a surprise after reading the stories of Jacob/Esau and Perez/Zerah. The Zareathites and Eshtaulites were the men of Zorah and Eshtaol from southern Dan who camped in Kiriath-Jearim on their way to Laish. Finally, the Manahethites from Manahath could refer to another migration across the Jordan to the Manahath referenced in 1 Chronicles 8:6. In addition, in chapter 2 verses 54 & 55, following the quoted verses above, the text mentions the Kenites in Jabez. The verses may refer to people who settled Jabesh-Gilead, as 'Elohim extended Jabez's border, thus he would not suffer affliction (1 Chronicles 4:10), which rings of the mark that protected the exiled Cain. If one correlates Jabesh with Manahath, it could point to eastward migrations by camps of Edomites and Kenites, which is perceivable elsewhere in the narratives (possibly the exiling of Cain).

Chelub (without parentage), the brother of Shuhah, fathered Mehir, who was the father of Eshton. Eshton fathered Beth-Rapha, Paseah, and Tehinnah, the father of the city of Nahash. Chelub and his descendants were the men of Recah. _Chelub_ ( _Kelub_ ) was the same entity as _Chelubai_ ( _Kelubay_ ), the son of Hezron in 1 Chronicles 2:9, and _Caleb_ ( _Kaleb_ ), the son of Hezron in 1 Chronicles 2:18. Hezron is a son of Judah in verse 2, but he is without descendants in this chapter. Moreover, the name _Recah_ ( _Rekah_ ) is a variation of the name _Rechab_ ( _Rekab_ ), the northern origin of the Kenites (1 Chronicles 2:55), which conveys a migration from the north into Hebron ( _Abram_ ). One of Chelub's descendants was Beth-Rapha, a name that means, "house of the giant", and in Joshua 15 verses 13 & 14, Caleb forced the sons of Anak ( _giant_ ) out of Hebron. These peoples forced out of Judah included the would-be Ammonites (from Aram), and Chelub's descendant Tehinnah fathered the city of Nahash ( _king of Ammon_ ). Furthermore, in verse 15, Caleb is the son of Jephunneh, which is a name derived from a word that means, "turn", but was used with various connotations that include to _turn from_ and _cast out_. Therefore, _Chelub's_ forces exiled a segment of the peoples (referred to some as _giants_ ) and attained complete control in Hebron, a city that may have been the house of the giant. As covered, Hebron used to be called _Kiriath-Arba_ , and in Joshua 14:15, "Arba was great among the Anakim", or _great among the giants_. With this conquest, _Chelub_ became _Caleb_ , the son of _Jephunneh_ , i.e., those who turned against a division of an old establishment.

The sons of Kenaz (Edomite in Genesis 36:11, brother of Caleb in Joshua 15:17) were Othniel and Seraiah, the latter was the father of Joab (same entity as _Zeruiah_ , the _mother_ of Joab). The sons of Caleb, the son of Jephunneh, were Iru ( _citizen_ ), Elah ( _oak_ , i.e., a religious institution), and Naam, which is a contraction for _Naaman_ , an entity of Benjamin covered previously. Therefore, the sons of Caleb were the _citizens_ of the _religious institution_ in Hebron. A sect of these peoples later migrated to _Benjamin_.

The sons of Jehallelel (parents not mentioned), a name that may be a variation of the name _Mahalalel_ from chapter 1 verse 2, were Ziph, Ziphah, Tiria, and Asarel (a variation of the name _Asahel_ \- killed by Abner in 2 Samuel 2:23).

The sons of Ezra (parents not mentioned), a name that is a feminine variation of the word ezer ( _help_ , i.e., alliance), were Jether, Mered, Epher, and Jalon. I have covered Jether the Ishmaelite, and Epher is a son of Midian in Genesis 25:4. The figure of Mered ( _rebellious_ ) embodies the fate of the _Joseph tribes_ that contained an Ishmaelite element and that allied with the Midianites ( _Jethro the Midianite_ ). Mered's wife Bithiah gave birth to Miriam, Shammai, and Ishbah. Bithiah was the daughter of Pharaoh, which symbolizes the same event as Joseph fathering sons with an Egyptian wife. These peoples who later migrated out of Egypt included Mered's daughter Miriam, i.e., the would-be sons of Merari. In 1 Chronicles 2:28, Shammai is the son of Onam (an Edomite in Genesis 36:23) and the father of Nadab, whose lineage also coalesced with Egypt in chapter 2 verse 34 (same chain of events). Ishbah fathered Eshtemoa, which was a city that harbored allies of David, i.e., an early uprising in Judah (1 Samuel 30:28). Ishbah may have been the same entity as the exiled _Ishbak_ from Genesis 25:2. The _sons of Ezra_ represent a coalition of peoples in Judah that I have covered extensively.

Scholars always translate the beginning of verse 20 as the _sons of Shimon_ , but one could also interpret the verse as the _sons of Simeon_ ( _šî•mō•wn_ and _šim•'ō•wn_ respectively). The entities could represent a time before the would-be Simeonites divided from the Ishmaelites, who I discussed in the last segment. _Simown_ is a word that was often used to denote a _desert_ , which was the location of Simeon in southern Judah. However, to intimate the Simeonites relation to the Ishmaelites ( _shama 'El_ ), an author associated the name Simeon with _hearing_. Therefore, scholars infer the name Simeon was derived from the word _shama_ , because Yahweh _heard/shama_ that Leah was unloved, thus she named her child Simeon (Genesis 29:33). Among these _sons of Shimon_ was his firstborn Amnon, who is also the firstborn of David in 2 Samuel 3:2, and both entities represent the _Ammonites_ , who at one time settled Simeonite territory in Judah, or the Negev, as an author intimated in the story of Lot (Genesis 13:1).

Verses 21 through 23 are very interesting. In Genesis 38, Judah's son Shelah never received his bride (Tamar), thus one could conjecture he was without children, which implies the entity was supplanted. However, he escaped the fate of his brothers. These verses list the sons of Shelah, who were Er (the father of Lecah), Laadah (the father of Mareshah), the families of the linen workers at Beth-Ashbea, Jokim and the men of Cozeba, and Joash and Saraph, who married Moabites and returned to Lehem. The name _Beth-Ashbea_ , i.e., house of an oath, refers to a temple for an early coalition in Judah. Jokim and the men of Cozeba, a name that is a variation of the name _Cozbi_ , were most likely Midianites (Numbers 25:15). In addition, Joash and Saraph took wives from Moab, where Ruth was born and from where she and Naomi returned to Bethlehem, i.e., the _house of Lehem_ , and these brothers returned to _Lehem_. Moreover, the _sons of Mareshah_ fathered Hebron in 2 Chronicles 2:42, which implies these peoples (represented in Genesis 38) were part of the early settlements in Hebron and Bethlehem. However, the old Judah coalitions were conquered, which may explain why Shelah did not receive his bride or have any offspring in Genesis 38. These aforementioned names were from ancient records. They were the potters and residents of Netaim and Gederah, who lived as servants of the king. Numerous later stories and traditions (David, Ruth, etc.) were built upon the _ancient records_ and merely altered to fit the changing times.

The sons of Simeon were Nemuel, Jamin, Jarib, Zerah, Shaul, and Shallum, who fathered Misbam, who fathered Mishma. This list is similar to Genesis 46:10, which reads, "Jemuel, Jamin, Ohad, Jachin, Zohar, and Saul, the son of a Canaanite woman." _Zerah_ represents the same entity as the son of Judah, and in 1 Chronicles 2:40, Shallum is a descendant of Nadab through Jarha, an Egyptian slave, which is appropriate ancestry for the Ishmaelites turned Simeonites. As covered, Mibsam and Mishma are Ishmaelites in Genesis 25 verses 13 & 14.

The descendants of Simeon did not multiply like those of Judah. The major Simeonite city was Beersheba, which if correlated with the Hagar and Ishmael expulsion in Genesis 21, could reflect their Ishmaelite ancestry. Their cities were lost with _King David's reign_ , i.e., when the new Judah institution appropriated their territory.

1 Chronicles 5 begins with the sons of Reuben, who:

"since he defiled bed his father's was given his birthright to the sons of Joseph, the son of Israel, and not to be enrolled in genealogy by the birthright, 2. (because Judah prevailed above his brothers and the ruler {was} from him, but the birthright {was} to Joseph)."

This author clearly conveyed his ancestry out of the house of Joseph. Moreover, the quote states Judah _prevailed_ over his brothers, which intimates Judah conquered Israel and Benjamin.

The sons of Reuben were Hanoch, Pallu, Hezron, and Carmi (all covered previously). Joel, who appears in the list without parentage, fathered Shemaiah, who fathered Gog, who fathered Shimei, who fathered Micah, who fathered Reaiah, who fathered Baal, who fathered Beerah. Shemaiah and Shimei are descendants of Simeon in 1 Chronicles 4 (verses 26 & 37), i.e., peoples forced out of Judah and across the Jordan. Gog, or the _land of Magog_ (Ezekiel 38:2), was a northern region from where peoples entered Canaan. Micah represents the presence of a prominent cult from the west, and combined with the mention of Joel, could represent the subjection of the region under the Jerusalem monarchy. Reaiah represents Edomites exiled out of Judah (1 Chronicles 4:2- son of Shobal), and Baal was most likely the name of their tutelary deity. Finally, Beerah was carried away by Tiglath-Pileser, the king of Assyria. Thus, I cannot stress enough that these genealogies do not represent blood or father/son relations, which is evident due to the minimal generations that separate Reuben and the Assyrian invasion.

Verse 7 begins a list of Reubenite kinsmen by their families. In the preceding list of Reuben's descendants, Joel arrived without parentage. However, the first four sons represent cities or entities from the Reubenite time in Judah. Therefore, those sons were merely part of an old history. Joel may represent the beginning of a Reubenite era across the Jordan. The list of kinsmen reads, "Jeiel the chief, Zechariah, Bela the son of Azaz, the son of Shema, the son of Joel." Joel and his son Shema are the same entities as Joel and his son Shemaiah from verse 4 (a redactor placed the Assyrian exile between the different traditions). In addition, _Bela_ , an Edomite in Genesis 36:32 and a Benjamite in Genesis 46:12 (and elsewhere), represents Edomites from Benjamin who settled across the Jordan.

The Reubenites inhabited lands from Aroer to Nebo and Baal-Meon. They also settled lands as far as the entrance to the wilderness that extends to the Euphrates, because their livestock multiplied in the land of Gilead. During the reign of Saul, the Reubenites waged war against the Hagarites (spelled _Hagrites_ ), they defeated them, and lived in their tents throughout the region of Gilead.

The sons of Gad lived opposite the Reubenites in the land of Bashan. Listed among the Gadites are the religious cults of Joel and Mikael, along with Shaphat, a leader of Simeon in Numbers 13:5 and an official of David in 1 Chronicles 27:29 (exiles from Judah). The author also included the names Sheba and Eber, which reflect an _oath_ with peoples from a _region_ _beyond_. These Gadites were the sons of Abihail, a variation of the name _Abigail_ , the daughter of Jesse who I connected to the region of Gilead. In 2 Chronicles 11:18, Abihail is the granddaughter of Jesse, but in this chapter, Abihail is the son of Huri (variation of _Hur_ \- white), which signifies a discussed Aramean settlement across the Jordan. Huri was the son of Jaroah, a name that appears to intimate a new beginning or new moon, but can also mean, "to prevail". The new beginning or conquest may have been achieved by the unification of his ancestors in the region they named Gilead (Genesis 31), the name of Jaroah's father. Gilead was the son of Jeshishai, which is a variation of the name _Jesse_ (again an ancestor to Abihail), and displays migrations from Bethlehem into Gilead. Jeshishai was the son of Jahdo, which means "united", and refers to the mentioned Judah-Aram alliance in the region. Finally, Jahdo was the son of Buz, the son of Nahor in Genesis 22:21. He is the most ancient entity mentioned, thus the author portrayed the Arameans as the first peoples who would later become the Israelites to enter the region.

Ahi ( _brotherhood_ ), the son of Abdiel ( _servant of 'El_ ), the son of Guni, was the head of the Gadite ancestral house. The Gadites lived in Gilead, Bashan and its towns, and in the pastureland of Sharon. The Gadites were registered during the reigns of King Jotham of Judah and King Jeroboam of Israel.

The sons of Reuben, Gad, and half the tribe of Manasseh waged war against the Hagarites (or _Hagrites_ ), Jetur, Naphish, and Nodab. In Genesis 25:15, an author listed Jetur and Naphish (in order) as sons of Ishmael, but after these two names, the next son is Kedemah, while Nodab is absent. The majority of scholars believe _Nodab_ was or represents an Arabian tribe, though one is seldom given a reason for the conjectured ancestry (only mention of Nodab in the narratives). However, the biblical texts have conveyed a solid affiliation or alliance between the Ishmaelites and the Midianites. Furthermore, the name _Kedemah_ was derived from the word _qedem_ , or _the east_. In Judges 6:3, Midian, Amalek, and the _sons of Qedem_ fought against Gideon. Later in Judges 8, an author referred to the Qedem army as _Ishmaelites_ (Judges 8:24). Therefore, it appears Kedemah, or Nodab, were Ishmaelites who were forced out of Judah, fled east to the region of Arabia, and coalesced with the Midianites. Returning to the war, the sons of Reuben, Gad, and half the tribe of Manasseh prevailed because they cried out to 'Elohim and trusted in him. Due to the fact it was 'Elohim's battle, many Hagarites were killed and the two and half tribes lived in their land until the exile. An author first attributed this war to the Reubenites and _they_ lived in the Hagarite's tents. Furthermore, the Reubenites expanded beyond Gilead in verses 9 & 10, but in this passage, they lived in Hagarite land _until the exile_ , which reveals it is a later written text.

The sons of half the tribe of Manasseh settled in the land from Bashan to Baal-Hermon. The heads of their father's house included Epher, a son of Midian (Genesis 25:4), Ishi, a chief of Judah (1 Chronicles 4:20), and Eliel, a warrior of David (1 Chronicles 11:46). Therefore, the peoples of east Manasseh included a camp of Midianites, along with exiles from Judah. These men were famous warriors, but they worshiped the 'Elohim of other nations. Therefore, the _'Elohim of Israel_ excited King Pul and King Tiglath-Pileser of Assyria to capture the Reubenites, the Gadites, and half the tribe of Manasseh and exile them to Halah, Habor, Hara, and Gozan's river, where they were at the time of authorship. Hence, the author had an unequivocal objective when he wrote about the wars of the tribes. When the two and half tribes trusted in the _'Elohim of Israel_ , they defeated the Hagarites and their allies, but when the sons of Manasseh worshiped other 'Elohim, all three groups were defeated and exiled. These passages not only display the fruits of obeisance to the proper deity, it unambiguously blames the exile on a particular group of peoples.

1 Chronicles 6 begins with a "P" section on the sons of Levi, which follows the descendants of Kohath to Aaron, Moses, and Miriam. The list then follows Aaron's descendants to Phinehas, and Phinehas' descendants to the Babylonian exile.

Verse 16 begins another section on the descendants of Levi. This list includes several prominent and presumed Levitical figures (Shimei, Zerah, Elkanah, Uzziah, Samuel, Joel, Abijah, and Saul) that one can find within various stories from their school. With verse 22, Kohath fathered Amminadab (later tradition), who fathered Korah, who fathered Assir, who fathered Elkanah, who fathered Abiasaph. In Exodus 6:24, Assir, Elkanah, and Abiasaph (previously discussed) are the sons of Korah, the son of Izhar, the son of Kohath. The change in the Kohath ( _alliance_ ) lineage is a product of a liberal faction that coalesced with a "J/I" sect in Israel, after which the combined peoples allied with the Jerusalem monarchy. The chapter moves to an end with the lands the people gave to the sons of Aaron and the Levites.

1 Chronicles 7 begins with the descendants of Issachar. His sons were Tola, Puah, Jashub, and Shimron. Tola and Puah are the same entities as Tola the judge and his father in Puah in Judges 10:1. The name _Jashub_ means, "he will return", and may represent peoples who were forced out of the region only to return and settle places as the last son Shimron, a city of Zebulun (Josh. 19:15), whose sons or descendants are not listed in this Chronicles history. The city of Shimron may have been part the _Tola kingdom_ before Zebulun became a state.

The sons of Tola were Uzzi, Rephaiah, Jeriel, Jahmai, Ibsam, and Samuel. The name _Uzzi_ means, "might" or "forceful", and may represent a powerful religious institution. The figure of Samuel (means _name of 'El_ ) most likely originated as a demigod, but transformed into the prophet of a religious movement. The cult would have grown to prominence in Ramah of Ephraim, where it was in part presided over by Simeonites who migrated from Judah, hence, the later connection between the names _Simeon_ and _Samuel_. Tola was a man from Issachar, but lived in the _mountains_ of Ephraim (Judges 10:1), which displays the movement of the cult from Issachar to Ramah ( _height_ ). The sons of Tola recorded twenty-two thousand six hundred men during the reign of King David.

The son of Uzzi was Izrahiah, a name that contains the _Yah_ contraction. Izrahiah's sons included Mikael, Joel, and Obadiah, the latter means, "servant of Yah", thus the names again display Issachar's later allegiance to the Judah institution. The faction had thirty-six thousand troops.

Benjamin's sons were Bela, Becher, and Jediael, which is a significant change from Genesis 46:21 and elsewhere. The three sons represent different elements in the region that became Benjamin. However, it is impossible to know if the separate camps were all from the same period and part of a unified coalition. Bela is an Edomite in Genesis 36:32, a Reubenite in 1 Chronicles 5:8, and another name for the city of Zoar (Genesis 14:2), a place across the Jordan to where Lot escaped from Sodom (Genesis 19:22). Zoar most likely included settlements by exiled Edomites and Reubenites from Benjamin. Becher is a son of Ephraim in Numbers 26:35 and either conveys a migration from Ephraim into Benjamin, or possibly a change in state boundaries. Jediael is one of David's warriors in an early written 1 Chronicles 11:45, and a man from Manasseh who defected to David in the war against Saul (1 Chronicles 12:20). _Jediael_ represents entities from an early Judah-based coalition that arose to power in Benjamin.

The first son of Bela was Ezbon, a name that is a variation of the name _Esban_ , an Edomite in Genesis 36:26. Moreover, Ezbon is a son of Gad in Genesis 46:16, and a camp of Benjamites, which included Edomites, escaped to the region of Gad when the Judah alliance conquered the Saul or Kish institution. Uzzi and Uzziel, Bela's second and third born, could once again represent powerful religious factions. Jerimoth was an officer in Naphtali under David (Chronicles 27:19), as well as the name of a few Levites. The name _Jerimoth_ was derived from a plural variation of the word _rum_ , which means, "exalted" or "to be high", and thus could denote an order of priests. Finally, the name _Iri_ most likely refers to the citizenry. There were twenty-two thousand thirty-four warriors and leaders numbered in this coalition.

The first two sons of Becher were Zemirah and Joash, the latter was an officer under David (1 Chronicles 27:28), as well as the Abiezrite father of Gideon in Manasseh (Judges 6:11), which was an institution that allied with one in Benjamin. The third son was Eliezer, a son of Moses (Exodus 18:4), a leader of the Reubenites (1 Chronicles 27:16), and one time heir of Abram (Genesis 15:2). _Eliezer_ represents the discussed migration from Judah into Benjamin (a division of the sect later presided in northern Dan). Becher's next son was Elioenai, who is portrayed as a descendant of both David (1 Chronicles 3:23) and Simeon (1 Chronicles 4:36), and represents peoples from Judah who made their way into Benjamin. Omri, Jerimoth, Abijah, Anathoth, and Alemeth close out the sons of Becher, the latter two entities were city of priests in Benjamin (1 Chronicles 6:60). The figure of _Jerimoth_ again represents an order of priests, along with Abijah ( _father of Yah_ ), i.e., priest of Yahweh, which could intimate a sect that worshiped the Judah deity, if not a purposeful insert as found elsewhere in the narratives. This faction recorded twenty thousand two hundred warriors.

Jediael's only son was Bilhan, who as covered is an Edomite in Genesis 36:27. The _sons of Bilhan_ place forth a wealth of information that assists in unifying ideas placed forth previously. Bilhan's first son was Jeush, an Edomite (Genesis 36:5) son of Oholibamah, the latter a name discussed at length in reference to Saul and Gibeon of Benjamin. The name _Jeush_ was derived from the word _uwsh_ , which people used to _call to assemble_ (Joel 3:11), and could represent an Edomite (and others) assembly in Benjamin. The second son of Bilhan was Benjamin, which is a name that intimates the birth of the state (Genesis 35:18: _Ben-Oni_ ; Judges 19: _sons of Jemini_ ). Hence, there was a unification in Benjamin, and Bilhan's third son was Ehud ( _united_ ), i.e., the coalition in Benjamin referenced previously. The fourth son was Chenaanah, a name apparently derived from the word _kana_ , which means, "to subdue". The fifth son of Bilhan was Zethan, which denotes an _olive tree_. It is difficult to discern exactly when the olive branch became a symbol of peace, but the symbolism is found in ancient Greece. Even if the peace affiliation was not in place in _ancient Israel_ , the olive tree was an important aspect of the _Israelite_ economy, and thus the rituals and lore of the people. Therefore, after the enemy was subdued, there could have been a time of peace and economic prosperity, which is an era referenced in my commentary on 2 Samuel 24 and 1 Chronicles 21. The sixth son of Bilhan was Tarshish, which was a port on the Mediterranean. In 1 Kings 10:22, King Solomon, who conquered (and allied with defectors) the region of Benjamin, had ships of Tarshish at sea, hence, this son represents an alliance with or control over the port. Finally, the last son of Bilhan was Ahishahar, which means, "brother of the dawn". In 1 Chronicles 8:8, Ehud has a descendant named _Shaharaim_ , which means, "two dawns". As discussed, the first dawn was this institution in Benjamin, and the second came when peoples were exiled to Manahath and multiplied in the fields of Moab. This faction registered seventeen thousand two hundred men who could serve in the army.

Shuppim and Huppim were the sons of Ir, i.e., sons of the city, and the Hushim were the sons of Aher, a name that means, "another", i.e., foreigners. In Genesis 46:23, Hushim is a son of Dan, and in Leviticus 24:10, some Danites are portrayed as foreigners. The figure of Hushim is another display of the migration from Benjamin into northern Dan.

The sons of Naphtali were Jahziel, Guni, Jezer, and Shallum. These entities (previously discussed) were the sons of Bilhah. Hence, either one should translate the verse as the _descendants of Bilhah_ , or the author portrayed the figure as Naphtali's wife or concubine. Bilhah was the mother of Dan and Naphtali (Genesis 30), and she represents the Edomites who migrated into northern Israel. Due to the fact the _sons of Dan_ are absent in this Chronicles history, the text may reflect a time when the Edomites migrated north and allied with the leadership in Naphtali, but before the city of Dan became a religious center of Israel.

In the first of a couple difficult to translate verses, the son of Manasseh and his Aramean concubine was Asriel, and she gave birth to Machir, the father of Gilead (Asriel is the son of Gilead in Numbers 26:31). Regardless of the translation, the verse again depicts an "E" and Aram alliance that began east of the Jordan. In the following verse 15 (an approximate translation):

"Machir took wives from Huppim and Shuppim. The name of her sister was Maacah and the name of the second one was Zelophehad, who only had daughters."

Albeit a distorted tradition, Huppim and Shuppim are mentioned as citizens ( _sons of Ir_ ) of Benjamin in verse 12, and in 1 Chronicles 8:29, Maacah ( _Maacathites_ east of the Jordan) is the wife of Gibeon's father. Therefore, the last two verses pertain to an alliance between factions in Gilead and Benjamin, but apparently another cross-region coalition was displaced, as Zelophehad ( _united sides_ ) only had daughters.

Gilead's (or Manasseh's) sister Hammolecheth ( _queen_ ) gave birth to Ishhod ( _man of majesty_ ) and Abiezer. This genealogy of Manasseh displays a move from east of the Jordan toward monarchies in Benjamin and Shechem. Gideon, the father of King Abimelech, was the son of an _Abiezrite_ (Judges 6:11), and in verse 19 of this chapter, Shemida ( _renown_ ) fathered Shechem and Aniam, the latter means, "people of Anah", i.e., Edomites in Benjamin.

The sons of Ephraim were Shuthelah and Bered, who fathered Tahath, who fathered Eleadah, who fathered Tahath, who fathered Zabad, who fathered Shuthelah, who fathered Ezer and Elead.

The men of Gath killed the men of Ephraim because they came to raid their cattle, which implies a new entity took over in the region. After grieving, Ephraim slept with his wife and she gave birth to Beriah (son of Asher Genesis 46:17), who was named because there was _affliction_ in their house. This birth could represent an Asherite migration into the house of Joseph.

Either verse 25 is a continuation from verse 21, or it begins an independent list of Ephraim's descendants. The son of Ephraim was Rephah, who fathered Resheph, who fathered Telah, who fathered Tahan, who fathered Ladan, who fathered Ammihud, who fathered Elishama, who fathered Nun, who fathered Joshua. The name _Rephah_ is a variation of the name _Rapha_ , or _the giant_ , and in Joshua 17:15, the descendants of Ephraim were to take land from the forest of the Rephaim, i.e., the giants. The beginning of this second list actually reflects a time before Ephraim was conquered by the later _sons of Israel_. I covered the Simeonite ("J/I") Elishama and his father Ammihud in my commentary on Numbers 2, as these descendants of Ephraim progress to Joshua, the son of Nun, i.e., the era of the Joshua invasions, in which the entrance into Ephraim came from across the Jordan.

The sons of Ephraim possessed and dwelt in cities and villages that included Bethel, Gezer, Shechem, and Ayyah, as well as cities of the sons of Manasseh, which included Beth-Shean, Taanach, and Megiddo. The sons of Joseph, the _son of Israel_ , lived in these towns.

The sons (and daughter _Sarah_ ) of Asher are the same as in Genesis 46:17. Asher's son Heber fathered Japhlet (to _deliver_ ), Shomer (to _keep_ or _guard_ ), Hotham (a _seal_ or _signet_ ), and their sister Shua, i.e., the alliance of wealth. The _sons of Heber_ appear to represent Asher's affiliation with a Judah government. The remaining descendants of Asher fall into the realm of unknown names or indiscernible author intentions.

This 1 Chronicles 8 Benjamin genealogy paints a rather different picture than the chapter 7 list of Benjamites. In this text, Benjamin fathered Bela, Ashbel, Aharah, Nohah, and Rapha.

The first three sons of Bela were Addar, Gera (father of _Ehud_ Judges 3:15), and Abihud, which means, "father of majesty", and could intimate the beginning of a kingdom (the Ephraimite _Ammihud_ means _people of majesty_ ). The fourth and fifth sons of Bela were Abishua, a son of Phinehas in 1 Chronicles 6:4, and the extensively discussed Naaman. The next two sons of Bela were Ahoah, which most likely intimates a _brotherhood_ and could have been directed at the next son Gera. The majority (if not all) of scholars believe the name _Gera_ was derived from the word _gerah_ , which means, "grain". However, I think it is possible the name was derived from the word _ger_ , which can refer to an alien, sojourner, or stranger. Since Gera is mentioned as two of Bela's sons, it could imply two migrations into Benjamin. If the latter derivation is the case, with _Ahoah_ and _Gera_ , the author could have referred to a _brotherhood of foreigners_. The last two sons of Bela were Shephuphan and Huram. It appears the name _Shephuphan_ means, "serpent", and interestingly enough, the name _Phinehas_ means, "mouth of the serpent". Hence, the presence of Abishua and Shephuphan may intimate the arrival of Solomon and the Shiloh priests into the Benjamin cities, thus it is time for the conquest referenced in the book of Judges. The name _Huram_ is a variation of the name _Hiram_ , the king of Tyre who had an alliance with King Solomon.

With verse 6, one can interpret a section in a couple different manners. Although Ehud arrives in the text without parentage ( _son of Bilhan_ in chapter 7), his sons were the leaders of Geba who were exiled to Manahath. Their names were Naaman, Ahijah, and Gera. After the name _Gera_ , the text states _he_ exiled them and fathered Uzza and Ahihud. The majority of the opinion on the verse is the "he" refers to _Gera_ , but this translation is illogical due to the fact the author listed Gera as one of the deportees. However, one can also translate the verses as, _these were Ehud's sons who were exiled..., and he [Ehud] exiled them to Manahath_. Regardless if the verse refers to Ehud or Gera, the new coalition forced the leaders of Geba into Moab. This exile out of Geba represents the fall of the Gibeon institution that was intimated in the books of Judges and Samuel. In reference to the exiled sons, I have covered Naaman previously. The name _Ahijah_ means, "brother of Yah", i.e., priests or followers of Yahweh, and may represent a sect that either worshiped the deity or would later preside in Judah as part of the Yahweh government. Finally, the exile of Gera could suggest there were foreigners included in the displacement to lands across the Jordan, which would have included the Hivites discussed in Joshua 9. However, a portion of the exiles later returned to the region and to prominence, but first they would experience a rebirth when they multiplied in the land of Moab.

After he sent away his wives Hushim and Baara, Shaharaim ( _two dawns_ ) fathered sons in the fields of Moab with his wife Hodesh, a name that can denote a _new moon_ or _beginning_ ( _second dawn_ ). Shaharaim also had sons named Abitub and Elpaal with his previous wife Hushim ( _first dawn_ ). Abitub and Elpaal represent separate religious orders, but the latter was forced out of power. The name _Abitub_ ( _father of good_ ) most likely represents the same entity as the name _Ahitub_ ( _brother of good_ ), a descendent of Aaron in 1 Chronicles 6:7. However, this reference to the _sons of Aaron_ is the last in the chapter and I believe the Solomon establishment ultimately conquered the following entities of Benjamin. Elpaal's _('El of work_ ) sons who built Ono and Lod (before the exile) were Eber- from a _region beyond_ (possibly Aram), Misham- a name that is a variation of the name _Mishma_ (Ishmaelites turned Simeonites), and Shamed. The other sons of Elpaal were Beriah and Shema, the heads of Aijalon who drove out the residents of Gath. In Joshua 19 verses 42 through 45, Aijalon, Ekron, Gibbethon, and Gath-Rimmon are cities of southern Dan. Ekron and Gath became well-known Philistine cities (1 Samuel 6:17, etc.), and Gibbethon is a city of Philistia in 1 Kings 15:27. Hence, the exiled residents of Gath may not have been Philistines, which would explain why the author failed to mention the name, i.e., make use of the opportunity to disparage them. It appears the event was part of the conquest of southern Dan by the Judah-Philistine alliance, thus the Danite cities became Philistine cities. Beriah most likely symbolizes a migration out of Asher into Judah, and Shema was the son of Hebron (2 Chronicles 2:43) and father of Raham discussed in reference to the origin of the name _Abraham_. Therefore, Beriah and Shema represent entities from Judah that became a part of a religious institution in Benjamin. The text also lists the sons of Beriah, a different list of Elpaal's sons, the sons of Shimei, and the sons of Shashak. These were the heads of families according to their generations and they lived in Jerusalem.

In Gibeon lived the father (1 Chronicles 9:35 adds _Jeiel_ ) of Gibeon, who was married to Maacah. His sons were Abdon, Zur, Kish, Baal, Nadab, Gedor, Ahio, Zecherm, and Mikloth, who fathered Shimeah. I already covered the majority of these names and they represent entities of a prominent religious establishment in the Gibeonite cities. This institution was opposite the one in Jerusalem, but if the two governmental bodies were allies, merely co-existed, or were antagonistic toward each other is difficult to discern with certainty. However, after the later conquest of Gibeon, the new institution and the hierarchy in Jerusalem consolidated (whether by force or alliance) and made Jerusalem the capital of the new kingdom.

In a later addition to the Gibeon genealogy (after authors created the Saul narrative), Ner fathered Kish, Kish fathered Saul, and Saul fathered Jonathan, Malchishua, Abinadab, and Esh-baal. Jonathan fathered Merib-Baal, who fathered Micah. A series of later names finishes the list of the _sons of Benjamin_.

1 Chronicles 9 begins with a list of the first inhabitants of the land of Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile. The names continue through verse 34 and then with verse 35, the text moves back to a genealogy of Saul's ancestry, which is near identical to chapter 8 verses 29 through 38.

The final redactor compiled nine chapters of genealogies from multiple eras that often refer to the same chain of events. Then with chapter 10, he simply ceased his direction and the narrative returns to a segment of the history covered in the books of Samuel. The verses from 1 Samuel 31:1 and 1 Chronicles 10:1 are virtually the same, thus the redactor merely used the verse from 1 Samuel to combine the history in the books of Samuel to this significantly different Chronicles history.

As the narrative continues into chapter 10, the text mirrors the last book of 1 Samuel. Saul was shot by arrow, he asked his armor bearer to kill him, and when his request was denied, he fell on his own sword. However, in 1 Samuel 31:6, Saul, his armor bearer, his three sons, and all his men died, but here in verse 6 of this chapter, Saul, his sons, and his entire house died. Since the _entire house_ of Saul perished, this tradition erased the house of Saul from the remainder of narrative, which was not the case with the authors of 2 Samuel. The chapter moves to a close and as in 1 Samuel 31, the Philistines lived in the Israelite cities. The men of Jabesh-Gilead rescued the bodies of Saul and his sons and they gave them a proper burial under an oak tree, which signifies the fall of the religious institution. Saul died for his unfaithfulness to Yahweh, who put him to death and handed the kingdom over to David, the son of Jesse. In 2 Samuel 1, an Amalekite went to David after he killed Saul, for which David had the Amalekite killed, which is merely one of the numerous Levitical stories that are not part of this Chronicles history.

In 1 Chronicles 11, _all of Israel_ came to David at Hebron. He made a covenant with the _elders of Israel_ in the presence of Yahweh and they anointed him king, but in this text, it was done per the word of Yahweh though Samuel, which is a half-verse that is missing in 2 Samuel 5:3. Entering this tradition on the kingship of David, one does find denigrating passages on the sons of Zeruiah. Furthermore, this Chronicles history does not mention the war between the houses of Saul and David, because the house of Saul was extinguished. Moreover, the murders of Abner and Asahel, as well as the failed contention for the throne by Ishbosheth, are also silent in this Chronicles history. In this version of the events, David is anointed king in Hebron and then the story moves directly into his capture of Jerusalem. Whoever was the first to kill a Jebusite during the attack would become commander of the army. This feat was performed by Joab, the son of Zeruiah. Then David and Joab restored and strengthened the city. The chapter finishes with a list of David's warriors and a few of their exploits (2 Samuel 23).

1 Chronicles 12 reveals the first supporters of this religious faction. It begins with the men who came to David at Ziklag when he was fleeing from Saul, the _son of Kish_. These men were Saul's brothers from Benjamin, i.e., defectors from the Gibeon institution, and they were archers who could use either hand. The leaders were Ahiezer ( _brother of help_ , i.e., ally) and Joash, the sons of Shemaah the Gibeathite. The warriors included a Gibeonite and an Anathothite (cult of _Anat_ ), a few men mentioned among David's thirty, and a group of Korahites, which most likely speaks of a time before the latter became Levites. These men joined David at Ziklag, the city King Achish of the Philistines gave to David (1 Samuel 27:6), which means the above entities joined the Judah-Philistine alliance.

A group of Gadites who were trained for war also joined the forces of Judah in the desert. They were fleet of foot with faces of lions. Their leader was Ezer ( _help_ ) and his men were Obadiah, Eliab, Mishmannah, Jeremiah, Attai, Eliel, Johanan, Elzabad, Jeremiah, and Machbannai. These men were army commanders the least of which could match a hundred men, and the greatest could equal a thousand.

Other men from Benjamin and Judah also joined David in the desert. They were led by Amasai, the chief of David's thirty warriors. _Amasai_ could represent the same entity as _Amasa_ , who was later killed by Joab. In verse 19, men from Manasseh defected to David when he came with the Philistines to battle Saul. However, since an author added an interpolation to veil the Judah-Philistine alliance, in verse 20, men of Manasseh defected to David when he went to Ziklag, which is a city that intimates the same Philistine involvement. Therefore, the men of Manasseh who defected to Judah and the Philistines were Adnah, Jozabad, Jediael, Mikael, Elihu, and Zillethai.

The text lists the number of troops who came to Hebron and assisted David in acquiring the kingdom of Saul, per the word of Yahweh. However, this list was most likely sourced from various records and was compiled after the conception of the Jerusalem monarchy. The warriors assembled in battle formation and were fully determined to make David the _king over Israel_. Unlike the Samuel history, _all of Israel_ was of one mind to make David their king.

Regarding the soldiers who came to Hebron, Jehoiada, the leader of the house of Aaron, commanded three thousand seven hundred men, and Zadok was over twenty-two commanders from the house of his father. Jehoiada the priest is the father of Benaiah elsewhere (2 Samuel 8:18 etc.), but this verse is the only instance in which an author connected him to the house of Aaron. Zadok is often listed as a descendent of Aaron (1 Chronicles 6:8 etc.), thus the less important of the two figures in this chapter is later included as a priest of Aaron, but Jehoiada only lives on as the father of Benaiah (son of Benaiah in chapter 27 verse 34). Jehoiada's disappearance from the house of Aaron may have been a product of an early split in the religious sect.

In 1 Chronicles 13, the institution attempts to move the chest from Kiriath-Jearim to the city of David. David went to the _elders of Israel_ and suggested they send word throughout the land, including to the priests and Levites, to instruct everyone to gather together and retrieve the chest of 'Elohim, since they did not inquire of 'Elohim in the days of Saul. In 2 Samuel 6, they came to the floor of _Nachon_ , but in this chapter, they came to the floor of _Chidron_ , where Uzzah reached out to stabilize the chest and was killed by Yahweh. In both stories, the chest was taken to the home of Obed-Edom the Gittite. It was there for three months and Yahweh blessed his household.

In 1 Chronicles 15, David built a palace in the city of David and he also prepared a place and pitched a tent for the chest of 'Elohim. Only the Levites could carry the chest of 'Elohim because Yahweh chose them. David summoned Zadok, and Abiathar and the Levites, who this time carried the chest as Moses commanded to preclude the anger of Yahweh.

In 1 Chronicles 16, the men placed the chest inside the tent in the city of David. David appointed the Levites as ministers before the chest of Yahweh, and the Levites played music regularly before the chest of the covenant of 'Elohim (weave).

After David uttered a prayer of thanks to Yahweh, his 'Elohim, there is an extremely informative segment beginning at verse 37. The chief Levite and his brothers remained before the chest to minister the daily requirements. However, _Zadok and his fellow priests_ stayed at the tabernacle before Yahweh at the high place in Gibeon to sacrifice regular offerings according to the law. Hence, an author wrote this passage during a period before later authors condemned the high places. Moreover, this segment endows further credence to my belief that the sons of Aaron ( _priests_ ) and a Judah alliance came into power in Gibeon after the takeover expressed in the book of Judges. The new Gibeon establishment then made a move into Salem or Jerusalem, by way of conquest or alliance, and the storied construction of a new temple in Jerusalem, regardless if it was a new building or an extant religious house, represents the ascension of Solomon and the sons of Aaron over the united monarchy.

1 Chronicles 17 mirrors 2 Samuel 7, in which David goes to Nathan to inquire about building a temple for the chest of the deity. Both chapters end with similar prayers of thanks by David. 1 Chronicles 18 covers a few of David's military campaigns (2 Samuel 8), and 1 Chronicles 19 covers a war with the Ammonites and their new king Hanun (2 Samuel 10).

1 Chronicles 20 begins in the time of spring when the kings went out to battle, but David stayed in Jerusalem, as in 2 Samuel 11. However, after the mentioned beginning, 2 Samuel 11 proceeds into the story of David and Bathsheba, where this text moves directly into Joab's attack on Rabbah. Furthermore, Joab does not call upon David to attack the sons of Ammon, in this story, David seized the crown from the Ammonite king, he enslaved the Ammonites and plundered their cities, and then he returned to Jerusalem with his troops. Therefore, either the 2 Samuel author edited this story to denigrate David, or this author edited the 2 Samuel story to make it more _David friendly_.

1 Chronicles 21 is a story about David's census that an author wrote an account of in 2 Samuel 24. In this version, an adversary provoked David, where in 2 Samuel 24, he was provoked by the anger of Yahweh. Furthermore, Joab merely left David and traveled throughout the _land of Israel_ and returned to Jerusalem, where in 2 Samuel 24, he went to the land of the Hittites, to Sidon and Tyre, and to the cities of the Hivites and the Canaanites. Hence, in this version of the story, the author wanted to separate the Phoenicians, the Canaanites, the Hittites, and the Hivites from the _people of Israel_. Joab numbered one million one hundred thousand in Israel and four hundred seventy thousand in Judah, where in 2 Samuel 24, he numbered eight hundred thousand in Israel and five hundred thousand in Judah. In both stories, Yahweh sent a plague upon the land because of the actions of David. However, in verse 15 of this chapter, 'Elohim sent an angel to destroy Jerusalem, which was a half-verse missing in 2 Samuel 24. Yahweh told his angel to cease the carnage when the entity was over Jerusalem, thus the angel withdrew at the threshing floor of Araunah (2 Samuel) or Ornan (1 Chronicles) the Jebusite. In this version, the interpolation begins with verse 16 (Yahweh relented the destruction in verse 15). When David gazed upward and perceived the angel of Yahweh with his sword outstretched over Jerusalem, he asked 'Elohim to move against him instead of his innocent people (similar verbiage to 2 Samuel 24:17). In both chapters, David then persisted in buying the threshing floor and items for offerings from the Jebusite. In 2 Samuel 24, David submitted the burnt and fellowship offerings, which ultimately stopped the plague and the story ended. In this version, after the purchase and the offerings, Yahweh spoke to his angel, who then put his sword back in his sheath. Yahweh answered David at the threshing floor of Ornan the Jebusite, but the tabernacle of Yahweh made by Moses and the altar of burnt offerings were at the high place in Gibeon. David could not go before the altar in Gibeon to inquire of 'Elohim because he was afraid of the sword wielded by Yahweh's angel. Once again, an author separated the institution in Gibeon from a special place, in this instance, the site of the _future_ temple in Jerusalem (from the chest in chapter 16 verse 39). Furthermore, when Yahweh sent his angel to destroy Jerusalem, it could represent a Gibeon threat or attack on the city, which may have been diffused by a Gibeon-Jebus alliance. Moreover, since David was afraid of Yahweh's angel in Gibeon, it appears the Jerusalem institution was fearful of the Gibeon army. In this chapter, David in part represents a sect of would-be Levites who were supplanted by Solomon and the sons of Aaron with their move to Jerusalem. Finally, the sword of the angel is analogous to the cherubs and flaming sword that guarded the garden of Eden in a story that subtly denigrated the Solomon institution. It may be a coincidence, but Solomon was anointed king in Gihon (1 Kings 1:38), which was a river mentioned in the garden of Eden (Gen. 2:13).

1 Chronicles 22 continues the story from the last chapter, where 2 Samuel 24 was followed by the first book of Kings and the last commands and days of David (including Adonijah's move for the kingship). Hence, as Yahweh stopped the plague at the floor of the Jebusite, David realized he was at the house of Yahweh 'Elohim. Moreover, the altar he built became the altar of burnt offerings for _Israel_ , when in the last chapter, the altar of burnt offerings was in Gibeon. The story has presented a significant change, i.e., the consolidation of the Jerusalem and Gibeon religious institutions. Yahweh ceased the plague, or the religious wars that ravaged the land of Canaan, at the threshing floor of the Jebusites, which was the site of the Jerusalem temple, i.e., the center of the new religious kingdom of Yahweh 'Elohim.

With verse 2, Dave gave orders to the foreigners in _Israel_ and he appointed men to cut finishing stones for the temple. He supplied iron for the construction along with countless cedar logs, which he received from the Sidonians and Tyrians. These verses on the temple construction are most likely from a tradition in which David actually built a temple for the deity, which was later consolidated with the tradition in which Solomon built _the_ temple. In addition, albeit the author mentioned the Sidonians and the Tyrians, he did not mention Hiram. Then with verse 5, the author consolidates the separate traditions. Solomon was young and inexperienced, thus David had to make provisions for the temple. Therefore, in the Chronicles history, Solomon's ascension to the kingship is never in question. David instructed him to build a temple for Yahweh, the _'Elohim of Israel_ , because the word of Yahweh came to him (not Nathan) by name. David had shed a tremendous amount of blood, which was why his son would build the temple for the deity. Moreover, there would be peace during his reign and Yahweh would establish _his throne_ over the _kingdom of Israel forever_. David ordered all the _leaders of Israel_ to assist Solomon because Yahweh, their 'Elohim, was with them and had given them peace at all of their borders.

In 1 Chronicles 23, David was near the end of his days, thus he appointed his son Solomon as the _king over Israel_. He gathered the _leaders of Israel_ , the priests, and the Levites to delegate the duties for the thirty-eight thousand Levites who were thirty years of age and older.

The sons of Gershom were Ladan and Shimei. In Exodus 6:17 (and elsewhere), the sons of Gershom are Libni and Shimei. As covered, the name _Libni_ means, "white", and was used to convey the skin color and thus the origin of a people. The name _Ladan_ is a variation of the name Ladah, a descendent of Judah and the son of Er in 1 Chronicles 4:21. The segment from 1 Chronicles 4 was derived from _ancient records_ and it depicts a superseded religious coalition, which aligns with a _son of Gershom_. Moreover, Er symbolizes a people who migrated from Ur, which corresponds with the name Libni.

Ladan's sons were Jehiel, Zetham, and Joel. The name _Zetham_ is a variation of the name _Zethan_ , a Benjamite in 1 Chronicles 7:10. After a sect of would-be Gershomites migrated to Benjamin, the majority were exiled across the Jordan while others fled to northern Dan. Joel most likely represents those who joined the new religious order of Judah.

Shimei's sons were Shelomith, Haziel, and Haran, "these are the heads of the fathers of Ladan", which could intimate the two entities began as a sect that later divided. In Leviticus 24:11, Shelomith is the mother of a Danite who blasphemed _the name_ , which displays a migration to northern Dan by people later designated as _Gershomites_. The name _Haran_ merely denotes the origin of a segment of the Judah populace. The Simeonites (Shimei is a Simeonite in 1 Chronicles 4:26) spawned from the Ishmaelites, who were a product of Egypt (Hagar) and Aram (Abram), the latter is the location of Haran. Then with verse 10, a second list of Shimei's sons reads Jahath, Zizah, Jeush, and Beriah, which could again represent the division of the Ishmaelites. In 1 Chronicles 4:2, Jahath is the son of Judah's son Shobal, who was an Edomite. I previously displayed the connection between the Simeonites and the Edomites, the latter in part migrated to northern Dan as the _sons of Gershom_. Finally, Jahath and Zizah were the first and second born, but the descendants of Jeush and Beriah were few and thus became a single ancestral house. Authors listed Jeush (1 Chronicles 7:10) and Beriah (1 Chronicles 8:13) as men from Benjamin, which accounts for Shimei the Benjamite found in the stories of David.

Verses 12 & 13 list the sons of Kohath (Amram, Izhar, Hebron, and Uzziel), and then Amram's sons Aaron and Moses. Aaron and his sons were chosen to forever serve the deity and pronounce his blessings, but the sons of Moses, a man of 'Elohim, were named with the tribe of Levi. This statement not only displays the division of the sons of Aaron and the Levites, it could intimate Moses was not considered a Levite until "E" later created the story of his birth in Egypt.

The sons of Moses were Gershom and Eliezer. The son of Gershom was Shebuel, which means, "captive of 'El", and displays the fate of the religious sect. Eliezer's son was Rehabiah ( _Yah has enlarged_ ), whose descendants were numerous because they became part of early religious establishments in Judah and Benjamin (previously covered).

The son of Izhar was Shelomith, where in Exodus 6:21, Izhar fathered Korah, Nepheg, and Zichri. As covered in the book of Numbers, the Korah faction was eradicated in Judah, and the same displacement for the early peoples of _Izhar_ is displayed here with his son Shelomith (covered as a son of Shimei).

The sons of Hebron were Jeriah, Amariah, Jahaziel, and Jekameam. The name _Jeriah_ means, "teacher of Yah", and could represent the beginning of the Yahweh religious order. Amariah is a descendant of Aaron in 1 Chronicles 6:7, and may indicate a Hebron alliance with the Shiloh priests. Jahaziel is a defector from Saul to David in 1 Chronicles 12:4, and a priest under David in 1 Chronicles 16:6, thus the name represents a Benjamin establishment that included a Hebron element. The name _Jekameam_ means, "a people arise", and represents the ascension of a new kingdom.

Uzziel's sons were Micah and Isshiah. I have covered the cult of Micah, and the name _Isshiah_ means, "forgotten of Yah", i.e., another abandoned religious sect.

Merari's sons were Mahli and Mushi, and Mahli ( _sickness_ ) fathered Eleazar and Kish. Eleazar only had daughters, who the sons of Kish married, which symbolizes the coalescence of cults in Benjamin, albeit they were destined for failure.

The sons of Mushi were Mahli, Eder, and Jeremoth. Eder was a town of southern Judah (Joshua 15:21), and as covered, Jeremoth signifies an _order of priests_. The _sons of Mushi_ most likely represent a religious establishment in southern Judah that was supplanted by the Hebron institution.

These men were the leaders of the sons of Levi who were twenty years of age and older (thirty years of age in verse 3) and worked in the service of Yahweh's temple. Since Yahweh, the _'Elohim of Israel_ , had given rest to his people and had arrived at his home in Jerusalem, the Levites no longer needed to carry the tabernacle or the equipment for services. However, according to David's last words, the Levites twenty years of age and older were to assist the sons of Aaron with the service of Yahweh's temple. They were responsible for the courts and the chambers, the purification rituals, and all the work for the service of 'Elohim's temple. They were to stand every morning and every evening and give thanks and praise to Yahweh. In verse 26, the Levites no longer needed to carry the tabernacle, but the chapter ends by stating they were to carry out their responsibilities for the tent of meeting, for the sanctuary, and for their relatives, the sons of Aaron, in the service of Yahweh's temple. The redactor obviously used multiple texts in creating this chapter, which one should perceive with the different ages of the numbered Levites and the use of the terms _Yahweh's temple_ and _'Elohim's temple_.

1 Chronicles 24 covers the balance of power for the priests. Nadab and Abihu died before their father, thus the division of offices for the sons of Aaron went to Eleazar and Ithamar. These decrees were divided between Zadok from the sons of Eleazar and Ahimelech from the sons of Ithamar. However, more leaders were found among Eleazar's descendants, thus they were divided accordingly, sixteen leaders from Eleazar's ancestral house and eight from the house of Ahimelech. However, in verse 6, the Levite scribe Shemaiah, the son of Nethanel, recorded them and one ancestral house was taken for Eleazar, and then one for the house of Ithamar. The names of the leaders continue through verse 18, then verse 20 begins a list of the remaining Levites, i.e., those beneath or supplanted by the sons of Aaron (including several names covered in chapter 23).

1 Chronicles 26 verses 20 through 32 are on treasury and Hebronite officials. The segment begins with independent records that a redactor later wove together. The Levite Ahijah was in charge of the treasury of 'Elohim's temple. Then in the following verses, from the sons of Ladan, of the sons of Gershom, Jehiel's sons Zetham and Joel were in charge of the treasury of Yahweh's temple. In verse 23, from the Amramites, the Izharites, the Hebronites, and the Uzzielites, Shebuel, a descendant of Moses' son Gershom, was the officer in charge of the treasury. Furthermore, Shelomith, the son of Zichri, the son of Joram, the son of Jeshaiah, the son of Rehabiah, the son of Eliezer, a relative of Shebuel, he [Shelomith] and his brothers were in charge of the treasures dedicated by King David and the commanders of thousands and hundreds. They dedicated part of the plunder from their battles for the repair of Yahweh's temple. These treasures included all that Samuel the seer, Saul son of Kish, Abner son of Ner, and Joab son of Zeruiah had dedicated. Hence, the consolidation and accumulation of wealth and peoples in Jerusalem that began with the institution in Hebron (King David), the Korah faction that migrated from Judah to Ephraim (Samuel), the Gibeah or Gibeon institution in Benjamin (Saul/Kish and Abner), and finally the institution of Bethlehem (Joab).

Chenaniah the Izharite and his sons were officers and judges over _Israel_. However, since the people of Izhar were supplanted in Judah, Hashabiah the Hebronite and his relatives were assigned duties in the _land of Israel_ west of the Jordan for the work of Yahweh and the service of the king. Furthermore, Jerijah was the head of the Hebronites, according to the genealogy of his ancestral house. During the reign of King David, strong and capable men were found in Jazer of Gilead who were Jerijah's relatives, i.e., exiles from Judah. King David appointed them as rulers over the Reubenites, the Gadites, and half the tribe of Manasseh.

1 Chronicles 27 commences with an informative list of _Israel commanders_ over divisions that contained twenty-four thousand men who served the king on a rotating basis each month throughout the year. However, the commanders actually represent independent institutions and factions from various eras.

Jashobeam, the son of Zabdiel, was in charge of the first division. The name _Jashobeam_ means, "people return", and he was a descendant of Perez. Furthermore, the name _Zabdiel_ is a variation of the name _Zabdi_ (plus _'El_ ). In Joshua 7, Achan, the son of Carmi, the son of Zabdi, the son of Zerah, steals a portion of Yahweh's treasure, after which the faction (Zerah Edomites) is eradicated in Judah. However, since Jashobeam was a commander who served the king, it appears a number of the _people returned_ to prominence, which would explain the connection to Perez, i.e., the new Judah government.

Dodai the Ahohite was the commander for the second month. Mikloth was the leader of his division. _Dodai the Ahohite_ symbolizes the _Brotherhood of Dodo_. In 2 Samuel 23:9 (1 Chronicles 11:12), Dodai is the father of Eleazar, a mighty warrior of David. Furthermore, Mikloth is a brother of Kish in 1 Chronicles 8:32 and Kish is the brother of Eleazar in chapter 23 verse 21. The Dodai leadership, as well as the relations between Dodai, Mikloth, Eleazar, and Kish, represents an early faction in Judah that later presided in Benjamin. A division of the hierarchy coalesced with the cult of Yahweh.

Benaiah, the son of Jehoiada the priest, was the commander for the third month. His son Ammizabad ( _people of Zabad_ ) was in charge of his division. As covered, _Benaiah_ represents Edomites from Aiah who later joined the Solomon monarchy. He is a warrior of David in 2 Samuel 23:20 (1 Chronicles 11:22), and in 1 Chronicles 12:27, his father Jehoiada is the leader of the house of Aaron, but may have fallen from grace. Zabad is a warrior of David in 1 Chronicles 11:41, and in 1 Chronicles 2:36, he is a descendant of Judah and the grandson of an Egyptian slave, which implies peoples from Egypt had joined the hierarchy in Judah.

The fourth commander was Joab's brother Asahel, who was followed by his son Zebadiah. In 2 Samuel 23:24 (1 Chronicles 11:26), Asahel is a mighty warrior of David, but he was killed by Abner (2 Samuel 2:23) around the time _David_ was anointed king in Hebron. Therefore, the entity was another casualty that paved the way for the united monarchy. His son Zebadiah, or _Zabad Yah_ , could symbolize the _people of Zabad_ ( _Ammizabad_ ) who joined the Yahweh institution.

Shamhuth the Izrahite was the commander for the fifth month. The name _Shamhuth_ is a variation of the name _Shammah_ , an Edomite in Genesis 36:13 (brother of Zerah), a passed over son of Jesse in 1 Samuel 16:9, and a Hararite ( _mountain dweller_ ) warrior of David in 2 Samuel 23:33. _Shamhuth_ represents leadership of an early coalition in Judah that included Edomites, but that was later displaced.

The commander for the sixth month was Ira, the son of Ikkesh the Tekoite. The name _Ira_ , a warrior of David in 2 Samuel 23:26, was derived from the word _ayir_ , which means, "donkey", and Jair the Gileadite had _thirty sons who rode on thirty donkeys_ (Judges 10:4). Moreover, in 2 Samuel 20:26, Ira the Jairite is a priest under David. The Jairites first settled in Judah before they raided lands across the Jordan (Numbers 32:41 & Deuteronomy 3:14), and Tekoa (Ira's father was a _Tekoite_ ) was a city in Judah (2 Chronicles 11:6 & 2 Chronicles 20:20). The name of Ira's father, _Ikkesh_ , means, "crooked", and after the denigrated faction was forced out of Judah, they settled Jair's villages in Gilead. The leadership of Ira represents another early camp of Judah that was displaced, but experienced a rebirth east of the Jordan.

Helez the Pelonite of the sons of Ephraim was the commander in the seventh month. In 1 Chronicles 11:27, he is one of David's mighty warriors ( _Helez the Paltite_ in 2 Samuel 23:26). Since in 2 Samuel 23 an author changed the last name to _Paltite_ , or _Palti_ in Hebrew, which means, "escape", it could imply the sect either escaped from Judah ("J/I"), or was later forced out of power in Ephraim (possibly both).

The commander for the eighth month was Sibbecai the Hushathite, who was also a Zerahite. In 2 Samuel 21:18, Sibbecai is an early warrior who battled the Philistines, and in 1 Chronicles 11:29, he is one of David's mighty warriors. In 1 Chronicles 4:4, _Hushah_ is a son of Ezer and a descendent of Judah, which places the _Hushathites_ in the southern country. However, since Sibbecai was Zerahite, it is possible this faction was also displaced.

In the ninth month, the commander was Abiezer ( _father of help_ ), the Anathothite from Benjamin. He is one of David's mighty warriors in 2 Samuel 23:27 (1 Chronicles 11:28). This leadership represents an alliance between an uprising in Judah and an establishment in Benjamin that probably worshiped the Goddess Anat.

The commander for the tenth month was Maharai the Netophathite, who was also a Zerahite, as well as a warrior of David in 2 Samuel 23:28 (1 Chronicles 11:30). In 1 Chronicles 2:54, an author associated the Netophathites with Bethlehem. This leader could represent the discussed kingdom in Bethlehem, which included Edomites.

Benaiah the Pirathonite from Ephraim was the commander for the eleventh month. He is a mighty man of David in 2 Samuel 23:30 (1 Chronicles 11:31). In Judges 12:13, a Pirathonite named Abdon ( _servant_ ) judged _Israel_ , which is a figure that could refer to the same leadership. Due to the name _Benaiah_ , one should realize the Edomites were part of the establishment.

The commander over the twelfth and final month was Heldai the Netophathite of Othniel. In 2 Samuel 23:29, _Heleb_ the Netophathite is a warrior of David, but in 1 Chronicles 11:30, his name is _Heled_. In both texts, he is the son of Baanah, the name of a man who assassinated Ishboshesh (2 Samuel 4:6). The early era of this leadership is conveyed with Heldai's connection to Othniel ( _force of 'El_ ), or the army that assisted in the conquest of Judah, including the once prominent Debir (Joshua 15:17).

The list of commanders obviously came from the same records as the texts of 2 Samuel 23 and 1 Chronicles 11. As the reign of David, the names reflect the various religious factions that fought for control of the region during a period prior to the formation of the united monarchy.

Verse 16 begins a list of the leaders of the tribes. However, as perceived throughout the narratives, the names could have been sourced from any number of eras and the leaders do not represent the reign of one institution. Moreover, it is noteworthy that both Gad and Asher are absent among the states. At the time of authorship, Asher may have been considered a part of the Phoenician kingdom, and the region of Gad could have been a sovereign entity, not unlike Moab and Ammon.

For the Reubenites, Eliezer, the son of Zichri, was the chief official, which places him above the other leaders and displays the prominent status the Reubenites once secured. I have discussed Eliezer extensively, and his father Zichri, a son of Izhar in Exodus 6:21, portends the Reubenite downfall.

The leader of the Simeonites was Shephatiah, the son of Maacah. Shephatiah, or _Shaphat Yah_ , is a son of David in 2 Samuel 3:4. Since Shaphat is a leader of Simeon in Numbers 13:5, the two names refer to the same leadership and could point to a time before the Simeonites were exiled out of Judah. The name _Maacah_ denotes the Maacathites from Aram who settled in southern Judah (Aram/Egypt origin of the Simeonites).

The leader of the Levites was Hashabiah, the son of Kemuel. In chapter 26 verse 30, Hashabiah and his brothers are Hebronites who served the king west of the Jordan, which could reflect a time before power moved to Benjamin. In Genesis 22:21, Kemuel is the son of Nahor, which expresses a people from Aram.

The leader of the sons of Aaron was Zadok, but the half-verse appears to have been a later addition to the passage (only entity mentioned without a relation). The list most likely originated during a period before the rise of the Solomon monarchy and the ascension of the _sons of Aaron_.

The leader of Judah was Elihu, "one of David's brothers." This verse is the only instance in the narratives in which Elihu is the brother of David, but in 1 Samuel 1:1, he is an ancestor of Elkanah, the father of Samuel, which implies the faction was later exiled out of Judah ("J/I").

The leader of Issachar was Omri, the son of Michael ( _Mikael_ ). Omri is a descendent of Benjamin in 1 Chronicles 7:8, and the names point to new coalition that was centered in Benjamin. Both the cult of Mikael and the state of Issachar supported a Judah-based institution.

The leader of Zebulun was Ishmaiah, the son of Obadiah. In 1 Chronicles 12:4, Ishmaiah is a Gibeonite warrior, one of David's thirty, who defected from Saul to David. In 1 Chronicles 7:3, Obadiah is a descendent of Issachar who supported the Yahweh institution (Zebulun and Issachar were _sons of Leah_ ). As covered, the _sons of Zebulun_ are not listed in the Chronicles genealogies. This leader may represent the general time that Zebulun became a state, hence, shortly after the region was part of the Issachar kingdom, thus a _son of Obadiah_.

The leader of Naphtali was Jerimoth, i.e., priests, the son of Azriel, which means, "help of 'El". This leadership could represent an alliance between the Yahweh institution and the _priests of 'El_.

The leader of Ephraim was Hoshea (from an era before the name was changed to Joshua), the son of Azaziah (a Levite mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:21). Hosea represents peoples from the Joshua invasions and their rise to power in Israel.

The leader of west Manasseh was Joel, the son of Pedaiah. The leader of Manasseh in Gilead was Iddo, the son of Zechariah (a Levite also mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15). _Joel_ represents the alliance between the priests of 'El in Israel and the Yahweh government in Judah.

The leader of Benjamin was Jaasiel, the son of Abner. Jaasiel is one of David's warriors in 1 Chronicles 11:47, but his father Abner conveys a defection to the Judah-based institution from an existent Benjamin kingdom.

The leader of Dan was Azarel, the son of Jeroham. Azarel is a defector from Saul to David in 1 Chronicles 12:6. In 1 Samuel 1:1, Jeroham is the father of Elkanah, the father of Samuel. This father and son reflect a camp from Judah that moved to power in Benjamin and Ephraim. A division of the coalition later migrated to northern Israel, hence, a leader of Dan.

Beginning with verse 23, there is a passage from an independent tradition. Even though the chapter begins by listing the commanders who served the king, and then moves into a segment on the leaders of the tribes, this section states David did not register the men under twenty years of age because Yahweh proclaimed _Israel_ would become as numerous as the stars. Joab, the son of Zeruiah, began to count them, but he ceased due to the wrath against _Israel_ , thus the number was not entered in the records of King David. These two verses could have arisen from a tradition in which Joab did not complete the census depicted in 2 Samuel 24 and 1 Chronicles 21, which Joab was against because the united monarchy displaced the Joab institution. The defeated religious sects made a declaration against the new kingdom and their _incomplete census_ could reflect its short-lived duration. However, authors later changed the tradition to reflect a completed census, i.e., a united kingdom, albeit still portrayed without the consent of Joab.

In 1 Chronicles 28, David spoke to his people. Yahweh, the _'Elohim of Israel_ , chose Judah to become his leader and out of the house of Judah, he chose David to become the _king over Israel_. However, since David had shed so much blood, Yahweh chose Solomon out of all his sons to sit on the throne and build the temple. If Solomon continued to obey the commands of the deity, his kingdom would be established forever. David then gave Solomon the plans for the temple and told him to be strong because Yahweh 'Elohim, his 'Elohim, was with him. He also gave Solomon the divisions of the priests and the Levites for the service of 'Elohim's house.

In 1 Chronicles 29, David spoke of the difficult task for Solomon because he was not building a house for a man, but for Yahweh 'Elohim. David gave vast treasures to the temple of his 'Elohim and asked the people to follow his devotion to Yahweh. The people then gave willingly their silver, gold, bronze, and precious stones to the treasury, which was overseen by Jehiel the Gershomite.

David recited a prayer to Yahweh, the _'Elohim of Israel_ , and then Solomon was anointed king a second time, along with Zadok as the priest (the Levites are absent). Solomon prospered and _all of Israel_ obeyed him. All the leaders and mighty men of David, as well all his sons, pledged their allegiance to Solomon, which is obviously not the case in the Kings history since Adonijah made a move for the kingship. Yahweh bestowed a royalty upon Solomon that had not been imparted upon any _king of Israel_ before him, which subtly conveys there were kings in Judah and Israel before the fictional kings David and Saul.

As the narrative transitions from the reign of David to Solomon, one should examine the change of guard. 1 Chronicles 17 mirrors 2 Samuel 7, then the Chronicles history quickly moves toward the end of David's reign. However, 2 Samuel 8 displays David's military might, while 2 Samuel 9 covers his kindness to Mephibosheth. 2 Samuel 11 contains the story of David and Bathsheba and in the next chapter, Nathan admonishes David, Bathsheba's child dies, and then Solomon is born. In 2 Samuel 13, Amnon defiles Tamar and he is subsequently murdered by Absalom. The Absalom narrative and his move for the kingship continues into chapter 18, while Ziba assists David and Shimei curses him. David's kingdom is restored in chapter 19, Sheba revolts in chapter 20, and in chapter 21, the house of Saul is given to the Gibeonites for execution. As the 2 Samuel history moves to an end, 1 Kings begins and Adonijah makes a move for the kingship. Finally, David relays his last minute advice to Solomon, i.e., a few remaining factions and figureheads needed to be eliminated. This chain of events is comprehensive, but in this Chronicles history, David merely passes the torch to Solomon. The Chronicles history was compiled by authors who remained loyal to the Jerusalem monarchy, while the Samuel history unveils sects that were exiled, partially exterminated, or merely lost their eminence or importance in various generations. The separate political angles of these histories are extremely evident.

The first book of Chronicles moves to an end with a short synopsis on the life of David. He was the son of Jesse, i.e., Bethlehem, and he reigned in Hebron for seven years and in Jerusalem for thirty-three. The events of the life of David were written in the works of Samuel the Seer, Nathan the Prophet, and Gad the Seer. They give an account of his reign, his might, and the circumstances that affected _Israel_ and the surrounding kingdoms, i.e., the events in the lands of Judah and Israel prior to the formation of the united monarchy.

Table of Contents

On the Second Book of Chronicles

2 Chronicles 1 continues the narrative with the rule of King Solomon. In 1 Kings 3, the king went to Gibeon to sacrifice because of the _great high place_. Solomon then offered sacrifices on the altar. However, here Solomon and the entire assembly went to the high place in Gibeon because it harbored 'Elohim's tent of the meeting. In addition, although David brought the chest of 'Elohim from Kiriath-Jearim to the tent he pitched in Jerusalem, the bronze altar made by Bezalel, the son of Uri, the son of Hur, was in front of Yahweh's tabernacle. Therefore, Solomon and the assembly went to the deity and he offered sacrifices on the bronze altar at the tent of the meeting.

In the interpolated segment, the deity is referred to as both _Yahweh_ and ' _Elohim_ , and there is a mention of the _tent of the meeting_ as well as the _tabernacle_. One would theorize the original story began with Solomon merely going to the Gibeon high place to sacrifice. However, authors later condemned the high places, and the religious institution in Gibeon lost its glory in the narratives to the temple and institution centered in Jerusalem. Therefore, redactors needed to consolidate various traditions from different periods. Hence, Solomon and the assembly went to the Gibeon high place because 'Elohim's tent of the meeting was there. A tent of the meeting is brought to the Jerusalem temple with the chest of the deity in 1 Kings 8:4 and 2 Chronicles 5:5, but in the narratives, a tabernacle is never moved to the temple in Jerusalem. Moreover, stories often place the chest of the deity in the tent of the meeting, thus an author would have to account for its absence. Therefore, in verse 4, David had brought the chest from Kiriath-Jearim to the tent he pitched in Jerusalem. Furthermore, to align the chest of the deity and the tent of the meeting with the traditions of the bronze altar and the tabernacle in Gibeon, in verse 5, David had placed the bronze altar in front of the tabernacle. The name _Gibeon_ means, "hilly", and although it may have been a hilly or mountainous region, i.e., high place, to elevate oneself and worship a deity, when the Gibeon institution became prominent, leadership would have erected a temple there, in which they placed a bronze altar, not unlike the one built in the Jerusalem temple (2 Chronicles 4:1). Then in verse 6, Solomon went to Yahweh and offered sacrifices on the bronze altar at the _tent of the meeting_ , when it was referred to as the _tabernacle_ in the previous verse. In early or original traditions (1 Chronicles 16:39 & 1 Chronicles 21:29), authors placed the tabernacle in Gibeon, but not the tent of the meeting. In 1 Chronicles 21:29, the tabernacle and altar for burnt offerings were in Gibeon, but in 1 Chronicles 23:26, the Levites would no longer carry the tabernacle or the utensils for its service. Moreover, in 1 Chronicles 23:32, they were to perform the services for the tent of the meeting in Yahweh's temple. However, in 1 Chronicles 6:48, the Levites under the sons of Aaron were appointed to the service of the tabernacle for the house of 'Elohim. 1 Chronicles 6:48 is the only verse in the narratives that places a tabernacle in the temple, if one assumes the verse refers to a temple in Jerusalem. If the author, who was certainly a sons of Aaron scribe or priest, was not referring to the temple in Gibeon, he may have merely maintained the tradition of a tabernacle when his institution moved to power in Jerusalem. Therefore, it is likely there was tabernacle in the Gibeon temple and a tent of the meeting in the Jerusalem temple.

After Solomon offered sacrifices to the deity at Gibeon, that evening 'Elohim appeared to him and ultimately granted him wisdom. Then Solomon went from the high place in Gibeon to Jerusalem _before the tent of the meeting_ and he ruled over _Israel_. This verse subtly displays a move from the high place in Gibeon, i.e., from governing over the Gibeon religious institution, to the new united capital in Jerusalem. However, and a last point of ambiguity, scholars often erroneously translate the verse as (roughly), "Solomon went to Jerusalem from the high place in Gibeon before the tent of the meeting and reigned over Israel", but it should read, "Solomon left the high place in Gibeon and went to Jerusalem before the tent of the meeting and reigned over Israel." The former translation aligns with the interpolations in this chapter, but the latter details what I have placed forth, i.e., there was a tabernacle in Gibeon and a tent of the meeting in Jerusalem, and Solomon went before the latter to reign over _Israel_.

In 2 Chronicles 2, Solomon decided to build himself a palace and a temple for the deity. He assigned men as workers, stonecutters, and their supervisors. He then sent word to King Hiram and requested craftsmen, as well as trees and logs from Lebanon, all for which he would provide food, wine, and oils. Hiram replied to Solomon in a letter. Since Yahweh loved his people and chose Solomon as their king, Hiram would send him a skilled man of discernment like Hiram's father. He was the son of a man from Tyre and his mother was a daughter of Dan, not coincidentally, two allies of the Judah alliance that ascended to power over the united monarchy. As the chapter ends, Solomon again instituted men as workers, stonecutters, and their supervisors, but in this passage, the workers were foreigners, which is not a subtle change in the story.

In 2 Chronicles 3, Solomon began to build the temple on Mount Moria, which is where Abraham went to sacrifice Isaac to the deity (Genesis 22:2). The remainder of chapters 3 & 4 continue with the details of the temple construction, followed by chapter 5, in which they filled the temple with treasures, the chest of the deity, the tent of the meeting, and the holy utensils. Chapters 6 & 7 cover prayers and dedication ceremonies, and chapter 8 covers the other building projects of King Solomon.

2 Chronicles 9 begins with the previously covered story about the queen of Sheba. The chapter ends with:

"29. And the rest of the acts of Solomon, the first and the last, not they are written in the words of Nathan the prophet, and in the prophecy of Ahijah the Shilonite, and in the visions of Iddo the seer as to Jeroboam the son of Nebat."

The 2 Chronicles history does not detail the contention between Solomon and Jeroboam. Therefore, the Jeroboam reference is most likely an interpolation. However, since the visions of the seer covered the matters of Jeroboam, the visions could have been of his later rebellion against Solomon's son. In addition, this text of 2 Chronicles 9 reads virtually verbatim of 1 Kings 10 (until verse 29). Then after verse 29, the reign of Solomon comes to an end, but the first book of Kings continues into 1 Kings 11, which denigrates Solomon by stating he did evil in the eyes of Yahweh.

2 Chronicles 10 mirrors the beginning of 1 Kings 12, in which Rehoboam went to Shechem to accept the kingship and Jeroboam returned from Egypt to confront him. 2 Chronicles 11 covers the rule of King Rehoboam and his building projects. However, the chapter begins as the Kings history. Rehoboam mobilized his armies for war, but Yahweh intervened and Rehoboam turned back from invading Israel, which could imply Judah could not defeat the Israel rebellion.

King Rehoboam fortified the cities of Bethlehem, Etam, Tekoa, Beth-Zur, Soco, Adullam, Gath, Mareshah, Ziph, Adoriam, Lachish, Azekah, Zorah, Aijalon, and Hebron. He strengthened their fortresses and supplied them with food, oil, and wine, thus Judah and Benjamin were secure under his control.

Verse 13 provides one with invaluable information.

"13. And the priests and the Levites that {were}in all Israel stationed themselves by him, out of all their territory, 14. for had abandoned the Levites their pasture- lands and their property, and they came to Judah and to Jerusalem. For had excluded them Jeroboam and his son from acting as priests to Yahweh. 15. Yes, he chose for himself priests for the high places, and for the male-goat demons, and for the calves that he made. 16. And after them out of all the tribes of Israel, those who gave their heart to seek Yahweh 'Elohim of Israel, came to Jerusalem to sacrifice to Yahweh 'Elohim of their forefathers."

The quote intimates a split within the Levitical school. Although the verses can read as if all the Levites joined the Judah institution, it was probably intended to discredit the priests who served under Jeroboam or remained in Israel. The Levites who joined the priests in Jerusalem presided as subordinates to the sons of Aaron.

Rehoboam married Mahalath, who was the daughter of Abihail (the daughter of Jesse's son Eliab) and David's son Jerimoth. Mahalath gave birth to Jeush, Shemariah, and Zaham. Rehoboam also married Maacah, the daughter of Absalom. Maacah gave birth to Abijah, Attai, Ziza, and Shelomith. Rehoboam loved Maacah more than all his wives and concubines.

With the children of Rehoboam, an author placed forth a mini version of the history I have detailed. The author associated his first wife Mahalath with Abihail, the daughter of Jesse's son Eliab, and with David's son Jerimoth. Samuel passed over Eliab when he was choosing one of Jesse's sons as the next _king of Israel_ , which intimates his status moving forward. Furthermore, verse 18 is the only instance in the narratives that an author referred to Jerimoth as a son of David, but he is listed as an early supporter of David's religious faction (1 Chronicles 12:5). As referenced, _Jerimoth_ represents an early order of priests. _Abihail_ , a descendant of Gad (1 Chronicles 5:14), represents a Bethlehem camp that coalesced with peoples east of the Jordan. Therefore, the sons of Mahalath ( _sickness_ ) represent early religious coalitions in Judah, but due to her name, the author revealed their fate. The first of son of Rehoboam and Mahalath was Jeush. He is an Edomite in Genesis 36:5 who was born to Oholibamah, who I connected to Saul and the Gibeon institution. Hence, _Jeush_ represents Edomites who migrated from Hebron into Benjamin, but the forces of Solomon conquered their institution. The next son was Shemariah, an early Benjamite supporter of David in 1 Chronicles 12:6, thus another entity from the same period that fell to the forces of Solomon. Finally, the name _Zaham_ means, "loathing", and could symbolize the new Judah government's feelings toward the old coalitions. Rehoboam's second wife was Maacah, the daughter of Absalom. Authors also portrayed Maacah as the mother of Absalom (2 Samuel 3:3) and the daughter of the king of Geshur (the Maacathites and Geshurites were Arameans). Hence, this second set of sons represents the Judah alliances with peoples from Aram, including the Shiloh priests and the sons of Ammon (Rehoboam's mother was an Ammonitess). The new alignment of peoples supplanted the aforementioned coalitions. The first son of Rehoboam and Maacah was Abijah, a name that means, "father of Yah". _Abijah_ , the next king of Judah, represents the new kingdom that superseded the earlier political establishments. Moreover, the Chronicles authors may have changed his name to represent this new Judah government, as in the Kings history, authors referred to Abijah as _Abijam_ , which means, "father of the sea". The second son of Rehoboam and Maacah was Attai, a name that is a variation of the name _Ittai_ , who is David's Philistine ally in 2 Samuel 15:19. As covered, the Philistines were instrumental in this government's rise to power. The third son of Rehoboam and Maacah was Ziza ( _prominence_ ), a name that is a variation of the name _Zaza_ (brother of Philistine _Peleth_ ), which I discussed in my commentary on 1 Chronicles 2:33. Finally, the last son was Shelomith, who as discussed, represents exiles from Judah who migrated to northern Dan and later allied with the Jerusalem monarchy. Hence, with the sons of Rehoboam, the author placed forth a condensed version of Judah's history.

Rehoboam acquired eighteen wives and sixty concubines and was the father of twenty-eight sons and sixty daughters. He appointed Abijah as the leader of his brothers and intended to declare him the next king in Jerusalem. He also dispersed his sons ( _allies_ ) throughout Benjamin and Judah to secure his control over the land.

2 Chronicles 12 continues on the reign of Rehoboam when King Shishak of Egypt invaded Judah. He had a massive force that included Libyans, Cushites, and Sukkiims. He captured the fortified cities of Judah and came as far as Jerusalem. Judah and Rehoboam became servants of Egypt and Shishak, who seized the treasures of the royal palace. Ironically, besides the aforementioned, conditions were good in Judah, which implies the people could live well under the dominion of a foreign country.

King Rehoboam established his kingdom in Jerusalem and reigned seventeen years. His mother was Naamah the Ammonitess. As with the Kings history, there was war between Rehoboam and Jeroboam throughout their reigns. Rehoboam rested with his fathers and he was buried in the city of David. His son Abijah became king in his place.

2 Chronicles 13 conveys a battle between Abijah and Jeroboam, but there is a clever interpolation in the story. Abijah assembled four hundred thousand choice warriors and Jeroboam responded with eight hundred thousand of his own. Abijah stood on Mount Zemaraim in the hill country of Ephraim and called out to Jeroboam and Israel. Yahweh, the _'Elohim of Israel_ , established the _kingship over Israel_ for David and his descendants, but Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, who was a servant of Solomon, stood up and rebelled against his lord. Worthless men gathered around him and he defied Rehoboam when he was young and inexperienced. However, the author failed to mention a specific action or battle against Solomon, any iniquities committed by or a denigration of Solomon, nor does Yahweh have his prophet foretell the split of the kingdom. The author unequivocally placed the entire fault upon Jeroboam and his worthless followers. Abijah continues to question the audacity of Jeroboam, who had driven out the priests of Yahweh, but Abijah's priests were sons of Aaron and the Levites served their tasks. Thus, the author conveyed a consolidated front of the two religious groups. Although the text mentions the sons of Aaron and states they were the acting priests, a Levitical author whose sect once presided in Israel wrote the speech of Abijah, which would explain the mention of _Yahweh, the 'Elohim of Israel_. However, even though this author was Levitical, he was not from the sect that constantly admonished the institution of Judah, the sons of Aaron, and King Solomon. He was from a sect of Levites in Israel that joined the sons of Aaron and the Judah institution, which an author mentioned in chapter 11.

"14. for had abandoned the Levites their pasture- lands and their property, and they came to Judah and to Jerusalem."

Jeroboam assembled an ambush, but Judah (not their king, thus a different author and possibly a different reign) discovered his plan and called out to Yahweh. The priests blew their trumpets and when the men of Judah cried out for battle, 'Elohim routed Jeroboam and all of Israel. The _sons of Israel_ were subdued because the _sons of Judah_ followed Yahweh, the _'Elohim of their ancestors_ (not the _'Elohim of Israel_ ).

Abijah and the army captured Bethel, Jeshanah, Ephron, and the surrounding villages. Jeroboam was subdued during the reign of Abijah and Yahweh ultimately killed him. At this time, Abijah became strong and acquired fourteen wives, twenty-two sons, and sixteen daughters.

In the Kings history, there were mere sentences on the three year reign of Abijah, or _Abijam_ , and his victory over Jeroboam is conspicuously silent. In 1 Kings 15:3, the author stated he committed the sins of his father and was not completely devoted to Yahweh, but this denigration stemmed from the fact he incorporated an opposing Levitical sect (to the author) into his institution. Furthermore, the authors of the Kings history who continually denounced Jeroboam failed to mention the territories he lost or even his death at the hand of Yahweh. It appears a Levitical sect that stayed in Israel did not want to give the Judah establishment, and thus their betraying brothers, any credit or notoriety for its accomplishments against the country of Israel.

In 2 Chronicles 14, Abijah was buried in the city of David and his son Asa became king. During his reign, the land was at peace for ten years. Asa was upright in the sight of Yahweh, his 'Elohim, and he removed the pagan altars, he tore down the high places (which he failed to do in the Kings history), and he cut down the Asherah poles. He instructed the people of Judah to follow Yahweh, the 'Elohim of their ancestors.

During the time of peace, Asa built fortresses in cities throughout Judah. When Judah was finally attacked by Zerah the Cushite, Asa marched against him in the valley of Zephathah at Mareshah. He cried out to Yahweh, his 'Elohim, thus Yahweh defeated the Cushites and the Judah army pursued them as far as Gerar. They attacked the enemy until there were no survivors, and then they turned and plundered the surrounding cities. They also attacked the tents of the herdsmen and confiscated numerous sheep and camels.

2 Chronicles 15 continues on the reign of King Asa. The spirit of 'Elohim came upon Azariah, the son of Oded, and he called out to Asa, Judah, and Benjamin. When an author praised King Abijah, he had the king speak out against Jeroboam and Israel, but this other Levitical sect preferred to speak via the prophets because they seldom had the support of the kings. As far as Azariah's words to the people, Yahweh was with them when they sought him, but he would abandon them if they abandoned him. Israel had been without a true 'Elohim, but then they turned to Yahweh, the _'Elohim of Israel_. Asa and Judah were not to be discouraged because their work had a reward. When Asa heard these words, he removed the idols from Judah, Benjamin, and the cities he captured in Ephraim. He then gathered all the people to Judah and Benjamin, including those of Ephraim, Manasseh, and Simeon who settled among them when they _defected from Israel_ (a display of the Simeonite migration to Israel before this defection back to Judah). All the people performed a great sacrifice and they entered a covenant to follow Yahweh, the 'Elohim of their forefathers, with all their mind and heart. The leaders would execute anyone who did not follow Yahweh, the _'Elohim of Israel_ , from the men to the women, and from the elderly to the young. Due to this oath with Yahweh, they had peace at all their borders. This section prepares the scene for a forthcoming condemnation.

King Asa dethroned his grandmother Maacah because she had made an image of Asherah, which he crushed and burned in the Kidron Valley (as did Josiah in 2 Kings 23:6). This mention of dethronement appears to have been a statement against allies of the Judah government. However, unlike in the last chapter, he did not remove the high places. Nevertheless, Asa acted with a good heart his entire life and he brought consecrated gifts into the temple of 'Elohim. The country was without war until the thirty-fifth year of his reign, where in the last chapter, they had ten years of peace.

2 Chronicles 16 covers Asa's alliance with Aram in the war against King Baasha of Israel (1 Kings 15). However, with verse 7, there is a later addition or layer to the story. Hanani the seer rebuked Asa for his affiliation with Aram. Asa failed to depend on Yahweh, but when he did, Yahweh handed the Cushites and Libyans over to him. Since Asa allied with Aram and displayed a lack of faith in Yahweh, there would be war for the remainder of his reign. This condemnation angered Asa, who placed Hanani in prison. He also oppressed segments of the people at this time, which further unveils the interwoven authors from opposing religious sects, as in the last chapter, _Asa acted with a good heart his entire life_.

Verse 11 ends the chapter with a short weave. In the thirty-ninth year of his reign, Asa developed a foot disease, but instead of seeking Yahweh, he sought the physicians. Then with verse 13, another author continued his praise. Asa passed away and he was buried in his own tomb in the city of David. The people placed him in a coffin that was full of spices and prepared ointments and they held a great fire in his honor. With his death, his son Jehoshaphat became king.

2 Chronicles 17 moves the narrative to the reign of King Jehoshaphat, who strengthened himself against the country of Israel. He deployed troops in the fortified cities of Judah as well as in the cities of Ephraim that were captured by Asa. In chapter 13, Abijah captured Bethel and the surrounding villages, thus if chapter 13 was accurate, Asa may have merely kept control of these lands, if he did not capture additional territories. Moreover, and a point I neglected to mention in chapter 13, it is now understandable why the Israel government moved the capital to Tirzah. Jeroboam may have established the religious centers in Dan and Bethel when he allied with the Jerusalem monarchy, but after Israel's rebellion, Abijah and Judah captured Bethel. Therefore, Bethel became irrelevant in the history of Israel, except as a means for the authors to denigrate Jeroboam.

Yahweh was with Jehoshaphat because he walked in the ways of David. He did not worship the Baalim, but followed the 'Elohim of his father and stayed away from the practices of Israel. Yahweh established the kingdom of Judah in his hands and all the people brought him tribute. Jehoshaphat sent his officials, along with the Levites and priests, to teach in the cities of Judah, which was definitely a state obedience course. The terror of Yahweh fell upon surrounding kingdoms as Jehoshaphat grew mighty and built fortresses throughout Judah. Furthermore, as his father, he removed the high places and the Asherah poles from the land. However, the accolades for removing the high places and idols of worship were mere praise by hyperbole. If his father removed the aforementioned, Jehoshaphat would not have had to remove them again.

2 Chronicles 18 begins with Jehoshaphat's alliance with Ahab. Then the chapter moves into a text that mirrors 1 Kings 22 and culminates with the death of the _king of Israel_.

In a 2 Chronicles 19 interpolation, Jehoshaphat returned to Jerusalem from Israel. Upon his arrival, Jehu, the son of Hanani, confronted him about his alliance with Ahab, which I mentioned would have spawned disdain. Jehoshaphat would have experienced the wrath of Yahweh, but because he removed the Asherah and dedicated himself to 'Elohim, some good was found in him.

Jehoshaphat assembled the people from Beersheba to the hills of Ephraim and brought them back to Yahweh, the 'Elohim of their ancestors. He appointed judges in Jerusalem and in the fortified cities of Judah, as well as Levites, priests, and heads of _Israel families_ to settle disputes. He placed the fear of Yahweh upon the people and assigned officers in their presence. Hence, after the interpolated warning at the beginning of the chapter, there is another segment of accolades that probably originally followed chapter 17.

2 Chronicles 20 covers a possible war. The sons of Moab, the sons of Ammon, and the sons of Mount Seir came to fight against Judah. Jehoshaphat became afraid and he stood before the assembly and prayed to Yahweh. After his prayer, the inhabitants of Judah were standing before the deity when the spirit of Yahweh came upon Jahaziel, the son of Zechariah, the son of Benaiah, the son of Jeiel, the son of Mattaniah, a Levite from Asaph's descendants. As with other texts, Yahweh did not reply to the king, but to the priest or prophet. When the people heard that Yahweh would subdue the enemy into their hands, they all bowed to the ground in worship. Moreover, and a point the author evidently felt the need to mention, the Levites from the sons of Kohathites and Korahites arose and praised Yahweh, the _'Elohim of Israel_ , with a loud voice. When the army went to battle the next morning, Yahweh had the Ammonites and the Moabites destroy the inhabitants of Mount Seir. When they finished, they destroyed each other. It took the army of Judah three days to gather the plunder off their dead enemies.

As the history of his reign comes to an end, Jehoshaphat did not remove the high places from the land (he did in chapter 17), which coincides with the Kings history. The rest of the acts of Jehoshaphat were written in the Events of Jehu, the son of Hanani, which was recorded in the Book of the Kings of Israel. In a later addition to the passage, Jehoshaphat made a covenant with King Ahaziah of Israel, who was guilty of wrongdoing. They formed an alliance to have ships sail to Tarshish, which they made in Ezion-Geber. However, Eliezer prophesied against Jehoshaphat because of the alliance and thus the ships were wrecked. In 1 Kings 22 verses 48 & 49, Jehoshaphat sent ships from Tarshish to Ophir to carry gold, but they were wrecked in Ezion-Geber. Ahaziah had asked Jehoshaphat if his servants could assist on the voyage, but Jehoshaphat declined. Once again, political objectives define the history.

In 2 Chronicles 21, Jehoshaphat was buried in the city of David and his son Jehoram became king. Jehoshaphat had other sons by the names of Azariah, Jehiel, Zechariah, Azariah, Michael, and Shephatiah, but Jehoram became king because he was the eldest. When he established his rule over Judah, he had his brothers killed.

Jehoram received a letter of condemnation from Elijah. Yahweh, the 'Elohim of his ancestors, was about to afflict Jehoram, his family, and all that was to him because instead of walking in the footsteps of Jehoshaphat or Asa, he walked in the manner of the kings of Israel and the house of Ahab. Yahweh then incited the Philistines and the Arabs to attack Jehoram and Judah. They carried off all of his possessions, as well as his sons and wives, but his youngest son Jehoahaz escaped the carnage (in 2 Kings 8:24, his son Ahaziah became king). Jehoram passed of an intestine illness, but there was not a fire held in his honor. He was buried in the city of David, although not in the tomb of the kings.

In 2 Chronicles 22, the inhabitants of Jerusalem made Ahaziah the king of Judah, because the Arabs had killed his older brothers. His mother was Athaliah, the granddaughter of King Omri of Israel. Athaliah and the house of Ahab gave Ahaziah evil advice, thus as in 2 Kings 8, he marched into war with King _Jehoram_ (spelling inconsistencies) of Israel against King Hazael of Aram. The Arameans injured King _Joram_ , thus Ahaziah went to visit him at Jezreel, where Jehu confronted the two. In this history, Jehu's soldiers captured Ahaziah in Samaria and killed him, where in 2 Kings 9, he was shot at Gur Pass and died in Megiddo, after which he was carried by his servants to Jerusalem and buried in the city of David. In both histories, his mother Athaliah seized the throne.

2 Chronicles 23 covers the murder of Queen Athaliah and the subsequent takeover by Jehoiada the priest (2 Kings 11).

In 2 Chronicles 24, Ahaziah's son Joash became the king of Judah. Actually, as covered in the second book of Kings, Jehoiada the priest became the ruler. The text begins with his reign and moves directly into the restoration of the temple. In 2 Kings 12:6, the _priests_ had not repaired the temple by the twenty-third year, but here the _Levites_ did not hurry with the restoration, which is merely a product of the priests shifting the blame.

Jehoiada the priest was one hundred thirty years old when he died and he was buried with the kings in the city of David, which validates my assumption about him being ruler. After Jehoiada passed away, the rulers of Judah came to pay homage to the king. However, the king abandoned the temple of Yahweh, the 'Elohim of their ancestors, and he served the Asherah poles and idols, i.e., this sect or faction was not supported by the new government. The spirit of 'Elohim came upon Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada, and he rebelled against the new leadership, but he was stoned to death in the temple courtyard. As usual, the author used this execution as an excuse for Yahweh to exact vengeance on Judah.

In 2 Kings 12, King Hazael of Aram captured Gath and was about to move against Jerusalem, but Joash paid him tribute and Hazael turned back. In this version, an Aramean army went to war against King Joash. They entered Jerusalem and killed all the leaders while they collected plunder to send to the king of Damascus. Yahweh handed Judah over to a small Aramean army to execute vengeance against Joash for abandoning Yahweh, i.e., not supporting the author's sect of priests.

The Arameans left Joash wounded and his servants conspired against him for the blood of the sons of Jehoiada the priest. The conspirators were Zabad, the son of an Ammonitess named Shimeath, and Jehozabad, the son of a Moabitess named Shimrith. In 2 Kings 12:21, in which his assassination had nothing to do with the Arameans or Jehoiada the priest, the names of the conspirators are mere variations of the names in this chapter without the Ammonite and Moabite labels, which may imply the two countries were allies of the coup. When Joash died, his son Amaziah became king.

2 Chronicles 25 covers the reign of King Amaziah. Segments of this text were derived from the same source as 2 Kings 14, but there are subtle differences. Amaziah acted somewhat correctly in the eyes of Yahweh. He was gathering an army to battle the Edomites and he appointed commanders from Benjamin and Judah, but then he hired a number of warriors from Israel. A man of 'Elohim warned him because Yahweh was not with Israel and the Ephraimites. Therefore, Amaziah sent the Ephraim forces home, which angered the men of Israel. This statement on the men of Ephraim is nothing more than a political stance against another political faction, which was absent in the Kings history. The Judah army killed ten thousand Seirites and captured another ten thousand alive, who they later threw off the top of a cliff. However, while Judah was at battle, the Ephraim division that Amaziah sent home raided cities of Judah from Samaria to Beth-Horon, killed three thousand people, and gathered a great plunder. However, since the raids were against Samaria and Beth-Horon, it appears the men did not travel south into Judah territory. Hence, the warriors were most likely allies of the Jerusalem monarchy and they raided the enemy in Israel. The author's faction obviously did not approve of the alliance.

When Amaziah returned from the Edomite campaign, he brought the 'Elohim of the Seirites with him, which obviously angered Yahweh. Whether this statement has any veracity to it is difficult to discern. It could imply the king devised a covenant with Seirite leadership, which would have been an act despised by factions in Judah. Amaziah died and he was buried with his father in Judah (city of David in 2 Kings 14).

2 Chronicles 26 is an informative text on King Uzziah of Judah, who an author mentioned as a time reference for the king of Israel in 2 Kings 15:13.

"In the thirty-ninth year of Judah's King Uzziah, Shallum son of Jabesh became king; he reigned in Samaria."

However, since there is not an account of his reign in the 2 Kings history, _Uzziah_ is most likely another name for Azariah.

King Uzziah, the son of Amaziah, reigned over the country of Judah for fifty-two years. As his father, he acted in accord with the commands of Yahweh. Due to the fact he was sixteen years old when he became king, he was most likely a puppet ruler for several years, thus he sought 'Elohim throughout the lifetime of Zechariah, the teacher of the fear of 'Elohim, i.e., the priest in charge of the government.

King Uzziah waged war against the Philistines and tore downs the walls of Gath, Jabneh, and Ashdod. He then built his cities in the vicinity. His fame spread as far as Egypt, while 'Elohim helped him against the Philistines, the Arabs, the Meunites, and the Ammonites. He had a powerful army equipped for combat, as well as military devices in Jerusalem to shoot arrows and catapult large stones.

With verse 16, there is a later passage on Uzziah's reign that follows the previous section of praise. When Uzziah became strong, he grew arrogant. He acted against the commands of Yahweh, his 'Elohim, and entered the sanctuary to burn incense. Eighty priests led by _Azariah_ went in after him to take a stand against a king acting as a priest. The priests' message to Uzziah was only the sons of Aaron were allowed to offer incense in the sanctuary. Therefore, he would not receive honor from Yahweh 'Elohim. Uzziah became enraged in the presence of the priests, at which point Azariah noticed a skin disease had broke out on Uzziah's forehead, which was delivered by Yahweh. He was diseased until the time of his death and could not enter the temple. His son Jotham governed the people during this time. In 2 Kings 15, an author referred to Uzziah as _Azariah_ , who is a priest in this chapter, which displays the stature of this priest and the extent of the power struggle between him and the king.

2 Chronicles 27 is a nine-verse chapter on King Jotham. He was upright in the eyes of Yahweh like his father Uzziah. Jotham carried out various building projects and even collected tribute from the Ammonites. He excelled because he obeyed the word of Yahweh, his 'Elohim, i.e., he had a supportive relationship with the author's sect of priests. Jotham died and he was buried in the city of David. His son Ahaz became king.

2 Chronicles 28 begins by stating King Ahaz acted evil in the sight of Yahweh. In 2 Kings 16 verses 7 though 9, Ahaz sent tribute to Tiglath-Pileser, who came to his aid when Aram invaded Judah. However, here in verse 21:

"21. Though had taken a lot Ahaz {from} the house of Yahweh and the house king's, and {from} the rulers and had given to the king of Assyria- yet not for help to him."

This school was unquestionably against the policies of this king, especially his semi-alliance with the king of Assyria, which explains the harsh words the authors wrote about him.

Yahweh handed King Ahaz over to the kings of Aram and Israel, who took captives back to Damascus and Samaria. A prophet of Yahweh spoke out against the Israel army because they were reducing their brothers from Judah to slavery. In fact, some Ephraimite leaders stood in opposition to the men coming in from battle. However, even though the deity subdued him with foreign invaders, King Ahaz was still unfaithful to Yahweh. He was buried in Jerusalem, but not in the tomb of the kings. His son Hezekiah became king in his stead.

2 Chronicles 29 moves the narrative to King Hezekiah, who acted in accord with the commands of Yahweh. The 2 Kings history on Hezekiah predominantly references the invasion by King Sennacherib, but the first three chapters on Hezekiah in this 2 Chronicles history detail religious reform.

To review the history from the second book of Kings, in the fourth year of King Hezekiah, King Shalmaneser of Assyria besieged Samaria. He conquered the city at the end of the third year and deported the people of Israel. Although the refugees from Israel began to accumulate in Judah after Jeroboam's rebellion, due to this catastrophic event, there was a vast amalgamation of peoples in Judah during Hezekiah's reign.

In his first year, Hezekiah opened and repaired the doors to the temple of Yahweh (Ahaz had supposedly them). He then gathered the priests and the Levites to perform purification rituals. Throughout the narratives, the texts have displayed a division between the sons of Aaron and the Levites. However, during the reign of King Hezekiah, there appears to have been an alignment (or at least a weary co-existence) between the two groups and the establishment may have included Levites who were previously on the outside. In 2 Chronicles 13, an author conveyed a Levitical sect was serving under the sons of Aaron during the reign of King Abijah, but there was certainly a greater move by Hezekiah's government to incorporate Levites into the religious hierarchy.

King Hezekiah gathered the priests and the Levites and castigated their forefathers for abandoning Yahweh, their 'Elohim, and bringing his wrath upon Judah. The priests entered the temple of Yahweh, gathered all the unclean articles, and gave them to the Levites to dispose in the Kidron Valley. The name _Kidron_ was derived from a word that implies _darkness_ or _mourning_ , thus a dual metaphor in the name of the place. After cleansing the temple and purifying the holy utensils that Ahaz rejected, which intimates he rejected religious sects, they performed a great sacrifice of atonement for _Israel_. After the people were consecrated, they brought massive offerings to the temple. However, there were not enough priests to skin them, thus their Levite brothers assisted in the preparations. With verse 34b, not all was harmonious with the two groups, as a Levitical author stated the Levites were _more upright_ to purify themselves than the priests.

2 Chronicles 30 continues on the religious reforms during the reign of Hezekiah. He sent word throughout Israel and Judah, as well as letters to Ephraim and Manasseh, and instructed the people to assemble at the Jerusalem temple to celebrate the Passover of Yahweh, the _'Elohim of Israel_. However, they could not observe the Passover at the appropriate time because not all the people had made it to Jerusalem and _not enough priests had purified themselves_ (the priestly wars continue).

Not only was there a campaign to unify the masses during the reign of Hezekiah, there was also an attempt to consolidate the antagonistic texts and histories of the seldom-united peoples. Thus, Hezekiah sent word throughout Israel and Judah and commanded those who escaped the hand of Assyria to return to _Yahweh, the 'Elohim of Abraham, Isaac, and Israel_. They were not to be like their fathers and brothers and be unfaithful to _Yahweh, the 'Elohim of their ancestors_. They were to pledge their allegiance to _Yahweh, their 'Elohim_. These words were a loud call for unity under one religious institution, headed by a united group of priests, who presided at one central location. However, this nationalism was actually a demand for centralization of worship, which is why the author stressed the people should _come to Jerusalem_ to celebrate the Passover. In the "D" history and other Levitical texts, the fate for those who did not support the Yahweh government was execution, but this text has a different tone. The priests wanted the movement to appear as a voluntary national revival in the worship of Yahweh. Although the migration from Israel to Judah would have been voluntary, once in Judah, those who failed to follow or support the religious institution at the Jerusalem temple would have been executed.

Messengers traveled throughout the lands of Ephraim and Manasseh, even as far as Zebulun, but only a few of the people from Asher, Manasseh, and Zebulun traveled to Jerusalem. After they arrived, an assembly gathered to observe the festival of unleavened bread. The priests and the Levites were ashamed of their ancestor's actions, thus they purified themselves and brought offerings to Yahweh. Numerous peoples from Ephraim, Manasseh, Issachar, and Zebulun were ritually unclean, but Hezekiah asked Yahweh to provide atonement on their behalf, which was a major consolidation of different religious sects. Moreover, the Levites were making their revival of prominence known, as Hezekiah encouraged the Levites who skillfully presided before Yahweh. At this time, there was rejoicing in Jerusalem that had not been known since the days of King Solomon.

2 Chronicles 31 continues with religious reform. After the festivals and rituals, the _people of Israel_ went out to the cities of Judah and destroyed the sacred pillars, chopped down the Asherah poles, and tore down the high places. These actions would have been performed by the government and were nothing more than a product of state enforced Yahweh worship directed by the priests and Levites at the temple in Jerusalem.

2 Chronicles 32 begins with Sennacherib's invasion and the text was taken from the same source as 2 Kings 18, but this author placed forth a condensed version.

In verse 24, Hezekiah became ill. In 2 Kings 20, he prayed to Yahweh, who added fifteen years to his life. In this history, he prayed to Yahweh, who gave him a miraculous sign, but Hezekiah was too proud and did not respond according to the benefit he received, which is a rather ambiguous statement. Therefore, Yahweh would bring wrath upon Judah and Jerusalem. However, Hezekiah and the people of Jerusalem were humbled, thus the wrath did not come during his lifetime.

Hezekiah became increasingly rich and he had treasures of silver, gold, and precious stones. He made cities for himself and because of 'Elohim, he amassed an abundance of herds. He blocked the outlet of the upper Gihon and channeled it into the city of David. He succeeded in everything he did. The rest of the events of Hezekiah and his deeds of faithful love were written in the visions of the prophet Isaiah, the son of Amoz, and in the Books of the Kings of Judah and Israel. He rested with his fathers and all of Judah paid him honor at his death. His son Manasseh became king in his place.

In leaving the reign of Hezekiah, it is obvious his government made a monumental move for national consolidation and centralization of worship. In reviewing the political situation that confronted his regime, he was the king over Judah, which was a small country that existed between great warring powers. There was Egypt to the south, Assyria had conquered Israel in the north, and Babylon was extremely powerful in the east. When a prophet delivered warnings to the king, it was often to condemn the government's choice of political alliances. It was these prophetic uprisings from radical political factions that created disunity and precipitated the demise of Israel and ultimately Judah. Within Judah, the king had to resolve numerous internal struggles, including religious (worship of different deities) and thus political instability. At this time in history, politics and religion were fettered together. If the king did not have the support of the priests or the priests did not have the support of the king, there would have been endless turmoil, as perceived with the blood surrounding the throne of Israel.

The king also had to contend with religious traditions from two countries that had a somewhat united past. Within their writings, there were political battles between various religious factions. Either Hezekiah would have to unite these religious sects, or he would have to destroy the radical Levites, as the Levitical factions had done to the priests of Baal. Although the sons of Aaron were in firm control of the Jerusalem institution, the Levitical sects had moved into Judah and they brought a large following with them. The narratives constantly display the blood the zealous groups had shed. In addition, the sons of Aaron had already accepted a group of Levites into their religious hierarchy. Thus, the Judah government attempted to unite the priests and thus the country.

"2. And appointed Hezekiah the divisions of the priests and of the Levites, by their divisions." (2 Chronicles 31:2)

I have highlighted the methods of this move toward unification, but one would assume the overzealous Levites who would not accept the secondary role to the priests had to be eliminated. However, I am sure many of the Levitical priests were happy to find a home, as a number of their brothers had done before them.

"10. As for us, Yahweh {is} our 'Elohim and not we have left Him. Yes, priests are serving Yahweh, the sons of Aaron, and the Levites, in the work." (2 Chronicles 13:10)

The "P" school had many denigrating Levitical texts to deal with and their rebuttals also contained harsh words. To what extent this acrimony was accepted is impossible to know.

In reviewing the concept of centralization of worship, the people could only sacrifice and give offerings to the deity at one place. To instill the law within the minds of the populace, the priests always placed forth the command as a mandate of the deity. In Leviticus 17:

"3. Any man of the household of Israel who kills an ox, or a lamb, or a goat in the camp, or who kills at the outside of the camp, 4. and at the door of the tent of meeting not has brought it to offer as an offering to Yahweh in front of the tabernacle of Yahweh, blood will be imputed to man that blood He has shed, and will be cut off man that from the middle of his people. 5. So that will bring in the _sons of Israel_ their sacrifices which they are sacrificing in open the field, so that they may bring them to Yahweh, at the door of the tent of meeting to the priest, and sacrifice {for} sacrifices of peace-offerings to Yahweh them."

In later times, when the people slaughtered one of their animals, they could only offer their sacrifice at the Jerusalem temple (symbolized above by the tent of the meeting). Thus, if one were forced to give offerings at one place, it would bestow food and thus wealth upon one group of priests, which is not a mere point of conjecture.

"3. And the rest of the food-offering {is} for Aaron and for his sons, holy most of fire-offerings of Yahweh." (Leviticus 2:3)

"34. For the breast of the wave-offering and the leg of the heave-offering I have taken from the _sons of Israel_ , from the sacrifices of their peace-offering. And I have given them to Aaron the priest and to his sons by a statute never-ending from the _sons of Israel_." (Leviticus 7:34)

In addition, not only were the people to bring the offerings and sacrifices to one place, the same went for the tithes. A _tithe_ was a standard portion or tax to the deity in antiquity.

"30. And all the tithe of the land, of the seed of the land, of the fruit of the tree, for Yahweh it {is}.{It is} holy to Yahweh. 31. And if at all redeems a man {any} of his tithes, its fifth he will add to it. 32. And all the tithe of the herd and of the flock, all that passes under the rod, a tenth will be holy to Yahweh." (Leviticus 27)

With centralization of worship established, during the reign of Hezekiah:

"5. Spread the word, brought abundantly the _sons of Israel_ , the firstfruits of grain, new wine, and oil, and honey, and of all the produce of the field. And the tithe of all, very much they brought. 6. And the _sons of Israel_ and Judah, those living in the cities of Judah, also they tithed of the herd and the flock even a tithe of the holy things that were consecrated to Yahweh 'Elohim, were brought and they piled {in} heaps of heaps." (2 Chronicles 31 verses 5 & 6)

Centralization of worship obviously created great wealth for the priests presiding at the Jerusalem temple, as opposed to several sects of priests who presided in various temples and at numerous high places. Therefore, the priests did not want the people to worship other deities because freedom of worship hindered the control of the tithes and offerings and depleted their power and wealth, which also explains why the Levitical priests battled vehemently for centuries to regain their religious standing.

2 Chronicles 33 moves the narrative into the reign of King Manasseh. He acted evil in the eyes of the deity, but then Yahweh gave him into the hands of the king of Assyria. The Assyrians captured him and brought him to Babylon, where he sought Yahweh and he was subsequently taken back to Jerusalem. After his return, Manasseh came to know that Yahweh was 'Elohim. He then fortified the cities of Judah and removed the foreign idols from the temple of Yahweh. He instructed Judah to worship Yahweh, the _'Elohim of Israel_ , but they would not listen. The Kings history had nothing good to convey about Manasseh, but instead stated he shed enough innocent blood to fill Jerusalem, not to mention he was the reason why Yahweh exiled Judah.

The rest of the events of Manasseh, his prayers to 'Elohim, and the seers who spoke to him were written in the records of _Israel's Kings_. However, his prayers and how 'Elohim granted his requests, as well as his unfaithfulness before he humbled himself, were written in the records of Hozai. He rested with his fathers and he was buried in his own house. His son Amon became king.

Amon was twenty-two years old when he became king and he reigned for two years in Jerusalem. He acted evil in the sight of Yahweh as his father Manasseh, but he did not humble himself. Instead, he increased his transgressions until his servants conspired against him and executed him in his own house. His son Josiah was instituted as the king in his place.

2 Chronicles 34 moves the narrative to King Josiah and to the culmination of this work. I believe I have successfully uncovered the political motives of the authors. The intended would understand the mysteries and the metaphors, but the masses were to simply listen and follow.

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Final Thoughts

In closing, there is a poignant question I am compelled to ask. What if the Babylonian and Assyrian kings were encouraged by radical and vengeful priests like those in Israel and Judah? What if they wanted to exact destruction on Judah and Israel as the Israelites had on the Amalekites, the Amorites, the Hittites, the Girgashites, the Canaanites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites? Yahweh wanted these nations completely destroyed, including the women and children, and they were not to be shown mercy. These nations were made of people just like the Israelites. They were families of men, women, and children with their own religion, beliefs, and desires. Furthermore, the majority of their histories were erased from the memories of time. If the Babylonians and Assyrians possessed the same barbaric frame of mind as the priests and leaders of Israel and Judah, there would not be a history of the Israelites nor a Hebrew Bible. However, the priests from ancient Israel declared their conquests were at the bidding of the deity, which somehow people still contend today. Religion is not, nor has it ever been the reason for violence, murder, and war, but it has been the most effective and prevalent vehicle used to justify these acts.

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Goodbye: morevodkamartinis@gmail.com

Acknowledgments

Albeit the majority of my focus was strictly on the biblical texts and the information contained within, I would like to thank the authors listed below, as well as the countless individuals who translated ancient writings and spent endless hours consumed in research. These people made this book possible.

Bibliography:

Friedman, R.E. Who Wrote the Bible. 1987

Saggs, H.W.F. The Greatness That Was Babylon. 1962

Heidel, Alexander. The Babylonian Genesis. 1942

Hilsop, Alexander. The Two Babylons. 1916

Keller, Werner. The Bible As History. 1956

Cornfield, Gaalyah. Archeology of the Bible. 1976

Gibson, Clare. Goddess Symbols. 1988

Ancient Egypt, the Light of the World By Gerald Massey. 1907

Traditions & Beliefs of Ancient Israel By Thomas Kelly Cheyne. 1907

History of Phoenicia By George Rawlinson. 1889

Ellis Enterprises Inc. Strong's Hebrew Dictionary. 1988

A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament by Brown-Driver-Briggs. First published in 1906.

The NAS Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible by Robert L. Thomas. 1990

Copyright:

Morris Literal Translation, © Copyright 1988, All rights reserved. Ellis Enterprises inc, 4205 McAuley BLVD., 3385, Oklahoma City, OK 73120. Used by permission.

Maps of the Twelve Tribes and the countries of Judah and Israel used by permission. Copyright © 2005 by Biblical Studies Press, L.L.C. http://netbible.org. All rights

