The basic question that should be raised
about any discussion with respect
to the origin as well as the evolution
of the human beings or “Homo sapiens”
is about the diagnosis of this
species that would be used.
A theory that makes use of the classical
concept of homo sapiens would
be needed to span the entire Pleistocene
history about the human genus.
On the other hand, the more
restricted utilization
of the authors like
that of Schwartz &
Tattersall would be requiring
a limited focus in
the smaller portion of
the Pleistocene fossils.
The homo sapiens usually share
certain traits like that of the
high neurocranium, small face under
the influence of frontal bone,
rounded or oval across the
lateral profile, true chin,
smaller discontinuous
supraorbital tori, extended
the post-natal growing
period, life history, narrow
trunk & pelvis, along
with shorter pubic rami.
The anatomical specification of the
homo sapiens and & its lineage
would, therefore, be possible
from the specific features like
retrocessive face, cranial globularity,
mental osseum development,
basicranial flexion, pelvic shape
and dental microstructure.
Along with these features,
the distinctive
morphologies consisting of
the elements with respect
to the anatomy of the
inner ear have been
increasingly well formed
in the homo sapiens.
With respect to cranial vault,
the distinctive shape of the
parietal region in the homo
sapiens is also highly striking.
It, therefore, makes a
significant contribution towards
globularity across both the
occipital as well as lateral views.
The basicranial flexion consists of a
complex structure, however, the homo
sapiens appear distinctive through various
measurements in this aspect as well.
The dental microstructure,
particularly with the
incoming of the synchrotron
& micro-CT technology,
has not only been demonstrating
strengthened ontogeny of the homo sapiens,
but also had been unveiling several
differences between the homo sapiens
in comparison to the
other hominin creatures
in terms of striking
features like the
enamel thickness as well as the overall
enamel shape with the dentile junction.
The second important question that tends
to concern the process of evolution of the
homo sapiens is related to the fact whether
it was a gradual or punctuational process.
As per the hominin record
of the middle Pleistocene
in Africa, these are
really rare and outdated.
Therefore, it is not possible
to determine whether
the fossils like Omo
Kibish or Herto represent
the earliest forms of
the traits that we are
able to associate with
the extant species.
In Europe, recent redating about the
fossils of Sima de Los Huesos to
around 400 ka had suggested that
several features of the Neanderthal,
especially along the face, teeth, and
jaw, were well developed at that time.
The European record went on to
indicate that a gradual, not entirely
ordered, accretion with respect to
the Neanderthal synapomorphies.
Therefore, at the present state,
one cannot determine that
if there existed a symmetry
between Africa and Europe
with respect to the appearance
of distinctive traits about
the Neanderthal as well as
the modern human species.
Finally, while considering the
evolution of the Neanderthal
as well as the modern
traits of the human being,
Trinkaus had found
that there existed
asymmetry with respect
to the changes in both
of the lineages, as the modern one had
derived more than the Neanderthal species.
The third question is with respect
to the property of the last ancestor
of the homo sapiens as well as
that of the Neanderthal origins.
A recent study which makes use of the
geometric morphometrics over various
crania for virtually reconstructing
the LCA of the modern humans,
as well as that of the
Neanderthals, had found
the existence of the
Afro-European species.
The fourth question has been
followed by the previous ones.
Once the modern human, as well as
the Neanderthal lineages, had begun
to evolve, whether more ancient species
in Africa and Eurasia died away
or if they persisted with their
descendants for a longer period.
As this type of question might
pose a major issue for any
form of phylogenetic, cladistic,
or taxonomic criteria,
there has been the existence of
some growing evidence about the
survival of the earlier middle
morphologies of the Pleistocene.
In addition to this, the
recent evidence with
respect to the later
episodes of Pleistocene
about the introgression between various
human lineages across Eurasia and Africa
has revealed that the
comparable exchanges of the
genetics could have been taking
place in the Pleistocene.
African Middle-Early Pleistocene
Homo Sapiens Fossil Record
The available fossil record for the
reconstruction of the evolution of the
homo sapiens in regions of Africa has
been currently sparse and outdated.
This theory is dominated by several
materials and factors that arise
from the sedimentary basins containing
fossil records in East Africa.
Several huge expanses of
West and Central Africa
were inhabited at the time
of the later Pleistocene.
This has shown by the evidence
of the presence of artifacts.
However, there has not been a single
fossil until now that would help
in the identification of the type of
early inhabitants in this region.
Therefore, the presently available
record can be considered to be highly
biased as well as unrepresentative
with respect to the whole continent.
More detailed and wider compilations upon
the material as well as its dating could
be found in Tattersall and Schwartz as well
as in that of Wood, Millard, and Klein.
North and North-West Africa
In Morocco, later
Pleistocene archaeological
evidence with changes from
Middle non-Aterian Stone
Age/Palaeolithic age to those
of Marine Isotope Stage
in the Aterian has continued
along some regions.
The infamous Jebel Irhoud
structure or cave got exposed
during the operations taking
place in some Baryte mine.
Since the time of 1961,
this cave has produced
several faunal remains
along with MSA
non-Aterian archaeology
as well as 7 fossil
homo sapiens in addition
to several specimens.
The fossil remains of
the humans have been
present from low range
along the stratigraphic
sequence, a calvaria, along with the
mandible that resembles that of some child.
The cranium has been
observed to be relatively
long along with smooth
and angular contours.
There is the presence of a strong
supraorbital torus inferior to the domed
frontal along with a cranial vault that
is parallel-sided and a large capacity.
The face seems large and broad especially
along the upper dimensions along with flat
cheekbones as well as a broad & low nose,
with an inferior alveolar prognathism.
There is a greater projection of
the occipital along with modern
frontal and parietal shape, and equally
firm supraorbital development.
Though the comparisons of the
contours of the midline recommend
about the affinity of the homo
sapiens towards cranial vaults,
various kinds of studies have
suggested that these indicate
closer similarities to the
recent samples of homo sapiens.
Both of these display some kind
of phonetic similarities to
the early species like that from
the Skhul, Herto and Qafzeh.
However, these lack the expansion
of the upper parietal.
In the cranial vault,
there is a resemblance to
Sima fossils along with
the early Neanderthals.
The immature JI3 mandible represents
a gracile body along with
huge posterior teeth and might
show anterior chin development.
The JI4 is also a partial
humerus, even after its
immaturity, as there is an
immature pelvic portion.
On the overall basis, there is enough
preservation of the JI1 for indicating
that it is not used to represent the
modern homo sapiens anatomically.
However, there are hints of
basicranial flexion that is
present in the relationship
of the vault and the face.
JI2 and 3 appear quite difficult for
assessing as they are quite incomplete.
However, the teeth portion
of Irhoud 3 has undergone
synchrotron analysis
that suggests the age
at their death to around
8 years along with a
development pattern of
the modern homo sapiens.
At the same time, the ESR analysis
of the tooth enamel has suggested
that age to be around 160 ka, that is
very likely as the minimum figure.
The “Kebibat” (Rabat) hominin that
originates from Morocco comprises of
a fragmented cranial vault along
with complete lower and upper jaws.
The larger teeth represent
the typical specimens of the
middle Pleistocene from the
regions of North Africa.
However, the mandible contains elements of
the mental trigone along with the vertical
symphysis, as the occipital portion seems
to be quite high as well as rounded.
But, the person seems to be subadult.
Therefore, caution must
be implemented while
interpreting the
morphology of the same.
Faunal correlation has placed
the Rabat homo sapiens
specimen along the later
middle Pleistocene.
Morocco cave of the famous
Dar-es-Soltan II has
resulted in the production
of some immature calvaria
along with some adolescent
mandible as well as
a part of the skull with
linked hemimandible.
An anterior vault of the DeS5 is quite
high and tends to be very large.
It is strong but partitioned
over a low supraorbital
torus with a flat face
and low, broad nose.
There have been indications
of the presence of the
canine fossa along with
alveolar prognathism.
Even the mandible along with the preserved
dentition also appears to be very large.
However, several illustrations tend
to be highly deceptive about the
indication of the lack of chin - the
region of the same seems to be broken.
The DeS5 has rather a
modern-looking bone shape and face.
However, both are quite large in shape.
The caves of Temara and El-Aliya in
Morocco have also produced the fragments
of the cranial fossils of the homo
sapiens from the Aterian/MSA contexts.
The material of Aliya consists
of a large teeth and maxilla.
However, the preserved
morphology of the cheek appears
to be rather flat &
non-Neanderthal in nature.
However, much of the same homo
sapiens species is not preserved.
The fossils found in the Temara
represent some kind of vault
fragments and lack a mandible as
well as a supraorbital torus.
A good number of several other sites of the
Aterian have resulted in dental material.
The cave named Zouhrah located
at El Harhoura has produced
a canine along with mandible
during the excavations.
The dental samples of the Aterian technique
usually represent the large dimensions
in comparison to the later Pleistocene
homo sapiens as well as the Neanderthals.
However, a smaller & thicker
enamel along with anterior
dentition represent more
of the modern traits.
As the crown morphologies tend to be quite
complex, these resemble the materials
like Qafzeh and Skhul in a more close
pattern than that of the Neanderthals.
In comparison to the larger and
complex morphology of the molar
specimens that have been found in
the Aterian material of Morocco,
the only portion of the teeth present
in the fragments of the posterior
mandible have been recovered from the
deposits of the “leval-loiso-mousterian”
within the Libyan cave
along the Haua Fteah
in 1950 tend to be simple
and small-crowned.
The fragments of the mandible
appear to be low rami
and there is no evidence
about the retromolar spaces.
Another possible specimen associated
with MSA that tends to lack the
dental complexity and size of the
material related to the Moroccan Aterian
is the fragmentary segment and the
cranium of a child that has been
recovered within some sand deposits
on top of the Taramsa Hill in Egypt.
Much of cranial vault has been preserved
for indicating the modern shape.
However, the presence of
postcranial skeleton has been
quite friable and only some
of it is able to survive.
The exact MSA age of
this specimen cannot be
confirmed through means
of direct dating.
Southern Africa
The type of “Florisbad cranium”
has been observed at the
open locality across South
Africa in the year 1932.
This was found as stratified
along a long sequence
that remains poorly dated
until a long time.
This remained the same
until ESR had provided
an estimate of the age
on enamel fragment
that was obtained from the human fossil and
the age was approximated to be 259 ka.
The bone of the frontal region is observed
to be wide, receding and thick along
with the supraorbital torus tending to be
high with some form of lateral reduction.
The face is available incomplete,
however, it quite broad
along the upper portions with
some canine fossa expression.
In the reconstruction of R. Clarke,
the face appears to be low to the
great breadth, and also allows for
an entire anterior dentition.
Florisbad has been sometimes
observed to be the morphological
alliance to the Broken
Hill and at other times,
a representation of
the later Middle
Pleistocene species of
the homo sapiens or a
precursor to the homo sapiens or even as an
LCA of the modern clades and Neanderthals.
The human fossil of the “Klasies River
Mouth” has been obtained over a
span of above 40 years in several
stratigraphic contexts of the MSA
from an interrelated
complexity of the caves
along the southeastern
regions of South Africa.
The material found here tends to be highly
fragmentary and is used to represent
the maxillary, mandibular, postcranial
and facial as well as cranial vault.
The mandibles represent
a great variance and
range from chinless
& large to the ones
some modern morphology to another range of
small and robust corpus having small teeth.
The presence of two maxillary
specimens reveals about the variation
that exists in size, with an isolated
zygomatic of the modern concepts.
An apparent frontal fragment
of an adult represents a great
interorbital breadth with the
centrally supraorbital profile.
The presence of a few postcranial
bones that have been recovered
indicates the existence of the
individuals with a small body.
Although the proximal ulna had been found
to have relatively larger joint surfaces.
Some of the elements of the
assemblages of the Klasies have
clearly conformed to the pattern
of the modern homo sapiens.
However, several other
materials cannot be readily
assigned to the various
parts that are preserved.
The Border Cave in South Africa
has resulted in a number of
subfossil or fossil of the human
remains of the MSA antiquity.
During the time of the
1940s, an ulna fragment,
a humerus, along with two
metatarsals had been
recovered from the soil
heap and these were
argued upon preservations
to be of the MSA age.
The robusticity and size have suggested
that these might be representing the
same person because, in the Border Cave
one, a partial skull was also observed.
The skull consisted of only the upper
parts of the face as well as a vault.
However, enough material has been preserved
for showing the large size, a small
development of the
supraorbital, domed frontal,
along with larger
interorbital breadth.
Though this appears to
be the modern aspect,
the large size along
with the upper and
frontal facial expression
tends to discriminate
the same from the recent
human population.
A BC2 (edentulous mandible) has
also been recovered at the same
time and this appears to be
small as well as lightly built
and proves to be assignable
to the modern homo sapiens
in anatomical terms as well
as on symphysial morphology.
The skeleton of the infant BC3 has appeared
to be representing the homo sapiens
and plays an important
role in the association
with red pigment
and Conus shells.
Just like BC2, even BC5 and
its partial mandible tends
to be small and represents
a modern morphology.
Moreover, its importance gets
enhanced by the direct methods of ESR
dating that helps to provide the
estimated age of around 75 ka.
East Africa
The ES (Eliye Springs)
cranium was initially
discovered by the
tourists after several
changes had taken place
long the lake levels
at the regions of West
Turkana in Kenya.
The cranium of the discovered
fossil had suffered
years of anterior erosion
along with the face.
However, enough of it has been preserved
for revealing the archaic morphology.
The particular vault that has been found
appears to be long as well as broad in an
inferior manner with the limited expansion
of the upper parietal region in rear view.
There is some evidence of
mere frontal keeling as well,
however, cranial buttressing has
not been strongly expressed.
The occipital structuring
is slightly rounded with
the minimum development
of the occipital torus.
Though it is heavily eroded, the
structure of the face appears
to hold a resemblance to some of
the later middle Pleistocene.
The crania of Africa has been
comparatively short, broad and flat, and
there is evidence of some development
with respect to the canine fossa.
Though ES-11693 had been discovered along
with some faunal remains, the absence of
any proper context or linked archaeology
has indicated the remains to be undated.
Several mandibular and fragmentary cranial
fossils were recovered from the sediments
that border the Lake Eyasi situated in
Tanzania since the time of the 1930s.
Probable association of the same
with the Acheulian artifacts have
suggested the fact that an earlier
and not middle Pleistocene age,
however limited U-series and ESR
age have estimated from the fauna
linked with frontal seven suggest
the age be around 88 or 130 ka.
The Eyasi 1 is represented in a
projecting supraorbital torus towards
its frontal, while the occipital
is considered to be more modern
with respect to the torus
formation in comparison
to the strong development
of the Eyasi 2.
The conditions in terms of a
fragment of the material along with
complexities of reconstruction
have limited the availability
of information beyond the
indications about the
specimens were not
assignable to the anatomical
modern homo sapiens,
even after the later
Pleistocene date had
suggested some of them.
The hominid findings of the Ngaloba
Laetoli 18 had been recovered
from the beds of Ngaloba along
the Laetoli region in Tanzania.
The particular cranium might date
from the later Middle Pleistocene.
This is comparatively
long as well as low with
elongated or receding
bone on the frontal end.
This comes as rounded towards the
rear as well as lateral views,
along with the minimal development
of the occipital torus.
However, on the anterior side,
there is the presence of a
prominent, still thin layer
of the supraorbital torus.
The region of the occipital is
known for the resemblance to
Neanderthals with respect to the
juxtamastoid and mastoid eminences.
Its face is not properly
articulated within the
vault, however, it is
evidently low, flat and
broad along the midface
with the presence of canine
fossae and gives way to
the subnasal regions.
The possible reconstruction
of the same by Cohen has
confirmed the gracility of
the entire face, however,
it suggests more height in comparison
to the other depictions of the same.
The workers like Rightmire
have gone to suggest
the LH18 as comparatively
modern, however,
it doesn’t conform to the modern homo
sapiens anatomically in the overall
morphology, in spite of the available
parietal and facial shape.
The three fossil hominins of the
Omo Kibish have been discovered
in the year 1967 as separate
contexts and localities.
Omo 1 was considered to be
a partial skeleton along
the member I present in
the Kibish formation,
while Omo 2 represents a desolated
surface findings of the calvaria
and then Omo 3 represents the frontal
fragment from the member III.
In the more recent times,
an American expedition has
relocated the genuine sites
of both the Omo 1 and Omo 2.
This has recovered several
human materials which include
various parts of the Omo 1
along with additional fossils.
The skull of the Omo 1 and its assemblage
is the main subject of various
reconstructions, however,
all of these concur
towards the indication
of a rounded, high
as well as voluminous vault in
the cranial region with some
occipital morphology of the homo
sapiens and its configurations.
The dentition, mandible and
the face appear to be greatly
fragmentary, however, represent a
mental eminence and canine fossa.
The postcranial fossils include that of
the limb bones that represent the modern
concept, however, with some distinctions
that have been noted in the Skhul-Qafzeh,
Neanderthal as well as
in Upper Palaeolithic
people along with
some proportions
that appear to be comparable with
some of the current East Africans.
The Omo 2 too has a large braincase
along with the presence of
some endocranial capacity of
around 1435 cubic centimeters.
However, it tends to be narrower
with the parallel sides in
contrast to the expanded parietals
of the superior regions.
There is also the presence
of a great angled
occipital region that bears
a high occipital torus.
There is also the display
of the parasagittal
flattering on either side
of the midline keel.
Contrasting to these
features, the presence of
the supraorbital torus
is composed of a weak
prominence towards the
anterior end of the broad,
flat, as well as receding
bone in the frontal zone.
The respective ages of
the Omo 1, as well as
that of Omo 2, are
considered to be the sources
of a great controversy,
however, these now appear
to have well established
at around 195 ka.
The classification of the Omo 1
and Omo 2 is quite difficult.
It is quite evident that the
Omo 1 could be assigned to the
modern homo sapiens category from
the fossilized parts, however,
Omo 2 could be tentatively
placed along the clade
with respect to the
supraorbital reduction.
The 2 individual human fossils
that are found in the formation
of “Guomde” in East Turkana
during the times of 1971 & 1976,
had consisted of a proximal
fragment of a femur KNM-ER
999 along with a partial
skull numbered KNM-ER 3884.
The femur has been presented as a
strongly built, however, seems of the
modern aspect when it comes to the shaft
shape as well as the cross section.
On the other hand, the partial skull
is seemingly a combination of the
several characteristics found along
the Omo Kibish 1 as well as 2.
This is large & high, along with
the presence of vertical walls.
The presence of supraorbital torus has been
found to be evenly projecting and thick.
The direct dating of the
uranium-series of this particular
material suggests the age
be more than around 180 ka.
Various dental, as well as cranial human
fossils, have been recovered from
a particular open site located at
Herto in Ethiopia in the year 1997.
The major part of the fossils consisted
of the complete skull of an adult,
immature calvaria and some other parts of
the cranial vault, resembling an adult.
All of the fossils are quite
large in size, with the adult
skull possessing a capacity of
around 1450 cubic centimeters.
The overall length of the human
skull has been found to be
exceeding the range of 5000 crania
of the modern times, however,
it tends to be relatively
projecting and strong, and
is partitioned into central
as well as lateral parts.
However, the angled occipital with the
centrally sturdy torus is observed to
be reminiscent to that of the fossils of
the Jebel Irhoud 2 and Broken Hill 1.
The rear part of the individual cranial
fragments represents greater size
along with robusticity in comparison
to most of the complete cranium.
The multivariate, as well as the univariate
analyses, has shown that the combination
of the traits of the skull of an adult makes
it differentiated from the humans of the
recent times, however, in terms of shape
of the cranial, cranial angles, along with
neurocranial globularity, these can be
characterized as that of the homo sapiens.
But, the addition of subspecific “Idaltu”
nomen is not able to justify the same.
The calvaria named “Singa”
had been discovered
along the block of
various calcrete
along the dry beds of the River Blue Nile
situated in Sudan during the year 1924.
It was considered to be quite
notable for the presence
of the strong bosses in
the parietal regions.
It consists of a
well-marked, however, being
centrally divided along
the supraorbital torus,
upper face with wide spacing
in the interorbital
regions, while the frontal
being quite high.
But, the parietals tend to be highly
short along with the occipital also
being short & protruding without the
display of any transverse torus.
The natural breakage has
allowed the removal of
the filling of the
endocranium with calcrete,
thus revealing a greater portion
of parietal bosses that
have been thickened abnormally
by the diploic bone.
The presence of some endocranial
mould has indicated the presence
of the cranial capacity to be
around 1400 cubic centimeters.
At the same time, the asymmetry suggests
the presence of the left-handed person.
Moreover, the CT-scanning also revealed the
proof of pathology along the unilateral
absence of the ear
towards inner structure
towards the right side
along with Spoor et al.
This suggested the presence of
labyrinthine ossification that had
taken place followed by some infection
of the top labyrinth membrane.
This occurrence might have taken place
due to the presence of some blood-borne
disease or infection or some kind
of blood disorder like the anemia
that would fit along with
some explanations to be
given to explain the process
of parietal pathology.
Due to the presence of its pathology,
it has become quite unclear
about the abnormality of the shape
with respect to the calvaria.
On the overall basis, the
cranial morphology on the
anterior side appears to
be quite modern, however,
the parietals seem to be
abnormal which aim to
prevent the taxonomic
assessment in a proper manner.
The fossil has been dated to an age of
around 131 to 135 ka by the process
of U-series along the sediments from
the inside structure of the calvaria
along with the ESR analysis
on the linked faunal remains.
Skhul & Qafzeh (Western Asia)
Though not in Africa, the particular
Levant has been clearly a representative
of the ancient population that
existed between Eurasia and Africa.
Various materials like
the Zuttiyeh fragment
of the front facial
area that could have
been derived from the
Middle Pleistocene -
it remains quite difficult
to be classified.
Later diagnosable material
that has been assigned to
the MIS5 is also believed
to have come from Israel
as in the form of the Neanderthal
skeleton of the Tabun 1 along
with the material from the
caves of the Qafzeh and Skhul.
The Mughraret es-Skul site
comprises of the small
cave along with some
larger external terrace
and rock shelter with
major hominin and
archaeological remains to
be coming from the latter.
The fossils of the Skhul,
that comprised of around
ten individuals, had
been discovered during
the time of 1931 and 1932
which was a part of a
big rescue dig in the
area of the Mount Carmel.
There has been the presence of evidence
about some individuals of the Skhuls being
intentionally buried which might explain
the good preservation of their fossils.
Both the Skhuls 4 as well as 5
have shared significant portions
of the postcranial as well as
cranial materials being preserved.
The Skhul 9 comprises a
greater fragmentary face and
calvaria with some fragments of
the pelvic as well as femur.
In one stage, the Skhul
fossils were believed
to be just approx
40 ka in their age.
This calculation was based on lithic
and faunal resemblances to the Tabun.
The Middle later Palaeolithic
levels to around
40 ka had been due to
the use of radiocarbon.
But, the material of the Skhul fossil is
now dated to fall between the range of
around 100 to 130 ka with the help of the
ESR, luminescence and U-series analyses.
However, there exists the
possibility that the Skhul
9 tends to be older than
the rest of the fossils.
This has been suggested
by the morphology as well
as the minimum stratigraphic
position of the same.
The 1st discoveries that were
from the Qafzeh Cave along
with its terrace, had happened
during the time of the 1930s.
However, the deeper study of the same
started during the year 1970 along
with the publication of the proper
specimens of the Qafzeh fossils.
By this time, several new excavations
had been enlarging the samples
associated with the Middle Palaeolithic
era to around sixteen persons.
The monographic work of Vandermeersch had
been upon the still-expanding series.
This explained the fact that the
Qafzeh and Skhul samples had shared
the associations of the Middle
Palaeolithic along with the appearance
of the symbolic burials as well as
the major skeletal similarities.
As far as morphology was concerned,
it was highlighted about
the homo sapiens and its affinity
for the group of hominids
from the mandibular and cranial shapes to
even the pelves as well as the limb bones.
The metric, non-metric and
morphometric analysis has always
supported the view about the
fact that the postcranial,
cranial and dental anatomy of the sample
of the Skhul & Qafzeh had represented
quite an early form of the homo sapiens
with primitive or robust features.
With Skhul, the process of application of
the ESR, luminescence as well as U-series
methods of dating had placed the material
of the Middle Palaeolithic into MIS5.
The age estimates had ranged
from around 90 to around 120 ka.
As the Qafzeh and Skhul series
has revealed the derived
characteristics in the postcranial
and cranial anatomy that is shared
with the recent humans and
Upper Palaeolithic, these
also display a considerable
amount of variation.
These tend to differ in various
aspects of the shape of cranial
along with the morphology between
and within the available samples.
As there are greater ranges of error
present upon the available manual
dating of these sites along with
archaeological and skeletal material,
it can be considered quite possible in the
current times for determining the fact
whether Skhul and Qafzeh specimens are used
for representing different kinds of samples
from the same population
of the variable MIS5.
This is because it is
assumed within the
paleolithic studies that
two striking populations
that are separated by
various millennia might
tend to cover a long
period at both the sites.
Late Pleistocene Human Record in Africa
During the span of last
twenty-five years, the
model of the African
origin has dominated
the discussions with respect to the
evolution and origin of the homo sapiens.
However, several recent
modifications have taken
place with respect to the
presence of introgression
from several archaic
humans like that of the
Denisovans and Neanderthals
outside of Africa.
The exact date of the origin of the
homo sapiens as with this model has
also been changed as with several new
discoveries along with dating work.
Therefore, it is now placed
at around 200 ka, with
respect to the fist appearance
of the homo sapiens
in the form of the skeleton
of the Omo Kibish 1
as well as the younger
form of Herto material.
The usage has been quite consistent
with the diagnosis of the
homo sapiens with a working
definition that is delimited
by the recent cranial and
skeletal variation in
characteristics like the
domed neurocranium,
enhanced basicranial flexion, reduction
in projection and overall facial size.
If the fact that the homo sapiens is
a comparatively younger species is
accepted, and that is distinct from
the putative LCA and Neanderthals,
then there are several possibilities for
the exact evolution of the homo sapiens.
One possibility could be the limiting
of the diagnoses of the species
with respect to both homo sapiens
and homo Neanderthalensis.
These would be limited
to the samples which
used to share the
morphological characteristics
of various terminal members of the
modern human class and the Neanderthals.
The primitive members of
the homo sapiens and the
Neanderthals had revealed
only specific diagnostic
characters about the
terminal species that could
be given an individual
name of the species.
If the particular is to be followed,
the intermediate species between the
homo sapiens and the Neanderthals
would be the homo helmei on priority.
Given the fact that there are existing
difficulties in differentiating
the LCA from its early stages
of origin and evolution
with the respective Neanderthalensis
and the Sapiens, it tends to further
create the taxonomic divisions for the
relatively short-lived individuals
that would simply atomize the
problems rather than solving them.
Another possible option would be to
make use of the looser definitions
of the homo sapiens along with
the homo Neanderthalensis.
This would be done for encompassing the
various samples which would lie on
the respective species after they got
separated from the respective LCA.
The earliest members of
the modern homo sapiens
could be termed as
“archaic homo sapiens”.
Similarly, the earliest members
of the homo neanderthalensis
could be termed as the “early
homo neanderthalensis”.
The time of the evolution of the homo
sapiens out of its chimpanzee-human
common ancestor can be dated to
around 10 million years ago.
The scientific study of the theory
of human evolution is primarily
concerned with the series of the
development of the main genus Homo.
It also involves the study of various
other hominids like that of the great
apes, gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos
and all of the related hominins.
The modern homo sapiens are
defined as the species of which
the only existent extant
subspecies is the human beings.
The various species of the homo sapiens
“idaltu” have now become extinct.
The homo neanderthalensis had become
extinct some 30,000 years before and
has been sometimes classified as the
subspecies of the homo sapiens.
The genetic studies reveal that the
functional DNA of the Neanderthals and
that of the modern homo sapiens had
diverged some 500,000 years before.
The anatomical structure of the modern
human beings had first appeared
along the fossil record found in
Africa some 195,000 years before.
The studies related to the molecular
biology has given the evidence
that time of divergence with
respect to the common ancestor
of the homo sapiens of the modern
times was some 200,000 years before.
The broader study of the genetic
diversity in Africa had founded the
San people for expressing the largest
genetic diversity that existed
among the various distinct
populations and thus
made them one cluster of
the ancestral population.
The research had also located the
exact origin of the human migration
of the modern times along southwestern
Africa in Angola and Namibia.
The natural selection and its forces
have still continued to be operating
on the modern human populations
with the availability of evidence
that various regions of the
display of genome and its
directional selection to
15,000 years in the past.
