 
PSYCHOLOGY FOR SOCIAL WORKERS

(SYLLABUS AND STUDY MATERIALS)

PROJECT MSW

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WORK

PSG COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE, COIMBATORE

(2012 – 2014 BATCH)

COMPILED BY: T.M.SURESH

CONTENTS COMPILED BY: G.SANTHOSH, THIVYA VILASHINI AND ALL MSW STUDENTS OF SOCIAL WORK DEPARTMENT, PSG COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE

ONE CLICK AWAY FROM YOUR NEEDED MATERIALS

Syllabus

Unit 1

Psychology

Psychology Defined

Defnition Of Social Worker

Principles Of Social Work

Psychology

FIELDS Branche Sareas Of Psychology

Scope Of Psychology

Methodes In Psychology

Fields Of Specalisation

UNIT 2

Life Span

Malow's Theory Of Need Hierarchy

UNIT 3

Learning

Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Observational Learning

Cognitive Learning

Forgetting

Perception

Laws Of Perceptual Organization

Perceptual Constancies

Distance Perception

Depth Perception

Illusion

Extra Sensory Perception

UNIT 4

Theories Of Intelligence

Mental Retardation

Dynamics Of Personality

UNIT 5

Machiavellianism

Type A And Type B Personality

Defense Mechanisims

Neo-Freudian Theories

Conflict Process

Types Of Conflict

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SYLLABUS

UNIT – I

Psychology, meaning and fields of psychology – scientific methods of Psychology – relevant of Psychology for social work practices.

UNIT – II

Life span – physical, social and psychological aspects of development from prenatal period to old age. Motivation and hierarchy of needs.

UNIT – III

Learning – meaning – theory of learning – the classical conditioning – operant conditioning cognitive learning – methods of effective learning – nature of memory forgetting – thinking – perception – concept and types – perception and sensation – characteristics of perception laws and perception grouping – errors in perception.

UNIT – IV INTELLINGENCE

Concepts and measurements of intelligence – theory of intelligence – mental health. Introduction to concept of mental health and classification of mental illness and retardation – mental deficiency.

UNIT – V PERSONALITY

Meaning – determinants of personalities – defense mechanism – theory of personality – measurement of personality. Adjustment – concept of adjustment and maladjustments – stress – frustration and conflict sources of frustration conflicts – nature and types of conflicts.

REFERENCE BOOKS:

General psychology – S.K. MANGAL.

Development psychology – B. Elizabeth Hurlock.

UNIT – I

Psychology, meaning and fields of psychology – scientific methods of Psychology – relevant of Psychology for social work practices.

INTRODUCTION

Psychology is a scientific discipline. It branched off from philosophy and has ushered as an independent science on its own right. The definition of psychology had undergone several revisions in the past. It is currently defined as a discipline engaged in studying behavior and mental processes. The field of psychology is ever expanding and diversifying. Several sub fields of psychology have been developed. The strength of psychology as a science rests on its methods. A wide variety of methods have been eve loved by psychologists over the century. These methods help collecting data needed to build up a reliable and valid psychology.

PSYCHOLOGY DEFINED

Rudolph Goclenius, a Greek philosopher, invented the term 'psychology' in1590.

The English word 'Psychology' originated from the root 'psyche' in Greek. The root word in Greek meant 'soul' or 'spirit'. Logos in Greek meant 'knowledge.' Since the beginning psychology has been continuously undergoing redefinitions. Thus psychology was conceived to be a study of soul in the ancient time. At the end of the last century, psychology was recognized as the study of mind and consciousness through

introspection, the description of experience. In 1818 James R. Angell, (J.B.Watson's professor) noted the pressure to shift the focus of psychology from consciousness to behavior moderated the position by defining behavior as "thinking, feeling and acting."

In the second decade of the century when extreme behaviorist stance arose and concept of consciousness was challenged and in 1913, John B. Watson defined psychology entirely in behavioral terms "the science of behavior." At the end of this century, the focus of psychology has been broadened and it is considered a science and practice concerned with human behavior as well as the mental processes that underlie physical and mental health. During the 1920s and 1930s, definitions in psychology dropped references to

"mind" and "consciousness." In practice the subject of introspection largely disappeared by the 1930s. Howard C. Warren (1934), in his Dictionary of Psychology, gave four definitions of psychology, ranging from "a branch of science that investigates mental phenomena or mental operations" to "the science concerned with the mutual interrelations of organism and environment through transmission of energy," to "the systematic investigation of the behavior of organisms" to "the science of the self or personal individual." Norman Munn (1946) defined psychology as "the science of experience and behavior." In the late 1960s, cognitive psychology ushered and humanistic psychology gained popularity and the definition of psychology had a renewed emphasis on experience. By the 1970s, psychology's definition shifted yet again toward a more moderate and commonly defined "science of behavior and experience." In the last two decades of the century, the recognition that psychology is not only a science but also a practice. Currently, psychology is most often defined as "the study of behavior and underlying mental phenomena."

One of the philosophers sarcastically commented on this turn of events in which the terms soul, mind and consciousness were banished one by one in preference to the term behavior, that 'Psychology lost its soul first, its mind next, its consciousness later and is left to loath only with behavior.' Now, the extremism in psychology has subsided and psychologists are more tolerant and open to accept phenomena for their psychological enquiry including consciousness. Currently there is consensus among psychologists in defining psychology as the study of behavior and mental processes (Coon and Mittrer, 2007).  Another definition made by other contemporary psychologists states, "Psychology as the scientific study of behavior and mind (Passer and Smith, 2007).

The subject matter of Psychology revolves around the study of behavior, human and animal. Psychology does not restrict itself to studying overt or observable behavior.

Overt behavior includes walking, talking, laughing, hitting, or jumping. It necessarily This watermark does not appear in the registered version - http://www.clicktoconvert.com includes study of covert behavior as well. Covert behavior includes internal events like learning, motivation, attitudes, beliefs, values, and feeling. Psychology is a Scientific Study. It involves systematic study of behavior and mental processes in which the observed data is organized based on theory. Further it involves measurement. Psychology is regarded a social science.;

DEFNITION OF SOCIAL WORKER:

Social work is defined as an art, a science, and a profession. That helps the people to solve personal, group, and community problem and attain satisfying .personal, group, and community relationship through social work practices.

-BY IFSW (International Federation for Social Work)

PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL WORK:

Ø Problems exits every were

Ø Trained social worker

Ø The social work is an professional

Ø Social worker needs communication skill as an important component.

Ø Social work is possible to some extent only with community cooperation.

PSYCHOLOGY:

Psychology is a science or a study about behavior.

William Games (1870) – principles of psychology and William evadnt (1879).

Study of behavior – Mc Dao Gall.

1903, 1905, 1911 (Bec-An outline of psychology).

AFFECTIVE BEHAVIOUR

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BEHAVIOUR | |  | |

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MOTOR ACTIVITIES | |

COACTIVE

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|  | |  | |

MOTOR ACTIVE:

Physical activities like walking, dancing, etc.

This is the study of the moving behavior of a person.

This behavior will be seen outside because it is an external behavior.

COACTIVE:

This is the brine related function which is internal function so it is difficult to reflect (not easy to absorb outside).

The some of coactive behavior are feelings, thinking imagining, recalling, etc.

AFFECTIVE BEHAVIOR:

This is related to feelings like crying, fear, joyful, laughing, etc.

This can seen out or reflected out one can see this easily.

If we have this feeling we cannot even talk though if we think to talk it will be difficult to talk.

FIELDS/BRANCHES/AREAS OF PSYCHOLOGY:

1. Pure 2. Applied

1. PURE PSYCHOLOGY:

Ø Concepts

Ø Theories and

Ø Laws

2. APPLIDE PSYCHOLOGY:

Ø Industrial Psychology

Ø Educational Psychology

Ø Correctional/legal/criminal Psychology

Ø Military/army psychology

Ø Clinical Psychology

1. INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY/ENGINEERING:

Ø Retaining

Ø Employee

Ø Employer

Ø Customer

Ø Advertisement

Ø Incentives/Rewards/Appreciations

Ø Morale

Ø Motivation

Ø Involvement

Ø Job satisfaction

Ø Accident

Ø Alcoholism/Idleness

2. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY:

Branch of psychology in which the knowledge is applied in the field of education

3. MILITATY PSYCHOLOGY:

Ø To control rumors.

Ø Making the military personnel to become psychological.

Ø Emotional control to soldier when they kill the enemy in the field (making them to not feel guilty for death of enemy).

Ø Bring courage to the militant during dangerous situation which help in building morale.

Ø To make soldier to come out from stress,pain and make them more courage.

Ø The psychologist has a good role in the military.

Ø The military psychologist work was:

ü Recruiting

ü Training

ü Motivating

ü Counseling

Ø During the non-war time there will be psychological changes in soldiers so to overcome it there is needed a military psychologist due to no connection with house this will lead to stress this will can only over taken by the military psychologist.

Ø Prevent Psycatric illness, Depression, Ansaity, etc.

4. CORRECTIONAL/LEGAL/CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGICAL:

· This branch deals with convict (Person who was suspected as the thefter, killer, briber or law breaker )

· The person who has the high IQ are more involving in the criminal and cyber-crimes.

· The criminal psychologist do following things:

ü Profaction

ü Parole

ü Lie- detection

· Behavior is the main reason for the crimes.

SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY

. The scope of psychology constantly extends to include a wide range of phenomena of scientific interest. The interest of the investigators ranges from interest in astrology, graphology to parapsychology. The psychological studies range from investigations of individuals to studies of groups, organizations and nations. Psychology studies all sorts of individuals, from mentally retarded to genius, from mentally ill to people who are selfactualizing. The spectrum of phenomena of interest to psychologists include every thing from egotism to altruism, from truancy, delinquency, criminality, psychopath to spiritualism, from peace to violence, terrorism and war, from behavior of plants to that of animals and human beings, and what not? It is not surprising that modern psychology has been some times commented to be a psychotic octopus that stretches and catches every thing that comes across it by its innumerous ever lengthening limbs.

EXTRA NOTES:

FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology is a broadening and diversifying field. A number of different sub fields and specialty areas have newly emerged. The following are a few of the major areas of research and application within the field of psychology.

Clinical Psychology is the branch of psychology that is devoted to study, diagnosis and treatment abnormal behavior. Their area of work covers a large range from milder disturbances like adjustment disorders that occur due to identifiable stressor on one hand to the more severe disorders like schizophrenia where the level of impairment of psychological functioning in the individual is extreme. Learning about the factors contributing to clinically significant impairment or disorders, arriving at a diagnosis, and evolving methods to treat these disorders are the common interests of clinical psychologists. Some clinical psychologists devote all their time in applying the theoretical understanding on psychopathology to treat their clients who are called as practitioners. Some others are primarily interested in issues like delineating factors influencing mental breakdowns, identifying the first signs of psychiatric breakdowns, the efficacy of certain kinds of therapy on certain types of patients, etc. They carry out research on various aspects of psychopathology and are called as clinical researchers.

Community Psychology  A related field to clinical psychology is the community psychology. Community psychology is a growing field that focuses on promoting community-wide mental health through research, prevention, education, and consultation.

Industrial and organizational psychology is also known as I/O psychology, work psychology, work and organizational psychology, W-O psychology, occupational personnel psychology or talent assessment. It is concerned with the application of psychological theories, research methods, and intervention strategies to solve workplace issues. I/O psychologists are interested in making organizations more productive and ensuring workers are able to lead physically and psychologically healthy lives. I/O psychologists are educated in the topics that include personnel psychology,motivation and leadership, employee selection, training and development, organization development and guided change, organizational behavior, and work and family issues. I/O psychologists who work in an organization are likely to work in the Human Resorce (HR) department. Many I/O psychologists pursue careers as independent consultants or applied academic researchers

.Consumer psychology is a branch related to Industrial-Organizational psychology.

It deals with issues like people's buying behavior, effects of advertisements on buying behavior, and better marketing strategies.

Health psychology investigates the relationship between psychological factors and physical illnesses. For example, they may be interested to study effect of psychological factors like maternal deprivation on physical illnesses like asthma. They also are interested in identifying health-enhancing behaviors like dieting, exercise, yoga on physical health and psychological well being, and promoting them among people. Further they research to identify psychological factors associated with health compromising behaviors like smoking, drinking. In addition to this they also work with those patients suffering from chronic or terminal illnesses, like diabetes and cancer, to evolve methods to rehabilitate them.

Medical Psychology is the field of psychology that applies psychology to manage medical problems. Issues like emotional impact of illness, self-screening for cancer and disabilities, and compliance in taking medications are within the scope of medical psychology.

Counseling psychology tries to study problems relating to educational, social and career

adjustment. Health psychologists handle less severe problems than those attended to by the clinical psychologists. They teach students methods to enhance their learning capacity, helping the students to resolve their everyday difficulties, teaching the students principles to solve the problems with their roommates, etc. are done by counseling psychologists. Counseling psychologists employed in business organizations help the employees handle their problems that are work-related, interpersonal problems among colleagues, etc. Couples with marital problems also can seek help from counseling psychologists. Counselors also can help people handle their problems within the context of the family, like parents' difficulty in communicating with their children.

School Psychology is the branch of psychology that works within the educational system to help children with emotional, social, and academic issues. As a branch of psychology it applies principles of cinical psychology and educational psychology to the diagnosis and treatment of students' behavioral and learning problems. School psychologists are educated in child and adolescent development, learning, pychoeducational assessment, personality, therapeutic interventions, special education, sychology, consultation, child and adolescent psychpathology, etc., They help children and youth succeed academically, socially, and emotionally. They collaborate with educators, parents, and other professionals to create safe, healthy, and supportive learning environments for all children and to strengthen connections between home and school.

Industrial and organizational psychology is also known as I/O psychology, work psychology, work and organizational psychology, W-O psychology, occupational psychology, personnel psychology or talent assessment. It is concerned with the application of psychological theories, research methods, and intervention strategies to solve workplace issues. I/O psychologists are interested in making organizations more productive and ensuring workers are able to lead physically and psychologically healthy lives. I/O psychologists are educated in the topics that include personnel psychology,motivation and leadership, employee selection, training and development, organization development and guided change, organizational behavior, and work and family issues. I/O psychologists who work in an organization are likely to work in the Human Resorce (HR) department. Many I/O psychologists pursue careers as independent consultants or applied academic researchers

Consumer psychology, a branch related to Industrial-Organizational psychology, deals with issues like people's buying behavior, effects of advertisements on buying behavior, and better marketing strategies.

Engineering psychology focuses on ways to improve the relationship between people and machines. They design machines in such a manner as to reduce human error.

Some examples of the works of engineering psychologists are designing air traffic control systems and underwater habitats for oceanographic research. The design of the person-machine interface, the point at which the person interacts with the machine is especially important in computer systems.

Biopsychology specializes in understanding the biological bases of behavior. The field of Biopsychology focuses on the functions of the brain and nervous system. Studying about the various lobar functions and how neurotransmitters in our brains influence our behavior can be seen as some of the interests of Biopsychologists.

Comparative psychology is yet another field of psychology that has a fairly long history. It primarily focused on studying and comparing the behavior of different species, especially that of animals.

Experimental Psychology f o c us on the study of processes like sensation, perceiving, learning and thinking. If one is interested in finding out how one perceives pain, or how one learns new concepts the he would resort to experimental psychology.

Some critics question the term 'experimental psychology' as psychologists studying any other phenomena as well may use experimental method. Neither do the experimental psychologists limit themselves to purely experimental method of investigation.

Sensation and Perception Psychology deals with studies on the sense organs and the process of perception. It also is involved in investigating the mechanisms of sensation and developing theories about how perception occurs.

Learning psychology is related to studying about how and why learning occurs.

They invest large part of their work in attempts to develop theories of learning.

Cognitive psychology can be seen as a specialty that grew out of experimental psychology. It includes study of higher mental processes like thinking, language, memory, reasoning and logic, problem solving, and decision- making. In short, it deals with studying phenomena of human thinking and information processing.

Developmental psychology traces the behavioral changes that occur in people from years as prenatal stages to old age. They also study about the influence on the individual from the point of conception unto death and analyze how behavior is influenced by these varied factors. In short Developmental Psychologists deal with studying how people grow and change throughout the course of the lives. They are more concerned about universal milestones rather than focusing on individual changes.

Personality psychology This is the branch of psychology that focuses on individual differences is called. Both consistency in an individual's behavior and the changes occurring in him over time are points of interest to personality psychologists. In addition to this they try to understand how one individual is different from the other given the same situation, there by highlighting the uniqueness of the person.

Sports psychology If one is unable to carry on with his routine activities or if he is experiences difficulty in mixing with others around him then he would find it worthwhile to consult one of the psychologists who devote their effort in studying issues relating to physical and mental health.

Social psychology Man is a social animal. We are not isolated being. We are all parts of a complex network of social relationships. Social psychology studies how others affect people's thinking, feelings and behavior. Social psychologists cover various topics like how one forms attitude and prejudices, human aggression, decision making while in a group, and why we form relationships with others. Researches on difference between males and females, the acquisition of gender identity, and how gender affects behavior throughout one's life are of interest to the gender psychologists

.

Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology that deals w i t h investigating the similarities and differences in psychological functioning among various cultural and ethnic groups. This branch focuses on issues like how child-rearing practices differ with regard to different cultures, what are the factors affecting the achievement of women in different cultures, and why do cultures vary in their standards for physical attractiveness. Contemporary psychology invests a lot on studying the cultural diversity of virtually every psychological phenomenon.

Environmental psychology The numbers of specialty areas continue to grow even today. Environmental psychology is a field of psychology that studies the relationship between people and their physical environment. They study the effect of neighborhood, crowding, pollution and other environmental factors on psychological This watermark does not appear in the registered version - http://www.clicktoconvert.com factors like our social behavior, our emotions, perception of stress and even the way we think.

Forensic psychology deals with legal issues like deciding what criteria indicate that a person is legally insane, and whether smaller or larger juries make fairer decisions.

Space Psychology With more human beings visiting outer space than before the requirement of Space Psychology has come to be acknowledged. Space flights are longer and more frequent than earlier. This necessitated the emergence field of psychology that focuses on issues like screening of astronauts to weed out people who are more vulnerable to conflict in cramped, public quarters, handling the problem of space sickness, factors that affect sanity of crew that are on long space travels, decision making while on space travel when individuals are in small isolated groups, and so on.

METHODES IN PSYCHOLOGY:

INTROSPECTION:

  * Look inside

  * Look inward

  * Self-perception

  * Self-analysis

  * Inner observation

  * Self-observation

OBSERVATION:

  * Participative

  * Non participative

EXPRIMENTER METHODE:

  * Control single group

  * Control group design

  * Multiple group design

  * Rotating design

CLINICAL METHODE

PSYCHO PHYSICAL METHODE

STSTESTICAL/SURVEY METHODE

FIELDS OF SPECALISATION:

  * Labour welfare

  * Correctional social work

  * Community development/social action/NGOs

  * Social action

  * Social welfare administration

  * Medical/psychiatric setting

  * Education/social work

UNIT – II

Life span – physical, social and psychological aspects of development from prenatal period to old age. Motivation and hierarchy of needs.

Growth development

Development – Task

Developmental stage – Life span

Studying of human development from child to old is called developmental psychology

Study of human development from conception to old age is called developmental psychology:

  * Pre – natal period (0 – 270 days/10 months)

  * Infant period - birth to 2nd weak

  * Babyhood – 2nd weak to 2nd year

  * Early childhood – 2 to 6 year

  * Late childhood – 6 to 11 year

  * Puberty – 11 to 14

  * Adolescence – 14 to 18

  * Early adulthood – 18 to 40

  * Middle age – 40 to 60

  * Old age – above 60

Malow's Theory of Need Hierarchy

Taking the clue from the observation that monkeys show a definite priority for satisfaction of their needs, Maslow conceived the hierarchy of needs involving  five

broader layers staked on one after the other. These layers include, the physiological needs, the needs for safety and security, the needs for love and belonging, the needs for esteem, and the need to actualize the self, in that order, as may be seen in figure below.

The physiological needs include the needs to have for oxygen, water, protein, salt, sugar, calcium, and other minerals and vitamins, homeostasis, activity, rest, sleep, elimination of wastes, avoid pain and sex. Deprivation of such needs may drive the human being or the animal to go in pursuit of things that might satiate the needs. When the physiological needs are largely taken care of, the safety and security needs in the second layer of needs comes into play. Under such condition an individual will become increasingly interested in finding safe circumstances, stability, protection and develop a need for structure, for order, some limits.

When physiological needs and safety needs are, by and large, taken care of, the love and belonging needs  in the third layer starts to show up. One may begin to feel the need for friends, a sweetheart, children, affectionate relationships in general, even a sense of community. When the love and belonging needs are met one move towards the esteem needs.  The esteem needs may be either lower or higher. The lower one is the need for the respect of others, the need for status, fame, glory, recognition, attention, reputation, appreciation, dignity, even dominance and the higher form involves the need for self-respect, including such feelings as confidence, competence, achievement, mastery, independence, and freedom.

The preceding four levels of needs are called deficit needs, or D-needs. If one doesn't have enough of something and has a deficit he feels the need. But if one get all he or she needs, he or she feels nothing at all. Such need satisfaction cease to be motivating.

He also talks about these levels in terms of homeostasis.  When body, lacks a certain substance, it develops a hunger for it and when it gets enough of it, then the hunger stops. Thus the homeostatic principle could be extended to such needs as safety, belonging, and esteem that we don't ordinarily think of in these terms. All these needs are essentially survival needs. Even love and esteem are needed for the maintenance of health and we all have these needs built in to us genetically, like instincts. They are hence called instinctoid,  instinct- like needs.

Self-actualization

The last level of needs in the need hierarch is called growth  motivation. The needs in the last layer stand in contrast to D-motivation and hence are essentially called B-needs. The B- needs and D -needs are also termed being needs and becoming needs respectively. These are the needs that do not involve balance or homeostasis. Once engaged, they continue to be felt and they are likely to become stronger as one starts feeling them. These needs involve the continuous desire to fulfill potentials and to "be all that one can be." They are the needs for self-actualization.

Self Actualizes

Maslow has identified the personality of self actualizes using biographical analysis. He analyzed the biographies of a group of selected individuals who represented self-actualization in their life. The group of individuals selected for the analysis include Abraham Lincoln, Thomas Jefferson, Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, Jane Adams, William James, Albert Schweitzer, Benedict Spinoza, and Alduous Huxley, and 12

unnamed people who were alive at the time. The self-actualizers were reality-centered, in that they usually differentiated between what is fake and dishonest from what is real and genuine. T h e y were problem-centered, in that they treated life's difficulties as problems demanding solutions, not as personal troubles to be railed at or surrendered to.

They had a different perception of means and ends. They felt that the ends don't necessarily justify the means, that the means could be ends themselves, and that the journey was often more important than the ends.

The self-actualizers also had a different way of relating to others in that they enjoyed solitude, and were comfortable being alone. They enjoyed deeper personal relations with a few close friends and family members, rather than more shallow relationships with many. They enjoyed autonomy, a relative independence from physical and social needs, and they resisted enculturation, in that they were not susceptible to social pressure to be "well adjusted" or to "fit in." They were nonconformists in the best sense of the term. They had an unhostile sense of humor, preferring to joke at their own expense, or at the human condition, and never directing their humor at others. They showed an acceptance of self and others, by which he meant that these people would be more likely to take any one as he or she is than try to change him or her into what they thought he or she should be. They applied the same acceptance to their attitudes towards themselves as well. They were often strongly motivated to change negative qualities in themselves that could be changed, and if some quality of theirs wasn't harmful, they let it be, even enjoying it as a personal quirk. They were given to spontaneity and simplicity. .

They preferred being themselves rather than being pretentious or artificial, But, for all their nonconformity they seem to be committed, they tended to be conventional on the surface rather be dramatic. They had a sense of humility and respect towards others. They democratic values in that they were open to ethnic and individual variety, even treasuring it. They had a quality called Gemeinschaftsgefühl , human kinship that connotes  social interest, compassion, humanity. This was accompanied by a strong ethics, which was spiritual but seldom conventionally religious in nature. They had a certain freshness of appreciation, an ability to see things, even ordinary things, with wonder and also ability t o b e creative, inventive, and original. Finally, they tended to have more peak

experiences than the average person. Such peak experience involves an experience in which one transcends himself or herself and feels being very tiny, or very large, to some extent one with life or nature or God. Peak experience installs in a person a feeling of being a part of the infinite and the eternal. The peak experiences tend to leave their mark on a person, change them for the better, and many actively seek them out. The peak experiences are also called mystical experiences. They are an important part of many religious and philosophical traditions. Self-actualizers were not perfect human beings.

They often suffered considerable anxiety and guilt, but, which were realistic rather than misplaced or neurotic ones. Some of them were absentminded and overly kind and some of them had unexpected moments of ruthlessness, surgical coldness, and loss of humor.

Two other points he makes about these self-actualizers: Their values were "natural" and seemed to flow effortlessly from their personalities. And they appeared to transcend many of the dichotomies others accept as being undeniable, such as the differences between the spiritual and the physical, the selfish and the unselfish, and the masculine and the feminine.

Metaneeds and metapathologies

The special, driving needs (B-needs,) of the self-actualizers distinguishes them from others. The B-needs needed for the self-actualizers in their lives in order to be happy include truth, goodness, beauty, goodness, beauty, unity/wholeness/transcendence of opposites, aliveness, uniqueness, perfection and necessity, completion, justice and order, simplicity, richness, effortlessness, playfulness, self-sufficiency and meaningfulness. When a self-actualizer doesn't get these needs fulfilled, they respond with metapathologies. That is when forced to live without these values, the self-actualizers develop depression, despair, disgust, alienation, and a degree of cynicism.

UNIT – III

Learning – meaning – theory of learning – the classical conditioning – operant conditioning cognitive learning – methods of effective learning – nature of memory forgetting – thinking – perception – concept and types – perception and sensation – characteristics of perception laws and perception grouping – errors in perception.

LEARNING

INTRODUCTION

Learning is a process that depends on one's experience. It is something that results in long term changes in behavior potential. Many theories are available that provide a varied explanation on learning process. Major traditional behavioristic theories are classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning and cognitive learning. These theories provide important insights into learning, even though some of them use much simpler organisms than humans to draw emperical evidences supporting their stand.

Pavlov's experiment with dogs, Skinner's experiment with rats and pigeons, Tolman's experiment with rats, and Kohler's experiments with chimps are few examples.This lesson will cover the basic theories of learning, specifically the behavioral and cognitive theories.

NATURE OF LEARNING

Learning is often referred to as a relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavior potential) that results from experience or practice. Changes in behavior due to maturation process or that occurs as a result of temporary conditions like effect of drug, adaptation, disease, and fatigue.

The phrase 'relatively permanent' in the definition above implies that changes in behavior that are transient or spontaneously reversible cannot be considered as learned behavior. For instance, adaptation to dim illumination can be easily reversed on exposure to bright light. Even repeated exposure to this process does not affect the nature of change. On the contrary, a behavior that is learned is long lasting and repeated exposure affects the nature of change. The change is accumulative.

For 'learning' to be inferred the change has to observable. It should be either directly observable from the way in which an individual behaves, or it should be indirectly observed by comparing those exposed to certain conditions with those who are denied the exposure.

The term 'due to practice' denotes exposure to specific experiences. Now consider the example of an experimental condition that studies verbal learning. Practice, here, would refer to successive presentation of list of words at a rate determined by the experimenter.

Imprinting and habituation may be eliminated from what it means by learning since neither of these phenomena involves practice. Similarly, short term memory would be excluded from what is considered as 'learning' because it is not a 'relatively permanent' change.

Though literally a number of different problems have been investigated by learning studies only a small number of paradigms are needed to describe the experimental procedures. Paradigms refer to the basic arrangements used by an experimenter to produce the phenomenon that is of interest to him. The few paradigms that have been used in experiments on learning are listed below:

· Classical Conditioning

· Operant Conditioning

· Observational Learning

· Cognitive Learning

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Russian Physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, is famous for his theory of classical conditioning. Conditioning is a process by which a natural response to a stimulus begins to follow another stimulus that remained neutral to it earlier. Pavlovian Classical Conditioning was considered as the prototype of all learning by most psychologists of the 1920s.

Pavlov's Experiment

Pavlov, while experimenting with dogs to study his physiological research, noticed that the dog salivated not only to the sight of food but also to the sound of footsteps of the attendant who brought food. The dogs were responding to both the biological need (hunger). In addition to this natural response they also displayed a learned response of salivating to a neutral stimulus 'footstep of the attendant'. This kind of learning is termed as 'Classical Conditioning'.

Classical conditioning is one in which an organism learns a response to a neutral stimulus that had not brought that response earlier. To demonstrate classical conditioning Pavlov conducted a series of experiments. For instance, in one of his experiments he attached a tube to the salivary gland of the dog that helped him to measure precisely the amount of salivation that occurred. Then, he sounded the bell few minutes after which he presented the dog with meat powder. While pairing the sound of bell and the presentation of meat powder Pavlov made sure that exactly the same amount of time lapsed between the presentation of sound and the meat. During the initial trials of the experiment the dog would salivated only to the meat powder. However, after few pairings of the sound and the meat the dog started salivating just on hearing the sound, even when there was no meat presented.

We would perhaps have a startle reaction when we hear a bell and would not salivate. It is obvious that salivation was not a natural response to the sounding of bell.

Hence the sound of the bell in the experiment mentioned above is a neutral stimulus.

Salivating to the meat is a natural response. When meat is placed on the mouth of the dog it would salivate because of the biological makeup of the dog. Hence the meat in the above experiment is called the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation produced in response to presentation of meat is an unconditioned response (UR).

Unconditioned responses are innate responses that are natural and that do not involve any training. They are always a response to the unconditioned stimulus.

For conditioning to take place the neutral stimulus (ringing of bell) is repeatedly paired with unconditioned stimulus (meat powder). During the process of conditioning the bell gradually gets associated with the meat. Now the bell brings in the same kind of response like that of the meat. During this phase the salivation gradually increases each time the bell is sounded, until the bell alone in the absence of meat powder causes the dog to salivate.

By the time the conditioning is complete the bell has evolved from a neutral stimulus to a Conditioned Stimulus (CS). The bell, now, can bring in salivation on its own. Salivating to the bell is called as Conditioned Response (CR).

Extinction.

The property of the conditioned stimulus to bring in a conditioned brought out by conditioned response is not permanent. It gradually loses its property is it is presented alone without the unconditioned stimulus over a number of trails. This phenomenon is called as extinction. Extinction occurs when a previously conditioned response gradually decreases in frequency and disappears eventually in time.

Spontaneous Recovery

One interesting fact about conditioning is that once a conditioned response is extinguished it is not vanished forever. The extinguished response may reappear after time has elapsed without exposure to the conditioned stimulus. This is called spontaneous recovery. Nevertheless, the response that occurs after the extinction is much weaker that the original conditioned response and they would get extinguished more readily than before.

Stimulus Generalization

Pavlov noticed that his dogs that were used in conditioning were not only responding to the sound of the bell but also to stimulus that were similar to bell, like the sound of the buzzer, or the tuning fork. This phenomenon he termed as stimulus generalization. It occurs when a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar in characteristics to the original conditioned stimulus. The more the two stimuli are similar the greater would be the generalization.

Stimulus Discrimination

On the other hand, if the stimuli are sufficiently different from one another that they both are perceived as different then only the conditioned stimulus would evoke a conditioned response and the other would not. This is called stimulus discrimination. It is the process by which an organism learns to differentiate among stimuli and restricts its response to one stimulus in particular.

Higher-order conditioning

One conditioned stimulus can act as a natural stimulus when paired with a neutral stimulus. Such frequent pairing would get the organism respond to the neutral stimulus as it would to the conditioned stimulus. This is called higher-order conditioning. It is a form of conditioning that occurs when an already conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus over a number of trials till such time the neutral stimulus evokes the same response as that of the conditioned stimulus.

The classical conditioning explains how we learn responses like fear for darkness and how one gets back to drinking at the sight of alcohol after a period of abstinence.

Much of our behavior in daily life can be explained using classical conditioning.

OPERANT CONDITIONING

Not all learning is involuntary. Operant conditioning explains how voluntary responses are strengthened or weakened depending on positive or negative consequences.

In classical conditioning the original behavior is a natural biological response. On the contrary, operant conditioning is applied on the behaviors that are voluntary. In operant conditioning the organism performs a behavior deliberately in order to produce a desirable outcome. Here the organism operates on its environment to produce a result that it desires.

Thorndike's Law of Effect

E.L.Thorndike observed that when cats were put in a cage with a fish dangling outside the cats would learn, by trial and error, to press the paddle and get out of the cage.

He explained this formulating the Law of effects. He theorized that responses that satisfy are more likely to be repeated while those that are not satisfying are less likely to be repeated. Here, in his experiment, pressing the paddle resulted in satisfaction since the cat could get out of the cage by this behavior. Hence the cat learnt the response of pressing the paddle that it tends to repeat every time it was put in the cage.

Picture courtesy: http://www.animalbehaviour.net/OperantConditioning.htm 7.4.2 Skinner's Experiment

Thorndike's research served as the foundation for the work of B.F.Skinner who is considered to be one among the most popular behaviorists of his times. Skinner devised a Skinner box that he used to study operant conditioning. The animals in the Skinner box learn to press the lever so as to obtain food that would be delivered on the tray placed inside the box.

Suppose a pigeon is placed inside the Skinner box. It would just move around exploring the place in a relatively random fashion. By chance, at some point of time, it would peck the key that in turn would result in delivery of food pellet. The pigeon does not learn the connection between the pecking at the hole key and getting the food pellet right after the first trial. It would still continue exploring the box. Again by chance, sooner or later, the pigeon pecks the key and gets the food pellet delivered. In time the frequency of the pecking behavior will increase. Eventually the pigeon would simple go pecking the key to get the food pellets until its hunger is satisfied. This demonstrates that the pigeon has learnt that receipt of food pellet is contingent on the pecking behavior.

The pigeons in a variation of this experiment were taught to discriminate between two stimuli using the same principle of reinforcement. As seen in the picture above the Skinner Box was provided with two lights (red and green). If the pigeons pecked the key when green light was on then it was provided with a food pellet. On the other hand if it pecked the key when red light was on the pigeon will not get any food pellet. The red and green lights were randomly flashed for brief periods in the experiment. The pigeons gradually learned to discriminate between red light and green light. They pecked the key only when the green light was on and not when the red light was on!

Types of Reinforcement

In this situation, the food pellet serves as a reinforcer that increases the probability that the pecking behavior will be repeated. Any stimulus that increases the probability of occurrence of a preceding behavior is termed as a reinforcer. There are two types of rein forcers: the primary reinforcer and the secondary reinforcer.

Primary reinforcer and Secondary reinforcer. A primary reinforcer is that stimulus that satisfies biological needs like hunger and thirst. Food to satisfy hunger, water to satisfy thirst, and woolen clothes to keep oneself warm can be seen as primary reinforcers. In contrast, a secondary reinforcer becomes reinforcing not by itself, but because of its association with the primary reinforcer. Money is a reinforcer because it can get us food, or a bottle of biseleri water. What makes a stimulus a reinforcer is highly individualistic. If on presentation of the stimulus the rate of response of previously occurring behavior increases then that stimulus can be identified as a reinforcer.

Positive reinforcer. Another way in which reinforcers are classified is based on their effect on behavior. If a reinforcer increases the probability of occurrence of a behavior then it is termed as positive reinforcer. Food, water, praise, and money, for example, when presented following a response are likely to increase the likelihood of occurrence of the response in future. These are examples of positive reinforcers.

Negative reinforcer. On the contrary, if removal of a stimulus following a response results in increased probability of occurrence of the behavior then it is a negative reinforcer. A typical example is going to a movie when you are worked out to relieve your tension. In this example getting rid of your tensions and getting refreshed after a movie reinforces movie-going behavior. Removal of the negative state increases the occurrence of the behavior, and this acts as negative reinforcer.

Punishment. Punishment is presenting a negative stimulus that would decrease the occurrence of the behavior. The distinction between negative reinforcement and punishment is very important. While negative reinforcement involves removing of negative stimulus punishment involves presenting a negative stimulus. Negative reinforcement increases the occurrence of the behavior while punishment decreases the occurrence of the behavior.

Schedules of reinforcement

Equally important as the type of reinforcement is the schedule of reinforcement.

The frequency and the timing of reinforcement following the behavior are varied in different schedules of reinforcement. Continuous reinforcement is one where every time the organism exhibits the desired behavior it is reinforced. For example, a pigeon on continuous reinforcement schedule would get a food pellet every time it pecks the key.

The other type of reinforcement schedule is called the partial reinforcement schedule. In this schedule the behavior is reinforced some, and not all, of the times. Gambling is a typical example of partial reinforcement. In this the behavior may some times be rewarded and some times not.

Although many different partial reinforcement have been studied four of them are popularly used. The schedules differ in two ways: one is the number of responses needed to elicit reinforcement, and the other is the amount of time that needs to be elapsed before the reinforcement. The first type may be of either fixed-ratio or variable-ratio schedule.

The second type may be of either fixed- interval or variable- interval schedule.

Fixed-Ratio schedule.  In the fixed-ratio schedule the reinforcement is provided only after a certain number of responses made. Piece-rate pay in industry is a typical example of this. A tailor in an industry will receive the pay depending on the number of garments she has stitched. Another example is a pigeon on a FR10 schedule would receive a food pellet after every 10th peck.

Variable-Ratio Schedule.  On the contrary, in variable-ratio schedule reinforcement is provided after an average number of responses but unpredictably.

Gambling devices and systems that arrange occasional but unpredictable payoffs may be seen as examples of this type of reinforcement. Another example of this could be a pigeon on VR10 that would receive food pellet after say 5th, 10th, 9th, 15th, 11th over five trails which averages out to 10 (5+10+9+15+11=50, and average rate of reinforcement would be 50/5=10).

Fixed-Interval schedule. This type of schedule is one in which the organism is reinforced after an established time interval. For example, a rat on FI 5 may be reinforced once every five minutes. The major drawback of this schedule is that the behavior decreases immediately after reinforcement. The rat would stop responding immediately after reinforcement but responds more and more rapidly as the time for the next reinforcement approaches.

Variable-interval schedule. In this schedule the reinforcement is given at various times, and it generally results in more consistent behavior. If a response has been reinforced on the average every five minutes but unpredictably, the rat responds at a steady rate. For example, a rat on VI 10 would receive reinforcement after say 7th, 12th, 10th, 10th, 11th second (7+12+10+10+11=50, and average rate of reinforcement would be 50/5=10). The rate is high if the average interval is short, and the rate is low if it is long.

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

Conditioning principles do not exhaust possible explanations of all behaviors, especially human learning. Learning need not occur through direct experience.

Observational learning, in which we observe and imitate others behaviors, also play a big part. The process of observing and imitating specific behavior is often called modeling.

By observing and imitating models we learn all kinds of social behaviors. Bandura and others (1961) have developed their social learning based on social modeling.

Principles of Observational Learning

This type of learning was first explained by Albert Bandura (1977) in his popular social learning theory. He says we learn by watching others. People whose behavior is observed are called Models. Any one can serve as a model. Examples of models can be parents, politician, movie stars, friends or even the boy next door. If the model's behavior is rewarded then the observer may imitate that behavior. On the other hand, if the model's behavior is not rewarded one may not imitate that behavior.

Bobo Doll Experiment

The observational learning was dramatically demonstrated by Bandura and his coworkers. In the classic experiment by Bandura young children watched a film of an adult wildly hitting a 5- foot-tall inflated bobo doll (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1963a, 1963b).

Later the children were brought to another room where attractive toys were kept but were

denied the chance to play with the attractive toys. This was done to frustrate the children since the experimenters were interested to see the children's reaction to frustration. The children were now given the bobo dolls similar to the one shown on the movie, and sure enough the children displayed the same kind of behavior as it was done by adult models in the movies. Amazingly some of the children mimicked the aggressive behavior almost identically. The complete sequence of Bandura's experiment is shown in the picture below.

Not only negative behaviors but also positive behaviors are learned through observational learning. When children were exposed to a model playing with a dog in

'Fearless Peer' they were more likely to approach a strange dog than those children who had not watches the Fearless Peer.

Steps in Observational Learning

According to Bandura, observational learning takes place through four steps. The first step involves paying attention to the model's behavior. Attention is drawn towards a modeled behavior and most critical feature of the model's behavior is noted. After doing so the mental image of the model's behavior is stored in memory so that it can be retrieved later. The third step involves reproducing the action. Any specific situation similar to the one stored in memory may trigger us to convert remembered behavior into action. The fourth step involves remaining motivated to learn and carry out the behavior.

If the action performed by us is reinforced we add it to our behavior repertoire or else it may be gradually wither away.

COGNITIVE LEARNING

The cognitive learning theorists argue that learning cannot be reduced to mere forming of 'association' as contented by Pavlovian and Skinnerian psychologists. They hold that cognitive process like perception, thinking and memory play key role in learning. Insight Learning by Kohler and Latent Learning by Tolman may be seen as examples of cognitive learning theories. In fact even Bandura's observational learning may be seen as an instance of cognitive learning since it also explains learning as one that involves attention, imagery, and memory. In sum, the cognitive learning theorists try to study the cognitive processes that underlie learning. Cognitive learning connotes higher-level learning involving knowing, understanding, and anticipation.

Insight Learning.

Wolfgang Kohler, German psychologist, proposed that sudden recognition of relationships lead to solution of complex problem. He experimented with chimpanzees.

Kohler's work with chimpanzees, carried out in 1920's, remains particularly important to understand cognitive learning. The problems that Kohler set for his chimpanzees left enough scope for insight, because no parts of the problem were hidden from view(in contrast to Skinnerian experiments where the food dispenser in skinner box are hidden from the animal's view). Typically Kohler placed a chimpanzee in an enclosed area with a desirable piece of fruit, often banana, out of reach. To obtain the fruit the animal had to use the near by object as a tool. Usually the chimpanzee solved the problem, and did it in a way that suggested he had some insight.

Kohler's Experiment with Sultan. Kohler's typical experiment can be described as follows: Sultan [Kohler's most intelligent chimpanzee] is squatting at the bars but cannot reach the fruit which lies outside by means of his only available short stick. A longer stick is placed outside the bars about two meters on one side of the object and parallel with the grating. It cannot be grasped with the hand, but it can be pulled within reach by means of small stick. Sultan tries to reach the fruit with the smaller of two sticks. Not succeeding, he tears at a piece of wire that projects from the netted cage, but that is too in vain. Then he gazes about him (there are always in the course of these tests some long pauses, during which the animal scrutinizes the whole visible area). He suddenly picks up the little stick once again, goes upto the bars directly opposite to the long stick, pulls it towards him with the "auxiliary", seizes it, and goes with it to the point opposite to the objective (the fruit), which he secures.

Several aspects of the performance of those chimpanzees are unlike those of Thorndike's cat on skinner's rats and pigeons. The solution here is sudden rather than being the result of a gradual trial and error process. Another point is that once a chimpanzee solved a problem with few irrelevant moves. This is most unlike a rat, which continues to make irrelevant responses in Skinner box for many trials. Kohler's chimpanzees could readily transfer what they have learned to a novel situation. For example in one problem, sultan was not put in a cage, but some bananas were placed too high for him reach. To solve the problem, sultan stacked some boxes thrown around him, claimed the "platform", and grabbed the bananas. In subsequent problems, if the fruit was again too high to reach, sultan found other objects to construct a platform. In some cases sultan used table and a small ladder, and in one case sultan pulled Kohler himself over and used the experimenter as a platform.

Critical aspects of Insight Learning. There are three critical aspects of the chimpanzee's solution: its suddenness, its availability once discovered and its transferability. These aspects are at odds with the behaviorist notion of trial and error behaviors like the one observed by Thorndike, Skinner, and others. Instead the chimpanzee's solution may reflect a mental trial and error. The animal forms a mental representation until it hits on a solution, and then enacts the solution in the real world.

The solution, therefore, appears sudden because the representation persists over time, and the solution is transferable because the representation is either abstract enough to cover more than the original situation or malleable enough to be extended to a novel situation.

Cognitions in Animals.  More recent studies done on primates provide even stronger evidence for cognition in animal learning. Particularly fascinating are studies showing that chimpanzees can acquire abstract concepts that were once believed to be the sole province of humans. In the typical study, chimpanzees learn to use plastic tokens of different shapes size and colors as words. For example, they might learn one token refers to apple and another to papers, where there is no physical resemblance between the token and the object. The fact that chimpanzees can learn these references means they understand concrete concept like "apple" and "paper". More impressively they also have abstract concept like "same", "different" and "cause". Thus chimpanzees can learn to use their "same" token when presented either two "apple" tokens or two "orange" ones and their "different" token when presented one "apple" and one "orange" token. Likewise chimpanzees seem to understand casual relations: they will apply token for "cause" when someone cut paper and scissors, but not when shown some intact paper and scissors (premack, 1985a; premack&premack, 1983).

Tolman's Sign Learning

Operant Conditioning principle emphasis that the reinforcement in essential to

'stamp in' new behavior. In contrast, latent learning principle suggests that learning occurs even in the absence of reinforcement. However, for the behavior to occur overtly reinforcement is requirement. It is for demonstration and not for learning per se that reinforcement is required. This is demonstrated by Edward Tolman. His experiments are said to demonstrate what is called Sign learning or latent learning.

The Pavlovian conditioning theorists believe that the rat learns specific units of S-R connections. The Skinnerian conditioning theorists believe that the rat learns the situation through successive approximations that is shaping, and perhaps, chaining.

However Tolman believes that the exact thing that happens in the learning is signs and not the learning of specific units either alone or in combination and summation. The rat rather learns a cognitive map of learning task. Sign learning connotes an acquired expectation that one stimulus will be followed by another in a particular context. Thus, what is learned is expectations rather than sequence of responses. Tolman allowed his rats to learn a maze and later interrupted their path with barriers. The rats immediately shifted to the nearest straight path to their goal as if they already knew the entire path.

Even when the maze has been suddenly rotated to 90°, the rats were able to follow their learned path. These experiments, Tolman holds show that the learning occurring in these cases are sign learning not mere bonding of unitary S-Rs.

Tolman's classic experiment. Tolman's classic experiment demonstrating latent learning consisted of three groups of rats that were made to run in complex maze for 16 consecutive days. Rats in Group 1 i.e., 'Reward group' were rewarded every time they reached goal box on all the 16 days. Rats in Group 2 i.e., in 'Non-reward group' were not given any reward on any of 16 days when they it reached goal box. The rats in the Group 3 i.e., 'Latent Learning group' were not given any reward for the first 10 days, but were given reward for the remaining 6 days. Results of Tolman's experiment were interesting.

For the first 10 days the rats in the Reward groups did better than those in the Non-reward and Latent Learning groups. On the 11th day when the reward was introduced for the first time to the rats in the Latent Learning group they performed as well as the ones in the Reward group.

This demonstrates the distinction between learning and performance.

Cognitive maps are internal images or mental representations of an area like maze, city, campus, and the like that underlie an ability to choose alternative paths to the same goals. The rats seemed to develop a 'Cognitive Map' of maze even when no reward was given. When reward was administered to them this cognitive map allowed them to reach high level of performance immediately.

Discovery learning is a type of cognitive learning in which skills are gained by insight and understanding and not by rote (de Jong & Van Joolingen, 1998). Although rote learning is efficient most psychologists agree that when people discover facts and principles on their own then it is more lasting and flexible than rote learning. Discovery seems to offer better understanding of new and unusual problems. Two groups of students, for instance, were asked to calculate the area of a parallelogram by multiplying the height by the length of the base. One group was encouraged to see how a piece of parallelogram could be moved to create a rectangle. Later both the groups of students were made to work on problems where height times base formula didn't seem to work.

Those students who simply memorized the formula got confused. Those who were encouraged to discover had better understanding of this new problem. Thus the best teaching strategies are based on guided discovery where in the students are given adequate freedom to actively think about problems and adequate guidance to gain useful knowledge by themselves.

FORGETTING

Forgetting or retention loss connotes the apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in an individual's long term memory. It can be a spontaneous one or may involve a gradual process in which old memories are unable to be recalled. There are many reasons why we forget things. Some of them are briefly discussed below.

Causes of Forgetting

There are five basic reasons for why forgetting occurs:

1) The decay of memory trace,

2) Problems with interfering materials,

3) A break down in retrieval process,

4) Emotional and motivational conditions, and

5) Organic factors.

Decay of memory trace: This decay maybe said to occur due to neuro-chemical or anatomical changes. Some state that information in the STM may decay but that information in the LTM are permanent and difficulty in recalling events maybe due to retrieval problems. Some scientists state that decay does occur in the LTM and that memorized decay over time and disappear. If decay theory explained all forgetting, we would expect that the longer the time between the initial learning of information and our attempt to recall it, the harder it would be to remember it, since there would be more time for the memory trace to decay. Yet people who take several consecutive tests won the same material often recall more of the initial information when taking later tests than they did on earlier tests. If decay were operating we would expect the opposite to occur.

Interference mechanism: This theory states that our memory of new information maybe hindered by the events that occur before or after we learn. There may be two types of interference, Retroactive interference and Proactive interference.

INTERFERENCE

PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE

MARATHI IS IMPAIRED BY

MEMORY OF HINDI

LANGUAGE

HINDI

MARATHI

TEST

RETROACTIVE INHIBITION

HINDI IS IMPAIRED BY

MEMORY OF MARATHI

Retroactive interference occurs when a later event interferes with recall of earlier information. Proactive interference is where previously learnt information hinders learning in the present.

The following diagram illustrates experimental paradigm followed in experiments on retroactive and proactive interference.

Experimental Design for the study of Retroactive interference:

Group

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Experimental Group Learn Hindi

Learn Marathi

Test retention of Hindi

Control Group

Learn Hindi

Rest

Test retention of Hindi

Experimental design for the study of proactive interference

Group

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Experimental Group Learn Hindi

Learn Marathi

Test retention of Marathi

Control Group

Rest

Learn Marathi

Test retention of Marathi

Retrieval failure: In certain cases retrieval may not occur because of the TOT

phenomena. Failure to retrieve information does not mean the information has disappeared it may mean that there has been a poor encoding of the information. Even memories that seem impossible to retrieve may pop into mind when right cues are used.

Motivated forgetting: Repression is an example of motivated forgetting where memories that is painful, embarrassing or degrading maybe forcibly forgotten. According to Freud, repression occurs because we re unable to deal with these events in the conscious level. There is general agreement among psychologists that motivated forgetting dies play a role in blocking at least some material stored in long term memory.

Organic causes of forgetting: Certain physical illnesses or accidents may cause a loss of memory. There are three prominent types of organic amnesia: 1) Amnesia caused by disease

2) Retrograde Amnesia

3) Anterograde Amnesia

Amnesia caused by disease:

Some diseases produce actual physical

deterioration of brain cells, impairing memory as well as a variety of cognitive functions.

For instance, cardiovascular disease is characterized by decreased blood circulation, which sometimes limits o2 supply to the brain to the point that some brain cells die.

Strokes are another common physical cause of memory impairment. Here, a vessel in the brain ruptures, with resulting damage to cells. Alzheimer's disease is another illness that produces progressively widespread degeneration of brain cells. This devastating disease produces severe memory deficits and other impairments of mental functioning.

Retrograde Amnesia:  Sometimes a blow to the head may cause loss of memory for certain details or events that occurred prior to the accidents. This condition is called as retrograde amnesia. In many of the cases, lost memories return gradually, with older memories tending to come back first. In almost all cases investigated, memories for recent events have been shown to be more susceptible to disruption than older memories. Retrograde amnesia is more likely to impair declarative memory, particularly episodic type, than to interfere with procedural memory

Anterograde Amnesia: Amnesia can also work in the opposite direction.

Some victims of brain damage may be able to recall old memories established before the damage but cannot remember information processed after the damage has occurred. This condition is called anterograde amnesia. It may be caused by injury to a specific area of the brain. It may also be associated with certain surgical procedure and chronic alcoholism. Unlike retrograde amnesia, anterograde amnesia is often irreversible.

PERCEPTION

INTRODUCTION

Our brain organizes and gives meaning to sensory inputs by the process called Perception. Perception includes process of selecting, ordering, synthesizing and interpreting the sensory impressions that impinge on our sensory organs. Studies on perception are focused to find out how we take the stimuli and form conscious representations of the environment around us.

Perception is an outgrowth of sensation. Sensation can be seen as the first encounter with a raw sensory stimulus. On the other hand, perception is a process by which the raw sensory impressions are interpreted, analyzed and integrated with other sensory information.

The basic principle of perceptual processing is selective attention. It refers to focusing on one or few stimuli of particular significance and ignoring the other stimuli. Sudden changes in the stimulus, contrast and novelty, extreme stimulus intensity like very high or very low intensity, repetition and difficult stimuli are few of the factors that affect our attention.

LAWS OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION

Our basic perceptual process works according to a series of principles referred to as gestalt laws of organization. The gestalt laws of organization were put forth by a group of German psychologists in early 1900s (Wertheimer, 1923) that is found to be valid for visual and auditory stimuli. These principles explain how bits and pieces of information are organized into meaningful wholes.

The elementary sensations that are usually in the form of dots, lines, edges, brightness, and varied hues are structured into the objects as seen by us because of this phenomenon called perceptual organization.

Among the various principles of perceptual organization the following are found to be very prominent:

1. Figure and Ground

2. Perceptual Grouping

3. Closure

Figure Ground

Processing and interpretation of information takes place in various levels as a result of perceptual organization. Figure-ground segregation is one aspect of perceptual organization. Imagine a visual stimulus that is a blob of contours at the retinal level. In this, the figure is an integrated group of contours while the ground is the background against which it stands. Often not all of its contours are actually detected at the retina when a figure is perceived. Some of them are subjective contours. These contours are not physically present at the retina, but are the product of intelligent perception.

Top-down processing is one where the perception is guided by knowledge, experience, expectations and motivations. Bottom- up processing is one that involves recognition and processing of information about individual components of a stimulus.

Hence, phenomenon of figure-ground segregation is not a purely bottom-up process ( i.e. , it is not simply data-driven) but is bottom- up (data-driven) as well as top-down (conceptually-driven).

The above figure can either be seen a vase or pair of faces. If you focus on the white portion of the figure you would see a vase, while focusing on the black portion of the figure would show a pair of faces. The gestalt psychologists greatly emphasized on the fact that the same figure may be seen in either of the two ways. This shows that we do not passively respond to visual stimuli that fall on our retina but we try to organize and make sense of what we see. Hence perception is often seen as a constructive process that is beyond the stimuli presented to us and is an attempt to construct a meaningful situation.

Perceptual Grouping

The gestalt laws of perceptual grouping hold that objects in a scene appear to group according to certain laws or principles. Some of the laws of grouping are listed below:

1. Similarity: Objects with similar properties or that appear similar are grouped together (e.g. shape, color)

2. Proximity: Objects that are close by are grouped together.

3. Good Continuation: Objects that define smooth lines or curves are seen as one group than seeing them as incomplete and disjointed. It is the tendency to perceive a pattern in the most basic, organized and straightforward manner possible. In the figure below one would view it as two wavy lines rather than two curves opposite to each other.

1. Symmetry: Objects that form symmetrical patterns are grouped together.

ERCEPTUAL GROUPING

Closure

The Principle of Closure states that we tend to fill in missing bits, and perceive visuals as complete, or closed, entities. In other words it refers to the tendency to group according to enclosed or complete figures instead of open or incomplete ones.

In the above figure we see the black lines as forming a triangle instead of three small 'v' shaped brackets. Similarly, the black dots though incomplete are seen as dots than a broken figure. This explains the phenomenon of closure.

Another often quoted gestalt principle is that the whole is greater than its parts.

Perception of stimuli is beyond the individual elements that we sense. It represents an active, constructive process carried out by the brain by which bits and pieces of sensations are assembled together to make something greater and more meaningful than separate elements.

PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES

Objects are normally perceived to be constant in size, color and shape despite the fact that their retinal image change according to the conditions. The phenomenon by which

the physical objects are perceived as same in spite of changes in their physical appearance is called perceptual constancy.

When you stretch your right hand farther away from your body still you perceive it to be of the same size as that of your left hand. We do not see it as the right hand shrinking but realize that it is at a farther distance. This is due to size constancy. There are few types of perceptual constancies namely size constancy, color (or brightness) constancy and shape constancy.

Size Constancy

Though retinal image of object becomes smaller as the object moves to farther distance the viewer adjusts for this change as perceives the object to be of same size. A teenager standing at a farther distance from you is not seen as smaller in size than the teenager standing near you in front. Similarly, when you move away from a building you do not perceive the building shrinking but understand that it remains in the same size.

This phenomenon is called size constancy.

Color (or brightness) Constancy

Despite changes in illumination we see the object having same color. This is due to color constancy. When we see the same mug in different illumination we are still able to perceive all the sides of the mug as having the same color.

Shape Constancy

Though the retinal images of an object change when we view it from different angles we see the object to have same shape. Look at the pictures below for instance.

These are different pictures of the door, each in one position. When we see these pictures we do not perceive them as a change in shape, but perceive it to be of the same rectangular shape. This is possible due to shape constancy.

Perceptual constancy depends on our past experiences. This is obvious when we examine the behavior of people brought up in different cultures. An instance of this would be a study on Bambuti Pygmies. These pygmies live in dense forest in Zaire. Their vision is consistently limited to short distances. Due to this restriction they are deprived of the experiences that can help one to develop size constancy. They are found to have difficulty in judging the size of buffalo at a long distance that they mistook the buffalo to be some kind of an insect! This was reported by Colin Turnbell, an anthropologist, based on his first- hand experience with the pygmies.

Two theories attempt to explain the perceptual constancy phenomena.

Constructive theory holds that when we try to make inferences about the location of objects we greatly use our previous experience and expectations about the size of the object. Since we know the size of the particular object based on our earlier experience we easily make up for the changes in the size of the retinal image.

An alternative view proposed by James Gibson, referred to as ecological theory, suggests that relationship between objects in a scene gives us clue about the objects' size.

In addition to this information on the nature of the surfaces in the environment also helps us to judge the distance of the stimuli. Farther objects seem to have a different surface texture than those that are closer. Such differences provide us clue that help us to make judgments about depth.

Neither of the above theories independently explains all instances of perceptual constancies completely. Both construction and ecological processes work in combination.

DISTANCE PERCEPTION

Depth or location can be perceived even by a single sense organ. It is not always necessary to use both the eyes for perceiving depth. Certain cues, called the monocular cues, help us to perceive depth and distance even with just one eye.

Monocular Cues

Several strong monocular cues allow relative distance and depth to be judged. They are listed below:

1. Relative size

2. Interposition

3. Linear perspective

4. Aerial perspective

5. Height on plane

6. Texture gradient

7. Monocular movement parallax

Relative Size. Smaller objects are seen as farther from us. Hence the sizes of the objects tell us about the distance at which they are located. Objects furthest away are higher in our visual field. The closer an object is to the level of the horizon, the farther away an object appears.

Interposition. Interposition cues occur when there is overlapping of objects. The overlapped object is considered further away. Closer objects block out parts of objects that are farther. Hence complete objects are nearer to us than the objects that appear to be blocked.

In the figure the lines that make up the gift boxed in the

distance are hidden by the lines of the objects nearer to you.

Linear Perspective. P arallel objects converge when stretched into distance. This is a monocular cue in which distant objects appear to be closer together than nearer objects.

When objects of known distance subtend a smaller and smaller angle, it is interpreted as being further away. Parallel lines converge with increasing distance such as roads, railway lines, electric wires, etc.

In the above figure the lines that subtend a larger angle are judged to be closer than those that subtend a smaller angle.

Aerial Perspective. Objects that are far away appear fuzzier than closer objects since distance increases smog, dust, and haze thereby reducing the clarity of object. It is caused by the scattering of light in the atmosphere by small particles or vapor. Blue light, which has a shorter wavelength than other colors, is scattered more than the other colors. This scattering causes distant objects to appear slightly hazy and bluish in color. This also explains why mountains appear much closer on clear, dry days.  Height on plane. Objects that are higher on plane of view are seen as farther. n the above picture the tree on top half of the picture is seen as farther away than the tree that appears on the bottom half of the picture.

Texture gradient. The closer something is to us, the more detail and texture can we se.

As the distance increases the amount of texture lessens until it looks uniform. Elements closer are seen as father apart or less dense than objects farther away.

Motion parallax/ Relative Motion. The changes in position of the image of an object on the retina as our head moves provide a monocular cue for distance. Closer objects move greater distance rapidly than farther objects. When our heads move from side to side, objects at different distances move at a different relative velocity. Closer objects move

"against" the direction of head movement and farther objects move "with" the direction of head movement.

In addition to these one more of the cues comes from bending if the lens to focus on the nearby objects. This is referred to as accommodation. The sensations from the muscles attached to each eye lens flow to the brain. The changes in these sensations help

us to judge distances. Since this information is available even if we use only one eye it is a monocular cue

.

Binocular Cues

When we see a distant object the lines of vision from our eyes are parallel.

However, eyes must converge to view closer objects, something that is at 50 feet or lesser in distance. This creates more muscle tension. The amount of strain or tension in the eye muscles while focusing on an object gives us a clue, referred to as convergence, to the depth at which the object is present. The muscles provide information to the brain regarding eye position in order to judge the distance. This may be seen in Picture a below.

Both our eyes are about 2.5 inches apart from each other. Due to the lateral displacement of our eyes, slightly dissimilar retinal images result from the perception of the same object from each eye. This results in retinal disparity. It is also referred to as binocular disparity. Stereoscopic vision occurs when both the retinal images are fused into one overall image that helps in perception of depth. Stereopsis is shown in Picture b below.

DEPTH PERCEPTION

Depth perception refers to the ability to see three-dimensional space and to judge distances accurately. Driving a car, riding a bike, shooting baskets, threading a needle or even walking around in the room would be almost impossible without this ability to perceive depth.

Depth perception is an important advantage for humans and other binocular animals. Both monocular and binocular cues are used to perceive depth. Not only does it give us an accurate sense of where objects are in relation to one another but also where we stand in relation to those same objects.

Visual Cliff Experiment

Some psychologists hold that depth perception is inborn while others argue that it is learned. It is likely that depth perception is partially innate and partially learned. The famous "Visual Cliff" experiments of the 1960's by Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk is a classic experiment done to study development of depth perception which supports the hypothesis that depth perception could be partially innate and partially learned.

Visual cliff is a glass-topped table as shown in the picture above. A checkered surface lies directly beneath the glass surface on one side. On the other side the checkered surface lies about 4 feet below the glass surface of the table. Because of the above arrangement the glass looks like tabletop on one side of the table while it looks like a cliff, or drop-off, on the other side. The glass provided on the deeper side of the table prevents the babies from falling down.

The experiment involved babies as old as 6- to 14-months-old who were placed in the middle of the visual cliff. This provided them a choice of either coming to the shallow side or the deep side of the table. Most of the babies preferred to move to the shallow sides. Surprisingly, some babies refused to move to the deeper side even when their mothers tried calling them towards it.

The fact that babies as old as just six months old would not venture over a drop covered by glass (Gibson & Walk, 1960) implying that they are able to perceive depth at that age. This serves as evidence to the fact that depth perception in humans is either innate ability or learnt very early in life.

More recent studies have shown more interesting findings. Babies over nine months old when placed on the glass-covered drop have an increased heart rate, which could be perhaps showing that they are frightened. Babies less than six months of age actually showed a decrease in heart rate. Some other experiments have shown that the sight of their smiling mother on the other side of the drop will encourage the toddlers move across it, overriding their fear (Talaris, 2002).

ILLUSION

Our perception gets largely altered with our experience. Perceptual learning refers to changes in perception that can be attributed to prior experience. These are caused due to changes in the brain that alter the way we process sensory information.

Illusions are false perceptions in which length, position, motion, curvature, or direction is consistently misjudged. Illusions are distorted perceptions of the stimuli that exist in reality

unlike in hallucination the perception takes place in the absence of the actual sensory stimulus.

Perceptual learning results in a number of illusions. Size and shape constancy, habitual eye movement, continuity, and perceptual habits combine in various ways to produce a number of illusions. Some of the common illusions are Muller- Lyer Illusion, Poggendorff illusion, The Hermann grid, Ponzo illusion, and Moon Illusion to name a few.

In Muller- Lyer Illusion, as may be seen below, though the length of the two lines are the same we find the line enclosed by the feather-head is longer than the one enclosed by arrow- head (see picture a given below). This may be explained based on the real life experience with the edges and corners of rooms and buildings. The line with the featherhead is viewed as if it were the corner of the room viewed from inside (Gregory, 2000). In contrast, the line with the arrowhead is viewed as if it were the corner of a room seen from outside (see picture b given below). In short, our perception of two-dimensional designs is largely misguided by the cues that suggest a 3-D space.

If two objects make images of the same size then the more distant object must be definitely larger. This also explains Muller-Lyer Illusion. If the feather-headed line looks farther than the arrow-headed line then it has to be longer than the latter.

The above explanation, of course, presumes that the viewer h

as years of experience with straight lines and sharp edges. Groups of people in South Africa, the

Zulus, live in a 'round' culture and they rarely encounter straight lines in their everyday life. They live in huts that are shaped like rounded mounds, their toys are round in shape and are curved, and there are no straight roads or rectangular buildings in their environment. Research on the Zulus report interesting findings. The Zulus hardly experience the Muller-Lyer illusion that confirms that past experiences and perceptual habits determine how we view the world.

We tend to perceive movement or motion when the objects rapidly change their positions. This is called as stroboscopic movement. This is typically seen in the strobe lights flashed on dance floors. Each time the strobe flashes it shows the dancers in a particular static position. But when the light flashes rapidly then normal motion is seen

Another well-known visual illusion is the Poggendorff Illusion (shown below).

In the figure above it appears that the angular line that is on the left side of the parallel lines is at a higher plane as compared to the angular line that is on the right side of the parallel lines. However, one would find on extending the angular lines towards each other they are placed in exactly the same plane.

EXTRA SENSORY PERCEPTION

Though almost half of the general public believes in existence of extra-sensory perception (ESP) very few psychologists share this belief. It is seen that movies and television programs picture a lot of ESP and other paranormal phenomena as accepted facts. But how far are these facts are based on evidence is questionable.

ESP refers to the purported ability to perceive events in ways that cannot be explained by mere sensory capabilities. The study of ESP phenomena is the subject matter of the field of psychology called Parapsychology. Clairvoyance, telepathy, precognition and psychokinesis are few of the basic forms of ESP.

The purported ability that allows a person to perceive events or gain information in ways that appear to be unaffected by distance or normal/usual physical barriers is referred to as clairvoyance. Telepathy is one where one is able to have an extrasensory perception of another person's thoughts. To put it in simple terms, telepathy refers to the ability to read someone else's mind. The purported ability to perceive or to predict a future event is called precognition. This may take prophetic dreams that foretell future.

Under psychokinesis one is able top exert influence over inanimate object by will power.

Though this does not come under the realm of ESP it is often studied by parapsychologists.

If one has an apparent clairvoyant or telepathic experience he would be convinced that ESP exists. But to determine how much of the experience is beyond mere coincidence is always difficult.

Late.J.B.Rhine had done tremendous work in the area of psi events. Much of his experiments made use of the Zener cards that consists of a deck of 25 cards with each bearing one of five symbols. In a typical clairvoyant test the subjects were asked to guess the symbol of the cards as they were turned up from a shuffled deck of cards. A pure guess in this test generally produced an average score of 5 hits out of 25 cards.

None of the early experiments by Rhine using the Zener cards were valid for many reasons. The cards were poorly made that the symbols almost showed faintly on the back of the cards. Further there is also enough evidence that early experimenters had tendency to sometimes unconsciously give clues about the cards using their eyes.

Nevertheless, modern psychologists who are well aware of the need for double-blind experiments, security and accuracy in record keeping meticulous control. Hundreds of experiments have been reported in parapsychology journals that support psi abilities in the past one decade. Still psychologists are skeptical about psi abilities because fraud continues to plague this field. Especially in places where the purported psychic abilities are involved in making money more caution needs to be exerted in trusting the findings as valid.

Another major factor that stands as a drawback to research in parapsychology is inconsistency. Every study with positive findings has another study to prove it wrong.

ESP researches hold that this effect shows that parapsychology skills are very delicate.

On the other hand the critics argue that one scoring temporarily above change can only receive credit for run of luck. It is not fair to assume that the ESP is temporarily gone when the run is over. They emphasize on the point that all the runs must be counted and considered.

Many of the most spectacular studies in parapsychology cannot be replicated. The same researcher using the same experimental subjects cannot get the similar results every time. To add to this improved research methods usually result in fewer positive results.

This stands as a major drawback.

Another problem that plagues psi experiments in that of reinterpretation. For instance, ex-astronaut Edgar Mitchell worked on telepathetic experiments from space. In some trials, Mitchell claims, the 'receivers' scored above chance while the others scored

'below chance'. Though we might assume that below-chance trials were failures to find telepathy Mitchell interpreted them as 'successes'. He claimed that the 'failures'

represented intentional 'psi missing'. Skeptics argue that if both high scores and low scores indicated success then what indicates failure!

Nevertheless, the outcome of many ESP studies is beyond debate. In a recent study that involved mass media, people attempted to identify ESP targets from a distance.

This enabled large scale testing of the ESP phenomena. The results of about 1.5 million ESP trials can be summarized in one single line: There was no significant ESP effect (Milton & Wiseman, 1999).

Results of various researches done on ESP phenomena for nearly 13 decades indicate that nothing conclusive can be said about the occurrence of psi events. Serious problems relating to evidence, procedure and scientific rigor are found in psi experiments. Survey of leading parapsychologists and skeptics by Blackmore (1989) reveal that belief in psi has decreased in contrast to the unconditional acceptance of psi by the media. Some researchers will, however, continue to attempt to prove the psi. Some would continue to remain skeptic considering the results of the huge body of research evidence available in the past 13 decades as good enough to abandon the concept of ESP

(Mark, 2000). One has to, at the least, exert caution in accepting the evidence reported by researchers who are uncritical 'believers'.

UNIT – IV INTELLINGENCE

Concepts and measurements of intelligence – theory of intelligence – mental health. Introduction to concept of mental health and classification of mental illness and retardation – mental deficiency.

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

Numerous theories are available in literature that have made attempts to explain the construct intelligence. Some of them are focused on explaining the structure of intelligence. They have attempted to describe intelligence as made up of different components. On the other hand, some theories have tried to explain intelligence as a process. Some of the commonly referred theories are discussed below.

Factor Theory

Factor theories of intelligence focus on the structure of intelligence, that is, on the skills and abilities that it comprises of. In the course of development of intelligence theories several attempts have been made to slice the structure into different factors.

Factor analysis, a sophisticated procedure used to identify the constellation of variables in a domain has been used to identify the factors of intelligence. Factors refer to sources of differences seen among an array of variables.

Two Factor Theory. Charles Spearman (1940) put forth two- factor theory of intelligence to account for the variations seen in intelligence. This is the first widely influential theory of intelligence. Individuals who have the skill to quickly assemble colored blocks to match pictures of complex designs also found usually tending to perform well when they are given the task of assembling pieces of a puzzle. This as well as other behaviors that reflect an ability to visualize and manipulate patterns and forms in space suggests existence of a spatial ability factor. Spearman factor analyzed the scores of a large number of subjects on diverse tests that assessed many different intellectual skills and abilities. This enabled Spearman to assess which of these skills were related to each other. Based on the findings of the investigation the Spearman's model of intelligence was developed.

Spearman observed that some subject consistently scored high and a roughly equal number consistently scored low on all of the various tests purporting to assess different aspects of intelligence. People who scored high (or low) on one kind of test were found to obtain scores at a similar level on the other tests. But, their scores on various skill tests did tend to differ to some extent.

These observations influenced Spearman to propose that intelligence is made up of two components: a g- factor or general intelligence and a s-factor or special factor involving the collection of specific intellectual abilities. The existence of g-factor suggests that every individual has a certain level of general intelligence (g- factor), probably genetically determined, and it underlines all of our intelligent behavior. Every individual also has some specific abilities (s- factors) that are more useful in doing some tasks than in doing other tasks. General intelligence is needed for all, from plumber to philosopher to do their intellectual activity. Musical ability, mechanical ability, mathematical ability are special abilities and are emphasized by s- factor. S-Factor might vary from persona to person.

Spearman's 'g' factor theory of intelligence had been modified by Raymond Cattell (1905), his student. Cattle held that 'g' itself may considered to be a two part construct, gF and gC, which stand for fluid and crystalized intelligence. Fluid intelligence refers to ability to perceive relationships without previous specific experience as is measured with matrices tests or verbal analogies. Crystallized intelligence involves mental ability derived from previous experience as are measured by word meanings, use of tools and cultural practices. Crystalized intelligence may change over years in an individual due to decline in fluid knowledge.

Primary Mental Abilities. L.L.Thustone, acritic of Spearman, defines intelligence as "Intelligence, considered as a mental trait, is the capacity to make impulses focal at their early, unfinished stage of formation. Intelligence is therefore the capacity for abstraction, which is an inhibitory process (Thurstone, 1924/1973)."

Thurstone rejects g was as statistical artifact resulting from the mathematical procedures used to study it. Adopting factor analysis, Thurstone found that intelligent behavior does not arise from a general factor, but rather emerges from seven independent factors. He named the factors identified by him the primary mental abilities. The primary abilities: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, number facility, associative memory, reasoning, and perceptual speed (Thurstone, 1938). Even in samples comprised of people with similar overall IQ scores, different profiles of primary mental abilities seem to result. Thus primary mental abilities seem to have clinical utility than Spearman's 'g'. However, in an intellectually heterogeneous group of children, he failed to find that the seven primary abilities were entirely separate, rather there existed an evidence for presence of 'g'. onsequently, Thurstone arrived at an elegant mathematical solution that resolved these apparently contradictory results. His final version of his theory of primary abilities was a compromise that accounted for the presence of both a general factor and the seven specific abilities.

The Seven Primary Mental Abilities (Thurston, 1938) are briefly described below: Table 1. The Seven Primary Mental Abilities (Thurston, 1938)

Primary Mental Ability Factor

Nature of the ability implied by the Factor

Verbal Comprehension understanding the meaning of words, concepts and ideas Numerical Ability using numbers in order to quickly compute answers to problems Spatial Relations visualizing and manipulating patterns and forms in space. Perceptual Speed grasping perceptual details quickly and accurately; determining similarities and differences between various stimuli. Word Fluency using words quickly and fluently while performing tasks like rhyming, solving anagrams, and doing crossword puzzles. Memory recalling information.Inductive Reasoning driving general rules and principles from the information that is presented.

Structure of Intellect.

J.P.Guilford has propounded a three-dimensional

model of intelligence. His theory of intelligence is termed the Structure of Intellect (SI) theory. The theory views intelligence as comprising of operations, contents, and products.

Succinctly the model suggest that Five kinds of operations carried on five kinds of contents yield six kinds of products, and as such one hundred and fifty elements of

intellect could be generated and identified as constituting and accounting for the structure of intellect. The five kinds of intellectual operations include cognition, memory, divergent production, convergent production, evaluation; the six kinds of products include units, classes, relations, systems, transformations, and implications; and, the five kinds of contents include visual, auditory, symbolic, semantic, behavioral tasks. . Since each of these dimensions is independent, there are theoretically 150 different components of intelligence possible to be identified and tested.

The Structure of Intellect (SI) Model of J.P.Guilford.

Guilford adopted factor analysis and developed a wide variety of psychometric tests to measure the specific abilities predicted by SI theory. The tests provide an operational definition of the many abilities proposed by the theory. The convergent and divergent production operations are recognized to be synonymous with intelligence and creativity.

Process Approaches

The factorial approaches of Spearman, Thurston, and Guilford have contributed to our understanding of the structure of intelligence as comprising of several factors. They imply that the concept that intelligence may comprise many separate abilities that operate more or less independently was established. However they do not address the important question of how people solve problems and interact effectively (i.e. intelligently) with their environments. In the last decades new theoretical models of intelligence that seek to understand intelligence as process have emerged in the field. The multiple intelligence model and the triarchic theory of intelligence theories of Howard Gardner and Robert Sternberg represent approaches different to the one adopted by earlier psychologists.

Multiple Intelligence. Based on the findings from fields as disparate as artificial intelligence, developmental psychology, and neurology, a number of investigators have put forth the view that the mind consists of several independent modules or

"intelligences." Howard Gardener has developed his theory of multiple intelligences, and argues that human beings have evolved to be able to carry out at least seven separate forms of analysis. The seven intelligences identified by Gardner include Linguistic intelligence (as in a poet); Logical- mathematical intelligence (as in a scientist); Musical intelligence (as in a composer); Spatial intelligence (as in a sculptor or airplane pilot); Bodily kinesthetic intelligence (as in an athlete or dancer); Interpersonal intelligence (as in a salesman or teacher); and Intrapersonal intelligence (exhibited by individuals with accurate views of themselves). Gardner suggests that "although they are not necessarily dependent on each other, these intelligences seldom operate in isolation. Every normal individual possesses varying degrees of each of these intelligences, but the ways in which intelligences combine and blend are as varied as the faces and the personalities of individuals."

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence. Sternberg (1979, 1981 and 1982) has proposed a theory of Practical intelligence. This theory has departed from adopting a psychometric approach to intelligence and creativity and leaned heavily on information processing approach in studying intelligence. The initial approach to developing this theory focused on how information is processed by people in order to solve problems and deal effectively with their environments. The steps people go through when solving the kinds of problems typically encountered in intelligence tests involve six steps. These steps include. Encoding comprising of identifying the key terms or concepts in the problems and retrieving any relevant information from Long Term Memory, Inferring referring to determining the nature of relationships that exist between these terms or concepts, Mapping  referring to Clarifying the relationship between previous situations and the present one, Application involving deciding if the information about known relationships can be applied to the present problem, Justification involving deciding if the answer can be justified and

Response referring to providing the best possible answer, based on proper information processing at each of the previous stages.

Sternberg believes that people can be taught to construct their own problem solving strategies by learning to think about how they approach problems and how to function more effectively. Thus by teaching more effectively, intelligence of the individual, at least as measured by intelligence tests, can be increased. Sternberg's (1985-86) has expanded his information – processing approach recently. He calls it the triarchic theory of intelligence. According to this theory, intelligence is defined as a multidimensional trait that is comprised of three different abilities: Componential, Experiential, and Contextual

Sternberg has developed his Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence (1977, 1985, 1995). TheTriarchic Theory seems to be an attempt to synthesize the various theories of intelligence. Sternberg views Intelligence as,"Purposive adaptation to, shaping of, and selection of real-world environments relevant to one's life" (Sternberg, 1984, p.271).

Intelligence is purposive in that it is directed towards goals, however vague or subconscious it may be. Thus, intelligence is indicated by one's attempts to adapt to one's environment. He subsumes both Spearman's g and underlying information processing components to account for intelligence. His theory includes three facets or subtheories of intelligence including Analytical (componential) Intelligence, Creative (experiential) Intelligence, and Practical (contextual) Intelligence.

Sternberg's theory builds on his earlier componential approach to reasoning and is mostly based on observing Yale graduate students. He believes that intelligence properly defined and assessed will manifest in real- life success as he observed amongst his students.

Componential subtheory.  Analytical Intelligence (Academic problem-solving skills) is based on the joint operations of metacomponents and performance components and knowledge acquisition components of intelligence, The metacomponents seem to control, monitor and evaluate cognitive processing. Such tasks are the executive functions to order and organize performance and knowledge acquisition components.

They involve the higher order mental processes that order and organize the performance components. They are used to analyze problems and pick a strategy for solving them

.

They determine what to do and the performance components actually carryout them.

The performance components are the basic operations in any cognitive act. They execute strategies assembled by the metacomponents. The cognitive processes enable one to encode stimuli, hold information in short-term memory, make calculations, perform mental calculations, mentally compare different stimuli, retrieve information from long-term memory.

The knowledge acquisition components are the processes used in gaining and storing new knowledge. They are concerned with capacity for learning. Strategies used to help memorize things provide an instance of the processes involved in this category.

Individual differences in intelligence are hence related to individual differences witnessed in the use of these cognitive processes. Individuals with better reasoning ability generally spend more time understanding the problem but reach their solution faster than those who are less skilled at the task

Experiential Subtheory. Creative Intelligence involves insights,  synthesis and the ability to react to novel situations and stimuli. Creative intelligence is the experiential aspect of intelligence. It reflects how an individual connects the internal world to external reality.

The Creative facet consists of the ability that allows people to think creatively and that which allows people to adjust creatively and effectively to new situations.

More intelligent individuals will also move from consciously learning in a novel situation to automating the new learning so that they can attend to other tasks.

It is assumed that the novelty skills and automatization skills are the two broad classes of abilities associated with intelligence. A task measures intelligence if it requires the ability to deal with novel demands or the ability to automatize information processing, two ends of a continuum. Hence, novel tasks or situations are good measures of intellectual ability. They assess an individual's ability to apply existing knowledge to new problems.

Contextual Subtheory. Practical Intelligence involves the ability to grasp, understand and deal with everyday tasks. This is the Contextual aspect of intelligence and reflects Analytical Facet. Analytical Intelligence is similar to the standard psychometric definition of intelligence. Measured by Academic problem solving: analogies and puzzles belong to this category. This corresponds to Sternberg's earlier componential intelligence. This reflects how an individual relates to his internal world.

Practical Intelligence may be said to be intelligence that operates in the real world. Individuals with this type of intelligence can adapt to, or shape their environment.

It might also be called 'Street-smarts'. In measuring this facet, not only mental skills but also attitudes and emotional factors that influence intelligence are to be included. The practical intelligence is a combination of adaptation to the environment in order to have goals met, changing the environment in order to have goals met and if the two preceding acts are not working, moving to a new environment in which goals can be met.

Individuals considered intelligent in one culture may be looked on as unintelligent in another. Sternberg's theory is distinguished from other theories by not defining

intelligence in terms of psychometric intelligence tests rather than performance in the everyday world.

ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE

Alfred Binet, the French psychologist published the first modern version of intelligence test called the Binet-Simon intelligence scale, in 1905. He originally evolved the test to identify students who needed special help in coping with the school curriculum. Binet published revisions of his intelligence scale in 1908 and 1911. A further refinement of the Binet-Simon scale was published in in 1916 by Lewis Terman, the American Psychologist. Terman incorporated the suggestion of William Stern, the German psychologist that an individual's intelligence level be measured as an (I.Q.).

Terman named the as the Standford-Binet. This scale formed the basis for one of the modern intelligence tests still commonly used today.

The Classical Tests of Intelligence

The introduction of the Stanford-Binet IQ test initiated the modern intelligence test movement. The test employed questions of increasing difficulty, and included such items as attention, memory, and verbal skills. Terman had removed several of the Binet-Simon test items and added completely new ones. The test gained acceptability and Rober Yerkes , the President of the American Psychological Association decided to use the test to develop the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests, which helped classify recruits to the Army. Thus, a high- scoring individual would get a grade of A (high officer material), whereas a low-scoring individual would get a grade of E and be rejected (Fancher, 1985).

The Stanford-Binet test under went several revisions and by the time the fifth edition of the test came up it had been adminsitered to more a stratified sample of 4800 subjects and norms have been developed on the data obtained on the sampele. By then the test had been found to have adequate validity as shown by correlation with the previous versions as well as other tests including WAIS.- III R. The Binet-Simon Fifth Edition included Fluid Reasoning , Knowledge, Quantitative Reasoning, Visual-Spatial Processing, and Working Memory as the five factors tested. Each of these factors is tested in two separate domains, verbal and nonverbal. Test items like verbal analogies used to test Verbal Fluid Reasoning and picture absurdities used to test Nonverbal Knowledge provide illustrtion of the type of items included in the test.It was suggeste that students with exceptional scores on this test may be deemed bright, moderately gifted, highly gifted, extremely gifted, or profoundly gifted in contrast to thethose who score poorly on this test.

Applying the propertie of normal curve deviation of the subjects from the average was traced and used for identifying gifted as well as the individuals who had lower levels of intelligence were identified. The various rvisions of Standford-Binet Scales are presented in table below.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale o r WAIS is a general test of intelligence (IQ). The test was first published in 1955 as a revision of the Wechler-Bellevue Test (1939). The later was a battery of tests that is composed from subtests Wechsler

"adopted" from the Army Tests (Yerkes, 1921). Weschler defined intelligence as the global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his/her environment.

WAIS comprises of 14 sub tests. There are 7 verbal sub tests and 7 nonverbal or performance sub tests in WAIS. Wechsler's tests provide three scores including a verbal IQ (VIQ) , a performance IQ (PIQ) and a composite, single full-scale IQ score based on the combined scores. The WAIS-R was standardized on a sample of 1,880 subjects in the age group ranging from 16 to 74. The current version is WAIS-III (1997). The median score of the sample on the full-scale IQ is centered at 100 with a standard deviation of 15.

The WAIS-III is appropriate for assessing intelligence throughout adulthood and for use with those individuals over 74 years of age. WAIS, 7 – 16 yrs is used for assessing the IQ of the children aged between 7 to 16. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI, 2 ½ - 7 yrs) For persons under 16, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC, 7-16 yrs) and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI, 2 1/2-7 yrs) is used.to assess IQ of the chilred in the age group of 2 ½ to 7 years. WAIS provides an IQ score in case only performance tests were adminsitered.

A short, four-subtest, version of the battery has recently beenmade available. This permits clinicians to form a validated estimate of verbal, performance and full scale IQ in a shorter amount of time. The Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI) uses the vocabulary, similarities, block design and matrix reasoning subtests of the WAIS to provide an estimate of the full IQ scores.

The 14 subtests of the WAIS-III

C.Raven (1938) developed the Progressive Matrices. They popularly used tests of reasoning and clear thinking. They are well known as non verbal tests of abstract reasoning. Each item presents a matrix with a specific pattern and the respondent is asked to identify the missing segment required to complete a larger pattern. The test items are presented in the form of a 3x3 or 2x2 matrix, giving the test its name.

The matrices are available in three different forms for testing the participants of different ability:

Standard Progressive Matrices were the original form of the matrices, published in 1938. The booklet comprises five sets (A to E) of 12 items each. The items within a set become increasingly difficult, requiring ever greater cognitive capacity to encode and analyze information. The items are presented in black ink on a white background.

Coloured Progressive Matrices was designed for use with younger children, the elderly, and people with moderate or severe learning difficulty. This test contains sets A and B from the standard matrices, with a further set of 12 items inserted between the two, as set Ab. Mostof the items are presented on a coloured background to make the test visually stimulating for the test taker. The very last few items in set B are presented as black-on-white. By this way, if participants performance surpassed the tester's expectations, transition to sets C, D, and E of the standard matrices is fecilitated.

Advanced Progressive Matrices contains 48 items, presented as one set of 12

(set I), and another of 36 (set II). Items are presented in black ink on a white background, and become increasingly difficult as progress is made through each set. The items are appropriate for adults and adolescents of above average intelligence.

The parallel forms of the standard and coloured progressive matrices were published in 1998. An extended form of the standard progressive matrices, Standard Progressive Matrices Plus, was also published at the same time, offering greater discrimination among more able young adults.Raven's Progressive Matrices and Vocabulary tests measure the two main components of general intelligence (Spearman's g): the ability to think clearly and make sense of complexity, known as eductive ability and the ability to store and reproduce information, known as reproductive ability.

Culture-fair Intelligence Test

Culture- fair intelligence tests are also called culture- free tests. They are designed to assess intelligence without relying on knowledge specific to any individual cultural group. The first culture- fair test developed to assess intelligence was the Army Examination Beta which was developed by the United States military during World War II to screen recruits of average intelligence who were illiterate or for whom English was a second language. From the postwar period, culture-fair tests, which rely largely on nonverbal questions were used in public schools with Hispanic students and other non-native-English speakers who were not having familiarity with both English language and American culture.

Cattell's Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFIT).  Raymond Cattell developed the Culture Fair Intelligence Test. (CFIT).  The Cattell Culture Fair Series consist of scales one to three for ages four and four onward. The scales are intended to assess intelligence independent of cultural experience, verbal ability, or educational level.

The tests consist mostly of paper-and-pencil questions involving the relationships between figures and shapes. Parts of scale one, used with the youngest age group, utilize various objects instead of paper and pencil. Activities in scales two and three, for children age eight and eight onwards, include completing series, classifying, and filling in incomplete designs

Sternberg Multidimensional Abilities Test (STAT).  Sternberg published

Sternberg Multidimensional Abilities Test (STAT) in 1992. The STAT is a battery of multiple-choice questions. The battery divided into nine multiple levels for differing ages, and will be suitable for group administration to individuals in kindergarten through college, as well as to adults. Two forms of the test are be available The questions purport to tap into the three independent aspects of intelligence including analytic, practical and creative ones proposed in Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence. The STAT measures three abilities including analytical, creative and practical using both multiple choice and essay questions. It yields separate scores for componential information processing (analytical ability), coping with novelty (synthetic ability) and (as a separate score) automatization and practical- intellectual skills. Crossed with these scores are scores for three content areas including verbal, quantitative, and figural. The various kinds of processing are each measured in each of the three content domains, yielding 4 x 3 = 12 separate subtests per level. It is possible to diagnose not only strengths and weaknesses in information processing, but also in various kinds of representations of information. The test is a group test, and can be administered in its totality in three class periods. Portions of can also be administered in the class in lesser period. Thus, the scores provided by the test correspond strictly to the aspects of intelligence specified by the Triarchic Theory. The theory specified that intelligence can be understood in terms of components of information processing being applied to relatively novel experience and later being automatized in order to serve three functions in the environment: adaptation to, selection of, and shaping of that environment. All the measures are considered important to success in life and have been used to develop programs for children and to select business managers. Together, the three measures provided more information than just the analytical intelligence measured by standard IQ tests.

The STAT test items differ from those on conventional tests of intelligence. There is more emphasis on ability to learn than on what has been learned. For instance, verbal skill is measured by learning from context, not by vocabulary (which represents products rather than processes of learning). The test measures skills for coping with novelty, whereby the examinee must imagine a hypothetical state of the world (such as cats being magnetic) and then reason as though this state of the world were true. The test measures practical abilities, such as reasoning about advertisements and political slogans, not just about decontextualized words or geometric forms. These are only a few of the differences that separate this test from its predecessors claimed by its author. Sternberg admits that the STAT is not immune to effects of prior learning, nor is it "culture- free." However, he states that his test seems broader and more comprehensive than other existing tests, and hence allows for more diversity in backgrounds than would be true of typical tests.

MENTAL RETARDATION

Mental retardation is regarded as a developmental disability. It first appears in children under the age of 18. Mental disorder is defined as an intellectual functioning level that is well below average and significant limitations in daily living skills. The level of intellectual functioning is determined by using standard intelligence tests and considering the IQ obtained on them. The living skills connote the adaptive functioning.

Description.  Mental retardation begins in childhood or adolescence, before the age of 18, and persists throughout adulthood in most cases. An individual diagnosed as having mental retardation if he or she has an intellectual functioning level well below average and significant limitations in two or more adaptive skill areas. Mental retardation is operationally defined as IQ score below 70-75 on standardized tests that measure the ability to reason. Adaptive skills include the ability to produce and understand language (communication), home- living skills, use of community resources, health, safety, leisure, self-care, and social skills, self-direction, functional academic skills (reading, writing, and arithmetic), and work skills

.

Mentally retarded children reach developmental milestones such as walking and talking much later than the general population. Symptoms of mental retardation may appear at birth or later in childhood, and the time of onset depends on the suspected cause of the disability. In certain cases of mild mental retardation, diagnosis may not be made before the child enters preschool. Because, in these cases, the children typically have difficulties with social, communication, and functional academic skills which could be observed prior to they entering the school. Children with a neurological disorder or illness such as encephalitis or meningitis may suddenly show signs of cognitive impairment and adaptive difficulties.

Mental retardation varies in severity. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,  Fourth Edition ( DSM-IV) is the diagnostic standard for professionals in mental health in the United States. The DSM-IV classifies four different degrees of mental retardation: mild, moderate, severe, and profound. These categories are based on the functioning level of the individual.

Mild mental retardation.  Children who have their IQ score range from 50-75, are diagnosed for mild mental retardation. They can often acquire academic skills up to the 6th grade level. The mildly retarded can become fairly self-sufficient and in some cases, live independently, with community and social support.

Moderate mental retardation.  Children who have their IQ score range from 35-55, are diagnosed for moderate mental retardation. Moderately retarded individuals can carry out work and self-care tasks with moderate supervision. They typically acquire communication skills in childhood and are able to live and function successfully within the community in a supervised environment.

Severe mental retardation.  Children who have their IQ score range from 20-40, are diagnosed for severe mental retardation. Severely retarded individuals may master very basic self-care skills and some communication skills. Many severely retarded individuals are able to live in a group home.

Profound mental retardation.  Children who have their IQ score range from 20-25, are diagnosed for profound mental retardation. Profoundly retarded individuals may be able to develop basic self-care and communication skills with appropriate support and training. Their retardation is often caused by an accompanying neurological disorder, and they need a high level of structure and supervision.

The American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR) has also developed another widely accepted diagnostic classification system for mental retardation focusing on the capabilities of the retarded individual rather than on the limitations. The categories used in this classification system describe the level of support required. They are: intermittent support, limited support, extensive support, a n d pervasive support. The AAMR classification mirrors the DSM-IV classification. Intermittent support, for instance, refers to support needed only occasionally, during times of stress or crisis. This the type of support typically required for most mildly retarded individuals. Pervasive support, or life-long, daily support for most adaptive areas, would be required for the profoundly retarded.

UNIT – V PERSONALITY

Meaning – determinants of personalities – defense mechanism – theory of personality – measurement of personality. Adjustment – concept of adjustment and maladjustments – stress – frustration and conflict sources of frustration conflicts – nature and types of conflicts.

Dynamics of Personality

An individual's life is dominated by conflict between Id, ego, and super ego.

Individual's mind is a field for constant battles between the id, ego, and superego. The id always insists instant gratification of its felt needs. The ego has to rise to the occasion and control the Id impulses. The super ego must invoke the guilt feeling to obtain the Id impulses completely. Usually these conflicts are centered on sex and aggression. This is because that the social norms governing the sexual behavior and aggression are so subtle. It is also the case that most often inconsistent messages about what's appropriate to deal with sexual and aggressive impulses are passed on to the individual by the society. Hence these drives create a lot of confusion. Hence, ordinarily these drives are thwarted more than other basic biological needs.

Anxiety and Defense Mechanisms.  Most of the conflicts confronting an individual are usually trivial and are subjected to get resolved within a short span. Yet, a few conflicts can persist for a long time. Such conflicts are the conflicts the individual experiencing the conflict might not be aware of since they are rooted in his unconscious.

These conflicts can produce anxiety that that slips to the surface of conscious awareness.

The anxiety so experienced may be attributed to the concerns of the ego. The ego in such a condition may be worried about the Id getting out of control and leading to severe negative consequences. The ego may also be concerned that the super ego is getting out of control leading to feelings of guilt about real or thwarted transgression of the moral doctrines. The anxiety arising in these conditions is quite distressing to the individual experiencing the conflict. Under such conditions, individuals may resort to a variety of strategies to get over the unpleasant experience of anxiety. The strategies so attempted may constitute largely unconscious reactions that ward of the anxiety and guilt feelings to certain extant during a span of time. Since they are self-deceptive they do not provide ultimate solution to the problems of haunting anxiety and tormenting guilt feelings. Such strategies are termed defense mechanisms in psychoanalysis.

Mental Mechanisms.  Several are the strategies of the ego to ward of anxiety and guilt feelings. Repression is an active defense mechanism by which the ego attempts to push away the anxiety arousing impulses or memories into the unconscious. Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious constitutes this process. This could be explained by the instance of a woman who was sexually abused in childhood develops amnesia for the event. In denial,  an individual may just refuse to acknowledge anxiety-arousing conditions of the environment. Such denial may involve either the emotions attendant with the event or the event itself. Denial connotes the motivated negation. Here, ego tries to evade the disagreeable realities by refusing to acknowledge them and arguing against them. Most people who are diagnosed for having diabetic disorder for the first time usually attempt to ward of their anxiety by denying that they have the disorder. They often feel that the diagnosis is erroneous. In displacement or scapegoating and unacceptable dangerous impulse is repressed and there upon shifted to another substitute target with which the individual could show his reaction in a safe manner. A person tormented by the boss at his office might not show any revolt at the office since he cannot do so. But, he may turn to his helpless wife and children and show his reactions I the form of aggression. In projection an individual might resort to attribute the forbidden impulses to others. A stingy person might project his unacceptable character of stinginess to others and call every other person a stingy one. Constructing false but plausible excuses to an unacceptable anxiety provoking experience or event might constitute rationalization. In rationalization one resort to argue a case, which is not acceptable to him at the unconscious, level and builds up an apparent rational excuse. A research scholar failing in an exam may argue that the teachers had not valued his paper in a proper manner and the teacher who valued his script had taken revenge on him since he might have been jealousy of the brilliancy of the scholar. In this mechanism an individual might also invoke sour grapism  arguing that what he could not achieve is not worth achieving. In reaction formation an individual might resort to an exaggerated expression of the behavior that stands exactly opposite to what he desires to adopt in his unconscious mind. The police officer who recklessly beat a culprit of a petty offense might be entertaining criminal cravings in his unconscious and the criminal craving impulses repressed might be contributing to his resorting to this mechanism. Some time an individual who could not successfully cope with present challenge might fell anxious and guilty and repress the feelings. Such repressed feeling may be expressed

by his reverting to an earlier stage of his development. This state of affairs is called regression.

A research scholar who cries hysterically when he is told that he had not passed in a paper might be in this state. In identification  an individual might identify himself with some other person who may be a hero or an aggressor to ward of his repressed anxiety. Bolstering self-esteem by forming an imaginary or real alliance with a person or a group might explain the mechanism of identification. In sublimation an individual may accept a goal alternative to the goal he could not achieve, and which provides a socially acceptable outlet of expression and yields partial satisfactions that are free of guilt feelings. Sublimation is regarded the healthiest of all the defense mechanisms used by individuals. An individual given to aggressive impulses turning himself to boxing and the an individual with sex-curiosity diverting his curiosity by becoming a scientist are examples for sublimation. Compensation is another healthy mechanism in which the individual attempts to disguise the presence of a weak or undesirable trait by emphasizing a desirable one. A person with stuttering might turn all his efforts to develop excellence in writing scripts may take up the writing talent to compensate his deficiency in speaking.

However, it should be quickly added that over compensation might prove unhealthy in its outcome. An unattractive girl trying to compensate her felt deficiency by trying to become a very interesting speaker must be well with in her limits. Lest she might be called chatterbox and might have to be anxious about people rejecting her in the area in which she attempts compensation. In fantasy  or daydreaming an individual tries to invoke imagination and imagine that he achieves his goals and desires. It stands for a subjective reverie that provides some comfort when the individual is far away from his desired goal in reality. Building castles in air is another term used to denote this mechanism. Some time indulging in this mechanism might induce such strong involvement that the individual might resort to action in overt behavior. A young adolescent vendor selling glasswares was day dreaming that he will be able to build up his business and become a great rich man one day. While he had been engrossed in such fantasy he assumed that he had already become and imagined that he might kick his subordinate with his foot. He felt that this fantasy was so real that he indeed kicked with his foot in front and the glass wears in front of him were damaged by his kicking.

Authoritarianism and Dogmatism:

People who are likely to have authoritarian orientation tend to use their power more aggressively towards their subordinates and create a very defensive climate in the department, while at the same time they are being very submissive or docile towards their supervisors. Dogmatism refers to the extent to which people are flexible or rigid in dealing others. Managers who are exhibiting these traits are likely to be detached from others and people show much of hatredness in them.

A combination of high authoritarianism and dogmatism is obviously not conducive to creativity and organizational effectiveness since new ideas that people at lower levels in the system have will neither be listened to nor implemented. Certain societies tend to accept authority much better than others, and hence authoritarianism can be traced to needs of dependency in members in some cultures who feel comfortable when they are 'told' the ways in which things have to be carried out in their work.

Machiavellianism:

This refers to the extent to which people are manipulative and tactic in achieving one's own goals. These people strongly believe that ends can justify means. People who are high Machiavellian tend to be cool, willing to twist and turn facts to influence others and try to gain control of people, events, and situations by manipulating the system to their advantage. High Machiavellians may be successful only for a short period but in long run they tend to be distrusted and disliked by many in the department and finally they may be ineffective.

High-Machiavellians manipulates more, win more, are persuaded less and have a grater influence over other people than do low-Machiavellians. Yet these High-Machiavellians outcomes are moderated by situational factors. It has been found that High-Machiavellians flourish:

· when they interact face-to-face with others rather than indirectly

· when the situation has a minimum number of rules and regulations, thus allowing latitude for improvisation

· where emotional involvement with details irrelevant to winning distracts low-Machiavellianism

· when forming coalitions which they use to their advantage.

The following are the strategies to protect against the manipulative actions of High-Machiavellians:

i) Expose them to others: Expose the broken promises, manipulative strategies and lies of high-Machiavellian to others.

ii) Pay attention to what people do, not to what they say: High-Machiavellians make great promises and are great persuaders, so pay attention to the action that a person carries out and avoid being swayed by smooth promises

iii) Avoid situations that give high-Machiavellians the edge: Do not make decisions quickly where emotions are high and a person puts forward a persuasive argument and pushes for an immediate decision. Try not to face this person on a one-to-one basis. Invites others to participate in the meeting. : Risk Taking

This refers to the extent to which people are willing to take chances. This propensity to assume or to avoid risk has been shown to have an effect on their decision making capabilities and information gathering process. High risk taking managers made more rapid decision and used less information in making their choices than did the low risk taking managers.

The requirement of Risk taking propensity varies from the different types of job demands.

For instance, a high risk taking propensity may lead to more effective performance for a stockbroker in brokerage firm than an accountant whose job demands more cautious approach in dealing each and every one of the things. An accountant performing auditing activities is expected to have low-risk taking propensity as his nature of job demands to follow a book of rules and regulations.

Type A and Type B Personality:

This refers to the extent to which people tend exhibit certain characteristics. Type A person feels a chronic sense of time urgency, are highly achievement oriented, exhibit a competitive drive and are impatient when their work is slowed down for any reason.

Type B persons are easygoing individuals who do not have sense of time urgency, and who do not experience the competitive drive.

Type A Mangers do operate under moderate to high level of stress. They subject themselves to more or less continuous time pressure, creating for themselves a life of deadlines. These characteristics result in some rather specific behavior outcomes. For example, Type A people are fast workers because they emphasize quantity over quality.

In managerial positions, Type A executives demonstrate their competitiveness by working long hours and not infrequently making poor decisions because they make them too quickly. Type A's are also rarely creative. Because of their concern with quantity and speed, they rely on past experiences when faced with problems. They do not allocate the time that is necessary to develop unique solutions to new problems.

Which category of people – Type A or Type B more successful in organization? The research results reported that great sales people are usually Tape A category. But the senior executives are likely to be Type B category. The main reason is that Type A people are usually trade off quality of effort for quantity. Promotions in corporate and professional organization usually go to those who are wise rather than to those who are merely hasty, to those who are tactful rather than to those who are hostile, and to those who are creative rather than to those who are merely agile in competitive strife.

The following are their typical characteristics of Type A and Type B people. Type A people are likely to more chances to get coronary heart diseases than Type B people.

Type A Personality

· Competitive

· High Need for Achievement

· Aggressive

· Works Fast

· Impatient

· Restless

· Extremely Alert

· Tense Facial Muscles

· Constant Time Pressure

Type B Personality

· Able to Take Time to Enjoy Leisure

· Not Preoccupied with Achievement

· Easy Going Works at Steady Pace

· Seldom Impatient

· Relaxed

· Not Easily Frustrated

· Moves Slowly

· Seldom Lacks Enough Time

Tolerance for Ambiguity

This dimension refers to the extent to which individuals are threatened by or have difficulty coping with situations that are ambiguous, where change occurs rapidly or predictably, where information is inadequate or unclear or where complexity exists. This personality characteristic indicates the level of uncertainty that people can tolerate with out experiencing undue stress and can still function effectively. Managers with higher tolerance of ambiguity scores are more likely to be entrepreneurial in their actions, to screen out less information in a complex environment, and to choose specialties in their occupations those possess less-structured tasks. It is also reported that individuals who are more tolerant of ambiguity have more difficulty focusing on a single important element of information – they are inclined to pay attention to a variety of items – and they may have somewhat less ability to concentrate without being distracted by interruptions.

There are three dimensions in Tolerance of Ambiguity. They are Novelty, Complexity and Insolubility.

Tolerance of Ambiguity towards Novelty: This refers to the extent to which you are tolerant of new, unfamiliar information or situations.

Tolerance of Ambiguity towards Complexity: This refers to the extent to which you are tolerant of multiple, distinctive or unrelated information.

Tolerance of Ambiguity towards Insolubility: This refers to the extent to which you are tolerant of problems that are very difficult to solve alternative solutions are not evident, information is unavailable or the problems compensate seem unrelated to each other.

In general, the more tolerant people are of novelty, complexity, and insolubility, the more likely they are to succeed as managers in information-rich, ambiguous environment. They are less overwhelmed by these ambiguous circumstances.

Work Ethic Orientation:

This refers to the extent to which people are committed to work and involved in their activities. Extreme work ethic values could lead to traits of workoholism and workaholic people tend to give predominant interest to work which might lead to premature burnout and health problems such as hypertension, anxiety etc. Some individuals are highly work-oriented while others try to do the minimum that is necessary go get by without being fired on the job. The extremely work ethic oriented person gets greatly involved in the job and lives up to being described as 'living, eating and breathing the job'. Extreme work ethic values could lead to traits of 'workoholism' when work becomes to be considered as the only primary motive for living with very little outside interests.

Matching Personality and Job Types:

This refers to the extent to which people successfully match their personalities with their jobs. If there is a perfect relationship between the job and personality, the job satisfaction and production turnover among the employees will be significantly higher. John Holland present six personality types and proposes that the satisfaction and the propensity to leave a job depend on the degree to which people successfully match their personalities with a suitable occupational environment. Holland's typology of personality is given as below: Vocational Typology

Personality Characteristics

Congruent Occupations

Realistic

Shy, genuine, persistent,

Mechanic, drill press operator,

stable, conforming,

assembly- line worker, farmer

practical

Investigative

Analytical, original,

Biologists, economist,

curious, independent

mathematician, news reporter

Social

Sociable, friendly,

Social worker, teacher,

cooperative, understanding, counselor, clinical psychologists Conventional

Conforming, efficient,

Accountant, corporate manager,

practical, unimaginative,

bank teller, file clerk

inflexible

Enterprising

Self-confident, ambitious,

Lawyer, real estate agent, public

energetic, domineering

relations specialist, small

business manager

Artistic

Imaginative, disorderly,

Painter, musician, writer,

idealistic, emotional,

interior decorator

impractical

· Realistic: The type of activities for this category involves physical activities which require skill, strength and coordination. The suitable personality characteristics to meet these activities would be shy, genuine, persistent, stable, conforming, practical etc. The congruent occupations for this category of people are assembly line worker, farmer, mechanic etc.

· Investigative: The type of activities for this category involves thinking, organizing and understanding. The appropriate characteristics to meet these activities would be analytical, original, curious, independent etc. The congruent occupations for this category of people are biologists, economist, mathematician, news reporter.

· Social: The type of activities for this category involves helping and developing others. The relevant personality characteristics to meet these s activities would be sociable, friendly, cooperative, understanding. The congruent occupations for this category of people are social worker, teacher, counselor, clinical psychologists.

· Conventional: The type of activities for this category involves rule-regulated, orderly and unambiguous activities. The appropriate characteristics to these activities would be conforming, efficient, practical, unimaginative, and inflexible.

The congruent occupations for this category of people are accountant, corporate manager, and bank teller file clerk.

· Enterprising: The type of activist for this category involves verbal activities specific to influence others and attain power. The suitable personality characteristics to meet these activities would be self confident, ambitious, energetic, and domineering. The congruent occupations for this category of people are lawyer, real estate agent, public relations specialist, small business manager.

· Artistic: The type of activities for this category involves ambiguous and unsystematic activities that allow creative expression. The suitable personality characteristics to meet theses activities would be imaginative, disorderly, idealistic, emotional, and impractical. The congruent occupations are painter, musician, writer, interior decorator etc.

Holland's model proposes that a realistic person in a realistic jobs is in a more compatible situation than is a realistic person in an investigate job. Sociable person should be in social jobs, conventional people in convention jobs and so forth. Due care must be exercised to ensure a perfect between personality characteristics and the type of jobs offered to the candidates during the selection process. The person-organization fit essentially argues that people leave jobs that are not compatible with their personalities.

Most Common Defense Mechanisims
Most Common Defense Mechanisims

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Repression

(The Primary Mechanism) | The person tries to banish offending desires from conscious thought to the point of being totally unaware of the original desires.   
(Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious)

Rationalization | The person attempts to deal with a stressful situation by claiming that the stressor was of minimal importance and may even have had beneficial effects.  
(Creating false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behavior)

Sublimation | The person unconsciously transforms conflict and anxiety into different but related desire that is more acceptable to society and to him/her self.

Identification | The person attempts to take on the virtues of an admired person.   
(Bolstering self-esteem by forming an imaginary or real alliance with some person or group)

Reaction Formation | The person pretends to possess desires that are the opposite if the desires that are causing conflict and anxiety. (Behaving in a way that is exactly the opposite of one's true feelings)

Projection | The person attributes to others the desires or thoughts that have caused personal conflict. (attributing one's own thoughts, feelings, or motives to another)

Denial | The person attempts to dispel anxiety by refusing altogether to accept reality.

Displacement

Substitution

Sublimination | The person tries to escape the discomfort of unwanted ideas or feelings by transferring them onto another person. (diverting emotional feelings, usually anger, from their original source to a substitute target)

Regression | The person retreats toward behaviors that usually characterize a lower level of maturity. ( a reversion to immature patterns of behavior)

Introjection | Identifying with some idea or object so deeply that it becomes a part of that person.

One example often used is when a child envelops representational images of his absent parents into himself, simultaneously fusing them with his own personality.

Compensation

Direct Compensation

Overcompensation | Encountering failure or frustration in some sphere of activity, one overemphasizes another. The term is also applied to the process of over-correcting for a handicap or limitation. Examples: (1) a physically unattractive adolescent becomes an expert dancer. (2) a youth with residual muscle damage from poliomyelitis becomes an athlete. (3) Demosthenes.

Intellectualization | (isolation). Concentrating on the intellectual components of the situations as to distance oneself from the anxiety provoking emotions associated with these situations.

Intellectualization is a defense mechanism where reasoning is used to block confrontation with an unconscious conflict and its associated emotional stress. It involves removing one's self, emotionally, from a stressful event. Intellectualization is often accomplished through rationalization; rather than accepting reality, one may explain it away to remove one's self.

Fixation  | Fixation in human psychology refers to the state where an individual becomes obsessed with an attachment to another human, animal or inanimate object

NEO-FREUDIAN THEORIES

Psychologists who concurred with Sigmund Freud and contributed to development of Freudian Psychoanalysis had differed from the approach of Freud in different aspects of explaining the nature of human being in different ways. Those psychologists are collectively known as Neo Freudian Psychologists. Prominent among the neo Freudians are Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Erickson, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, Harry Stack Sullivan, Anna Freud, and D.W.Winnicott.

Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler

Alfred Adler's psychological perspective is termed individual psychology. Adler emphasizes that an individual's thinking, feeling, emotion, and behavior can only be understood as subordinated to the individual's style of life, or consistent pattern of dealing with life. The personality remains to be one's style of life. It is not that an individual is internally divided or his mind remains the battleground of conflicting forces.

Each aspect of the personality points in the same direction. Hence personality is a holistic phenomenon. Adler emphasizes that an individual's thinking, feeling, emotion, and behavior can only be understood as subordinated to the individual's style of life, or consistent pattern of dealing with life. Adler holds that every one is born into the world with a sense of inferiority. An individual starts his course of life as a weak and helpless child and constantly strives to overcome these deficiencies by becoming superior to those around us. This process of struggling is designated as struggle a striving for superiority.

Striving for superiority remains the driving force behind all human thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

Individuals strive to be accomplished writers, powerful business people, or influential politicians because of their feelings of inferiority and a strong need to over come this negative part of them. Some time the excessive feeling of inferiority can bring the opposite effect as well. When this feeling of inferiority becomes overwhelming and without being accompanied by the needed successes, an individual could develop an inferiority complex. Inferiority complex as a belief leaves in an individual feeling incredibly less important and deserving than others, helpless, hopeless, and unmotivated to strive for the superiority that would make us complete.

The parenting of children is a significant factor influencing the development of the child. Improper or inefficient child rearing has long-term effects on the child development. Two of the parental styles identified to exerting great effect on development of the child connotes papering and neglect. Pampering, a parent overprotecting a child, giving him too much attention, and sheltering him from the negative realities of life might lead a child to grow ill equipped to deal with these realities, developing doubt about his own abilities or decision making skills, and to constantly seeking out others to replace the safety he once enjoyed as a child. A neglected child not protected at all from the world and forced to face life's struggles alone may grow up to fear the world, have a strong sense of mistrust for others and she may have a difficult time forming intimate relationships. Properly balanced parental style may protect children form the evils of the world but not shelter them from it. Such a style would envisage parents to allowing the child to hear or see the negative aspects of the world while still feeling the safety of parental influence. Parent who follows the proper parental style may not immediately rush to the school authorities if his child is getting bullied; rather he would teach his child how to respond or take care of oneself at school.

The order in which an individual is born to a family inherently affects his or her personality. The first-born children who later have younger siblings may have the worst effect on their personality. They are given excessive attention and pampering by their parents until when the little sibling is born. They find everything is changed suddenly and they are no longer the center of attention and fall into the shadows. Such children are left feeling inferior, questioning their importance in the family, and trying desperately to gain back the attention they suddenly lost. The theory of birth order theory suggests that first-born children often have the greatest number of problems, as they get older.

Middle born children may have their personality inspired by their position of birth in the family. They are not pampered as their older sibling was, but are still afforded the attention of the parents. As a middle child, an individual may have the luxury of trying to dethrone the oldest child and become more superior while at the same time knowing that he or she holds the same power over their younger siblings. Thus, middle children develop and have a high need for superiority and are often able to seek it out such as through healthy competition.

Children born as the youngest children, like the first born, may be more likely to experience personality problems later in life. This is because the youngest born child who grows up knowing that he has the least amount of power in the whole family. The youngest born may see his older siblings as having more freedom and more superiority.

The youngest born is also gets pampered and protected more than any other child did.

Such experiences could leave the youngest born individual with a sense that he cannot take on the world alone and that will always be inferior to others.

Analytical Psychology of Carl J Jung

The psychological perspectives of Carl Jung are termed analytical psychology. Jung disagreed with the Freudian formulation of the construct of unconscious. He was conceived that there were fears, behaviors, and thoughts that children and adults exhibit that are remarkably similar across time and culture and similarity witnessed was more than coincidence. He propounded the concept of collective unconscious to account for the witnessed similarity across time and culture. Jung stresses that it the collective unconscious that influences the personality. It is generally agreed among the critics that Jung has pieced together an important, and previously missing, explanation of these personality aspects that we all share.

The collective unconscious is made up of archetypes which are primordial images inherited from our ancestors. The immediate attachment infants have for their mother, the inevitable fear of the dark seen in young children, and how images such as the sun, moon, wise old man, angels, and evil all seem to be predominate themes throughout history lend credence to the existence of collective unconscious. Infants are drawn to their mother because of the unconscious image of mother that is alive in all human beings and every child fears the dark because of the unconscious image of darkness.

Of the archetypes described by Jung a few including the animus/anima, the shadow, and the self have more application in personality theory. The masculine side of the female is terms animus and the feminine side of the male is called the anima. Unlike Freud who believed that individuals are all born bisexual and develop normal sexual attraction through our psychosexual development, Jung remained convinced that every one has an unconscious opposite gender hidden within him or herself and the role of this archetype is to guide individual toward the perfect mate. In other words, people project our animus/anima onto others as they project theirs on to us: when a match is made, people have found a suitable partner.

The shadow is basically the unconscious negative or dark side of one's personality. The shadow, like all other archetypes, is passed down through history and given different names depending on time and culture. The self-archetype is the unifying part of all the people that finds balance in the lives of the people. Working with the ego which is partly in our personal unconscious, may help manage the other archetypes and helps one feel complete.

CONFLICT PROCESS

The conflict process can be categorized into five stages. They are as follows:

Stage I: Potential opposition or incompatibility:

This covers the present condition that creates opportunity for conflicts to arise. This may be one of the conditions responsible for the occurrence of conflict. The major sources of conflict can be further categorized as communication, structure and personal variables.

Communication: It is reported that word connotations, jargon, insufficient exchange of information and noise in the communication channel are all barriers to communication and potential antecedent conditions to conflict.

Structure: It is reported that the size and specialization act as forces to stimulate conflict.

The larger the group size and the more specialized its activities, the greater the likihood of conflict. The potential for conflict tend to be greatest when group members are younger and when turnover is high.

Personal variables: The evidence indicates that certain personality types such as highly authoritarian and dogmatic people who demonstrate low self-esteem lead to potential conflicts.

Stage II: Cognition and personalization:

Perception or sense making plays a major role in the resolving conflict. Conflict may either be perceived or felt in nature. Perceived conflict is defined as awareness by one or more parties of the existence of conditions that create opportunities for conflict to arise.

Felt conflict is defined as emotional involvement in a conflict creating anxiety, tenseness, frustrations or hostility. Negative emotions have been found to produce over simplification of issues, reductions in trust, and negative interpretations of the other party's behavior.

Stage III: Intentions:

Using two dimensions – cooperativeness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other party's concerns) and assertiveness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy his or her own concerns) – five conflict handling intentions can be identified. There are as follows: i) competing (assertive and uncooperative), ii) collaborating (assertive and cooperative), iii) avoiding (unassertive and uncooperative), iv) accommodating (unassertive and cooperative) and v) compromising (mid-range on both assertiveness and cooperativeness).

Stage IV: Behavior:

All conflicts manifest in behavior somewhere along with continuum ranging from no conflict or minor conflict such as minor disagreements or misunderstanding, overt questioning or challenging of others, to annihilatory conflict such as threats and ultimatum, aggressive physical attacks or overt efforts to destroy the other party.

Stage V: Outcomes.

The outcomes of conflict may be functional or dysfunctional. Conflict is constructive when it improves the quality of decision, stimulates creativity and innovation, encourages interest and curiosity among group members, provides the medium through which problems can be aired and tensions released and fosters an environment of self-evaluation and change. The evidence suggest that conflict can improve the quality of decision making allowing all points particularly the ones that are unusual or held by a minority people. The dysfunctional consequences of conflict on a group or organization's performance are generally well known. Among the more undesirable consequences are retarding of communication, reduction in group cohesiveness and subordination of group goals to the primacy of infighting between members. At the extreme, conflict can bring group functioning to a halt and potentially threaten the group's survival.

TYPES OF CONFLICT

In organizations, conflicts can be interpersonal, intra- group, inter-group or intra-organizational in nature. Intra-organizational conflict encompasses vertical, horizontal, line-staff and role conflict.

Vertical Conflict:

It refers to conflicts that occur between individuals at different levels. Conflict between the superior and subordinate is an example of vertical conflict. Such conflicts could happen because of perceived transgression of psychological contract, inadequate or ineffective communication, selective perception, misperception, incongruence in goals, values, cognition, affect and behavior etc.

Horizontal Conflict:

It refers to tensions between employees or groups at the same hierarchical level.

Horizontal conflict occurs because of interdependence among the parties concerned in the work situation or the common pooled resources shared. For example, sharing personal computers among the various departments is likely to produce tensions among the departments. Incompatibility of goal and time orientations often results in horizontal conflicts. Conflicts will take place between the units due to the misunderstanding and frustration experienced by both parties. Horizontal conflict increases as: i) functional interdependence increasers among people or groups at the same level ii) more units depend on common resources that have to be shared raw materials and iii) the fewer the buffers or inventories for the resources shared.

Line and Staff Conflict:

It refers to the conflicts that arise between those who assist or act in an advisory capacity (staff) and those who have direct authority to create the products, process, and services of the organizing (line). Staff managers and line managers usually have different personality predispositions and goals and come from different backgrounds. Staff managers have specialized skills and expertise acquired through training and education and have greater technical knowledge which is intended to help the line manager who are basically money maker for the organization. Staff people serve as advisor for the line people in as much as they have the expertise to streamline methods and help in cost-cutting mechanisms. Line managers may feel that the staff people are unnecessarily interfering in their work by always telling them how to do their job and thrusting their ideas and methods. Staff people often get frustrated that the line people do not consider all the ideas put forth by them and thereby fail to benefit.

Role Conflict:

It arises because different people in the organization are expected to perform different task and pressures build up when the expectation of the members clash in several ways.

There are two types of conflict.

i) Inter-sender role conflict: This occurs when different role senders (bosses) expect the individual to perform different things and these expectations and the messages conflict with each other

ii) Inter-role conflict: This occurs when role requires associated with members in one group conflicts with role requirements stemming from members in another group.

MORE SOURCES IN SCRIBD AS PDF AND WORD DOCUMENTS (LINK)

Introduction on Psychology for Social Worker

Common Defense Mechanisms

General psychology

Advance psychology

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