MICHAEL BRENNER: OK,
so welcome to I think
this is the eighth lecture, although I'm
starting to lose count in this year's
science and cooking lecture series.
And we're really honored to have
with us Martin Breslin, who's
the chef for HUDS for Harvard.
And we also have Alex and Luiz.
And we're really honored
to have them with us.
We've been doing this at
Harvard for many years,
and we finally get to have
Harvard's chefs talk in this series,
and so I guess I'd just like
to start by clapping for them.
[APPLAUSE]
And actually what they're going to
illustrate for us today is really
one of the most fascinating
parts of cooking,
I think, which is the
science of texture-- how
it is that you actually thicken sauces
and what is the science behind that.
So now just introduce
the science of this,
I wanted to start by showing you the lab
that we're doing actually right now--
or starting on Thursday in the Harvard
College-- are we doing it right now?
We're doing it right now, the lab we're
doing right now in the Harvard College
class that goes along with this lecture
that the chefs are about to give us.
And this is a sort of funny lab.
It's called macaroni and cheese.
It's that we have the
students-- and it's in the lab.
It's in one of the labs over there.
In one of the science labs,
they make macaroni and cheese.
And what we ask them
to do is a bit strange,
which is that we ask them to make
four different varieties of macaroni
and cheese.
You see we ask them to make it
with all of these different things,
and then we ask them
to measure what we call
the viscosity, which is
the scientific term that
basically goes with thickeners.
When you say a sauce is
thickening, a scientist
would say, well, it's more viscous.
And we ask them to
measure the viscosity.
And in order to demonstrate that
this viscosity-- this is actually
how thick it feels in
your mouth, but it also
has culinary significance
in different ways,
and the method that we use for them
to measure the viscosity is-- well,
I was going to call it brilliant, but
that's probably overstating it-- this.
What we do is we tell them to
take a cup full of macaroni
and then to pour the sauce
on top of it and to basically
measure how quickly the sauce covers
the macaroni, which is of course,
measuring how easily it flows.
Now, in this room in past years
when we've discussed viscosity,
we've even brought with us
scientific pieces of equipment
that are very fancy that go
under the name of rheometers
that basically measure the
viscous properties of liquids.
And they're very esoteric, and they're
things that Pia, and I, and Dave like,
but that most people don't like.
And it's really less relevant.
This is really the key experiment.
Actually this picture was taken
from last year's HarvardX class.
If you took the HarvardX class,
you also got to do this lab.
Here are some pictures
from the HarvardX class.
But what I want to do at the
moment is to ask the question which
I think will underlie
this entire lecture, which
is why is it that some of these sauces
spread so much more easily than others?
That is, what is it about the way
that they're made that makes them
something viscous and others not?
And if you want to think about the
least viscous thing that I can imagine,
it's basically water.
So water is the least viscous thing.
And you could imagine if you
took water and you poured it
down this column of
macaroni, what would happen?
It would just go right
to the bottom, right?
It would go very quickly
and go right to the bottom.
And this whole art of thickening
sauces that we're about to see
is really about making that not happen
and is somehow making it fall slowly.
So what is going on?
So what is viscosity?
So I already said this.
That's a thickness of the liquid,
a liquid's resistance to flow.
On the other side of
the scale for viscous,
water has the lowest viscosity.
Honey, of course, has
a very high viscosity.
It basically falls very slowly.
But even another cooking
material that also has
a high viscosity, which you
may not think of this way,
is dough, because after all
if you take a ball of dough,
and you put it on the table, and we
waited until the end of the lecture,
it would've spread out and flattened
even more slowly than honey would.
And so what is going on?
So what is the molecular origin of this?
These two pictures actually
we got from Nathan Myhrvold,
who has put together some of
the videos for the HarvardX
version of the class,
who had what I think
is a brilliant analogy of what's going
on, and I'm going to tell it you.
And when you watch
these guys, if you want
a scientific analogy in the back
of your head, I recommend this one.
So what Nathan said is imagine
you're going to the subway.
And imagine you go during
a time on the weekend.
There aren't many people there.
You go from the place where you
give your ticket to the train,
and you just walk very quickly,
and there's no problem.
We all could walk very quickly.
There's no problem to get to the train.
So that's not viscous
because we move very quickly.
So on the other hand,
imagine a situation
which is like this, where the
subway car is full of people.
There are lots of people there.
Then it's very slow.
You could still flow.
We could be moving.
But you know when you're driving--
do any of you have this problem?
You're driving down the road,
and the idiot in front of you
isn't going fast enough.
Maybe it's just me.
I'm the one behind you that's honking.
You're always like well why is this?
Don't know how to drive?
Maybe it's just me who does this.
And in reality, what's happening
is that the poor person
has this set of people in front
of them, and they're blocking it.
And that's viscosity.
So the message is when
these guys are making
sauces that are thick,
what they're doing
is they're adding stuff
to impede movement.
They're making the packing fraction big.
That's what we're going to say.
You're just putting stuff in there
to make it so that it doesn't move.
So then of course you know--
and also from this example
you also know-- I don't know if
you've ever experienced this.
Certainly you've experienced it
while driving, is if you pack
enough people in the roadway, you stop.
Has anyone noticed that?
[LAUGHTER]
Does anybody know-- OK,
here's a question for you.
This is going to sound like a crazy
question, and we didn't bring them.
Does anybody have some M&M's?
No M&M's.
No M&M's.
So suppose you took a jar of
M&M's, and you just shook it.
The M&M's stop.
They're not flowing.
Does anyone know what fraction
of the jar is filled with M&M's.
This actually is good for
the kids in the audience
is there are any kids,
or even the grown ups.
If you want to help your child
win an M&M candy counting contest,
this is number you need to know.
The question is what fraction
of the jar is filled with M&M's.
Does anybody know?
Is it 50%.
There's air in the jar.
I don't if you've noticed this.
So it turns out there's a magic number.
It's about 65%.
That about the fraction.
So basically if you ever get the
volume fraction of the stuff up to 65%,
it stops.
If it's like 30%, it doesn't matter.
It'll flow easily.
You might as well not
put in anything at all.
So there's this magic
range at about 50%, 60%,
and that's where you want to get.
And these guys and all of these
sauces they're going to make,
what you're going to see
is what they're doing
is they're getting the fraction
up to round that range.
So this is a movie of molecules
flowing over each other.
So see they don't run into each
other, so the viscosity is actually--
there's no problem here.
But on the other hand, if you
do the simplest kind of a sauce
that you can imagine-- is
a starch thickened sauce.
And we'll see a starch
thickened sauce now.
If you put starch
granules into a liquid,
there's this weird thing that happens.
You can put them at a pretty
low concentration-- a low volume
fraction is what we will say
because there's a lot of free space
here for these things to move.
If you imagine these as
people in the subway car,
they're not running into each other,
but then the point is when you heat it,
they swell.
And not only do they
swell, they excrete stuff.
They swell and they excrete stuff.
And then what happens is
they end up like this.
And if you imagine that this
is people in the subway car,
then you see now it
doesn't move so easily,
and that is basically crux of
what it means to thicken a sauce.
And I have a little movie of
this courtesy of HarvardX.
And they also can stick to each other.
Not only do they grow,
they stick to each other.
And now if they stick to each other,
they even become bigger people.
So if you imagine the
analogy in the subway car,
imagine that there are
groups of people that decide
to join hands and pummel through.
Then you're going to get mad if
you're a poor person walking through
because then you're making
it harder to get through,
and that's exactly what happens when
you make sauces as we're seeing.
And so this brings up-- which
is the equation of this week.
Now, what are you supposed to
do for the equation of the week?
You're supposed to clap.
So anyway, this is the equation,
and it's a very simple equation.
And this captures the whole
idea of thickening sauces,
which is it's the volume fraction.
For some reason, we call it phi, Greek
letters just make it sound complicated.
But it's just the number of particles
times the volume of each particle
divided by the total volume.
And basically the game is when
that number gets to be a 50%, 60%,
you're good.
You've thickened your sauce.
So now I have one more thing to say--
I do have one more thing to say.
Sorry.
But I think this is important
for what you're going to do,
and I just want to-- so you
know when you add flour--
has anyone ever thickened gravy?
How much flour do you add?
A lot?
A little?
A little?
Because it swells, right?
That's why you don't have to add
very much, because it swells.
So has anyone ever made
something more viscous
by adding xanthan gum or
some modernist thickener.
Do you know how much you need?
AUDIENCE: Teeny.
MICHAEL BRENNER: Teeny, teeny, teeny.
Do you know how much of
the Jello boxes is gelatin?
AUDIENCE: It's less than two grams.
MICHAEL BRENNER: Yeah it's very,
very-- most of that Jello box--
do you know what the main
ingredient is in the Jello box?
AUDIENCE: Sugar.
MICHAEL BRENNER: Sugar.
It's sugar.
It's not-- it's Jello.
So this is amazing
actually, because if you
think of this in terms
of volume fraction,
this is totally weird, because you
add this little bit of this stuff
into this big amount of liquid.
And it comes out, and if we go back
to the subway cars, how does it work?
So the answer is what happens is that
these special molecules are polymers.
And there's not very much
polymer, but the polymer basically
forms a path in space, which
creates a lot of volume.
And so it actually
takes up a lot of volume
even though it's just a little polymer.
And the same way that the starch
granule expands and it takes up
much more volume than it had originally,
the polymer sort of sweeps it
out and takes up that much volume.
And that's why
modernistic thickeners are
able to work and make
thick milkshake feeling
things with a little bit of additive.
So with that, I guess I would like to
introduce Martin, and Alex, and Luiz,
who will tell us how
the this is really done.
MARTIN BRESLIN: Excellent.
Thank you, Michael.
[APPLAUSE]
Chef Luiz Da Costa, he's in
charge of our commissary,
where all the soup and
sauces are produced,
so viscosity is very
important when we're producing
large quantities of soups and sauces.
And Chef Alex takes care
of Mather House students.
So we work for Harvard and primarily
support the undergraduate program.
So the history of
thickening, of thickeners
was very interesting when
I was looking at this
from a food historical perspective.
So the word sauce is a French word, and
it means to make our food appetizing.
Sounds good.
So go back 2000 years ago.
The first real recorded recipes
were from the Roman Empire,
and it was Apicius, if I'm
pronouncing that correct.
But in one of his
recipes, he actually said
"recipes for a particular flavorsome
sauce is noted that no one at the table
will know what the are eating."
The sauces we usually thicken with
wheat flour are crumbled pastry.
Honey was often added.
And the reason was the Romans often used
sauces to conceal doubtful freshness.
[LAUGHTER]
So in truth, really
the French were right.
It does make the food taste better.
It can make really
bad food taste better.
So we've got to ask ourselves--
so that's actually Pompeii,
and they're the ovens in Pompeii.
And it's pretty cool, because
if you've ever been there,
they're all communal kitchens,
which is pretty amazing,
and bakeries, and very
much a retail concept.
Very few people cooked at home.
So why do we thicken?
Would anyone like to give some
suggestions to why we thicken our food?
AUDIENCE: Mouth feel.
MICHAEL BRENNER: Mouth feel.
So mouth feel is the number one
reason why we thicken our food.
And that's important, because
if you're tasting a clear broth,
you're going to get a very different
experience if you even just thicken
that broth and do nothing else.
Another one, of course, is cling.
So when you're putting your sauce on
food, you want it to cling to the food.
You don't want it to run off the food.
Could imagine a steak au
poivre that wasn't thickened?
So cling is very important,
keeping sauces on the plate.
And of course, then we
have particle suspension--
holds solids of prevents
sticking or floating,
and stabilize emulsions when you're
talking about salad dressings
and so on.
So they're the real main-- there
are, I'm sure, more reasons,
but that's the most important
reasons why we thicken our food.
The thickening process--
dispersion, hydration, and setting.
So when we're adding
a thickening agent, we
want to make sure it's evenly
distributed throughout the liquid.
We could use heat, cold,
acid, or other liquids
depending on what you're
using to thicken the food.
Then hydration-- it's going to
absorb water or another liquid,
and it will swell.
That's how it thickens.
The thickening agent will make it
thick-- molecular mesh that traps
water, and Michael could definitely
explain that much better than I will.
And setting, that's the
effect of temperature.
If you're using gelatin, of course
it's going to set when you chill it.
Now, we're going to start by showing
you some thickening agents in work.
So the first one I'm
going to use is blood.
So if you're familiar with
coq au vin, traditionally it
was thickened with blood.
There's quite a few dishes in
the French culinary repertoire
that were thickened with blood.
And believe it or not,
you can buy blood.
So when you're adding blood--
and I'll show you [INAUDIBLE]
as well-- with blood you add vinegar,
and we had a great discussion
earlier about what really that does.
So you add a little bit
of vinegar to the blood,
and it does stop it from coagulation.
Just a drop.
And another important feature
when you're using blood,
you want to temper it.
So tempering it is just you don't want
to shock it going into a hot sauce.
I'm just going to take a little bit
of the sauce and temper it here.
I might just add a
little bit more blood.
Why not?
And many cultures today still
use-- you might tell from my accent
that I come from across the pond,
and we use blood sausage all the time
for breakfast.
So blood is still a part
of dining in Ireland.
So what you want to do is, like
you did on monte au beurre,
I just gently fold in the blood.
Does it look gross?
Now do you notice what's happening?
The color is changing, right?
And I can see it thickening here.
I can give it a little bit more heat.
So I will show you-- I'm just
heating it a tiny bit more.
You don't want it to
go over 180 degrees,
or you will have scrambled blood.
[LAUGHTER]
So it actually gives to this
dish a very rich, complex,
sometimes it can be a little
metallic-- do you see the color?
And that's pretty thick.
And it's very rich, and coq au vin
is a very rich dish when you eat it.
It's a nice winter dish.
And that is coq au vin
thickened with blood.
And we can finish it with some parsley.
[LAUGHTER]
That's beautiful.
Look at the shine on that sauce.
It's really nice.
So the next thickener was used
also in classic French cuisine,
and it's called a liaison.
And a liaison is basically two
things coming together, right?
And we have egg yolks and cream.
Now egg yolks are the same.
They go over 180 degrees,
you're going to have scrambled,
and it's sauce with a
really lumpy texture.
So you're familiar with
a sauce called a veloute.
So veloute-- no?
So veloute is a velvet sauce, and
it gets its name from a liaison.
And a lot of restaurants that
say they serve a veloute really
it's not a veloute.
It's very difficult to get
that texture without-- where's
the cream-- without using a liaison.
And what makes this difficult
to do when you're cooking
is that it can only be done last minute.
That means when the sauce is ready
to be served you put the liaison on
and it goes out.
You can't reheat it.
It's going to turn into scrambled eggs.
And it gives a very,
very unique texture.
ALEX: Right here, chef.
MARTIN BRESLIN: Thanks, Alex.
So yet again, I'm going
to just temper the liaison
a little bit with some
of the-- this is just
chicken stock with a very
small roux, not a full roux.
That would thicken it.
Now it should take on
a velvety appearance.
If you look at velvet clothing,
this is exactly what this will do.
And it makes it for a very different
mouth feel, and it's very rich.
Quite delicious, too.
I can feel that sauce is thickening.
And if you can see, we
don't have scrambled eggs.
That's a good thing.
And that is coq au vin and a veloute.
And I'm going to pass you
down to Alex, and Alex
is going to show you
two more thickening--
and Alex is going to demonstrate
arrowroot and cornstarch
as a thickening agent.
ALEX: Hello, everyone.
I'm going to talk about two more
starches, arrowroot and cornstarch.
And I'm going to make two simple
sauces that we all can do.
The first sauce I'm going to make
is simple sweet and sour sauce.
And I'm going to use cornstarch.
Cornstarch is a starch from corn.
[LAUGHTER]
And it has a strong flavor.
It leaves and opaque color.
It's not the perfect starch to
use for a clear finishing product.
But for a lot of Asian
dishes, the cornstarch
is good for hot, cold, sweet, savory
dishes, and it's pretty universal.
The cons to using cornstarch is that
it doesn't recover from being frozen,
and if you use too much,
the flavor is strong.
But the positive side of
cornstarch, it's gluten free,
and with all the allergens
going on in the world today,
this is a good alternative.
So, simple.
We add all the
ingredients-- a cup of soy,
three tablespoons of sugar,
a cup rice wine vinegar,
and about half a cup of ketchup.
So to use cornstarch as a thickener,
you have to make what's called a slurry,
and a slurry is basically equal parts
flour and water to a thick liquefied
paste.
And the reason why you make a slurry
is that, if you add the cornstarch
straight to the sauce, you
would have clumps and lumps,
little pillows of cornstarch
that won't blend properly.
So I'll whisk just to make sure
everything is incorporated,
and I'll start the slurry.
MARTIN BRESLIN: [INAUDIBLE].
ALEX: All right, that's fast.
MARTIN BRESLIN: You got it?
So you mix the water and the corn
start together, you have your slurry.
And when the sauce is up to a boil is
the perfect time to add the slurry.
And the sauce definitely
needs to be boiling.
It needs to be above ball 180 degrees.
And the slurry needs to
start with cold water.
You can't stop with hot water
because it will definitely
do something different to the
thickening where it will prematurely
thicken the slurry, but not thicken the
sauce, and you'll have a broken sauce.
Put this here.
And then I'll just add the--
MARTIN BRESLIN: Pineapple juice.
ALEX: Pineapple juice.
MARTIN BRESLIN: It
smells good from here.
MICHAEL BRENNER: What
did you just add in?
ALEX: Just a little pineapple juice.
MICHAEL BRENNER: Oh,
that was pineapple juice.
See, I'm counting volume fraction.
No, no.
You guys are watching him cook,
and I'm counting volume fractions.
How much water did you put in there?
In the slurry?
It was 50/50?
ALEX: It was about a half a cup.
MICHAEL BRENNER: A half a cup of water?
And there's much more
than a cup of the sauce.
This is a couple cups
of sauce, isn't it?
MARTIN BRESLIN: It is a
couple of cups of sauce.
ALEX: In actuality, I'm probably
not going to need all of the slurry.
MICHAEL BRENNER: So
it's going to expand.
ALEX: And again--
MICHAEL BRENNER: You see what I mean?
ALEX: You want to add slowly, stir.
And as you can see,
the color has changed.
MARTIN BRESLIN: That's pretty thick.
ALEX: Yeah, it's thick.
MICHAEL BRENNER: Did you see that?
I know you've thickened sauces
before, but it's amazing.
You just put in a little of that
stuff and it got that much thicker.
ALEX: So here I'm going to
make a blueberry compote, which
would basically be a dessert sauce
or could be used as a pie filling.
And I'm going to thicken
this sauce with arrowroot.
And the reason why I'm using
arrowroot, because arrowroot has,
one, a neutral flavor.
When you're using fruit, it's best to
have a neutral flavor, something that's
not going to overpower the fruit.
So I have some frozen
blueberries, some orange juice.
And just like the cornstarch, I'm going
to make a slurry with the arrowroot.
Let's go up.
So arrowroot is a plant
from the Caribbean,
and it has a very strong holding
power-- four times as much as flour.
And it's a very good food choice
for, like I said, a fruit dish,
and it's also gluten free.
But here it is again, the slurry.
About the same consistency.
The blueberries are coming to a
boil, and I'm going to slowly add.
The reason why I slowly add is
because, as the sauce thickens,
sometimes the stages
take longer or shorter,
and I just don't want to go over or go
less, so I'm just going to add slow.
And as you can see, it's
really thickening up.
Depending on what you're going
to use it for-- right now,
if I was going to nappe this sauce over
a pastry or a cake, I would stop here.
If I was going to use this as a pie
filling, I would go a little bit more.
And then I'll go one more as
if we're going to fill this--
MARTIN BRESLIN: Thanks, Alex.
ALEX: That concludes the
cornstarch and arrowroot.
I'm going to pass it to Luiz.
MARTIN BRESLIN: Luiz is going
to demonstrate-- thanks, Alex.
[APPLAUSE]
Luiz is going to demonstrate
a roux as a thickening agent.
And while he's doing that, you're
going to taste what he's making,
and that's New England clam
chowder that served here
for the undergraduate
students every Friday.
So we have a sampling coming out.
Luiz added butter, right?
LUIZ DE COSTA: Add in
first the vegetables.
Add in celery, and then I'm
going to add onions to it.
Let it cook for a little bit.
MARTIN BRESLIN: So Luiz, how
many gallons of chowder to you
make every Thursday for Friday?
LUIZ DE COSTA: Average
around about 100 gallons.
MARTIN BRESLIN: Soo
100 gallons of chowder?
That's quite a lot of chowder.
LUIZ DE COSTA: It's quite
a lot of chowder, yes.
MARTIN BRESLIN: Think
you need a bigger pot.
[LAUGHTER]
LUIZ DE COSTA: So basically,
I'm just adding the vegetables.
Now I'm going to add the butter.
MARTIN BRESLIN: Do you need bacon, Luiz?
LUIZ DE COSTA: Yeah, I need the bacon.
And I'm adding the bacon.
Just add the flour.
So you can see it's--
MARTIN BRESLIN: What Luiz is
doing, he's making a white roux,
and that's an even amount
of flour and butter.
So there's a white roux, a blond
roux, and then there's a dark roux.
And the dark roux is used if you're
making an etouffee down in Louisiana,
nice dark.
LUIZ DE COSTA: I'm adding the cream.
MARTIN BRESLIN: There's more chowder.
Christa has it right here.
LUIZ DE COSTA: I'll add the bay
leaves, a little bit of thyme.
Just stir in things to get a
thick and beautiful nice color.
Going to add the potatoes.
And the last is the clams.
Salt and pepper for flavor,
and the clam chowder is done.
MARTIN BRESLIN: Excellent.
[APPLAUSE]
MARTIN BRESLIN: So the next one we're
going to show you is xanthan gum,
and xanthan gum is in a lot of
foods that you eat because it
is a stabilizer and a thickener.
So do you ever make tuna salad,
and you go to the tuna salad
maybe two hours later, and
there's kind of milk coming off
the tuna salad, right?
The mayonnaise has turned milky.
So we've got some white tuna meat,
some blanched celery, some mayonnaise,
some lemon juice, little bit of salt and
pepper, and that's tuna salad, right?
But that tuna salad is not
going to stay like that.
If you were making that
for tomorrow, you're
going to have-- it'll break down a bit.
The mayonnaise will break down.
The water from the tuna
will start coming out
because it's in cans
full of water or pouches.
And xanthan gum-- it doesn't take a lot.
A little bit of xanthan
gum will keep that.
it doesn't interfere with
the tasted of the product,
but this will still
look like this tomorrow.
MICHAEL BRENNER: So that's it?
That's all it takes.
MARTIN BRESLIN: That's all it takes.
Xanthan gum is used
in a cold application.
Xanthan gum can be used
to think dressings, oils.
So you've got to think
of cold for xanthan gum.
MICHAEL BRENNER: So does
anybody know what it's doing?
There wasn't very much xanthan gum.
MARTIN BRESLIN: It doesn't need, yeah.
MICHAEL BRENNER: Presumably
the xanthan gum is a polymer.
And presumably, as such, it's
making a gel in the water
and thus trapping the water
and not letting it out.
What's amazing is that such a small
amount-- you barely put any in.
MARTIN BRESLIN: Just a little
sprinkle, little pinch.
MICHAEL BRENNER: Does anybody
know where xanthan gum comes from?
This is like the quiz night.
AUDIENCE: Bacteria.
MICHAEL BRENNER: Bacteria.
MARTIN BRESLIN: Yep.
So one more.
And I'm going to show you an emulsion.
And I'm going to just do
this so you can actually
see what-- that's just some
shallots, some Dijon mustard-- I
should be over here-- and vinegar.
We'd normally do three to
one or something like that.
Now you can see that this is separated.
It's really not doing
a whole lot, but just
by putting an emulsion blender in,
and a little bit of salt and pepper,
and you've got a nice dressing.
It's rice wine vinegar,
Dijon, and olive oil.
But that could be any vinegar you
like, and you could go to a milder oil,
like a canola oil.
But that has the consistency
of a thick sauce.
MICHAEL BRENNER: Will it separate?
MARTIN BRESLIN: It does tend to.
When you make it, you do
need to-- it won't fully
separate like an Italian dressing,
but just before you use it,
you can just blend it or whisk it.
MICHAEL BRENNER: Does anybody know why
before I put it under the microscope?
AUDIENCE: Because of the mustard.
AUDIENCE: Mustard.
MICHAEL BRENNER: Does anybody know?
The mustard is important for this.
AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE].
AUDIENCE: Oil suspension.
MICHAEL BRENNER: You're
getting of us, but does
anybody know what we're going to see?
Let's see if this works.
I shouldn't-- isn't that amazing?
They're droplets.
So what Martin has done-- and
I think this is really amazing.
So sorry.
You've seen this before.
Probably you've done this yourself.
But you saw what he did.
He poured in some oil.
He poured in some vinegar.
he put in a little bit of mustard.
There is the oil separated from the
vinegar, and then he just blended it.
And look at all the
little droplets he made.
[APPLAUSE]
Thanks, guys.
