Hi I’m John Green and this is Crash Course
European History.
Okay so look: It has been bleak so far.
We’ve had the Black Death, the 116 Years’
War, a series of religious wars that culminated
with a 30 Years War that killed 20% of Central
Europe.
We’ve had the little ice age and witch murdering
mania and the Atlantic slave trade but now,
now we get to turn our attention to the scientific
revolution, which profoundly reshaped our
understanding of the universe and ourselves.
At last, we are going to make real, undeniable
progress.
What’s that?
Oh, Stan tells me that many of these scientists
were persecuted for sciencing.
Great.
But that doesn’t stop humans from developing
the central insight that reshapes human history.
It’s about to get really heliocentric around
here...
[Intro]
Before we get into the scientific revolution,
I just want to make one broad comment that
might be obvious if you’ve watched previous
videos in this series: For most of human history,
people did not expect to live healthier or
more prosperous lives than previous generations.
Sometimes life got better, and sometimes it
got worse.
It’s true that human populations were increasing
and that life expectancy was increasing gradually,
but the idea that it is normal for human life
to get better over time is very new.
Today, most European countries have high life
expectancy, low maternal mortality, and low
rates of absolute poverty.
But there have been about 10,000 generations
of humans, and we are perhaps the 10th generation
who could reliably expect disease burden and
child mortality and poverty to steadily decrease
in our lifetimes.
Well, I’m part of the 10th.
You’re probably part of the 11th.
But regardless, we owe much of this change
to the Scientific Revolution.
So, like the Reformation, the Scientific Revolution
was another break with religious teachings.
The Catholic Church taught that the earth
was the center of the universe and had been
so since the Creation.
The sun, moon, and planets traveled around
the earth in perfectly circular orbits like
the rings of an onion.
And beyond the onion was the realm of the
divine, whose light pierced through in the
form of stars.
All this perfect motion was the work of God
Himself.
And any other understanding of the universe
was thus a challenge to God’s eternal perfection
as described in the scriptures.
But, like good Renaissance people, the new
astronomers, mathematicians, and their colleagues
in other fields declared that old theories
needed to be reexamined.
The first problem was that the perfect orbits
of the planets, and moon, and sun did not
fit with observation, causing astronomers
to resort to ancient Ptolemaic explanations
(basically that planets followed their own
circular paths, which also revolved around
the Earth).
Just before his death in 1543, Polish-born
Nicholas Copernicus, a well-connected doctor
of canon law and researcher in mathematics,
and astronomy, and classical literature, published
On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres.
He noted problems with classical astronomical
theory and determined that the universe was
“heliocentric”—that is, the sun, rather
than the earth, was at the center.
The Catholic Church’s reaction to this was
negative: the Italian monk Giordano Bruno,
for instance, was burned at the stake in 1600
for teaching Copernicus’s heliocentric findings.
But even earlier than that, in 1572, Danish
astronomer Tycho Brahe spotted a new star
and in 1577 a new comet, further confirmation
that the universe was not immutably and perfectly
created.
Then, Johannes Kepler’s laws of planetary
motion announced early in the seventeenth
century that the orbits of the planets were
elliptical—not perfectly circular.
The solar system was a solar system, and it
wasn’t an onion.
Something other than divine will was keeping
the planets apart and in motion.
Let’s go to the Thought Bubble.
By this time, the observations of Galileo
Galilei were bringing matters to a head.
Galileo was obsessed with science,
especially its mathematical features and the
calculations at the base of Copernicus’s
heliocentric theory.
Galileo’s father had wanted him to become
a doctor but mathematics drew him in.
It’s the oldest story in the world.
He invented many tools like an early thermometer
and his own telescope, which he used to dramatically
improve human understanding of the universe
-he was the first person to observe the moons
of Jupiter, and the first to understand that
the Milky Way was a collection of stars.
The telescope also showed irregular spots
on the sun, a further sign of heavenly imperfections
that went against the beliefs espoused by
the Catholic Church.
Despite Galileo’s prestige as a mathematician,
his work on the nature of the universe went
too far for the Church.
In 1615, Galileo went to Rome to teach the
clergy about the heliocentric universe and
convince them of its accuracy.
In 1616, it was condemned as heretical and
Galileo promised not to teach that the earth
moved.
But, in 1632, he published Dialogue Concerning
the Two Chief World Systems in which he described
the Ptolemaic system on which the Church based
its earth-centered astronomical teachings
and the Copernican system.
In 1636, the Roman Inquisition found him guilty
of heresy and forced him to recant in order
to avoid execution.
And so Galileo recanted.
In 1992, after a 13 year investigation, the
Catholic Church finally publicly acknowledged
that the judgment against him had been wrong."
Thanks Thought Bubble.
Centuries later, Albert Einstein would write,
“All knowledge of reality starts from experience
and ends in it.
… Because Galileo saw this, and particularly
because he drummed it into the scientific
world, he is the father of modern physics--indeed,
of modern science altogether.”
We talk about this at length of course in
our history of science series, but for our
purposes here it’s important to understand
that Galileo and other scientists used experimentation
and mathematical calculation to confirm or
refute hypotheses--and that scientific method
was genuinely revolutionary.
The scientific approach also spread to other
fields of inquiry.
Ancient medical theories began to unravel,
as English medical doctor William Harvey pronounced
the heart to be a pump based on dissections
he’d performed.
He called the heart “a piece of Machinery”
that worked according to natural laws.
But it’s important to note that even as
mechanical theories took hold, prominent “new”
scientists continued to believed in unseen
forces at work in the universe.
For example, astrology, positing that the
planets and stars influenced people and events,
sought to map those influences.
Some scientists found it credible
--and they pursued all kinds of mystical,
and occult, and alchemical investigations.
Any revolution needs good propagandists, and
people were advertising that the “new”
scientific values and practices were amazing
while also pointing out that the ancient and
traditional ones were full of errors.
English politician Francis Bacon was foremost
among these science propagandists, chiding
everyone who was using the old paradigms and
models of the universe—calling them worthless
ancients.
Bacon, like others at the time, created his
own careful observations, and experiments,
and sought to use reason.
There was, he said, a scientific method to
be followed.
One needn’t rely on past accounts that were
copies of copies of copies--one should ask
their own questions, and do their own experiments
to find the answer to those questions, experiments
that other people could then replicate to
confirm--or refute--the findings.
And this became the basis for the new scientific
method as Bacon laid it out in The Advancement
of Learning.
His process of reaching the truth and drawing
conclusions from specific, reliable facts
or evidence is called inductive reasoning.
And a collection of reliable, verified evidence
was essential, according to Bacon, not “old
wives’ fables” or, as another new scientist
put it, not “maunderings of a babbling hag”—words
that were part of the discourse of witches
who were being tried and murdered at the time.
And then there was French philosopher René
Descartes who moved speculation about the
new science to a still different methodological
register by looking at the mind.
Descartes noted that reason—thinking—was
made for verification, so thinking on one’s
own was crucial.
Because, otherwise there were so many facts
that one could essentially become skeptical
about whether truth actually existed.
Like imagine a world where there are facts,
but there are also “alternate” facts,
and you have to choose between your set of
facts before you reach a conclusion.
That would be unlivable!
So Descartes set out to prove the one thing
he felt he could be sure of.
His own existence.
And in doing so, he prioritized his own power
of thinking: “I think therefore I am.”
But he also prioritized doubt, which is central
to the scientific method--Descartes also wrote,
“We cannot doubt of our existence while
we doubt.”
In short, our ability to conceive of doubt
about whether we exist, is proof that we exist.
By privileging the role that thought, and
with it questioning, play in discovering truth,
Descartes had developed deductive reasoning:
that is, faith in the rational power of the
mind to generate specific truths from its
own theories or power of thinking.
(By the way in addition to a Crash Course
in the history of science, we also have a
crash course in philosophy, where you can
learn more about Descartes.)
Okay, let’s turn our attention to Isaac
Newton, who synthesized new methodology and
his own findings in his universal laws of
motion.
Newton was a scientist with a reputation for
following every lead, Newton practiced alchemy—that
is the quest for secret formulae and practices,
especially an entity called the philosopher’s
stone that could turn lead or other base metals
into gold.
Which by the way would be an inflationary
disaster, but fortunately it’s impossible.
But I think that’s important to note because
it reminds us that not every lead being followed
by scientists--then or now--results in big
discoveries, but part of the glory of science
is learning what doesn’t work.
Also, it reminds us that in the 17th century,
many of the smartest people in the world believed
in alchemy, a nice opportunity to reflect
on what false promises contemporary humans
might believe.
At any rate, while studying alchemy, he also
pulled together the findings of his predecessors
into mathematical laws for the functioning
of the universe.
He quantified the major constructs of mass,
inertia, force, velocity and acceleration
and produced the law of gravitation.
And he encapsulated all his findings in his
Principia Mathematica in 1687.
For Newton, the universe was indeed a fantastic,
regular, and all encompassing machine, yet
it was a machine still tinged with the mysteries
that he continued to decipher, and to be fair
that we are still deciphering today.
By the early decades of the seventeenth century,
contact with the wider world led to other
kinds of scientific investigations.
Adventurers brought back to Europe new species
of plants, and textiles, minerals, animal
life that sparked wonder and scientific probing.
One of the first to venture out was Portuguese
doctor Garcia da Orta.
He traveled first to Goa, India, studying
plants like aloe, cannabis, coconut, and ginger.
In 1563, he published Conversations on the
Simples, Drugs and Medicinal Substances of
India, which advanced the use of plants as
medicine.
Local people were key to major plant discoveries:
Dr. da Orta, for instance, learned from healers
in South Asia, while in the 1620s local people
in Lima cured a Jesuit priest with malaria
by giving him the medicine they used--quina-quina.
Eventually this healing bark was turned into
quinine, a malaria medication that allowed
Europeans to expand their empires more deeply
into Africa and South America.
In the cases of both Doctor da Orta and the
Jesuits in Peru, European advances, like others
that would follow, depended on gathering up
scientific and medical knowledge from other
people.
Within Europe, scientific networks developed
around heliocentrism and also around other
new ideas just as they had in the Renaissance.
Like Erasmus and his correspondents, Galileo
and scientists across Europe wrote one another
and published books about their findings.
The Royal Society of London had its “republic
of letters.”
And communication like that became pivotal
both to verification and to convince as much
of the public as possible that these new scientific
discoveries were valid.
Amid warfare, the little ice age, and famine,
these scientists were corresponding about
comets, windmills, pumps, and blood vessels.
Theories about vision and atomism passed around
in letters, reached as far as the Ottoman
Empire and Japan.
Governments also got in on the Scientific
Revolution, giving scientists like Galileo
stipends to support their work, and labeling
them “Court Mathematicians,” which added
prestige both to the scientist and the royal
court itself.
Louis XIV of France started one of the most
prestigious scientific academies—the royal
Academy of Sciences—in 1666.
And Theaters of anatomy, where dissections
and other physiological demonstrations occurred,
also received official sponsorship.
Oh, did the globe open at last?
Is Yorick in there?
Alas, poor Yorick...I didn’t know eyebrows
were a skeletal feature.
For the first, like, 98 percent of history,
we knew so little about how all of this works.
Look, I’m never going to be a ventriloquist,
OK?
Stan, this isn’t a real skull, is it?
Ugh!
We will examine the mounting power of the
state next week beyond its sponsorship of
science.
For the moment, let’s reflect on the ways
in which so-called new scientists during the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries bravely
took religious scriptures out of the workings
of astronomy and the heavens.
Instead of a divine hand at work, by the time
of Newton, universal laws for the operation
of the solar system and physical bodies had
been established.
Although most people believed in God, many
of them earnestly so, they also followed a
developing scientific method and additionally
established faith in their own rational powers.
This way of looking at the world would prove
so important that less than 350 years after
Galileo became the first person to observe
the moon’s cratered surface, human beings
would step foot on that surface.
Thanks for watching.
I’ll see you next time.
